torchcodec 0.7.0__cp39-cp39-win_amd64.whl

torchcodec/_core/SingleStreamDecoder.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,1715 @@
+// Copyright (c) Meta Platforms, Inc. and affiliates.
+// All rights reserved.
+//
+// This source code is licensed under the BSD-style license found in the
+// LICENSE file in the root directory of this source tree.
+
+#include "src/torchcodec/_core/SingleStreamDecoder.h"
+#include <cstdint>
+#include <cstdio>
+#include <iostream>
+#include <limits>
+#include <sstream>
+#include <stdexcept>
+#include <string_view>
+#include "torch/types.h"
+
+namespace facebook::torchcodec {
+namespace {
+
+double ptsToSeconds(int64_t pts, const AVRational& timeBase) {
+  // To perform the multiplication before the division, av_q2d is not used
+  return static_cast<double>(pts) * timeBase.num / timeBase.den;
+}
+
+int64_t secondsToClosestPts(double seconds, const AVRational& timeBase) {
+  return static_cast<int64_t>(
+      std::round(seconds * timeBase.den / timeBase.num));
+}
+
+// Some videos aren't properly encoded and do not specify pts values for
+// packets, and thus for frames. Unset values correspond to INT64_MIN. When that
+// happens, we fallback to the dts value which hopefully exists and is correct.
+// Accessing AVFrames and AVPackets's pts values should **always** go through
+// the helpers below. Then, the "pts" fields in our structs like FrameInfo.pts
+// should be interpreted as "pts if it exists, dts otherwise".
+int64_t getPtsOrDts(ReferenceAVPacket& packet) {
+  return packet->pts == INT64_MIN ? packet->dts : packet->pts;
+}
+
+int64_t getPtsOrDts(const UniqueAVFrame& avFrame) {
+  return avFrame->pts == INT64_MIN ? avFrame->pkt_dts : avFrame->pts;
+}
+
+} // namespace
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// CONSTRUCTORS, INITIALIZATION, DESTRUCTORS
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+SingleStreamDecoder::SingleStreamDecoder(
+    const std::string& videoFilePath,
+    SeekMode seekMode)
+    : seekMode_(seekMode) {
+  setFFmpegLogLevel();
+
+  AVFormatContext* rawContext = nullptr;
+  int status =
+      avformat_open_input(&rawContext, videoFilePath.c_str(), nullptr, nullptr);
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      status == 0,
+      "Could not open input file: " + videoFilePath + " " +
+          getFFMPEGErrorStringFromErrorCode(status));
+  TORCH_CHECK(rawContext != nullptr);
+  formatContext_.reset(rawContext);
+
+  initializeDecoder();
+}
+
+SingleStreamDecoder::SingleStreamDecoder(
+    std::unique_ptr<AVIOContextHolder> context,
+    SeekMode seekMode)
+    : seekMode_(seekMode), avioContextHolder_(std::move(context)) {
+  setFFmpegLogLevel();
+
+  TORCH_CHECK(avioContextHolder_, "Context holder cannot be null");
+
+  // Because FFmpeg requires a reference to a pointer in the call to open, we
+  // can't use a unique pointer here. Note that means we must call free if open
+  // fails.
