voxcity 0.6.28__py3-none-any.whl → 0.6.30__py3-none-any.whl

voxcity/generator.py

@@ -1,1317 +1,1341 @@
-"""Main module for voxcity.
-
-This module provides functions to generate 3D voxel representations of cities using various data sources.
-It handles land cover, building heights, canopy heights, and digital elevation models to create detailed
-3D city models.
-
-The main functions are:
-- get_land_cover_grid: Creates a grid of land cover classifications
-- get_building_height_grid: Creates a grid of building heights (supports GeoDataFrame input)
-- get_canopy_height_grid: Creates a grid of tree canopy heights
-- get_dem_grid: Creates a digital elevation model grid
-- create_3d_voxel: Combines the grids into a 3D voxel representation
-- create_3d_voxel_individuals: Creates separate voxel grids for each component
-- get_voxcity: Main function to generate a complete voxel city model (supports GeoDataFrame input)
-
-Key Features:
-- Support for multiple data sources (OpenStreetMap, ESA WorldCover, Google Earth Engine, etc.)
-- Direct GeoDataFrame input for building data (useful for custom datasets)
-- 3D voxel generation with configurable resolution
-- Visualization capabilities for both 2D grids and 3D models
-- Data export in various formats (GeoTIFF, GeoJSON, pickle)
-"""
-
-# Standard library imports
-import numpy as np
-import os
-try:
-    from numba import jit, prange
-    import numba
-    NUMBA_AVAILABLE = True
-except ImportError:
-    NUMBA_AVAILABLE = False
-    print("Numba not available. Using optimized version without JIT compilation.")
-    # Define dummy decorators
-    def jit(*args, **kwargs):
-        def decorator(func):
-            return func
-        return decorator
-    prange = range
-
-# Local application/library specific imports
-
-# Data downloaders - modules for fetching geospatial data from various sources
-from .downloader.mbfp import get_mbfp_gdf
-from .downloader.osm import load_gdf_from_openstreetmap, load_land_cover_gdf_from_osm
-from .downloader.oemj import save_oemj_as_geotiff
-# from .downloader.omt import load_gdf_from_openmaptiles
-from .downloader.eubucco import load_gdf_from_eubucco
-from .downloader.overture import load_gdf_from_overture
-from .downloader.citygml import load_buid_dem_veg_from_citygml
-from .downloader.gba import load_gdf_from_gba
-
-# Google Earth Engine related imports - for satellite and elevation data
-from .downloader.gee import (
-    initialize_earth_engine,
-    get_roi,
-    get_ee_image_collection,
-    get_ee_image,
-    save_geotiff,
-    get_dem_image,
-    save_geotiff_esa_land_cover,
-    save_geotiff_esri_landcover,
-    save_geotiff_dynamic_world_v1,
-    save_geotiff_open_buildings_temporal,
-    save_geotiff_dsm_minus_dtm
-)
-
-# Grid processing functions - for converting geodata to raster grids
-from .geoprocessor.grid import (
-    group_and_label_cells, 
-    process_grid,
-    create_land_cover_grid_from_geotiff_polygon,
-    create_height_grid_from_geotiff_polygon,
-    create_building_height_grid_from_gdf_polygon,
-    create_dem_grid_from_geotiff_polygon,
-    create_land_cover_grid_from_gdf_polygon,
-    create_building_height_grid_from_open_building_temporal_polygon,
-    create_vegetation_height_grid_from_gdf_polygon,
-    create_canopy_grids_from_tree_gdf,
-    create_dem_grid_from_gdf_polygon
-)
-
-# Utility functions
-from .utils.lc import convert_land_cover, convert_land_cover_array
-from .geoprocessor.polygon import get_gdf_from_gpkg, save_geojson
-
-# Visualization functions - for creating plots and 3D visualizations
-from .utils.visualization import (
-    get_land_cover_classes,
-    visualize_land_cover_grid,
-    visualize_numerical_grid,
-    visualize_landcover_grid_on_basemap,
-    visualize_numerical_grid_on_basemap,
-)
-
-def get_land_cover_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, source, output_dir, **kwargs):
-    """Creates a grid of land cover classifications.
-
-    Args:
-        rectangle_vertices: List of coordinates defining the area of interest
-        meshsize: Size of each grid cell in meters
-        source: Data source for land cover (e.g. 'ESA WorldCover', 'OpenStreetMap')
-        output_dir: Directory to save output files
-        **kwargs: Additional arguments including:
-            - esri_landcover_year: Year for ESRI land cover data
-            - dynamic_world_date: Date for Dynamic World data
-            - gridvis: Whether to visualize the grid
-            - default_land_cover_class: Default class for grid cells with no intersecting polygons (default: 'Developed space')
-
-    Returns:
-        numpy.ndarray: Grid of land cover classifications as integer values
-    """
-
-    print("Creating Land Use Land Cover grid\n ")
-    print(f"Data source: {source}")
-    
-    # Initialize Earth Engine for satellite-based data sources
-    # Skip initialization for local/vector data sources
-    if source not in ["OpenStreetMap", "OpenEarthMapJapan"]:
-        initialize_earth_engine()
-
-    # Ensure output directory exists for saving intermediate files
-    os.makedirs(output_dir, exist_ok=True)
-    geotiff_path = os.path.join(output_dir, "land_cover.tif")
-
-    # Handle different data sources - each requires specific processing
-    # Satellite/raster-based sources are saved as GeoTIFF files
-    if source == 'Urbanwatch':
-        # Urban-focused land cover from satellite imagery
-        roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
-        collection_name = "projects/sat-io/open-datasets/HRLC/urban-watch-cities"
-        image = get_ee_image_collection(collection_name, roi)
-        save_geotiff(image, geotiff_path)
-    elif source == 'ESA WorldCover':
-        # Global land cover from European Space Agency
-        roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
-        save_geotiff_esa_land_cover(roi, geotiff_path)
-    elif source == 'ESRI 10m Annual Land Cover':
-        # High-resolution annual land cover from ESRI
-        esri_landcover_year = kwargs.get("esri_landcover_year")
-        roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
-        save_geotiff_esri_landcover(roi, geotiff_path, year=esri_landcover_year)
-    elif source == 'Dynamic World V1':
-        # Near real-time land cover from Google's Dynamic World
-        dynamic_world_date = kwargs.get("dynamic_world_date")
-        roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
-        save_geotiff_dynamic_world_v1(roi, geotiff_path, dynamic_world_date)
-    elif source == 'OpenEarthMapJapan':
-        # Japan-specific land cover dataset
-        save_oemj_as_geotiff(rectangle_vertices, geotiff_path)   
-    elif source == 'OpenStreetMap':
-        # Vector-based land cover from OpenStreetMap
-        # This bypasses the GeoTIFF workflow and gets data directly as GeoJSON
-        land_cover_gdf = load_land_cover_gdf_from_osm(rectangle_vertices)
-    
-    # Get the classification scheme for the selected data source
-    # Each source has its own land cover categories and color coding
-    land_cover_classes = get_land_cover_classes(source)
-
-    # Convert geospatial data to regular grid format
-    # Different processing for vector vs raster data sources
-    if source == 'OpenStreetMap':
-        # Process vector data directly from GeoDataFrame
-        default_class = kwargs.get('default_land_cover_class', 'Developed space')
-        land_cover_grid_str = create_land_cover_grid_from_gdf_polygon(land_cover_gdf, meshsize, source, rectangle_vertices, default_class=default_class)
-    else:
-        # Process raster data from GeoTIFF file
-        land_cover_grid_str = create_land_cover_grid_from_geotiff_polygon(geotiff_path, meshsize, land_cover_classes, rectangle_vertices)
-
-    # Prepare color mapping for visualization
-    # Convert RGB values from 0-255 range to 0-1 range for matplotlib
-    color_map = {cls: [r/255, g/255, b/255] for (r,g,b), cls in land_cover_classes.items()}
-
-    # Generate visualization if requested
-    grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)    
-    if grid_vis:
-        # Flip grid vertically for correct display orientation
-        visualize_land_cover_grid(np.flipud(land_cover_grid_str), meshsize, color_map, land_cover_classes)
-    
-    # Convert string-based land cover labels to integer codes for processing
-    # This enables efficient numerical operations on the grid
-    land_cover_grid_int = convert_land_cover_array(land_cover_grid_str, land_cover_classes)
-
-    return land_cover_grid_int
-
-# def get_building_height_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, source, output_dir="output", visualization=True, maptiler_API_key=None, file_path=None):
-def get_building_height_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, source, output_dir, building_gdf=None, **kwargs):
-    """Creates a grid of building heights.
-
-    Args:
-        rectangle_vertices: List of coordinates defining the area of interest
-        meshsize: Size of each grid cell in meters
-        source: Data source for buildings (e.g. 'OpenStreetMap', 'Microsoft Building Footprints', 'GeoDataFrame')
-        output_dir: Directory to save output files
-        building_gdf: Optional GeoDataFrame with building footprint, height and other information
-        **kwargs: Additional arguments including:
-            - maptiler_API_key: API key for MapTiler
-            - building_path: Path to local building data file
-            - building_complementary_source: Additional building data source
-            - gridvis: Whether to visualize the grid
-
-    Returns:
-        tuple:
-            - numpy.ndarray: Grid of building heights
-            - numpy.ndarray: Grid of building minimum heights
-            - numpy.ndarray: Grid of building IDs
-            - list: Filtered building features
-    """
-
-    # Initialize Earth Engine only for building sources that require it
-    ee_required_sources = {"Open Building 2.5D Temporal"}
-    if source in ee_required_sources:
-        initialize_earth_engine()
-
-    print("Creating Building Height grid\n ")
-    print(f"Data source: {source}")
-
-    os.makedirs(output_dir, exist_ok=True)
-    
-    # If building_gdf is provided, use it directly
-    if building_gdf is not None:
-        gdf = building_gdf
-        print("Using provided GeoDataFrame for building data")
-    else:
-        # Fetch building data from primary source
-        # Each source has different data formats and processing requirements
-        # Floor height (m) for inferring heights from floors/levels
-        floor_height = kwargs.get("floor_height", 3.0)
-        if source == 'Microsoft Building Footprints':
-            # Machine learning-derived building footprints from satellite imagery
-            gdf = get_mbfp_gdf(output_dir, rectangle_vertices)
-        elif source == 'OpenStreetMap':
-            # Crowd-sourced building data with varying completeness
-            gdf = load_gdf_from_openstreetmap(rectangle_vertices, floor_height=floor_height)
-        elif source == "Open Building 2.5D Temporal":
-            # Special case: this source provides both footprints and heights
-            # Skip GeoDataFrame processing and create grids directly
-            building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, filtered_buildings = create_building_height_grid_from_open_building_temporal_polygon(meshsize, rectangle_vertices, output_dir)
-        elif source == 'EUBUCCO v0.1':
-            # European building database with height information
-            gdf = load_gdf_from_eubucco(rectangle_vertices, output_dir)
-        # elif source == "OpenMapTiles":
-        #     # Vector tiles service for building data
-        #     gdf = load_gdf_from_openmaptiles(rectangle_vertices, kwargs["maptiler_API_key"])
-        elif source == "Overture":
-            # Open building dataset from Overture Maps Foundation
-            gdf = load_gdf_from_overture(rectangle_vertices, floor_height=floor_height)
-        elif source in ("GBA", "Global Building Atlas"):
-            # Global Building Atlas LOD1 polygons (GeoParquet tiles)
-            clip_gba = kwargs.get("gba_clip", False)
-            gba_download_dir = kwargs.get("gba_download_dir")
-            gdf = load_gdf_from_gba(rectangle_vertices, download_dir=gba_download_dir, clip_to_rectangle=clip_gba)
-        elif source == "Local file":
-            # Handle user-provided local building data files
-            _, extension = os.path.splitext(kwargs["building_path"])
-            if extension == ".gpkg":
-                gdf = get_gdf_from_gpkg(kwargs["building_path"], rectangle_vertices)
-        elif source == "GeoDataFrame":
-            # This case is handled by the building_gdf parameter above
-            raise ValueError("When source is 'GeoDataFrame', building_gdf parameter must be provided")
-    
-    # Handle complementary data sources to fill gaps or provide additional information
-    # This allows combining multiple sources for better coverage or accuracy
-    building_complementary_source = kwargs.get("building_complementary_source") 
-    building_complement_height = kwargs.get("building_complement_height")
-    overlapping_footprint = kwargs.get("overlapping_footprint")
-
-    if (building_complementary_source is None) or (building_complementary_source=='None'):
-        # Use only the primary data source
-        if source != "Open Building 2.5D Temporal":
-            building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, filtered_buildings = create_building_height_grid_from_gdf_polygon(gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices, complement_height=building_complement_height, overlapping_footprint=overlapping_footprint)
-    else:
-        # Combine primary source with complementary data
-        if building_complementary_source == "Open Building 2.5D Temporal":
-            # Use temporal height data to complement footprint data
-            roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
-            os.makedirs(output_dir, exist_ok=True)
-            geotiff_path_comp = os.path.join(output_dir, "building_height.tif")
-            save_geotiff_open_buildings_temporal(roi, geotiff_path_comp)
-            building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, filtered_buildings = create_building_height_grid_from_gdf_polygon(gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices, geotiff_path_comp=geotiff_path_comp, complement_height=building_complement_height, overlapping_footprint=overlapping_footprint)   
-        elif building_complementary_source in ["England 1m DSM - DTM", "Netherlands 0.5m DSM - DTM"]:
-            # Use digital surface model minus digital terrain model for height estimation
-            roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
-            os.makedirs(output_dir, exist_ok=True)
-            geotiff_path_comp = os.path.join(output_dir, "building_height.tif")
-            save_geotiff_dsm_minus_dtm(roi, geotiff_path_comp, meshsize, building_complementary_source)
-            building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, filtered_buildings = create_building_height_grid_from_gdf_polygon(gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices, geotiff_path_comp=geotiff_path_comp, complement_height=building_complement_height, overlapping_footprint=overlapping_footprint)
-        else:
-            # Fetch complementary data from another vector source
-            if building_complementary_source == 'Microsoft Building Footprints':
-                gdf_comp = get_mbfp_gdf(output_dir, rectangle_vertices)
-            elif building_complementary_source == 'OpenStreetMap':
-                gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_openstreetmap(rectangle_vertices, floor_height=floor_height)
-            elif building_complementary_source == 'EUBUCCO v0.1':
-                gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_eubucco(rectangle_vertices, output_dir)
-            # elif building_complementary_source == "OpenMapTiles":
-            #     gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_openmaptiles(rectangle_vertices, kwargs["maptiler_API_key"])
-            elif building_complementary_source == "Overture":
-                gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_overture(rectangle_vertices, floor_height=floor_height)
-            elif building_complementary_source in ("GBA", "Global Building Atlas"):
-                clip_gba = kwargs.get("gba_clip", False)
-                gba_download_dir = kwargs.get("gba_download_dir")
-                gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_gba(rectangle_vertices, download_dir=gba_download_dir, clip_to_rectangle=clip_gba)
-            elif building_complementary_source == "Local file":
-                _, extension = os.path.splitext(kwargs["building_complementary_path"])
-                if extension == ".gpkg":
-                    gdf_comp = get_gdf_from_gpkg(kwargs["building_complementary_path"], rectangle_vertices)
-            
-            # Configure how to combine the complementary data
-            # Can complement footprints only or both footprints and heights
-            complement_building_footprints = kwargs.get("complement_building_footprints")
-            building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, filtered_buildings = create_building_height_grid_from_gdf_polygon(gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices, gdf_comp=gdf_comp, complement_building_footprints=complement_building_footprints, complement_height=building_complement_height, overlapping_footprint=overlapping_footprint)
-
-    # Generate visualization if requested
-    grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)    
-    if grid_vis:
-        # Replace zeros with NaN for better visualization (don't show empty areas)
-        building_height_grid_nan = building_height_grid.copy()
-        building_height_grid_nan[building_height_grid_nan == 0] = np.nan
-        # Flip grid vertically for correct display orientation
-        visualize_numerical_grid(np.flipud(building_height_grid_nan), meshsize, "building height (m)", cmap='viridis', label='Value')
-
-    return building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, filtered_buildings
-
-def get_canopy_height_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, source, output_dir, **kwargs):
-    """Creates canopy top and bottom height grids.
-
-    Supports satellite sources and a GeoDataFrame source (from draw_additional_trees).
-
-    Args:
-        rectangle_vertices: List of coordinates defining the area of interest
-        meshsize: Size of each grid cell in meters
-        source: Data source for canopy heights. Use 'GeoDataFrame' or 'tree_gdf' for tree_gdf path/object.