+  AVFormatContext* rawContext = avformat_alloc_context();
+  TORCH_CHECK(rawContext != nullptr, "Unable to alloc avformat context");
+
+  rawContext->pb = avioContextHolder_->getAVIOContext();
+  int status = avformat_open_input(&rawContext, nullptr, nullptr, nullptr);
+  if (status != 0) {
+    avformat_free_context(rawContext);
+    TORCH_CHECK(
+        false,
+        "Failed to open input buffer: " +
+            getFFMPEGErrorStringFromErrorCode(status));
+  }
+
+  formatContext_.reset(rawContext);
+
+  initializeDecoder();
+}
+
+void SingleStreamDecoder::initializeDecoder() {
+  TORCH_CHECK(!initialized_, "Attempted double initialization.");
+
+  // In principle, the AVFormatContext should be filled in by the call to
+  // avformat_open_input() which reads the header. However, some formats do not
+  // store enough info in the header, so we call avformat_find_stream_info()
+  // which decodes a few frames to get missing info. For more, see:
+  //   https://ffmpeg.org/doxygen/7.0/group__lavf__decoding.html
+  int status = avformat_find_stream_info(formatContext_.get(), nullptr);
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      status >= 0,
+      "Failed to find stream info: ",
+      getFFMPEGErrorStringFromErrorCode(status));
+
+  for (unsigned int i = 0; i < formatContext_->nb_streams; i++) {
+    AVStream* avStream = formatContext_->streams[i];
+    StreamMetadata streamMetadata;
+
+    TORCH_CHECK(
+        static_cast<int>(i) == avStream->index,
+        "Our stream index, " + std::to_string(i) +
+            ", does not match AVStream's index, " +
+            std::to_string(avStream->index) + ".");
+    streamMetadata.streamIndex = i;
+    streamMetadata.mediaType = avStream->codecpar->codec_type;
+    streamMetadata.codecName = avcodec_get_name(avStream->codecpar->codec_id);
+    streamMetadata.bitRate = avStream->codecpar->bit_rate;
+
+    int64_t frameCount = avStream->nb_frames;
+    if (frameCount > 0) {
+      streamMetadata.numFramesFromHeader = frameCount;
+    }
+
+    if (avStream->duration > 0 && avStream->time_base.den > 0) {
+      streamMetadata.durationSecondsFromHeader =
+          ptsToSeconds(avStream->duration, avStream->time_base);
+    }
+    if (avStream->start_time != AV_NOPTS_VALUE) {
+      streamMetadata.beginStreamSecondsFromHeader =
+          ptsToSeconds(avStream->start_time, avStream->time_base);
+    }
+
+    if (avStream->codecpar->codec_type == AVMEDIA_TYPE_VIDEO) {
+      double fps = av_q2d(avStream->r_frame_rate);
+      if (fps > 0) {
+        streamMetadata.averageFpsFromHeader = fps;
+      }
+      containerMetadata_.numVideoStreams++;
+    } else if (avStream->codecpar->codec_type == AVMEDIA_TYPE_AUDIO) {
+      AVSampleFormat format =
+          static_cast<AVSampleFormat>(avStream->codecpar->format);
+
+      // If the AVSampleFormat is not recognized, we get back nullptr. We have
+      // to make sure we don't initialize a std::string with nullptr. There's
+      // nothing to do on the else branch because we're already using an
+      // optional; it'll just remain empty.
+      const char* rawSampleFormat = av_get_sample_fmt_name(format);
+      if (rawSampleFormat != nullptr) {
+        streamMetadata.sampleFormat = std::string(rawSampleFormat);
+      }
+      containerMetadata_.numAudioStreams++;
+    }
+
+    containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata.push_back(streamMetadata);
+  }
+
+  if (formatContext_->duration > 0) {
+    AVRational defaultTimeBase{1, AV_TIME_BASE};
+    containerMetadata_.durationSecondsFromHeader =
+        ptsToSeconds(formatContext_->duration, defaultTimeBase);
+  }
+
+  if (formatContext_->bit_rate > 0) {
+    containerMetadata_.bitRate = formatContext_->bit_rate;
+  }
+
+  int bestVideoStream = getBestStreamIndex(AVMEDIA_TYPE_VIDEO);
+  if (bestVideoStream >= 0) {
+    containerMetadata_.bestVideoStreamIndex = bestVideoStream;
+  }
+
+  int bestAudioStream = getBestStreamIndex(AVMEDIA_TYPE_AUDIO);
+  if (bestAudioStream >= 0) {
+    containerMetadata_.bestAudioStreamIndex = bestAudioStream;
+  }
+
+  if (seekMode_ == SeekMode::exact) {
+    scanFileAndUpdateMetadataAndIndex();
+  }
+
+  initialized_ = true;
+}
+
+int SingleStreamDecoder::getBestStreamIndex(AVMediaType mediaType) {
+  AVCodecOnlyUseForCallingAVFindBestStream avCodec = nullptr;
+  int streamIndex =
+      av_find_best_stream(formatContext_.get(), mediaType, -1, -1, &avCodec, 0);
+  return streamIndex;
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// VIDEO METADATA QUERY API
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+void SingleStreamDecoder::sortAllFrames() {
+  // Sort the allFrames and keyFrames vecs in each stream, and also sets
+  // additional fields of the FrameInfo entries like nextPts and frameIndex
+  // This is called at the end of a scan, or when setting a user-defined frame
+  // mapping.