-        output_dir: Directory to save output files
-        **kwargs: Additional arguments including:
-            - gridvis: Whether to visualize the grid
-            - tree_gdf: GeoDataFrame of trees (optional when source='GeoDataFrame')
-            - tree_gdf_path: Path to a local file (e.g., .gpkg) with trees when source='GeoDataFrame'
-            - trunk_height_ratio: Fraction of top height used as canopy bottom for non-GDF sources
-
-    Returns:
-        tuple[numpy.ndarray, numpy.ndarray]: (canopy_top_height_grid, canopy_bottom_height_grid)
-    """
-
-    print("Creating Canopy Height grid\n ")
-    print(f"Data source: {source}")
-
-    os.makedirs(output_dir, exist_ok=True)
-
-    # Branch: compute from a provided GeoDataFrame (draw_additional_trees output)
-    if source in ('GeoDataFrame', 'tree_gdf', 'Tree_GeoDataFrame', 'GDF'):
-        tree_gdf = kwargs.get('tree_gdf')
-        tree_gdf_path = kwargs.get('tree_gdf_path')
-        if tree_gdf is None and tree_gdf_path is not None:
-            _, ext = os.path.splitext(tree_gdf_path)
-            if ext.lower() == '.gpkg':
-                tree_gdf = get_gdf_from_gpkg(tree_gdf_path, rectangle_vertices)
-            else:
-                raise ValueError("Unsupported tree file format. Use .gpkg or pass a GeoDataFrame.")
-        if tree_gdf is None:
-            raise ValueError("When source='GeoDataFrame', provide 'tree_gdf' or 'tree_gdf_path'.")
-
-        canopy_top, canopy_bottom = create_canopy_grids_from_tree_gdf(tree_gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices)
-
-        # Visualization
-        grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)
-        if grid_vis:
-            vis = canopy_top.copy()
-            vis[vis == 0] = np.nan
-            visualize_numerical_grid(np.flipud(vis), meshsize, "Tree canopy height (top)", cmap='Greens', label='Tree canopy height (m)')
-
-        return canopy_top, canopy_bottom
-
-    # Default: satellite/remote sensing sources
-    print("Data source: High Resolution Canopy Height Maps by WRI and Meta")
-    initialize_earth_engine()
-
-    geotiff_path = os.path.join(output_dir, "canopy_height.tif")
-
-    roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
-    if source == 'High Resolution 1m Global Canopy Height Maps':
-        collection_name = "projects/meta-forest-monitoring-okw37/assets/CanopyHeight"
-        image = get_ee_image_collection(collection_name, roi)
-    elif source == 'ETH Global Sentinel-2 10m Canopy Height (2020)':
-        collection_name = "users/nlang/ETH_GlobalCanopyHeight_2020_10m_v1"
-        image = get_ee_image(collection_name, roi)
-    else:
-        raise ValueError(f"Unsupported canopy source: {source}")
-
-    save_geotiff(image, geotiff_path, resolution=meshsize)
-    canopy_height_grid = create_height_grid_from_geotiff_polygon(geotiff_path, meshsize, rectangle_vertices)
-
-    # Derive bottom grid using trunk_height_ratio (consistent with create_3d_voxel)
-    trunk_height_ratio = kwargs.get("trunk_height_ratio")
-    if trunk_height_ratio is None:
-        trunk_height_ratio = 11.76 / 19.98
-    canopy_bottom_grid = canopy_height_grid * float(trunk_height_ratio)
-
-    grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)
-    if grid_vis:
-        canopy_height_grid_nan = canopy_height_grid.copy()
-        canopy_height_grid_nan[canopy_height_grid_nan == 0] = np.nan
-        visualize_numerical_grid(np.flipud(canopy_height_grid_nan), meshsize, "Tree canopy height", cmap='Greens', label='Tree canopy height (m)')
-    return canopy_height_grid, canopy_bottom_grid
-
-def get_dem_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, source, output_dir, **kwargs):
-    """Creates a digital elevation model grid.
-
-    Args:
-        rectangle_vertices: List of coordinates defining the area of interest
-        meshsize: Size of each grid cell in meters
-        source: Data source for DEM
-        output_dir: Directory to save output files
-        **kwargs: Additional arguments including:
-            - dem_interpolation: Interpolation method for DEM
-            - gridvis: Whether to visualize the grid
-
-    Returns:
-        numpy.ndarray: Grid of elevation values
-    """
-
-    print("Creating Digital Elevation Model (DEM) grid\n ")
-    print(f"Data source: {source}")
-
-    if source == "Local file":
-        # Use user-provided local DEM file
-        geotiff_path = kwargs["dem_path"]
-    else:
-        # Fetch DEM data from various satellite/government sources
-        initialize_earth_engine()
-
-        geotiff_path = os.path.join(output_dir, "dem.tif")
-
-        # Add buffer around region of interest to ensure smooth interpolation at edges
-        # This prevents edge artifacts in the final grid
-        buffer_distance = 100
-        roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
-        roi_buffered = roi.buffer(buffer_distance)
-        
-        # Fetch elevation data from selected source
-        image = get_dem_image(roi_buffered, source)
-        
-        # Save DEM data with appropriate resolution based on source capabilities
-        if source in ["England 1m DTM", 'DEM France 1m', 'DEM France 5m', 'AUSTRALIA 5M DEM', 'Netherlands 0.5m DTM']:
-            # High-resolution elevation models - use specified mesh size
-            save_geotiff(image, geotiff_path, scale=meshsize, region=roi_buffered, crs='EPSG:4326')
-        elif source == 'USGS 3DEP 1m':
-            # US Geological Survey 3D Elevation Program
-            # Ensure minimum scale of 1.25m due to data limitations
-            scale = max(meshsize, 1.25)
-            save_geotiff(image, geotiff_path, scale=scale, region=roi_buffered, crs='EPSG:4326')
-        else:
-            # Default to 30m resolution for global/lower resolution sources
-            save_geotiff(image, geotiff_path, scale=30, region=roi_buffered)
-
-    # Convert GeoTIFF to regular grid with optional interpolation
-    # Interpolation helps fill gaps and smooth transitions
-    dem_interpolation = kwargs.get("dem_interpolation")
-    dem_grid = create_dem_grid_from_geotiff_polygon(geotiff_path, meshsize, rectangle_vertices, dem_interpolation=dem_interpolation)
-
-    # Generate visualization if requested
-    grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)    
-    if grid_vis:
-        # Use terrain color scheme appropriate for elevation data
-        visualize_numerical_grid(np.flipud(dem_grid), meshsize, title='Digital Elevation Model', cmap='terrain', label='Elevation (m)')
-
-    return dem_grid
-
-def create_3d_voxel(building_height_grid_ori, building_min_height_grid_ori, 
-                    building_id_grid_ori, land_cover_grid_ori, dem_grid_ori, 
-                    tree_grid_ori, voxel_size, land_cover_source, canopy_bottom_height_grid_ori=None, **kwargs):
-    """Creates a 3D voxel representation combining all input grids.
-    Args:
-        building_height_grid_ori: Grid of building heights
-        building_min_height_grid_ori: Grid of building minimum heights
-        building_id_grid_ori: Grid of building IDs
-        land_cover_grid_ori: Grid of land cover classifications
-        dem_grid_ori: Grid of elevation values
-        tree_grid_ori: Grid of tree heights
-        voxel_size: Size of each voxel in meters
-        land_cover_source: Source of land cover data
-        kwargs: Additional arguments including:
-            - trunk_height_ratio: Ratio of trunk height to total tree height
-    Returns:
-        numpy.ndarray: 3D voxel grid with encoded values for different features
-    """
-    print("Generating 3D voxel data")
-
-    # Convert land cover values to standardized format if needed
-    # OpenStreetMap data is already in the correct format
-    if (land_cover_source == 'OpenStreetMap'):
-        land_cover_grid_converted = land_cover_grid_ori
-    else:
-        land_cover_grid_converted = convert_land_cover(land_cover_grid_ori, land_cover_source=land_cover_source)
-    # Prepare all input grids for 3D processing
-    # Flip vertically to align with standard geographic orientation (north-up)
-    # Handle missing data appropriately for each grid type
-    building_height_grid = np.flipud(np.nan_to_num(building_height_grid_ori, nan=10.0)) # Replace NaN values with 10m height
-    building_min_height_grid = np.flipud(replace_nan_in_nested(building_min_height_grid_ori)) # Replace NaN in nested arrays
-    building_id_grid = np.flipud(building_id_grid_ori)
-    land_cover_grid = np.flipud(land_cover_grid_converted.copy()) + 1 # Add 1 to avoid 0 values in land cover
-    dem_grid = np.flipud(dem_grid_ori.copy()) - np.min(dem_grid_ori) # Normalize DEM to start at 0
-    dem_grid = process_grid(building_id_grid, dem_grid) # Process DEM based on building footprints
-    tree_grid = np.flipud(tree_grid_ori.copy())
-    canopy_bottom_grid = None
-    if canopy_bottom_height_grid_ori is not None:
-        canopy_bottom_grid = np.flipud(canopy_bottom_height_grid_ori.copy())
-    # Validate that all input grids have consistent dimensions
-    assert building_height_grid.shape == land_cover_grid.shape == dem_grid.shape == tree_grid.shape, "Input grids must have the same shape"
-    rows, cols = building_height_grid.shape
-    # Calculate the required height for the 3D voxel grid
-    # Add 1 voxel layer to ensure sufficient vertical space
-    max_height = int(np.ceil(np.max(building_height_grid + dem_grid + tree_grid) / voxel_size))+1
-    # Initialize the 3D voxel grid with zeros
-    # Use int8 by default to reduce memory (values range from about -99 to small positives)
-    # Allow override via kwarg 'voxel_dtype'
-    voxel_dtype = kwargs.get("voxel_dtype", np.int8)
-
-    # Optional: estimate memory and allow a soft limit before allocating
-    try:
-        bytes_per_elem = np.dtype(voxel_dtype).itemsize
-        est_mb = rows * cols * max_height * bytes_per_elem / (1024 ** 2)
-        print(f"Voxel grid shape: ({rows}, {cols}, {max_height}), dtype: {voxel_dtype}, ~{est_mb:.1f} MB")
-        max_ram_mb = kwargs.get("max_voxel_ram_mb")
-        if (max_ram_mb is not None) and (est_mb > max_ram_mb):
-            raise MemoryError(f"Estimated voxel grid memory {est_mb:.1f} MB exceeds limit {max_ram_mb} MB. Increase mesh size or restrict ROI.")
-    except Exception:
-        pass
-
-    voxel_grid = np.zeros((rows, cols, max_height), dtype=voxel_dtype)
-    # Configure tree trunk-to-crown ratio
-    # This determines how much of the tree is trunk vs canopy
-    trunk_height_ratio = kwargs.get("trunk_height_ratio")
-    if trunk_height_ratio is None:
-        trunk_height_ratio = 11.76 / 19.98  # Default ratio based on typical tree proportions
-    # Process each grid cell to build the 3D voxel representation
-    for i in range(rows):
-        for j in range(cols):
-            # Calculate ground level in voxel units
-            # Add 1 to ensure space for surface features
-            ground_level = int(dem_grid[i, j] / voxel_size + 0.5) + 1 
-            # Extract current cell values
-            tree_height = tree_grid[i, j]
-            land_cover = land_cover_grid[i, j]
-            # Fill underground voxels with -1 (represents subsurface)
-            voxel_grid[i, j, :ground_level] = -1
-            # Set the ground surface to the land cover type
-            voxel_grid[i, j, ground_level-1] = land_cover
-            # Process tree canopy if trees are present
-            if tree_height > 0:
-                # Calculate tree structure: trunk base to crown base to crown top
-                if canopy_bottom_grid is not None:
-                    crown_base_height = canopy_bottom_grid[i, j]
-                else:
-                    crown_base_height = (tree_height * trunk_height_ratio)
-                crown_base_height_level = int(crown_base_height / voxel_size + 0.5)
-                crown_top_height = tree_height
-                crown_top_height_level = int(crown_top_height / voxel_size + 0.5)
-
-                # Ensure minimum crown height of 1 voxel
-                # Prevent crown base and top from being at the same level
-                if (crown_top_height_level == crown_base_height_level) and (crown_base_height_level>0):
-                    crown_base_height_level -= 1
-
-                # Calculate absolute positions relative to ground level
-                tree_start = ground_level + crown_base_height_level
-                tree_end = ground_level + crown_top_height_level
-
-                # Fill tree crown voxels with -2 (represents vegetation canopy)
-                voxel_grid[i, j, tree_start:tree_end] = -2
-            # Process buildings - handle multiple height segments per building
-            # Some buildings may have multiple levels or complex height profiles
-            for k in building_min_height_grid[i, j]:
-                building_min_height = int(k[0] / voxel_size + 0.5)  # Lower height of building segment
-                building_height = int(k[1] / voxel_size + 0.5)      # Upper height of building segment
-                # Fill building voxels with -3 (represents built structures)
-                voxel_grid[i, j, ground_level+building_min_height:ground_level+building_height] = -3
-    return voxel_grid
-
-def create_3d_voxel_individuals(building_height_grid_ori, land_cover_grid_ori, dem_grid_ori, tree_grid_ori, voxel_size, land_cover_source, layered_interval=None):
-    """Creates separate 3D voxel grids for each component.
-
-    Args:
-        building_height_grid_ori: Grid of building heights
-        land_cover_grid_ori: Grid of land cover classifications
-        dem_grid_ori: Grid of elevation values
-        tree_grid_ori: Grid of tree heights
-        voxel_size: Size of each voxel in meters
-        land_cover_source: Source of land cover data
-        layered_interval: Interval for layered output
-
-    Returns:
-        tuple:
-            - numpy.ndarray: Land cover voxel grid
-            - numpy.ndarray: Building voxel grid
-            - numpy.ndarray: Tree voxel grid
-            - numpy.ndarray: DEM voxel grid
-            - numpy.ndarray: Combined layered voxel grid
-    """
-
-    print("Generating 3D voxel data")
-    # Convert land cover values if not from OpenEarthMapJapan
-    if land_cover_source != 'OpenEarthMapJapan':
-        land_cover_grid_converted = convert_land_cover(land_cover_grid_ori, land_cover_source=land_cover_source)  
-    else:
-        land_cover_grid_converted = land_cover_grid_ori      
-
-    # Prepare and flip all input grids vertically
-    building_height_grid = np.flipud(building_height_grid_ori.copy())
-    land_cover_grid = np.flipud(land_cover_grid_converted.copy()) + 1  # Add 1 to avoid 0 values
-    dem_grid = np.flipud(dem_grid_ori.copy()) - np.min(dem_grid_ori)  # Normalize DEM to start at 0
-    building_nr_grid = group_and_label_cells(np.flipud(building_height_grid_ori.copy()))
-    dem_grid = process_grid(building_nr_grid, dem_grid)  # Process DEM based on building footprints
-    tree_grid = np.flipud(tree_grid_ori.copy())
-
-    # Validate input dimensions
-    assert building_height_grid.shape == land_cover_grid.shape == dem_grid.shape == tree_grid.shape, "Input grids must have the same shape"
-
-    rows, cols = building_height_grid.shape
-
-    # Calculate required height for 3D grid
-    max_height = int(np.ceil(np.max(building_height_grid + dem_grid + tree_grid) / voxel_size))
-
-    # Initialize empty 3D grids for each component
-    land_cover_voxel_grid = np.zeros((rows, cols, max_height), dtype=np.int32)
-    building_voxel_grid = np.zeros((rows, cols, max_height), dtype=np.int32)
-    tree_voxel_grid = np.zeros((rows, cols, max_height), dtype=np.int32)
-    dem_voxel_grid = np.zeros((rows, cols, max_height), dtype=np.int32)
-
-    # Fill individual component grids
-    for i in range(rows):
-        for j in range(cols):
-            ground_level = int(dem_grid[i, j] / voxel_size + 0.5)
-            building_height = int(building_height_grid[i, j] / voxel_size + 0.5)
-            tree_height = int(tree_grid[i, j] / voxel_size + 0.5)
-            land_cover = land_cover_grid[i, j]
-
-            # Fill underground cells with -1
-            dem_voxel_grid[i, j, :ground_level+1] = -1
-
-            # Set ground level cell to land cover
-            land_cover_voxel_grid[i, j, 0] = land_cover
-
-            # Fill tree crown with value -2
-            if tree_height > 0:
-                tree_voxel_grid[i, j, :tree_height] = -2
-
-            # Fill building with value -3
-            if building_height > 0:
-                building_voxel_grid[i, j, :building_height] = -3
-    
-    # Set default layered interval if not provided
-    if not layered_interval:
-        layered_interval = max(max_height, int(dem_grid.shape[0]/4 + 0.5))
-
-    # Create combined layered visualization
-    extract_height = min(layered_interval, max_height)
-    layered_voxel_grid = np.zeros((rows, cols, layered_interval*4), dtype=np.int32)
-    
-    # Stack components in layers with equal spacing
-    layered_voxel_grid[:, :, :extract_height] = dem_voxel_grid[:, :, :extract_height]
-    layered_voxel_grid[:, :, layered_interval:layered_interval+extract_height] = land_cover_voxel_grid[:, :, :extract_height]
-    layered_voxel_grid[:, :, 2*layered_interval:2*layered_interval+extract_height] = building_voxel_grid[:, :, :extract_height]
-    layered_voxel_grid[:, :, 3*layered_interval:3*layered_interval+extract_height] = tree_voxel_grid[:, :, :extract_height]
-
-    return land_cover_voxel_grid, building_voxel_grid, tree_voxel_grid, dem_voxel_grid, layered_voxel_grid
-
-def get_voxcity(rectangle_vertices, building_source, land_cover_source, canopy_height_source, dem_source, meshsize, building_gdf=None, **kwargs):
-    """Main function to generate a complete voxel city model.
-
-    Args:
-        rectangle_vertices: List of coordinates defining the area of interest
-        building_source: Source for building height data (e.g. 'OSM', 'EUBUCCO', 'GeoDataFrame')
-        land_cover_source: Source for land cover data (e.g. 'ESA', 'ESRI') 
-        canopy_height_source: Source for tree canopy height data
-        dem_source: Source for digital elevation model data ('Flat' or other source)
-        meshsize: Size of each grid cell in meters
-        building_gdf: Optional GeoDataFrame with building footprint, height and other information
-        **kwargs: Additional keyword arguments including:
-            - output_dir: Directory to save output files (default: 'output')
-            - min_canopy_height: Minimum height threshold for tree canopy
-            - remove_perimeter_object: Factor to remove objects near perimeter
-            - mapvis: Whether to visualize grids on map
-            - voxelvis: Whether to visualize 3D voxel model
-            - voxelvis_img_save_path: Path to save 3D visualization
-            - default_land_cover_class: Default class for land cover grid cells with no intersecting polygons (default: 'Developed space')
-
-    Returns:
-        tuple containing:
-            - voxcity_grid: 3D voxel grid of the complete city model
-            - building_height_grid: 2D grid of building heights
-            - building_min_height_grid: 2D grid of minimum building heights
-            - building_id_grid: 2D grid of building IDs
-            - canopy_height_grid: 2D grid of tree canopy top heights
-            - canopy_bottom_height_grid: 2D grid of tree canopy bottom heights
-            - land_cover_grid: 2D grid of land cover classifications
-            - dem_grid: 2D grid of ground elevation
-            - building_geojson: GeoJSON of building footprints and metadata
-    """
-    # Set up output directory for intermediate and final files
-    output_dir = kwargs.get("output_dir", "output")
-    os.makedirs(output_dir, exist_ok=True)
-        
-    # Remove 'output_dir' from kwargs to prevent duplication in function calls
-    kwargs.pop('output_dir', None)
-
-    # STEP 1: Generate all required 2D grids from various data sources
-    # These grids form the foundation for the 3D voxel model
-    
-    # Land cover classification grid (e.g., urban, forest, water, agriculture)
-    land_cover_grid = get_land_cover_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, land_cover_source, output_dir, **kwargs)
-    
-    # Building footprints and height information
-    building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, building_gdf = get_building_height_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, building_source, output_dir, building_gdf=building_gdf, **kwargs)
-    
-    # Save building data to file for later analysis or visualization
-    if not building_gdf.empty:
-        save_path = f"{output_dir}/building.gpkg"
-        building_gdf.to_file(save_path, driver='GPKG')
-    
-    # STEP 2: Handle canopy height data
-    # Either use static values or fetch from satellite sources
-    if canopy_height_source == "Static":
-        # Create uniform canopy height for all tree-covered areas (top grid)
-        canopy_height_grid = np.zeros_like(land_cover_grid, dtype=float)
-        static_tree_height = kwargs.get("static_tree_height", 10.0)
-        # Determine tree class indices based on source-specific class names
-        _classes = get_land_cover_classes(land_cover_source)
-        _class_to_int = {name: i for i, name in enumerate(_classes.values())}
-        _tree_labels = ["Tree", "Trees", "Tree Canopy"]
-        _tree_indices = [_class_to_int[label] for label in _tree_labels if label in _class_to_int]
-        tree_mask = np.isin(land_cover_grid, _tree_indices) if _tree_indices else np.zeros_like(land_cover_grid, dtype=bool)
-        canopy_height_grid[tree_mask] = static_tree_height
-
-        # Derive bottom from trunk_height_ratio
-        trunk_height_ratio = kwargs.get("trunk_height_ratio")
-        if trunk_height_ratio is None:
-            trunk_height_ratio = 11.76 / 19.98
-        canopy_bottom_height_grid = canopy_height_grid * float(trunk_height_ratio)
-    else:
-        # Fetch canopy top/bottom from source
-        canopy_height_grid, canopy_bottom_height_grid = get_canopy_height_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, canopy_height_source, output_dir, **kwargs)
-    
-    # STEP 3: Handle digital elevation model (terrain)
-    if dem_source == "Flat":
-        # Create flat terrain for simplified modeling
-        dem_grid = np.zeros_like(land_cover_grid)
-    else:
-        # Fetch terrain elevation from various sources
-        dem_grid = get_dem_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, dem_source, output_dir, **kwargs)
-
-    # STEP 4: Apply optional data filtering and cleaning
-    
-    # Filter out low vegetation that may be noise in the data
-    min_canopy_height = kwargs.get("min_canopy_height")
-    if min_canopy_height is not None:
-        canopy_height_grid[canopy_height_grid < kwargs["min_canopy_height"]] = 0        
-        if 'canopy_bottom_height_grid' in locals():
-            canopy_bottom_height_grid[canopy_height_grid == 0] = 0
-
-    # Remove objects near the boundary to avoid edge effects
-    # This is useful when the area of interest is part of a larger urban area
-    remove_perimeter_object = kwargs.get("remove_perimeter_object")
-    if (remove_perimeter_object is not None) and (remove_perimeter_object > 0):
-        print("apply perimeter removal")
-        # Calculate perimeter width based on grid dimensions
-        w_peri = int(remove_perimeter_object * building_height_grid.shape[0] + 0.5)
-        h_peri = int(remove_perimeter_object * building_height_grid.shape[1] + 0.5)
-        
-        # Clear canopy heights in perimeter areas
-        canopy_height_grid[:w_peri, :] = canopy_height_grid[-w_peri:, :] = canopy_height_grid[:, :h_peri] = canopy_height_grid[:, -h_peri:] = 0
-        if 'canopy_bottom_height_grid' in locals():
-            canopy_bottom_height_grid[:w_peri, :] = canopy_bottom_height_grid[-w_peri:, :] = canopy_bottom_height_grid[:, :h_peri] = canopy_bottom_height_grid[:, -h_peri:] = 0
-
-        # Identify buildings that intersect with perimeter areas
-        ids1 = np.unique(building_id_grid[:w_peri, :][building_id_grid[:w_peri, :] > 0])
-        ids2 = np.unique(building_id_grid[-w_peri:, :][building_id_grid[-w_peri:, :] > 0])
-        ids3 = np.unique(building_id_grid[:, :h_peri][building_id_grid[:, :h_peri] > 0])
-        ids4 = np.unique(building_id_grid[:, -h_peri:][building_id_grid[:, -h_peri:] > 0])
-        remove_ids = np.concatenate((ids1, ids2, ids3, ids4))
-        
-        # Remove identified buildings from all grids
-        for remove_id in remove_ids:
-            positions = np.where(building_id_grid == remove_id)
-            building_height_grid[positions] = 0
-            building_min_height_grid[positions] = [[] for _ in range(len(building_min_height_grid[positions]))]
-
-        # Visualize grids after optional perimeter removal
-        grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)
-        if grid_vis:
-            # Building height grid visualization (zeros hidden)
-            building_height_grid_nan = building_height_grid.copy()
-            building_height_grid_nan[building_height_grid_nan == 0] = np.nan
-            visualize_numerical_grid(
-                np.flipud(building_height_grid_nan),
-                meshsize,
-                "building height (m)",
-                cmap='viridis',
-                label='Value'
-            )
-
-            # Canopy height grid visualization (zeros hidden)
-            canopy_height_grid_nan = canopy_height_grid.copy()
-            canopy_height_grid_nan[canopy_height_grid_nan == 0] = np.nan
-            visualize_numerical_grid(
-                np.flipud(canopy_height_grid_nan),
-                meshsize,
-                "Tree canopy height (m)",
-                cmap='Greens',
-                label='Tree canopy height (m)'
-            )
-
-    # STEP 5: Generate optional 2D visualizations on interactive maps
-    mapvis = kwargs.get("mapvis")
-    if mapvis:
-        # Create map-based visualizations of all data layers
-        # These help users understand the input data before 3D modeling
-        
-        # Visualize land cover using the new function
-        visualize_landcover_grid_on_basemap(
-            land_cover_grid, 
-            rectangle_vertices, 
-            meshsize, 
-            source=land_cover_source,
-            alpha=0.7,
-            figsize=(12, 8),
-            basemap='CartoDB light',
-            show_edge=False
-        )
-        
-        # Visualize building heights using the new function
-        visualize_numerical_grid_on_basemap(
-            building_height_grid,
-            rectangle_vertices,
-            meshsize,
-            value_name="Building Heights (m)",
-            cmap='viridis',
-            alpha=0.7,
-            figsize=(12, 8),
-            basemap='CartoDB light',
-            show_edge=False
-        )
-        
-        # Visualize canopy heights using the new function
-        visualize_numerical_grid_on_basemap(
-            canopy_height_grid,
-            rectangle_vertices,
-            meshsize,
-            value_name="Canopy Heights (m)",
-            cmap='Greens',
-            alpha=0.7,
-            figsize=(12, 8),
-            basemap='CartoDB light',
-            show_edge=False
-        )
-        
-        # Visualize DEM using the new function
-        visualize_numerical_grid_on_basemap(
-            dem_grid,
-            rectangle_vertices,
-            meshsize,
-            value_name="Terrain Elevation (m)",
-            cmap='terrain',
-            alpha=0.7,
-            figsize=(12, 8),
-            basemap='CartoDB light',
-            show_edge=False
-        )
-
-    # STEP 6: Generate the final 3D voxel model
-    # This combines all 2D grids into a comprehensive 3D representation
-    voxcity_grid = create_3d_voxel(building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, land_cover_grid, dem_grid, canopy_height_grid, meshsize, land_cover_source, canopy_bottom_height_grid)
-
-    # STEP 7: Generate optional 3D visualization
-    # voxelvis = kwargs.get("voxelvis")
-    # if voxelvis:
-    #     # Create a taller grid for better visualization
-    #     # Fixed height ensures consistent camera positioning
-    #     new_height = int(550/meshsize+0.5)     
-    #     voxcity_grid_vis = np.zeros((voxcity_grid.shape[0], voxcity_grid.shape[1], new_height))
-    #     voxcity_grid_vis[:, :, :voxcity_grid.shape[2]] = voxcity_grid
-    #     voxcity_grid_vis[-1, -1, -1] = -99  # Add marker to fix camera location and angle of view
-    #     visualize_3d_voxel(voxcity_grid_vis, voxel_size=meshsize, save_path=kwargs["voxelvis_img_save_path"])
-
-    # STEP 8: Save all generated data for future use
-    save_voxcity = kwargs.get("save_voxctiy_data", True)
-    if save_voxcity:
-        save_path = kwargs.get("save_data_path", f"{output_dir}/voxcity_data.pkl")
-        save_voxcity_data(save_path, voxcity_grid, building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, 
-                         building_id_grid, canopy_height_grid, land_cover_grid, dem_grid, 
-                         building_gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices)
-    
-    return voxcity_grid, building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, canopy_height_grid, canopy_bottom_height_grid, land_cover_grid, dem_grid, building_gdf
-
-def get_voxcity_CityGML(rectangle_vertices, land_cover_source, canopy_height_source, meshsize, url_citygml=None, citygml_path=None, **kwargs):
-    """Main function to generate a complete voxel city model.
-
-    Args:
-        rectangle_vertices: List of coordinates defining the area of interest
-        building_source: Source for building height data (e.g. 'OSM', 'EUBUCCO')
-        land_cover_source: Source for land cover data (e.g. 'ESA', 'ESRI') 
-        canopy_height_source: Source for tree canopy height data
-        dem_source: Source for digital elevation model data ('Flat' or other source)
-        meshsize: Size of each grid cell in meters
-        **kwargs: Additional keyword arguments including:
-            - output_dir: Directory to save output files (default: 'output')
-            - min_canopy_height: Minimum height threshold for tree canopy
-            - remove_perimeter_object: Factor to remove objects near perimeter
-            - mapvis: Whether to visualize grids on map
-            - voxelvis: Whether to visualize 3D voxel model
-            - voxelvis_img_save_path: Path to save 3D visualization
-
-    Returns:
-        tuple containing:
-            - voxcity_grid: 3D voxel grid of the complete city model
-            - building_height_grid: 2D grid of building heights
-            - building_min_height_grid: 2D grid of minimum building heights
-            - building_id_grid: 2D grid of building IDs
-            - canopy_height_grid: 2D grid of tree canopy heights
-            - land_cover_grid: 2D grid of land cover classifications
-            - dem_grid: 2D grid of ground elevation
-            - building_geojson: GeoJSON of building footprints and metadata
-    """
-    # Create output directory if it doesn't exist
-    output_dir = kwargs.get("output_dir", "output")
-    os.makedirs(output_dir, exist_ok=True)
-        
-    # Remove 'output_dir' from kwargs to prevent duplication
-    kwargs.pop('output_dir', None)
-
-    # SSL/HTTP options for CityGML download (optional)
-    # Backward compatible: accept 'verify' but prefer 'ssl_verify'
-    ssl_verify = kwargs.pop('ssl_verify', kwargs.pop('verify', True))
-    ca_bundle = kwargs.pop('ca_bundle', None)
-    timeout = kwargs.pop('timeout', 60)
-
-    # get all required gdfs    
-    building_gdf, terrain_gdf, vegetation_gdf = load_buid_dem_veg_from_citygml(
-        url=url_citygml,
-        citygml_path=citygml_path,
-        base_dir=output_dir,
-        rectangle_vertices=rectangle_vertices,
-        ssl_verify=ssl_verify,
-        ca_bundle=ca_bundle,
-        timeout=timeout
-    )
-
-    # Normalize CRS to WGS84 (EPSG:4326) to ensure consistent operations downstream
-    try:
-        import geopandas as gpd  # noqa: F401
-        if building_gdf is not None:
-            if building_gdf.crs is None:
-                building_gdf = building_gdf.set_crs(epsg=4326)
-            elif getattr(building_gdf.crs, 'to_epsg', lambda: None)() != 4326 and building_gdf.crs != "EPSG:4326":
-                building_gdf = building_gdf.to_crs(epsg=4326)
-        if terrain_gdf is not None:
-            if terrain_gdf.crs is None:
-                terrain_gdf = terrain_gdf.set_crs(epsg=4326)
-            elif getattr(terrain_gdf.crs, 'to_epsg', lambda: None)() != 4326 and terrain_gdf.crs != "EPSG:4326":
-                terrain_gdf = terrain_gdf.to_crs(epsg=4326)
-        if vegetation_gdf is not None:
-            if vegetation_gdf.crs is None:
-                vegetation_gdf = vegetation_gdf.set_crs(epsg=4326)
-            elif getattr(vegetation_gdf.crs, 'to_epsg', lambda: None)() != 4326 and vegetation_gdf.crs != "EPSG:4326":
-                vegetation_gdf = vegetation_gdf.to_crs(epsg=4326)
-    except Exception:
-        pass
-
-    land_cover_grid = get_land_cover_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, land_cover_source, output_dir, **kwargs)        
-
-    # building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, building_gdf = get_building_height_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, building_source, output_dir, **kwargs)
-    print("Creating building height grid")
-    # Prepare complementary building source if provided
-    building_complementary_source = kwargs.get("building_complementary_source")
-    gdf_comp = None
-    geotiff_path_comp = None
-    complement_building_footprints = kwargs.get("complement_building_footprints")
-    # Default to complement footprints when a complementary source is specified
-    if complement_building_footprints is None and (building_complementary_source not in (None, "None")):
-        complement_building_footprints = True
-
-    if (building_complementary_source is not None) and (building_complementary_source != "None"):
-        # Vector complementary sources
-        floor_height = kwargs.get("floor_height", 3.0)
-        if building_complementary_source == 'Microsoft Building Footprints':
-            gdf_comp = get_mbfp_gdf(kwargs.get("output_dir", "output"), rectangle_vertices)
-        elif building_complementary_source == 'OpenStreetMap':
-            gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_openstreetmap(rectangle_vertices, floor_height=floor_height)
-        elif building_complementary_source == 'EUBUCCO v0.1':
-            gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_eubucco(rectangle_vertices, kwargs.get("output_dir", "output"))
-        elif building_complementary_source == 'Overture':
-            gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_overture(rectangle_vertices, floor_height=floor_height)
-        elif building_complementary_source in ("GBA", "Global Building Atlas"):
-            clip_gba = kwargs.get("gba_clip", False)
-            gba_download_dir = kwargs.get("gba_download_dir")
-            gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_gba(rectangle_vertices, download_dir=gba_download_dir, clip_to_rectangle=clip_gba)
-        elif building_complementary_source == 'Local file':
-            comp_path = kwargs.get("building_complementary_path")
-            if comp_path is not None:
-                _, extension = os.path.splitext(comp_path)
-                if extension == ".gpkg":
-                    gdf_comp = get_gdf_from_gpkg(comp_path, rectangle_vertices)
-        # Ensure complementary GDF uses WGS84
-        if gdf_comp is not None:
-            try:
-                if gdf_comp.crs is None:
-                    gdf_comp = gdf_comp.set_crs(epsg=4326)
-                elif getattr(gdf_comp.crs, 'to_epsg', lambda: None)() != 4326 and gdf_comp.crs != "EPSG:4326":
-                    gdf_comp = gdf_comp.to_crs(epsg=4326)
-            except Exception:
-                pass
-        # Raster complementary sources (height only)
-        elif building_complementary_source == "Open Building 2.5D Temporal":
-            roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
-            os.makedirs(kwargs.get("output_dir", "output"), exist_ok=True)
-            geotiff_path_comp = os.path.join(kwargs.get("output_dir", "output"), "building_height.tif")
-            save_geotiff_open_buildings_temporal(roi, geotiff_path_comp)
-        elif building_complementary_source in ["England 1m DSM - DTM", "Netherlands 0.5m DSM - DTM"]:
-            roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
-            os.makedirs(kwargs.get("output_dir", "output"), exist_ok=True)
-            geotiff_path_comp = os.path.join(kwargs.get("output_dir", "output"), "building_height.tif")
-            save_geotiff_dsm_minus_dtm(roi, geotiff_path_comp, meshsize, building_complementary_source)
-
-    # Filter and assemble kwargs accepted by the grid function
-    _allowed_building_kwargs = {
-        "overlapping_footprint",
-        "gdf_comp",
-        "geotiff_path_comp",
-        "complement_building_footprints",
-        "complement_height",
-    }
-    _building_kwargs = {k: v for k, v in kwargs.items() if k in _allowed_building_kwargs}
-    if gdf_comp is not None:
-        _building_kwargs["gdf_comp"] = gdf_comp
-    if geotiff_path_comp is not None:
-        _building_kwargs["geotiff_path_comp"] = geotiff_path_comp
-    if complement_building_footprints is not None:
-        _building_kwargs["complement_building_footprints"] = complement_building_footprints
-
-    # Map user-provided building_complement_height -> complement_height for grid builder
-    comp_height_user = kwargs.get("building_complement_height")
-    if comp_height_user is not None:
-        _building_kwargs["complement_height"] = comp_height_user
-    # If footprints are being complemented and no height provided, default to 10
-    if _building_kwargs.get("complement_building_footprints") and ("complement_height" not in _building_kwargs):
-        _building_kwargs["complement_height"] = 10.0
-
-    building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, filtered_buildings = create_building_height_grid_from_gdf_polygon(
-        building_gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices, **_building_kwargs
-    )
-
-    # Visualize grid if requested
-    grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)    
-    if grid_vis:
-        building_height_grid_nan = building_height_grid.copy()
-        building_height_grid_nan[building_height_grid_nan == 0] = np.nan
-        visualize_numerical_grid(np.flipud(building_height_grid_nan), meshsize, "building height (m)", cmap='viridis', label='Value')
-    
-    # Save building data to GeoJSON
-    if not building_gdf.empty:
-        save_path = f"{output_dir}/building.gpkg"
-        building_gdf.to_file(save_path, driver='GPKG')
-    
-    # Get canopy height data
-    if canopy_height_source == "Static":
-        # Create canopy height grid with same shape as land cover grid
-        canopy_height_grid_comp = np.zeros_like(land_cover_grid, dtype=float)
-        
-        # Set default static height for trees (20 meters is a typical average tree height)
-        static_tree_height = kwargs.get("static_tree_height", 10.0)
-        # Determine tree class indices based on source-specific class names
-        _classes = get_land_cover_classes(land_cover_source)
-        _class_to_int = {name: i for i, name in enumerate(_classes.values())}
-        _tree_labels = ["Tree", "Trees", "Tree Canopy"]
-        _tree_indices = [_class_to_int[label] for label in _tree_labels if label in _class_to_int]
-        tree_mask = np.isin(land_cover_grid, _tree_indices) if _tree_indices else np.zeros_like(land_cover_grid, dtype=bool)
-        
-        # Set static height for tree cells
-        canopy_height_grid_comp[tree_mask] = static_tree_height
-
-        # Bottom comp from trunk ratio
-        trunk_height_ratio = kwargs.get("trunk_height_ratio")
-        if trunk_height_ratio is None:
-            trunk_height_ratio = 11.76 / 19.98
-        canopy_bottom_height_grid_comp = canopy_height_grid_comp * float(trunk_height_ratio)
-    else:
-        canopy_height_grid_comp, canopy_bottom_height_grid_comp = get_canopy_height_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, canopy_height_source, output_dir, **kwargs)
-    
-    # In the get_voxcity_CityGML function, modify it to handle None vegetation_gdf
-    if vegetation_gdf is not None:
-        canopy_height_grid = create_vegetation_height_grid_from_gdf_polygon(vegetation_gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices)
-        # Base bottom grid from ratio
-        trunk_height_ratio = kwargs.get("trunk_height_ratio")
-        if trunk_height_ratio is None:
-            trunk_height_ratio = 11.76 / 19.98
-        canopy_bottom_height_grid = canopy_height_grid * float(trunk_height_ratio)
-    else:
-        # Create an empty canopy_height_grid with the same shape as your other grids
-        # This depends on the expected shape, you might need to adjust
-        canopy_height_grid = np.zeros_like(building_height_grid)
-        canopy_bottom_height_grid = np.zeros_like(building_height_grid)
-
-    mask = (canopy_height_grid == 0) & (canopy_height_grid_comp != 0)
-    canopy_height_grid[mask] = canopy_height_grid_comp[mask]
-    # Apply same complementation to bottom grid
-    mask_b = (canopy_bottom_height_grid == 0) & (canopy_bottom_height_grid_comp != 0)
-    canopy_bottom_height_grid[mask_b] = canopy_bottom_height_grid_comp[mask_b]
-
-    # Ensure bottom <= top
-    canopy_bottom_height_grid = np.minimum(canopy_bottom_height_grid, canopy_height_grid)
-    
-    # Handle DEM - either flat or from source
-    if kwargs.pop('flat_dem', None):
-        dem_grid = np.zeros_like(land_cover_grid)
-    else:
-        print("Creating Digital Elevation Model (DEM) grid")
-        dem_grid = create_dem_grid_from_gdf_polygon(terrain_gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices)
-        
-        # Visualize grid if requested
-        grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)    
-        if grid_vis:
-            visualize_numerical_grid(np.flipud(dem_grid), meshsize, title='Digital Elevation Model', cmap='terrain', label='Elevation (m)')
-        
-
-    # Apply minimum canopy height threshold if specified
-    min_canopy_height = kwargs.get("min_canopy_height")
-    if min_canopy_height is not None:
-        canopy_height_grid[canopy_height_grid < kwargs["min_canopy_height"]] = 0        
-        canopy_bottom_height_grid[canopy_height_grid == 0] = 0
-
-    # Remove objects near perimeter if specified
-    remove_perimeter_object = kwargs.get("remove_perimeter_object")
-    if (remove_perimeter_object is not None) and (remove_perimeter_object > 0):
-        print("apply perimeter removal")
-        # Calculate perimeter width based on grid dimensions
-        w_peri = int(remove_perimeter_object * building_height_grid.shape[0] + 0.5)
-        h_peri = int(remove_perimeter_object * building_height_grid.shape[1] + 0.5)
-        
-        # Clear canopy heights in perimeter
-        canopy_height_grid[:w_peri, :] = canopy_height_grid[-w_peri:, :] = canopy_height_grid[:, :h_peri] = canopy_height_grid[:, -h_peri:] = 0
-        canopy_bottom_height_grid[:w_peri, :] = canopy_bottom_height_grid[-w_peri:, :] = canopy_bottom_height_grid[:, :h_peri] = canopy_bottom_height_grid[:, -h_peri:] = 0
-
-        # Find building IDs in perimeter regions
-        ids1 = np.unique(building_id_grid[:w_peri, :][building_id_grid[:w_peri, :] > 0])
-        ids2 = np.unique(building_id_grid[-w_peri:, :][building_id_grid[-w_peri:, :] > 0])
-        ids3 = np.unique(building_id_grid[:, :h_peri][building_id_grid[:, :h_peri] > 0])
-        ids4 = np.unique(building_id_grid[:, -h_peri:][building_id_grid[:, -h_peri:] > 0])
-        remove_ids = np.concatenate((ids1, ids2, ids3, ids4))
-        
-        # Remove buildings in perimeter
-        for remove_id in remove_ids:
-            positions = np.where(building_id_grid == remove_id)
-            building_height_grid[positions] = 0
-            building_min_height_grid[positions] = [[] for _ in range(len(building_min_height_grid[positions]))] 
-
-        # Visualize grids after optional perimeter removal
-        grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)
-        if grid_vis:
-            # Building height grid visualization (zeros hidden)
-            building_height_grid_nan = building_height_grid.copy()
-            building_height_grid_nan[building_height_grid_nan == 0] = np.nan
-            visualize_numerical_grid(
-                np.flipud(building_height_grid_nan),
-                meshsize,
-                "building height (m)",
-                cmap='viridis',
-                label='Value'
-            )
-
-            # Canopy height grid visualization (zeros hidden)
-            canopy_height_grid_nan = canopy_height_grid.copy()
-            canopy_height_grid_nan[canopy_height_grid_nan == 0] = np.nan
-            visualize_numerical_grid(
-                np.flipud(canopy_height_grid_nan),
-                meshsize,
-                "Tree canopy height (m)",
-                cmap='Greens',
-                label='Tree canopy height (m)'
-            )
-
-    # Generate 3D voxel grid
-    voxcity_grid = create_3d_voxel(building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, land_cover_grid, dem_grid, canopy_height_grid, meshsize, land_cover_source, canopy_bottom_height_grid)
-
-    # Save all data if a save path is provided
-    save_voxcity = kwargs.get("save_voxctiy_data", True)
-    if save_voxcity:
-        save_path = kwargs.get("save_data_path", f"{output_dir}/voxcity_data.pkl")
-        save_voxcity_data(save_path, voxcity_grid, building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, 
-                         building_id_grid, canopy_height_grid, land_cover_grid, dem_grid, 
-                         building_gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices)
-    
-    return voxcity_grid, building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, canopy_height_grid, canopy_bottom_height_grid, land_cover_grid, dem_grid, filtered_buildings
-
-def replace_nan_in_nested(arr, replace_value=10.0):
-    """
-    Optimized version that avoids converting to Python lists.
-    Works directly with numpy arrays.
-    """
-    if not isinstance(arr, np.ndarray):
-        return arr
-    
-    # Create output array
-    result = np.empty_like(arr, dtype=object)
-    
-    # Vectorized operation for empty cells
-    for i in range(arr.shape[0]):
-        for j in range(arr.shape[1]):
-            cell = arr[i, j]
-            
-            if cell is None or (isinstance(cell, list) and len(cell) == 0):
-                result[i, j] = []
-            elif isinstance(cell, list):
-                # Process list without converting entire array
-                new_cell = []
-                for segment in cell:
-                    if isinstance(segment, (list, np.ndarray)):
-                        # Use numpy operations where possible
-                        if isinstance(segment, np.ndarray):
-                            new_segment = np.where(np.isnan(segment), replace_value, segment).tolist()
-                        else:
-                            new_segment = [replace_value if (isinstance(v, float) and np.isnan(v)) else v for v in segment]
-                        new_cell.append(new_segment)
-                    else:
-                        new_cell.append(segment)
-                result[i, j] = new_cell
-            else:
-                result[i, j] = cell
-    
-    return result
-
-def save_voxcity_data(output_path, voxcity_grid, building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, 
-                     building_id_grid, canopy_height_grid, land_cover_grid, dem_grid, 
-                     building_gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices):
-    """Save voxcity data to a file for later loading.
-    
-    Args:
-        output_path: Path to save the data file
-        voxcity_grid: 3D voxel grid of the complete city model
-        building_height_grid: 2D grid of building heights
-        building_min_height_grid: 2D grid of minimum building heights
-        building_id_grid: 2D grid of building IDs
-        canopy_height_grid: 2D grid of tree canopy heights
-        land_cover_grid: 2D grid of land cover classifications
-        dem_grid: 2D grid of ground elevation
-        building_gdf: GeoDataFrame of building footprints and metadata
-        meshsize: Size of each grid cell in meters
-        rectangle_vertices: List of coordinates defining the area of interest
-    """
-    import pickle
-    import os
-    
-    # Ensure the output directory exists
-    os.makedirs(os.path.dirname(output_path), exist_ok=True)
-    
-    # Create a comprehensive dictionary containing all voxcity data
-    # This preserves all components needed to reconstruct or analyze the model
-    data_dict = {
-        'voxcity_grid': voxcity_grid,
-        'building_height_grid': building_height_grid,
-        'building_min_height_grid': building_min_height_grid,
-        'building_id_grid': building_id_grid,
-        'canopy_height_grid': canopy_height_grid,
-        'land_cover_grid': land_cover_grid,
-        'dem_grid': dem_grid,
-        'building_gdf': building_gdf,
-        'meshsize': meshsize,
-        'rectangle_vertices': rectangle_vertices
-    }
-    
-    # Serialize and save the data using pickle for efficient storage
-    # Pickle preserves exact data types and structures
-    with open(output_path, 'wb') as f:
-        pickle.dump(data_dict, f)
-    
-    print(f"Voxcity data saved to {output_path}")
-
-def load_voxcity_data(input_path):
-    """Load voxcity data from a saved file.
-    
-    Args:
-        input_path: Path to the saved data file
-        
-    Returns:
-        tuple: All the voxcity data components including:
-            - voxcity_grid: 3D voxel grid of the complete city model
-            - building_height_grid: 2D grid of building heights
-            - building_min_height_grid: 2D grid of minimum building heights
-            - building_id_grid: 2D grid of building IDs
-            - canopy_height_grid: 2D grid of tree canopy heights
-            - land_cover_grid: 2D grid of land cover classifications
-            - dem_grid: 2D grid of ground elevation
-            - building_gdf: GeoDataFrame of building footprints and metadata
-            - meshsize: Size of each grid cell in meters
-            - rectangle_vertices: List of coordinates defining the area of interest
-    """
-    import pickle
-    
-    # Deserialize the data from the saved file
-    with open(input_path, 'rb') as f:
-        data_dict = pickle.load(f)
-    
-    print(f"Voxcity data loaded from {input_path}")
-    
-    # Return all components as a tuple in the same order as the main function
-    # This ensures compatibility with existing code that expects this structure
-    return (
-        data_dict['voxcity_grid'],
-        data_dict['building_height_grid'],
-        data_dict['building_min_height_grid'],
-        data_dict['building_id_grid'],
-        data_dict['canopy_height_grid'],
-        data_dict['land_cover_grid'],
-        data_dict['dem_grid'],
-        data_dict['building_gdf'],
-        data_dict['meshsize'],
-        data_dict['rectangle_vertices']
+"""Main module for voxcity.
+
+This module provides functions to generate 3D voxel representations of cities using various data sources.
+It handles land cover, building heights, canopy heights, and digital elevation models to create detailed
+3D city models.
+
+The main functions are:
+- get_land_cover_grid: Creates a grid of land cover classifications
+- get_building_height_grid: Creates a grid of building heights (supports GeoDataFrame input)
+- get_canopy_height_grid: Creates a grid of tree canopy heights
+- get_dem_grid: Creates a digital elevation model grid
+- create_3d_voxel: Combines the grids into a 3D voxel representation
+- create_3d_voxel_individuals: Creates separate voxel grids for each component
+- get_voxcity: Main function to generate a complete voxel city model (supports GeoDataFrame input)
+
+Key Features:
+- Support for multiple data sources (OpenStreetMap, ESA WorldCover, Google Earth Engine, etc.)
+- Direct GeoDataFrame input for building data (useful for custom datasets)
+- 3D voxel generation with configurable resolution
+- Visualization capabilities for both 2D grids and 3D models
+- Data export in various formats (GeoTIFF, GeoJSON, pickle)
+"""
+
+# Standard library imports
+import numpy as np
+import os
+try:
+    from numba import jit, prange
+    import numba
+    NUMBA_AVAILABLE = True
+except ImportError:
+    NUMBA_AVAILABLE = False
+    print("Numba not available. Using optimized version without JIT compilation.")
+    # Define dummy decorators
+    def jit(*args, **kwargs):
+        def decorator(func):
+            return func
+        return decorator
+    prange = range
+
+# Local application/library specific imports
+
+# Data downloaders - modules for fetching geospatial data from various sources
+from .downloader.mbfp import get_mbfp_gdf
+from .downloader.osm import load_gdf_from_openstreetmap, load_land_cover_gdf_from_osm
+from .downloader.oemj import save_oemj_as_geotiff
+# from .downloader.omt import load_gdf_from_openmaptiles
+from .downloader.eubucco import load_gdf_from_eubucco
+from .downloader.overture import load_gdf_from_overture
+from .downloader.citygml import load_buid_dem_veg_from_citygml
+from .downloader.gba import load_gdf_from_gba
+
+# Google Earth Engine related imports - for satellite and elevation data
+from .downloader.gee import (
+    initialize_earth_engine,
+    get_roi,
+    get_ee_image_collection,
+    get_ee_image,
+    save_geotiff,
+    get_dem_image,
+    save_geotiff_esa_land_cover,
+    save_geotiff_esri_landcover,
+    save_geotiff_dynamic_world_v1,
+    save_geotiff_open_buildings_temporal,
+    save_geotiff_dsm_minus_dtm
+)
+
+# Grid processing functions - for converting geodata to raster grids
+from .geoprocessor.grid import (
+    group_and_label_cells, 
+    process_grid,
+    create_land_cover_grid_from_geotiff_polygon,
+    create_height_grid_from_geotiff_polygon,
+    create_building_height_grid_from_gdf_polygon,
+    create_dem_grid_from_geotiff_polygon,
+    create_land_cover_grid_from_gdf_polygon,
+    create_building_height_grid_from_open_building_temporal_polygon,
+    create_vegetation_height_grid_from_gdf_polygon,
+    create_canopy_grids_from_tree_gdf,
+    create_dem_grid_from_gdf_polygon
+)
+
+# Utility functions
+from .utils.lc import convert_land_cover, convert_land_cover_array
+from .geoprocessor.polygon import get_gdf_from_gpkg, save_geojson
+
+# Visualization functions - for creating plots and 3D visualizations
+from .utils.visualization import (
+    get_land_cover_classes,
+    visualize_land_cover_grid,
+    visualize_numerical_grid,
+    visualize_landcover_grid_on_basemap,
+    visualize_numerical_grid_on_basemap,
+)
+
+def get_land_cover_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, source, output_dir, **kwargs):
+    """Creates a grid of land cover classifications.
+
+    Args:
+        rectangle_vertices: List of coordinates defining the area of interest
+        meshsize: Size of each grid cell in meters
+        source: Data source for land cover (e.g. 'ESA WorldCover', 'OpenStreetMap')
+        output_dir: Directory to save output files
+        **kwargs: Additional arguments including:
+            - esri_landcover_year: Year for ESRI land cover data
+            - dynamic_world_date: Date for Dynamic World data
+            - gridvis: Whether to visualize the grid
+            - default_land_cover_class: Default class for grid cells with no intersecting polygons (default: 'Developed space')
+
+    Returns:
+        numpy.ndarray: Grid of land cover classifications as integer values
+    """
+
+    print("Creating Land Use Land Cover grid\n ")
+    print(f"Data source: {source}")
+    
+    # Initialize Earth Engine for satellite-based data sources
+    # Skip initialization for local/vector data sources
+    if source not in ["OpenStreetMap", "OpenEarthMapJapan"]:
+        initialize_earth_engine()
+
+    # Ensure output directory exists for saving intermediate files
+    os.makedirs(output_dir, exist_ok=True)
+    geotiff_path = os.path.join(output_dir, "land_cover.tif")
+
+    # Handle different data sources - each requires specific processing
+    # Satellite/raster-based sources are saved as GeoTIFF files
+    if source == 'Urbanwatch':
+        # Urban-focused land cover from satellite imagery
+        roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
+        collection_name = "projects/sat-io/open-datasets/HRLC/urban-watch-cities"
+        image = get_ee_image_collection(collection_name, roi)
+        save_geotiff(image, geotiff_path)
+    elif source == 'ESA WorldCover':
+        # Global land cover from European Space Agency
+        roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
+        save_geotiff_esa_land_cover(roi, geotiff_path)
+    elif source == 'ESRI 10m Annual Land Cover':
+        # High-resolution annual land cover from ESRI
+        esri_landcover_year = kwargs.get("esri_landcover_year")
+        roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
+        save_geotiff_esri_landcover(roi, geotiff_path, year=esri_landcover_year)
+    elif source == 'Dynamic World V1':
+        # Near real-time land cover from Google's Dynamic World
+        dynamic_world_date = kwargs.get("dynamic_world_date")
+        roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
+        save_geotiff_dynamic_world_v1(roi, geotiff_path, dynamic_world_date)
+    elif source == 'OpenEarthMapJapan':
+        # Japan-specific land cover dataset
+        # Allow SSL/HTTP options to be passed through kwargs
+        ssl_verify = kwargs.get('ssl_verify', kwargs.get('verify', True))
+        allow_insecure_ssl = kwargs.get('allow_insecure_ssl', False)
+        allow_http_fallback = kwargs.get('allow_http_fallback', False)
+        timeout_s = kwargs.get('timeout', 30)
+
+        save_oemj_as_geotiff(
+            rectangle_vertices,
+            geotiff_path,
+            ssl_verify=ssl_verify,
+            allow_insecure_ssl=allow_insecure_ssl,
+            allow_http_fallback=allow_http_fallback,
+            timeout_s=timeout_s,
+        )
+        # Ensure the file was actually created before proceeding
+        if not os.path.exists(geotiff_path):
+            raise FileNotFoundError(
+                f"OEMJ download failed; expected GeoTIFF not found: {geotiff_path}. "
+                "You can try setting ssl_verify=False or allow_http_fallback=True in kwargs."
+            )   
+    elif source == 'OpenStreetMap':
+        # Vector-based land cover from OpenStreetMap
+        # This bypasses the GeoTIFF workflow and gets data directly as GeoJSON
+        land_cover_gdf = load_land_cover_gdf_from_osm(rectangle_vertices)
+    
+    # Get the classification scheme for the selected data source
+    # Each source has its own land cover categories and color coding
+    land_cover_classes = get_land_cover_classes(source)
+
+    # Convert geospatial data to regular grid format
+    # Different processing for vector vs raster data sources
+    if source == 'OpenStreetMap':
+        # Process vector data directly from GeoDataFrame
+        default_class = kwargs.get('default_land_cover_class', 'Developed space')
+        land_cover_grid_str = create_land_cover_grid_from_gdf_polygon(land_cover_gdf, meshsize, source, rectangle_vertices, default_class=default_class)
+    else:
+        # Process raster data from GeoTIFF file
+        land_cover_grid_str = create_land_cover_grid_from_geotiff_polygon(geotiff_path, meshsize, land_cover_classes, rectangle_vertices)
+
+    # Prepare color mapping for visualization
+    # Convert RGB values from 0-255 range to 0-1 range for matplotlib
+    color_map = {cls: [r/255, g/255, b/255] for (r,g,b), cls in land_cover_classes.items()}
+
+    # Generate visualization if requested
+    grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)    
+    if grid_vis:
+        # Flip grid vertically for correct display orientation
+        visualize_land_cover_grid(np.flipud(land_cover_grid_str), meshsize, color_map, land_cover_classes)
+    
+    # Convert string-based land cover labels to integer codes for processing
+    # This enables efficient numerical operations on the grid
+    land_cover_grid_int = convert_land_cover_array(land_cover_grid_str, land_cover_classes)
+
+    return land_cover_grid_int
+
+# def get_building_height_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, source, output_dir="output", visualization=True, maptiler_API_key=None, file_path=None):
+def get_building_height_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, source, output_dir, building_gdf=None, **kwargs):
+    """Creates a grid of building heights.
+
+    Args:
+        rectangle_vertices: List of coordinates defining the area of interest
+        meshsize: Size of each grid cell in meters
+        source: Data source for buildings (e.g. 'OpenStreetMap', 'Microsoft Building Footprints', 'GeoDataFrame')
+        output_dir: Directory to save output files
+        building_gdf: Optional GeoDataFrame with building footprint, height and other information
+        **kwargs: Additional arguments including:
+            - maptiler_API_key: API key for MapTiler
+            - building_path: Path to local building data file
+            - building_complementary_source: Additional building data source
+            - gridvis: Whether to visualize the grid
+
+    Returns:
+        tuple:
+            - numpy.ndarray: Grid of building heights
+            - numpy.ndarray: Grid of building minimum heights
+            - numpy.ndarray: Grid of building IDs
+            - list: Filtered building features
+    """
+
+    # Initialize Earth Engine only for building sources that require it
+    ee_required_sources = {"Open Building 2.5D Temporal"}
+    if source in ee_required_sources:
+        initialize_earth_engine()
+
+    print("Creating Building Height grid\n ")
+    print(f"Data source: {source}")
+
+    os.makedirs(output_dir, exist_ok=True)
+    
+    # If building_gdf is provided, use it directly
+    if building_gdf is not None:
+        gdf = building_gdf
+        print("Using provided GeoDataFrame for building data")
+    else:
+        # Fetch building data from primary source
+        # Each source has different data formats and processing requirements
+        # Floor height (m) for inferring heights from floors/levels
+        floor_height = kwargs.get("floor_height", 3.0)
+        if source == 'Microsoft Building Footprints':
+            # Machine learning-derived building footprints from satellite imagery
+            gdf = get_mbfp_gdf(output_dir, rectangle_vertices)
+        elif source == 'OpenStreetMap':
+            # Crowd-sourced building data with varying completeness
+            gdf = load_gdf_from_openstreetmap(rectangle_vertices, floor_height=floor_height)
+        elif source == "Open Building 2.5D Temporal":
+            # Special case: this source provides both footprints and heights
+            # Skip GeoDataFrame processing and create grids directly
+            building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, filtered_buildings = create_building_height_grid_from_open_building_temporal_polygon(meshsize, rectangle_vertices, output_dir)
+        elif source == 'EUBUCCO v0.1':
+            # European building database with height information
+            gdf = load_gdf_from_eubucco(rectangle_vertices, output_dir)
+        # elif source == "OpenMapTiles":
+        #     # Vector tiles service for building data
+        #     gdf = load_gdf_from_openmaptiles(rectangle_vertices, kwargs["maptiler_API_key"])
+        elif source == "Overture":
+            # Open building dataset from Overture Maps Foundation
+            gdf = load_gdf_from_overture(rectangle_vertices, floor_height=floor_height)
+        elif source in ("GBA", "Global Building Atlas"):
+            # Global Building Atlas LOD1 polygons (GeoParquet tiles)
+            clip_gba = kwargs.get("gba_clip", False)
+            gba_download_dir = kwargs.get("gba_download_dir")
+            gdf = load_gdf_from_gba(rectangle_vertices, download_dir=gba_download_dir, clip_to_rectangle=clip_gba)
+        elif source == "Local file":
+            # Handle user-provided local building data files
+            _, extension = os.path.splitext(kwargs["building_path"])
+            if extension == ".gpkg":
+                gdf = get_gdf_from_gpkg(kwargs["building_path"], rectangle_vertices)
+        elif source == "GeoDataFrame":
+            # This case is handled by the building_gdf parameter above
+            raise ValueError("When source is 'GeoDataFrame', building_gdf parameter must be provided")
+    
+    # Handle complementary data sources to fill gaps or provide additional information
+    # This allows combining multiple sources for better coverage or accuracy
+    building_complementary_source = kwargs.get("building_complementary_source") 
+    building_complement_height = kwargs.get("building_complement_height")
+    overlapping_footprint = kwargs.get("overlapping_footprint")
+
+    if (building_complementary_source is None) or (building_complementary_source=='None'):
+        # Use only the primary data source
+        if source != "Open Building 2.5D Temporal":
+            building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, filtered_buildings = create_building_height_grid_from_gdf_polygon(gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices, complement_height=building_complement_height, overlapping_footprint=overlapping_footprint)
+    else:
+        # Combine primary source with complementary data
+        if building_complementary_source == "Open Building 2.5D Temporal":
+            # Use temporal height data to complement footprint data
+            roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
+            os.makedirs(output_dir, exist_ok=True)
+            geotiff_path_comp = os.path.join(output_dir, "building_height.tif")
+            save_geotiff_open_buildings_temporal(roi, geotiff_path_comp)
+            building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, filtered_buildings = create_building_height_grid_from_gdf_polygon(gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices, geotiff_path_comp=geotiff_path_comp, complement_height=building_complement_height, overlapping_footprint=overlapping_footprint)   
+        elif building_complementary_source in ["England 1m DSM - DTM", "Netherlands 0.5m DSM - DTM"]:
+            # Use digital surface model minus digital terrain model for height estimation
+            roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
+            os.makedirs(output_dir, exist_ok=True)
+            geotiff_path_comp = os.path.join(output_dir, "building_height.tif")
+            save_geotiff_dsm_minus_dtm(roi, geotiff_path_comp, meshsize, building_complementary_source)
+            building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, filtered_buildings = create_building_height_grid_from_gdf_polygon(gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices, geotiff_path_comp=geotiff_path_comp, complement_height=building_complement_height, overlapping_footprint=overlapping_footprint)
+        else:
+            # Fetch complementary data from another vector source
+            if building_complementary_source == 'Microsoft Building Footprints':
+                gdf_comp = get_mbfp_gdf(output_dir, rectangle_vertices)
+            elif building_complementary_source == 'OpenStreetMap':
+                gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_openstreetmap(rectangle_vertices, floor_height=floor_height)
+            elif building_complementary_source == 'EUBUCCO v0.1':
+                gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_eubucco(rectangle_vertices, output_dir)
+            # elif building_complementary_source == "OpenMapTiles":
+            #     gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_openmaptiles(rectangle_vertices, kwargs["maptiler_API_key"])
+            elif building_complementary_source == "Overture":
+                gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_overture(rectangle_vertices, floor_height=floor_height)
+            elif building_complementary_source in ("GBA", "Global Building Atlas"):
+                clip_gba = kwargs.get("gba_clip", False)
+                gba_download_dir = kwargs.get("gba_download_dir")
+                gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_gba(rectangle_vertices, download_dir=gba_download_dir, clip_to_rectangle=clip_gba)
+            elif building_complementary_source == "Local file":
+                _, extension = os.path.splitext(kwargs["building_complementary_path"])
+                if extension == ".gpkg":
+                    gdf_comp = get_gdf_from_gpkg(kwargs["building_complementary_path"], rectangle_vertices)
+            
+            # Configure how to combine the complementary data
+            # Can complement footprints only or both footprints and heights
+            complement_building_footprints = kwargs.get("complement_building_footprints")
+            building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, filtered_buildings = create_building_height_grid_from_gdf_polygon(gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices, gdf_comp=gdf_comp, complement_building_footprints=complement_building_footprints, complement_height=building_complement_height, overlapping_footprint=overlapping_footprint)
+
+    # Generate visualization if requested
+    grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)    
+    if grid_vis:
+        # Replace zeros with NaN for better visualization (don't show empty areas)
+        building_height_grid_nan = building_height_grid.copy()
+        building_height_grid_nan[building_height_grid_nan == 0] = np.nan
+        # Flip grid vertically for correct display orientation
+        visualize_numerical_grid(np.flipud(building_height_grid_nan), meshsize, "building height (m)", cmap='viridis', label='Value')
+
+    return building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, filtered_buildings
+
+def get_canopy_height_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, source, output_dir, **kwargs):
+    """Creates canopy top and bottom height grids.
+
+    Supports satellite sources and a GeoDataFrame source (from draw_additional_trees).
+
+    Args:
+        rectangle_vertices: List of coordinates defining the area of interest
+        meshsize: Size of each grid cell in meters
+        source: Data source for canopy heights. Use 'GeoDataFrame' or 'tree_gdf' for tree_gdf path/object.
+        output_dir: Directory to save output files
+        **kwargs: Additional arguments including:
+            - gridvis: Whether to visualize the grid
+            - tree_gdf: GeoDataFrame of trees (optional when source='GeoDataFrame')
+            - tree_gdf_path: Path to a local file (e.g., .gpkg) with trees when source='GeoDataFrame'
+            - trunk_height_ratio: Fraction of top height used as canopy bottom for non-GDF sources
+
+    Returns:
+        tuple[numpy.ndarray, numpy.ndarray]: (canopy_top_height_grid, canopy_bottom_height_grid)
+    """
+
+    print("Creating Canopy Height grid\n ")
+    print(f"Data source: {source}")
+
+    os.makedirs(output_dir, exist_ok=True)
+
+    # Branch: compute from a provided GeoDataFrame (draw_additional_trees output)
+    if source in ('GeoDataFrame', 'tree_gdf', 'Tree_GeoDataFrame', 'GDF'):
+        tree_gdf = kwargs.get('tree_gdf')
+        tree_gdf_path = kwargs.get('tree_gdf_path')
+        if tree_gdf is None and tree_gdf_path is not None:
+            _, ext = os.path.splitext(tree_gdf_path)
+            if ext.lower() == '.gpkg':
+                tree_gdf = get_gdf_from_gpkg(tree_gdf_path, rectangle_vertices)
+            else:
+                raise ValueError("Unsupported tree file format. Use .gpkg or pass a GeoDataFrame.")
+        if tree_gdf is None:
+            raise ValueError("When source='GeoDataFrame', provide 'tree_gdf' or 'tree_gdf_path'.")
+
+        canopy_top, canopy_bottom = create_canopy_grids_from_tree_gdf(tree_gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices)
+
+        # Visualization
+        grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)
+        if grid_vis:
+            vis = canopy_top.copy()
+            vis[vis == 0] = np.nan
+            visualize_numerical_grid(np.flipud(vis), meshsize, "Tree canopy height (top)", cmap='Greens', label='Tree canopy height (m)')
+
+        return canopy_top, canopy_bottom
+
+    # Default: satellite/remote sensing sources
+    print("Data source: High Resolution Canopy Height Maps by WRI and Meta")
+    initialize_earth_engine()
+
+    geotiff_path = os.path.join(output_dir, "canopy_height.tif")
+
+    roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
+    if source == 'High Resolution 1m Global Canopy Height Maps':
+        collection_name = "projects/meta-forest-monitoring-okw37/assets/CanopyHeight"
+        image = get_ee_image_collection(collection_name, roi)
+    elif source == 'ETH Global Sentinel-2 10m Canopy Height (2020)':
+        collection_name = "users/nlang/ETH_GlobalCanopyHeight_2020_10m_v1"
+        image = get_ee_image(collection_name, roi)
+    else:
+        raise ValueError(f"Unsupported canopy source: {source}")
+
+    save_geotiff(image, geotiff_path, resolution=meshsize)
+    canopy_height_grid = create_height_grid_from_geotiff_polygon(geotiff_path, meshsize, rectangle_vertices)
+
+    # Derive bottom grid using trunk_height_ratio (consistent with create_3d_voxel)
+    trunk_height_ratio = kwargs.get("trunk_height_ratio")
+    if trunk_height_ratio is None:
+        trunk_height_ratio = 11.76 / 19.98
+    canopy_bottom_grid = canopy_height_grid * float(trunk_height_ratio)
+
+    grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)
+    if grid_vis:
+        canopy_height_grid_nan = canopy_height_grid.copy()
+        canopy_height_grid_nan[canopy_height_grid_nan == 0] = np.nan
+        visualize_numerical_grid(np.flipud(canopy_height_grid_nan), meshsize, "Tree canopy height", cmap='Greens', label='Tree canopy height (m)')
+    return canopy_height_grid, canopy_bottom_grid
+
+def get_dem_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, source, output_dir, **kwargs):
+    """Creates a digital elevation model grid.
+
+    Args:
+        rectangle_vertices: List of coordinates defining the area of interest
+        meshsize: Size of each grid cell in meters
+        source: Data source for DEM
+        output_dir: Directory to save output files
+        **kwargs: Additional arguments including:
+            - dem_interpolation: Interpolation method for DEM
+            - gridvis: Whether to visualize the grid
+
+    Returns:
+        numpy.ndarray: Grid of elevation values
+    """
+
+    print("Creating Digital Elevation Model (DEM) grid\n ")
+    print(f"Data source: {source}")
+
+    if source == "Local file":
+        # Use user-provided local DEM file
+        geotiff_path = kwargs["dem_path"]
+    else:
+        # Fetch DEM data from various satellite/government sources
+        initialize_earth_engine()
+
+        geotiff_path = os.path.join(output_dir, "dem.tif")
+
+        # Add buffer around region of interest to ensure smooth interpolation at edges
+        # This prevents edge artifacts in the final grid
+        buffer_distance = 100
+        roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
+        roi_buffered = roi.buffer(buffer_distance)
+        
+        # Fetch elevation data from selected source
+        image = get_dem_image(roi_buffered, source)
+        
+        # Save DEM data with appropriate resolution based on source capabilities
+        if source in ["England 1m DTM", 'DEM France 1m', 'DEM France 5m', 'AUSTRALIA 5M DEM', 'Netherlands 0.5m DTM']:
+            # High-resolution elevation models - use specified mesh size
+            save_geotiff(image, geotiff_path, scale=meshsize, region=roi_buffered, crs='EPSG:4326')
+        elif source == 'USGS 3DEP 1m':
+            # US Geological Survey 3D Elevation Program
+            # Ensure minimum scale of 1.25m due to data limitations
+            scale = max(meshsize, 1.25)
+            save_geotiff(image, geotiff_path, scale=scale, region=roi_buffered, crs='EPSG:4326')
+        else:
+            # Default to 30m resolution for global/lower resolution sources
+            save_geotiff(image, geotiff_path, scale=30, region=roi_buffered)
+
+    # Convert GeoTIFF to regular grid with optional interpolation
+    # Interpolation helps fill gaps and smooth transitions
+    dem_interpolation = kwargs.get("dem_interpolation")
+    dem_grid = create_dem_grid_from_geotiff_polygon(geotiff_path, meshsize, rectangle_vertices, dem_interpolation=dem_interpolation)
+
+    # Generate visualization if requested
+    grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)    
+    if grid_vis:
+        # Use terrain color scheme appropriate for elevation data
+        visualize_numerical_grid(np.flipud(dem_grid), meshsize, title='Digital Elevation Model', cmap='terrain', label='Elevation (m)')
+
+    return dem_grid
+
+def create_3d_voxel(building_height_grid_ori, building_min_height_grid_ori, 
+                    building_id_grid_ori, land_cover_grid_ori, dem_grid_ori, 
+                    tree_grid_ori, voxel_size, land_cover_source, canopy_bottom_height_grid_ori=None, **kwargs):
+    """Creates a 3D voxel representation combining all input grids.
+    Args:
+        building_height_grid_ori: Grid of building heights
+        building_min_height_grid_ori: Grid of building minimum heights
+        building_id_grid_ori: Grid of building IDs
+        land_cover_grid_ori: Grid of land cover classifications
+        dem_grid_ori: Grid of elevation values
+        tree_grid_ori: Grid of tree heights
+        voxel_size: Size of each voxel in meters
+        land_cover_source: Source of land cover data
+        kwargs: Additional arguments including:
+            - trunk_height_ratio: Ratio of trunk height to total tree height
+    Returns:
+        numpy.ndarray: 3D voxel grid with encoded values for different features
+    """
+    print("Generating 3D voxel data")
+
+    # Convert land cover values to standardized format if needed
+    # OpenStreetMap data is already in the correct format
+    if (land_cover_source == 'OpenStreetMap'):
+        land_cover_grid_converted = land_cover_grid_ori
+    else:
+        land_cover_grid_converted = convert_land_cover(land_cover_grid_ori, land_cover_source=land_cover_source)
+    # Prepare all input grids for 3D processing
+    # Flip vertically to align with standard geographic orientation (north-up)
+    # Handle missing data appropriately for each grid type
+    building_height_grid = np.flipud(np.nan_to_num(building_height_grid_ori, nan=10.0)) # Replace NaN values with 10m height
+    building_min_height_grid = np.flipud(replace_nan_in_nested(building_min_height_grid_ori)) # Replace NaN in nested arrays
+    building_id_grid = np.flipud(building_id_grid_ori)
+    land_cover_grid = np.flipud(land_cover_grid_converted.copy()) + 1 # Add 1 to avoid 0 values in land cover
+    dem_grid = np.flipud(dem_grid_ori.copy()) - np.min(dem_grid_ori) # Normalize DEM to start at 0
+    dem_grid = process_grid(building_id_grid, dem_grid) # Process DEM based on building footprints
+    tree_grid = np.flipud(tree_grid_ori.copy())
+    canopy_bottom_grid = None
+    if canopy_bottom_height_grid_ori is not None:
+        canopy_bottom_grid = np.flipud(canopy_bottom_height_grid_ori.copy())
+    # Validate that all input grids have consistent dimensions
+    assert building_height_grid.shape == land_cover_grid.shape == dem_grid.shape == tree_grid.shape, "Input grids must have the same shape"
+    rows, cols = building_height_grid.shape
+    # Calculate the required height for the 3D voxel grid
+    # Add 1 voxel layer to ensure sufficient vertical space
+    max_height = int(np.ceil(np.max(building_height_grid + dem_grid + tree_grid) / voxel_size))+1
+    # Initialize the 3D voxel grid with zeros
+    # Use int8 by default to reduce memory (values range from about -99 to small positives)
+    # Allow override via kwarg 'voxel_dtype'
+    voxel_dtype = kwargs.get("voxel_dtype", np.int8)
+
+    # Optional: estimate memory and allow a soft limit before allocating
+    try:
+        bytes_per_elem = np.dtype(voxel_dtype).itemsize
+        est_mb = rows * cols * max_height * bytes_per_elem / (1024 ** 2)
+        print(f"Voxel grid shape: ({rows}, {cols}, {max_height}), dtype: {voxel_dtype}, ~{est_mb:.1f} MB")
+        max_ram_mb = kwargs.get("max_voxel_ram_mb")
+        if (max_ram_mb is not None) and (est_mb > max_ram_mb):
+            raise MemoryError(f"Estimated voxel grid memory {est_mb:.1f} MB exceeds limit {max_ram_mb} MB. Increase mesh size or restrict ROI.")
+    except Exception:
+        pass
+
+    voxel_grid = np.zeros((rows, cols, max_height), dtype=voxel_dtype)
+    # Configure tree trunk-to-crown ratio
+    # This determines how much of the tree is trunk vs canopy
+    trunk_height_ratio = kwargs.get("trunk_height_ratio")
+    if trunk_height_ratio is None:
+        trunk_height_ratio = 11.76 / 19.98  # Default ratio based on typical tree proportions
+    # Process each grid cell to build the 3D voxel representation
+    for i in range(rows):
+        for j in range(cols):
+            # Calculate ground level in voxel units
+            # Add 1 to ensure space for surface features
+            ground_level = int(dem_grid[i, j] / voxel_size + 0.5) + 1 
+            # Extract current cell values
+            tree_height = tree_grid[i, j]
+            land_cover = land_cover_grid[i, j]
+            # Fill underground voxels with -1 (represents subsurface)
+            voxel_grid[i, j, :ground_level] = -1
+            # Set the ground surface to the land cover type
+            voxel_grid[i, j, ground_level-1] = land_cover
+            # Process tree canopy if trees are present
+            if tree_height > 0:
+                # Calculate tree structure: trunk base to crown base to crown top
+                if canopy_bottom_grid is not None:
+                    crown_base_height = canopy_bottom_grid[i, j]
+                else:
+                    crown_base_height = (tree_height * trunk_height_ratio)
+                crown_base_height_level = int(crown_base_height / voxel_size + 0.5)
+                crown_top_height = tree_height
+                crown_top_height_level = int(crown_top_height / voxel_size + 0.5)
+
+                # Ensure minimum crown height of 1 voxel
+                # Prevent crown base and top from being at the same level
+                if (crown_top_height_level == crown_base_height_level) and (crown_base_height_level>0):
+                    crown_base_height_level -= 1
+
+                # Calculate absolute positions relative to ground level
+                tree_start = ground_level + crown_base_height_level
+                tree_end = ground_level + crown_top_height_level
+
+                # Fill tree crown voxels with -2 (represents vegetation canopy)
+                voxel_grid[i, j, tree_start:tree_end] = -2
+            # Process buildings - handle multiple height segments per building
+            # Some buildings may have multiple levels or complex height profiles
+            for k in building_min_height_grid[i, j]:
+                building_min_height = int(k[0] / voxel_size + 0.5)  # Lower height of building segment
+                building_height = int(k[1] / voxel_size + 0.5)      # Upper height of building segment
+                # Fill building voxels with -3 (represents built structures)
+                voxel_grid[i, j, ground_level+building_min_height:ground_level+building_height] = -3
+    return voxel_grid
+
+def create_3d_voxel_individuals(building_height_grid_ori, land_cover_grid_ori, dem_grid_ori, tree_grid_ori, voxel_size, land_cover_source, layered_interval=None):
+    """Creates separate 3D voxel grids for each component.
+
+    Args:
+        building_height_grid_ori: Grid of building heights
+        land_cover_grid_ori: Grid of land cover classifications
+        dem_grid_ori: Grid of elevation values
+        tree_grid_ori: Grid of tree heights
+        voxel_size: Size of each voxel in meters
+        land_cover_source: Source of land cover data
+        layered_interval: Interval for layered output
+
+    Returns:
+        tuple:
+            - numpy.ndarray: Land cover voxel grid
+            - numpy.ndarray: Building voxel grid
+            - numpy.ndarray: Tree voxel grid
+            - numpy.ndarray: DEM voxel grid
+            - numpy.ndarray: Combined layered voxel grid
+    """
+
+    print("Generating 3D voxel data")
+    # Convert land cover values if not from OpenEarthMapJapan
+    if land_cover_source != 'OpenEarthMapJapan':
+        land_cover_grid_converted = convert_land_cover(land_cover_grid_ori, land_cover_source=land_cover_source)  
+    else:
+        land_cover_grid_converted = land_cover_grid_ori      
+
+    # Prepare and flip all input grids vertically
+    building_height_grid = np.flipud(building_height_grid_ori.copy())
+    land_cover_grid = np.flipud(land_cover_grid_converted.copy()) + 1  # Add 1 to avoid 0 values
+    dem_grid = np.flipud(dem_grid_ori.copy()) - np.min(dem_grid_ori)  # Normalize DEM to start at 0
+    building_nr_grid = group_and_label_cells(np.flipud(building_height_grid_ori.copy()))
+    dem_grid = process_grid(building_nr_grid, dem_grid)  # Process DEM based on building footprints
+    tree_grid = np.flipud(tree_grid_ori.copy())
+
+    # Validate input dimensions
+    assert building_height_grid.shape == land_cover_grid.shape == dem_grid.shape == tree_grid.shape, "Input grids must have the same shape"
+
+    rows, cols = building_height_grid.shape
+
+    # Calculate required height for 3D grid
+    max_height = int(np.ceil(np.max(building_height_grid + dem_grid + tree_grid) / voxel_size))
+
+    # Initialize empty 3D grids for each component
+    land_cover_voxel_grid = np.zeros((rows, cols, max_height), dtype=np.int32)
+    building_voxel_grid = np.zeros((rows, cols, max_height), dtype=np.int32)
+    tree_voxel_grid = np.zeros((rows, cols, max_height), dtype=np.int32)
+    dem_voxel_grid = np.zeros((rows, cols, max_height), dtype=np.int32)
+
+    # Fill individual component grids
+    for i in range(rows):
+        for j in range(cols):
+            ground_level = int(dem_grid[i, j] / voxel_size + 0.5)
+            building_height = int(building_height_grid[i, j] / voxel_size + 0.5)
+            tree_height = int(tree_grid[i, j] / voxel_size + 0.5)
+            land_cover = land_cover_grid[i, j]
+
+            # Fill underground cells with -1
+            dem_voxel_grid[i, j, :ground_level+1] = -1
+
+            # Set ground level cell to land cover
+            land_cover_voxel_grid[i, j, 0] = land_cover
+
+            # Fill tree crown with value -2
+            if tree_height > 0:
+                tree_voxel_grid[i, j, :tree_height] = -2
+
+            # Fill building with value -3
+            if building_height > 0:
+                building_voxel_grid[i, j, :building_height] = -3
+    
+    # Set default layered interval if not provided
+    if not layered_interval:
+        layered_interval = max(max_height, int(dem_grid.shape[0]/4 + 0.5))
+
+    # Create combined layered visualization
+    extract_height = min(layered_interval, max_height)
+    layered_voxel_grid = np.zeros((rows, cols, layered_interval*4), dtype=np.int32)
+    
+    # Stack components in layers with equal spacing
+    layered_voxel_grid[:, :, :extract_height] = dem_voxel_grid[:, :, :extract_height]
+    layered_voxel_grid[:, :, layered_interval:layered_interval+extract_height] = land_cover_voxel_grid[:, :, :extract_height]
+    layered_voxel_grid[:, :, 2*layered_interval:2*layered_interval+extract_height] = building_voxel_grid[:, :, :extract_height]
+    layered_voxel_grid[:, :, 3*layered_interval:3*layered_interval+extract_height] = tree_voxel_grid[:, :, :extract_height]
+
+    return land_cover_voxel_grid, building_voxel_grid, tree_voxel_grid, dem_voxel_grid, layered_voxel_grid
+
+def get_voxcity(rectangle_vertices, building_source, land_cover_source, canopy_height_source, dem_source, meshsize, building_gdf=None, terrain_gdf=None, **kwargs):
+    """Main function to generate a complete voxel city model.
+
+    Args:
+        rectangle_vertices: List of coordinates defining the area of interest
+        building_source: Source for building height data (e.g. 'OSM', 'EUBUCCO', 'GeoDataFrame')
+        land_cover_source: Source for land cover data (e.g. 'ESA', 'ESRI') 
+        canopy_height_source: Source for tree canopy height data
+        dem_source: Source for digital elevation model data ('Flat' or other source)
+        meshsize: Size of each grid cell in meters
+        building_gdf: Optional GeoDataFrame with building footprint, height and other information
+        terrain_gdf: Optional GeoDataFrame with terrain elements including an 'elevation' column
+        **kwargs: Additional keyword arguments including:
+            - output_dir: Directory to save output files (default: 'output')
+            - min_canopy_height: Minimum height threshold for tree canopy
+            - remove_perimeter_object: Factor to remove objects near perimeter
+            - mapvis: Whether to visualize grids on map
+            - voxelvis: Whether to visualize 3D voxel model
+            - voxelvis_img_save_path: Path to save 3D visualization
+            - default_land_cover_class: Default class for land cover grid cells with no intersecting polygons (default: 'Developed space')
+
+    Returns:
+        tuple containing:
+            - voxcity_grid: 3D voxel grid of the complete city model
+            - building_height_grid: 2D grid of building heights
+            - building_min_height_grid: 2D grid of minimum building heights
+            - building_id_grid: 2D grid of building IDs
+            - canopy_height_grid: 2D grid of tree canopy top heights
+            - canopy_bottom_height_grid: 2D grid of tree canopy bottom heights
+            - land_cover_grid: 2D grid of land cover classifications
+            - dem_grid: 2D grid of ground elevation
+            - building_geojson: GeoJSON of building footprints and metadata
+    """
+    # Set up output directory for intermediate and final files
+    output_dir = kwargs.get("output_dir", "output")
+    os.makedirs(output_dir, exist_ok=True)
+        
+    # Remove 'output_dir' from kwargs to prevent duplication in function calls
+    kwargs.pop('output_dir', None)
+
+    # STEP 1: Generate all required 2D grids from various data sources
+    # These grids form the foundation for the 3D voxel model
+    
+    # Land cover classification grid (e.g., urban, forest, water, agriculture)
+    land_cover_grid = get_land_cover_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, land_cover_source, output_dir, **kwargs)
+    
+    # Building footprints and height information
+    building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, building_gdf = get_building_height_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, building_source, output_dir, building_gdf=building_gdf, **kwargs)
+    
+    # Save building data to file for later analysis or visualization
+    if not building_gdf.empty:
+        save_path = f"{output_dir}/building.gpkg"
+        building_gdf.to_file(save_path, driver='GPKG')
+    
+    # STEP 2: Handle canopy height data
+    # Either use static values or fetch from satellite sources
+    if canopy_height_source == "Static":
+        # Create uniform canopy height for all tree-covered areas (top grid)
+        canopy_height_grid = np.zeros_like(land_cover_grid, dtype=float)
+        static_tree_height = kwargs.get("static_tree_height", 10.0)
+        # Determine tree class indices based on source-specific class names
+        _classes = get_land_cover_classes(land_cover_source)
+        _class_to_int = {name: i for i, name in enumerate(_classes.values())}
+        _tree_labels = ["Tree", "Trees", "Tree Canopy"]
+        _tree_indices = [_class_to_int[label] for label in _tree_labels if label in _class_to_int]
+        tree_mask = np.isin(land_cover_grid, _tree_indices) if _tree_indices else np.zeros_like(land_cover_grid, dtype=bool)
+        canopy_height_grid[tree_mask] = static_tree_height
+
+        # Derive bottom from trunk_height_ratio
+        trunk_height_ratio = kwargs.get("trunk_height_ratio")
+        if trunk_height_ratio is None:
+            trunk_height_ratio = 11.76 / 19.98
+        canopy_bottom_height_grid = canopy_height_grid * float(trunk_height_ratio)
+    else:
+        # Fetch canopy top/bottom from source
+        canopy_height_grid, canopy_bottom_height_grid = get_canopy_height_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, canopy_height_source, output_dir, **kwargs)
+    
+    # STEP 3: Handle digital elevation model (terrain)
+    if terrain_gdf is not None:
+        # Build DEM directly from provided terrain GeoDataFrame (e.g., precomputed from CityGML)
+        dem_grid = create_dem_grid_from_gdf_polygon(terrain_gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices)
+    else:
+        if dem_source == "Flat":
+            # Create flat terrain for simplified modeling
+            dem_grid = np.zeros_like(land_cover_grid)
+        else:
+            # Fetch terrain elevation from various sources
+            dem_grid = get_dem_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, dem_source, output_dir, **kwargs)
+
+    # STEP 4: Apply optional data filtering and cleaning
+    
+    # Filter out low vegetation that may be noise in the data
+    min_canopy_height = kwargs.get("min_canopy_height")
+    if min_canopy_height is not None:
+        canopy_height_grid[canopy_height_grid < kwargs["min_canopy_height"]] = 0        
+        if 'canopy_bottom_height_grid' in locals():
+            canopy_bottom_height_grid[canopy_height_grid == 0] = 0
+
+    # Remove objects near the boundary to avoid edge effects
+    # This is useful when the area of interest is part of a larger urban area
+    remove_perimeter_object = kwargs.get("remove_perimeter_object")
+    if (remove_perimeter_object is not None) and (remove_perimeter_object > 0):
+        print("apply perimeter removal")
+        # Calculate perimeter width based on grid dimensions
+        w_peri = int(remove_perimeter_object * building_height_grid.shape[0] + 0.5)
+        h_peri = int(remove_perimeter_object * building_height_grid.shape[1] + 0.5)
+        
+        # Clear canopy heights in perimeter areas
+        canopy_height_grid[:w_peri, :] = canopy_height_grid[-w_peri:, :] = canopy_height_grid[:, :h_peri] = canopy_height_grid[:, -h_peri:] = 0
+        if 'canopy_bottom_height_grid' in locals():
+            canopy_bottom_height_grid[:w_peri, :] = canopy_bottom_height_grid[-w_peri:, :] = canopy_bottom_height_grid[:, :h_peri] = canopy_bottom_height_grid[:, -h_peri:] = 0
+
+        # Identify buildings that intersect with perimeter areas
+        ids1 = np.unique(building_id_grid[:w_peri, :][building_id_grid[:w_peri, :] > 0])
+        ids2 = np.unique(building_id_grid[-w_peri:, :][building_id_grid[-w_peri:, :] > 0])
+        ids3 = np.unique(building_id_grid[:, :h_peri][building_id_grid[:, :h_peri] > 0])
+        ids4 = np.unique(building_id_grid[:, -h_peri:][building_id_grid[:, -h_peri:] > 0])
+        remove_ids = np.concatenate((ids1, ids2, ids3, ids4))
+        
+        # Remove identified buildings from all grids
+        for remove_id in remove_ids:
+            positions = np.where(building_id_grid == remove_id)
+            building_height_grid[positions] = 0
+            building_min_height_grid[positions] = [[] for _ in range(len(building_min_height_grid[positions]))]
+
+        # Visualize grids after optional perimeter removal
+        grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)
+        if grid_vis:
+            # Building height grid visualization (zeros hidden)
+            building_height_grid_nan = building_height_grid.copy()
+            building_height_grid_nan[building_height_grid_nan == 0] = np.nan
+            visualize_numerical_grid(
+                np.flipud(building_height_grid_nan),
+                meshsize,
+                "building height (m)",
+                cmap='viridis',
+                label='Value'
+            )
+
+            # Canopy height grid visualization (zeros hidden)
+            canopy_height_grid_nan = canopy_height_grid.copy()
+            canopy_height_grid_nan[canopy_height_grid_nan == 0] = np.nan
+            visualize_numerical_grid(
+                np.flipud(canopy_height_grid_nan),
+                meshsize,
+                "Tree canopy height (m)",
+                cmap='Greens',
+                label='Tree canopy height (m)'
+            )
+
+    # STEP 5: Generate optional 2D visualizations on interactive maps
+    mapvis = kwargs.get("mapvis")
+    if mapvis:
+        # Create map-based visualizations of all data layers
+        # These help users understand the input data before 3D modeling
+        
+        # Visualize land cover using the new function
+        visualize_landcover_grid_on_basemap(
+            land_cover_grid, 
+            rectangle_vertices, 
+            meshsize, 
+            source=land_cover_source,
+            alpha=0.7,
+            figsize=(12, 8),
+            basemap='CartoDB light',
+            show_edge=False
+        )
+        
+        # Visualize building heights using the new function
+        visualize_numerical_grid_on_basemap(
+            building_height_grid,
+            rectangle_vertices,
+            meshsize,
+            value_name="Building Heights (m)",
+            cmap='viridis',
+            alpha=0.7,
+            figsize=(12, 8),
+            basemap='CartoDB light',
+            show_edge=False
+        )
+        
+        # Visualize canopy heights using the new function
+        visualize_numerical_grid_on_basemap(
+            canopy_height_grid,
+            rectangle_vertices,
+            meshsize,
+            value_name="Canopy Heights (m)",
+            cmap='Greens',
+            alpha=0.7,
+            figsize=(12, 8),
+            basemap='CartoDB light',
+            show_edge=False
+        )
+        
+        # Visualize DEM using the new function
+        visualize_numerical_grid_on_basemap(
+            dem_grid,
+            rectangle_vertices,
+            meshsize,
+            value_name="Terrain Elevation (m)",
+            cmap='terrain',
+            alpha=0.7,
+            figsize=(12, 8),
+            basemap='CartoDB light',
+            show_edge=False
+        )
+
+    # STEP 6: Generate the final 3D voxel model
+    # This combines all 2D grids into a comprehensive 3D representation
+    voxcity_grid = create_3d_voxel(building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, land_cover_grid, dem_grid, canopy_height_grid, meshsize, land_cover_source, canopy_bottom_height_grid)
+
+    # STEP 7: Generate optional 3D visualization
+    # voxelvis = kwargs.get("voxelvis")
+    # if voxelvis:
+    #     # Create a taller grid for better visualization
+    #     # Fixed height ensures consistent camera positioning
+    #     new_height = int(550/meshsize+0.5)     
+    #     voxcity_grid_vis = np.zeros((voxcity_grid.shape[0], voxcity_grid.shape[1], new_height))
+    #     voxcity_grid_vis[:, :, :voxcity_grid.shape[2]] = voxcity_grid
+    #     voxcity_grid_vis[-1, -1, -1] = -99  # Add marker to fix camera location and angle of view
+    #     visualize_3d_voxel(voxcity_grid_vis, voxel_size=meshsize, save_path=kwargs["voxelvis_img_save_path"])
+
+    # STEP 8: Save all generated data for future use
+    save_voxcity = kwargs.get("save_voxctiy_data", True)
+    if save_voxcity:
+        save_path = kwargs.get("save_data_path", f"{output_dir}/voxcity_data.pkl")
+        save_voxcity_data(save_path, voxcity_grid, building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, 
+                         building_id_grid, canopy_height_grid, land_cover_grid, dem_grid, 
+                         building_gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices)
+    
+    return voxcity_grid, building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, canopy_height_grid, canopy_bottom_height_grid, land_cover_grid, dem_grid, building_gdf
+
+def get_voxcity_CityGML(rectangle_vertices, land_cover_source, canopy_height_source, meshsize, url_citygml=None, citygml_path=None, **kwargs):
+    """Main function to generate a complete voxel city model.
+
+    Args:
+        rectangle_vertices: List of coordinates defining the area of interest
+        building_source: Source for building height data (e.g. 'OSM', 'EUBUCCO')
+        land_cover_source: Source for land cover data (e.g. 'ESA', 'ESRI') 
+        canopy_height_source: Source for tree canopy height data
+        dem_source: Source for digital elevation model data ('Flat' or other source)
+        meshsize: Size of each grid cell in meters
+        **kwargs: Additional keyword arguments including:
+            - output_dir: Directory to save output files (default: 'output')
+            - min_canopy_height: Minimum height threshold for tree canopy
+            - remove_perimeter_object: Factor to remove objects near perimeter
+            - mapvis: Whether to visualize grids on map
+            - voxelvis: Whether to visualize 3D voxel model
+            - voxelvis_img_save_path: Path to save 3D visualization
+
+    Returns:
+        tuple containing:
+            - voxcity_grid: 3D voxel grid of the complete city model
+            - building_height_grid: 2D grid of building heights
+            - building_min_height_grid: 2D grid of minimum building heights
+            - building_id_grid: 2D grid of building IDs
+            - canopy_height_grid: 2D grid of tree canopy heights
+            - land_cover_grid: 2D grid of land cover classifications
+            - dem_grid: 2D grid of ground elevation
+            - building_geojson: GeoJSON of building footprints and metadata
+    """
+    # Create output directory if it doesn't exist
+    output_dir = kwargs.get("output_dir", "output")
+    os.makedirs(output_dir, exist_ok=True)
+        
+    # Remove 'output_dir' from kwargs to prevent duplication
+    kwargs.pop('output_dir', None)
+
+    # SSL/HTTP options for CityGML download (optional)
+    # Backward compatible: accept 'verify' but prefer 'ssl_verify'
+    ssl_verify = kwargs.pop('ssl_verify', kwargs.pop('verify', True))
+    ca_bundle = kwargs.pop('ca_bundle', None)
+    timeout = kwargs.pop('timeout', 60)
+
+    # get all required gdfs    
+    building_gdf, terrain_gdf, vegetation_gdf = load_buid_dem_veg_from_citygml(
+        url=url_citygml,
+        citygml_path=citygml_path,
+        base_dir=output_dir,
+        rectangle_vertices=rectangle_vertices,
+        ssl_verify=ssl_verify,
+        ca_bundle=ca_bundle,
+        timeout=timeout
+    )
+
+    # Normalize CRS to WGS84 (EPSG:4326) to ensure consistent operations downstream
+    try:
+        import geopandas as gpd  # noqa: F401
+        if building_gdf is not None:
+            if building_gdf.crs is None:
+                building_gdf = building_gdf.set_crs(epsg=4326)
+            elif getattr(building_gdf.crs, 'to_epsg', lambda: None)() != 4326 and building_gdf.crs != "EPSG:4326":
+                building_gdf = building_gdf.to_crs(epsg=4326)
+        if terrain_gdf is not None:
+            if terrain_gdf.crs is None:
+                terrain_gdf = terrain_gdf.set_crs(epsg=4326)
+            elif getattr(terrain_gdf.crs, 'to_epsg', lambda: None)() != 4326 and terrain_gdf.crs != "EPSG:4326":
+                terrain_gdf = terrain_gdf.to_crs(epsg=4326)
+        if vegetation_gdf is not None:
+            if vegetation_gdf.crs is None:
+                vegetation_gdf = vegetation_gdf.set_crs(epsg=4326)
+            elif getattr(vegetation_gdf.crs, 'to_epsg', lambda: None)() != 4326 and vegetation_gdf.crs != "EPSG:4326":
+                vegetation_gdf = vegetation_gdf.to_crs(epsg=4326)
+    except Exception:
+        pass
+
+    land_cover_grid = get_land_cover_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, land_cover_source, output_dir, **kwargs)        
+
+    # building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, building_gdf = get_building_height_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, building_source, output_dir, **kwargs)
+    print("Creating building height grid")
+    # Prepare complementary building source if provided
+    building_complementary_source = kwargs.get("building_complementary_source")
+    gdf_comp = None
+    geotiff_path_comp = None
+    complement_building_footprints = kwargs.get("complement_building_footprints")
+    # Default to complement footprints when a complementary source is specified
+    if complement_building_footprints is None and (building_complementary_source not in (None, "None")):
+        complement_building_footprints = True
+
+    if (building_complementary_source is not None) and (building_complementary_source != "None"):
+        # Vector complementary sources
+        floor_height = kwargs.get("floor_height", 3.0)
+        if building_complementary_source == 'Microsoft Building Footprints':
+            gdf_comp = get_mbfp_gdf(kwargs.get("output_dir", "output"), rectangle_vertices)
+        elif building_complementary_source == 'OpenStreetMap':
+            gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_openstreetmap(rectangle_vertices, floor_height=floor_height)
+        elif building_complementary_source == 'EUBUCCO v0.1':
+            gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_eubucco(rectangle_vertices, kwargs.get("output_dir", "output"))
+        elif building_complementary_source == 'Overture':
+            gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_overture(rectangle_vertices, floor_height=floor_height)
+        elif building_complementary_source in ("GBA", "Global Building Atlas"):
+            clip_gba = kwargs.get("gba_clip", False)
+            gba_download_dir = kwargs.get("gba_download_dir")
+            gdf_comp = load_gdf_from_gba(rectangle_vertices, download_dir=gba_download_dir, clip_to_rectangle=clip_gba)
+        elif building_complementary_source == 'Local file':
+            comp_path = kwargs.get("building_complementary_path")
+            if comp_path is not None:
+                _, extension = os.path.splitext(comp_path)
+                if extension == ".gpkg":
+                    gdf_comp = get_gdf_from_gpkg(comp_path, rectangle_vertices)
+        # Ensure complementary GDF uses WGS84
+        if gdf_comp is not None:
+            try:
+                if gdf_comp.crs is None:
+                    gdf_comp = gdf_comp.set_crs(epsg=4326)
+                elif getattr(gdf_comp.crs, 'to_epsg', lambda: None)() != 4326 and gdf_comp.crs != "EPSG:4326":
+                    gdf_comp = gdf_comp.to_crs(epsg=4326)
+            except Exception:
+                pass
+        # Raster complementary sources (height only)
+        elif building_complementary_source == "Open Building 2.5D Temporal":
+            roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
+            os.makedirs(kwargs.get("output_dir", "output"), exist_ok=True)
+            geotiff_path_comp = os.path.join(kwargs.get("output_dir", "output"), "building_height.tif")
+            save_geotiff_open_buildings_temporal(roi, geotiff_path_comp)
+        elif building_complementary_source in ["England 1m DSM - DTM", "Netherlands 0.5m DSM - DTM"]:
+            roi = get_roi(rectangle_vertices)
+            os.makedirs(kwargs.get("output_dir", "output"), exist_ok=True)
+            geotiff_path_comp = os.path.join(kwargs.get("output_dir", "output"), "building_height.tif")
+            save_geotiff_dsm_minus_dtm(roi, geotiff_path_comp, meshsize, building_complementary_source)
+
+    # Filter and assemble kwargs accepted by the grid function
+    _allowed_building_kwargs = {
+        "overlapping_footprint",
+        "gdf_comp",
+        "geotiff_path_comp",
+        "complement_building_footprints",
+        "complement_height",
+    }
+    _building_kwargs = {k: v for k, v in kwargs.items() if k in _allowed_building_kwargs}
+    if gdf_comp is not None:
+        _building_kwargs["gdf_comp"] = gdf_comp
+    if geotiff_path_comp is not None:
+        _building_kwargs["geotiff_path_comp"] = geotiff_path_comp
+    if complement_building_footprints is not None:
+        _building_kwargs["complement_building_footprints"] = complement_building_footprints
+
+    # Map user-provided building_complement_height -> complement_height for grid builder
+    comp_height_user = kwargs.get("building_complement_height")
+    if comp_height_user is not None:
+        _building_kwargs["complement_height"] = comp_height_user
+    # If footprints are being complemented and no height provided, default to 10
+    if _building_kwargs.get("complement_building_footprints") and ("complement_height" not in _building_kwargs):
+        _building_kwargs["complement_height"] = 10.0
+
+    building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, filtered_buildings = create_building_height_grid_from_gdf_polygon(
+        building_gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices, **_building_kwargs
+    )
+
+    # Visualize grid if requested
+    grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)    
+    if grid_vis:
+        building_height_grid_nan = building_height_grid.copy()
+        building_height_grid_nan[building_height_grid_nan == 0] = np.nan
+        visualize_numerical_grid(np.flipud(building_height_grid_nan), meshsize, "building height (m)", cmap='viridis', label='Value')
+    
+    # Save building data to GeoJSON
+    if not building_gdf.empty:
+        save_path = f"{output_dir}/building.gpkg"
+        building_gdf.to_file(save_path, driver='GPKG')
+    
+    # Get canopy height data
+    if canopy_height_source == "Static":
+        # Create canopy height grid with same shape as land cover grid
+        canopy_height_grid_comp = np.zeros_like(land_cover_grid, dtype=float)
+        
+        # Set default static height for trees (20 meters is a typical average tree height)
+        static_tree_height = kwargs.get("static_tree_height", 10.0)
+        # Determine tree class indices based on source-specific class names
+        _classes = get_land_cover_classes(land_cover_source)
+        _class_to_int = {name: i for i, name in enumerate(_classes.values())}
+        _tree_labels = ["Tree", "Trees", "Tree Canopy"]
+        _tree_indices = [_class_to_int[label] for label in _tree_labels if label in _class_to_int]
+        tree_mask = np.isin(land_cover_grid, _tree_indices) if _tree_indices else np.zeros_like(land_cover_grid, dtype=bool)
+        
+        # Set static height for tree cells
+        canopy_height_grid_comp[tree_mask] = static_tree_height
+
+        # Bottom comp from trunk ratio
+        trunk_height_ratio = kwargs.get("trunk_height_ratio")
+        if trunk_height_ratio is None:
+            trunk_height_ratio = 11.76 / 19.98
+        canopy_bottom_height_grid_comp = canopy_height_grid_comp * float(trunk_height_ratio)
+    else:
+        canopy_height_grid_comp, canopy_bottom_height_grid_comp = get_canopy_height_grid(rectangle_vertices, meshsize, canopy_height_source, output_dir, **kwargs)
+    
+    # In the get_voxcity_CityGML function, modify it to handle None vegetation_gdf
+    if vegetation_gdf is not None:
+        canopy_height_grid = create_vegetation_height_grid_from_gdf_polygon(vegetation_gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices)
+        # Base bottom grid from ratio
+        trunk_height_ratio = kwargs.get("trunk_height_ratio")
+        if trunk_height_ratio is None:
+            trunk_height_ratio = 11.76 / 19.98
+        canopy_bottom_height_grid = canopy_height_grid * float(trunk_height_ratio)
+    else:
+        # Create an empty canopy_height_grid with the same shape as your other grids
+        # This depends on the expected shape, you might need to adjust
+        canopy_height_grid = np.zeros_like(building_height_grid)
+        canopy_bottom_height_grid = np.zeros_like(building_height_grid)
+
+    mask = (canopy_height_grid == 0) & (canopy_height_grid_comp != 0)
+    canopy_height_grid[mask] = canopy_height_grid_comp[mask]
+    # Apply same complementation to bottom grid
+    mask_b = (canopy_bottom_height_grid == 0) & (canopy_bottom_height_grid_comp != 0)
+    canopy_bottom_height_grid[mask_b] = canopy_bottom_height_grid_comp[mask_b]
+
+    # Ensure bottom <= top
+    canopy_bottom_height_grid = np.minimum(canopy_bottom_height_grid, canopy_height_grid)
+    
+    # Handle DEM - either flat or from source
+    if kwargs.pop('flat_dem', None):
+        dem_grid = np.zeros_like(land_cover_grid)
+    else:
+        print("Creating Digital Elevation Model (DEM) grid")
+        dem_grid = create_dem_grid_from_gdf_polygon(terrain_gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices)
+        
+        # Visualize grid if requested
+        grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)    
+        if grid_vis:
+            visualize_numerical_grid(np.flipud(dem_grid), meshsize, title='Digital Elevation Model', cmap='terrain', label='Elevation (m)')
+        
+
+    # Apply minimum canopy height threshold if specified
+    min_canopy_height = kwargs.get("min_canopy_height")
+    if min_canopy_height is not None:
+        canopy_height_grid[canopy_height_grid < kwargs["min_canopy_height"]] = 0        
+        canopy_bottom_height_grid[canopy_height_grid == 0] = 0
+
+    # Remove objects near perimeter if specified
+    remove_perimeter_object = kwargs.get("remove_perimeter_object")
+    if (remove_perimeter_object is not None) and (remove_perimeter_object > 0):
+        print("apply perimeter removal")
+        # Calculate perimeter width based on grid dimensions
+        w_peri = int(remove_perimeter_object * building_height_grid.shape[0] + 0.5)
+        h_peri = int(remove_perimeter_object * building_height_grid.shape[1] + 0.5)
+        
+        # Clear canopy heights in perimeter
+        canopy_height_grid[:w_peri, :] = canopy_height_grid[-w_peri:, :] = canopy_height_grid[:, :h_peri] = canopy_height_grid[:, -h_peri:] = 0
+        canopy_bottom_height_grid[:w_peri, :] = canopy_bottom_height_grid[-w_peri:, :] = canopy_bottom_height_grid[:, :h_peri] = canopy_bottom_height_grid[:, -h_peri:] = 0
+
+        # Find building IDs in perimeter regions
+        ids1 = np.unique(building_id_grid[:w_peri, :][building_id_grid[:w_peri, :] > 0])
+        ids2 = np.unique(building_id_grid[-w_peri:, :][building_id_grid[-w_peri:, :] > 0])
+        ids3 = np.unique(building_id_grid[:, :h_peri][building_id_grid[:, :h_peri] > 0])
+        ids4 = np.unique(building_id_grid[:, -h_peri:][building_id_grid[:, -h_peri:] > 0])
+        remove_ids = np.concatenate((ids1, ids2, ids3, ids4))
+        
+        # Remove buildings in perimeter
+        for remove_id in remove_ids:
+            positions = np.where(building_id_grid == remove_id)
+            building_height_grid[positions] = 0
+            building_min_height_grid[positions] = [[] for _ in range(len(building_min_height_grid[positions]))] 
+
+        # Visualize grids after optional perimeter removal
+        grid_vis = kwargs.get("gridvis", True)
+        if grid_vis:
+            # Building height grid visualization (zeros hidden)
+            building_height_grid_nan = building_height_grid.copy()
+            building_height_grid_nan[building_height_grid_nan == 0] = np.nan
+            visualize_numerical_grid(
+                np.flipud(building_height_grid_nan),
+                meshsize,
+                "building height (m)",
+                cmap='viridis',
+                label='Value'
+            )
+
+            # Canopy height grid visualization (zeros hidden)
+            canopy_height_grid_nan = canopy_height_grid.copy()
+            canopy_height_grid_nan[canopy_height_grid_nan == 0] = np.nan
+            visualize_numerical_grid(
+                np.flipud(canopy_height_grid_nan),
+                meshsize,
+                "Tree canopy height (m)",
+                cmap='Greens',
+                label='Tree canopy height (m)'
+            )
+
+    # Generate 3D voxel grid
+    voxcity_grid = create_3d_voxel(building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, land_cover_grid, dem_grid, canopy_height_grid, meshsize, land_cover_source, canopy_bottom_height_grid)
+
+    # Save all data if a save path is provided
+    save_voxcity = kwargs.get("save_voxctiy_data", True)
+    if save_voxcity:
+        save_path = kwargs.get("save_data_path", f"{output_dir}/voxcity_data.pkl")
+        save_voxcity_data(save_path, voxcity_grid, building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, 
+                         building_id_grid, canopy_height_grid, land_cover_grid, dem_grid, 
+                         building_gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices)
+    
+    return voxcity_grid, building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, building_id_grid, canopy_height_grid, canopy_bottom_height_grid, land_cover_grid, dem_grid, filtered_buildings
+
+def replace_nan_in_nested(arr, replace_value=10.0):
+    """
+    Optimized version that avoids converting to Python lists.
+    Works directly with numpy arrays.
+    """
+    if not isinstance(arr, np.ndarray):
+        return arr
+    
+    # Create output array
+    result = np.empty_like(arr, dtype=object)
+    
+    # Vectorized operation for empty cells
+    for i in range(arr.shape[0]):
+        for j in range(arr.shape[1]):
+            cell = arr[i, j]
+            
+            if cell is None or (isinstance(cell, list) and len(cell) == 0):
+                result[i, j] = []
+            elif isinstance(cell, list):
+                # Process list without converting entire array
+                new_cell = []
+                for segment in cell:
+                    if isinstance(segment, (list, np.ndarray)):
+                        # Use numpy operations where possible
+                        if isinstance(segment, np.ndarray):
+                            new_segment = np.where(np.isnan(segment), replace_value, segment).tolist()
+                        else:
+                            new_segment = [replace_value if (isinstance(v, float) and np.isnan(v)) else v for v in segment]
+                        new_cell.append(new_segment)
+                    else:
+                        new_cell.append(segment)
+                result[i, j] = new_cell
+            else:
+                result[i, j] = cell
+    
+    return result
+
+def save_voxcity_data(output_path, voxcity_grid, building_height_grid, building_min_height_grid, 
+                     building_id_grid, canopy_height_grid, land_cover_grid, dem_grid, 
+                     building_gdf, meshsize, rectangle_vertices):
+    """Save voxcity data to a file for later loading.
+    
+    Args:
+        output_path: Path to save the data file
+        voxcity_grid: 3D voxel grid of the complete city model
+        building_height_grid: 2D grid of building heights
+        building_min_height_grid: 2D grid of minimum building heights
+        building_id_grid: 2D grid of building IDs
+        canopy_height_grid: 2D grid of tree canopy heights
+        land_cover_grid: 2D grid of land cover classifications
+        dem_grid: 2D grid of ground elevation
+        building_gdf: GeoDataFrame of building footprints and metadata
+        meshsize: Size of each grid cell in meters
+        rectangle_vertices: List of coordinates defining the area of interest
+    """
+    import pickle
+    import os
+    
+    # Ensure the output directory exists
+    os.makedirs(os.path.dirname(output_path), exist_ok=True)
+    
+    # Create a comprehensive dictionary containing all voxcity data
+    # This preserves all components needed to reconstruct or analyze the model
+    data_dict = {
+        'voxcity_grid': voxcity_grid,
+        'building_height_grid': building_height_grid,
+        'building_min_height_grid': building_min_height_grid,
+        'building_id_grid': building_id_grid,
+        'canopy_height_grid': canopy_height_grid,
+        'land_cover_grid': land_cover_grid,
+        'dem_grid': dem_grid,
+        'building_gdf': building_gdf,
+        'meshsize': meshsize,
+        'rectangle_vertices': rectangle_vertices
+    }
+    
+    # Serialize and save the data using pickle for efficient storage
+    # Pickle preserves exact data types and structures
+    with open(output_path, 'wb') as f:
+        pickle.dump(data_dict, f)
+    
+    print(f"Voxcity data saved to {output_path}")
+
+def load_voxcity_data(input_path):
+    """Load voxcity data from a saved file.
+    
+    Args:
+        input_path: Path to the saved data file
+        
+    Returns:
+        tuple: All the voxcity data components including:
+            - voxcity_grid: 3D voxel grid of the complete city model
+            - building_height_grid: 2D grid of building heights
+            - building_min_height_grid: 2D grid of minimum building heights
+            - building_id_grid: 2D grid of building IDs
+            - canopy_height_grid: 2D grid of tree canopy heights
+            - land_cover_grid: 2D grid of land cover classifications
+            - dem_grid: 2D grid of ground elevation
+            - building_gdf: GeoDataFrame of building footprints and metadata
+            - meshsize: Size of each grid cell in meters
+            - rectangle_vertices: List of coordinates defining the area of interest
+    """
+    import pickle
+    
+    # Deserialize the data from the saved file
+    with open(input_path, 'rb') as f:
+        data_dict = pickle.load(f)
+    
+    print(f"Voxcity data loaded from {input_path}")
+    
+    # Return all components as a tuple in the same order as the main function
+    # This ensures compatibility with existing code that expects this structure
+    return (
+        data_dict['voxcity_grid'],
+        data_dict['building_height_grid'],
+        data_dict['building_min_height_grid'],
+        data_dict['building_id_grid'],
+        data_dict['canopy_height_grid'],
+        data_dict['land_cover_grid'],
+        data_dict['dem_grid'],
+        data_dict['building_gdf'],
+        data_dict['meshsize'],
+        data_dict['rectangle_vertices']
     )