+  for (auto& [streamIndex, streamInfo] : streamInfos_) {
+    std::sort(
+        streamInfo.keyFrames.begin(),
+        streamInfo.keyFrames.end(),
+        [](const FrameInfo& frameInfo1, const FrameInfo& frameInfo2) {
+          return frameInfo1.pts < frameInfo2.pts;
+        });
+    std::sort(
+        streamInfo.allFrames.begin(),
+        streamInfo.allFrames.end(),
+        [](const FrameInfo& frameInfo1, const FrameInfo& frameInfo2) {
+          return frameInfo1.pts < frameInfo2.pts;
+        });
+
+    size_t keyFrameIndex = 0;
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < streamInfo.allFrames.size(); ++i) {
+      streamInfo.allFrames[i].frameIndex = i;
+      if (streamInfo.allFrames[i].isKeyFrame) {
+        TORCH_CHECK(
+            keyFrameIndex < streamInfo.keyFrames.size(),
+            "The allFrames vec claims it has MORE keyFrames than the keyFrames vec. There's a bug in torchcodec.");
+        streamInfo.keyFrames[keyFrameIndex].frameIndex = i;
+        ++keyFrameIndex;
+      }
+      if (i + 1 < streamInfo.allFrames.size()) {
+        streamInfo.allFrames[i].nextPts = streamInfo.allFrames[i + 1].pts;
+      }
+    }
+    TORCH_CHECK(
+        keyFrameIndex == streamInfo.keyFrames.size(),
+        "The allFrames vec claims it has LESS keyFrames than the keyFrames vec. There's a bug in torchcodec.");
+  }
+}
+
+void SingleStreamDecoder::scanFileAndUpdateMetadataAndIndex() {
+  if (scannedAllStreams_) {
+    return;
+  }
+
+  AutoAVPacket autoAVPacket;
+  while (true) {
+    ReferenceAVPacket packet(autoAVPacket);
+
+    // av_read_frame is a misleading name: it gets the next **packet**.
+    int status = av_read_frame(formatContext_.get(), packet.get());
+
+    if (status == AVERROR_EOF) {
+      break;
+    }
+
+    TORCH_CHECK(
+        status == AVSUCCESS,
+        "Failed to read frame from input file: ",
+        getFFMPEGErrorStringFromErrorCode(status));
+
+    if (packet->flags & AV_PKT_FLAG_DISCARD) {
+      continue;
+    }
+
+    // We got a valid packet. Let's figure out what stream it belongs to and
+    // record its relevant metadata.
+    int streamIndex = packet->stream_index;
+    auto& streamMetadata = containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata[streamIndex];
+    streamMetadata.beginStreamPtsFromContent = std::min(
+        streamMetadata.beginStreamPtsFromContent.value_or(INT64_MAX),
+        getPtsOrDts(packet));
+    streamMetadata.endStreamPtsFromContent = std::max(
+        streamMetadata.endStreamPtsFromContent.value_or(INT64_MIN),
+        getPtsOrDts(packet) + packet->duration);
+    streamMetadata.numFramesFromContent =
+        streamMetadata.numFramesFromContent.value_or(0) + 1;
+
+    // Note that we set the other value in this struct, nextPts, only after
+    // we have scanned all packets and sorted by pts.
+    FrameInfo frameInfo = {getPtsOrDts(packet)};
+    if (packet->flags & AV_PKT_FLAG_KEY) {
+      frameInfo.isKeyFrame = true;
+      streamInfos_[streamIndex].keyFrames.push_back(frameInfo);
+    }
+    streamInfos_[streamIndex].allFrames.push_back(frameInfo);
+  }
+
+  // Set all per-stream metadata that requires knowing the content of all
+  // packets.
+  for (size_t streamIndex = 0;
+       streamIndex < containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata.size();
+       ++streamIndex) {
+    auto& streamMetadata = containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata[streamIndex];
+    auto avStream = formatContext_->streams[streamIndex];
+
+    streamMetadata.numFramesFromContent =
+        streamInfos_[streamIndex].allFrames.size();
+
+    if (streamMetadata.beginStreamPtsFromContent.has_value()) {
+      streamMetadata.beginStreamPtsSecondsFromContent = ptsToSeconds(
+          *streamMetadata.beginStreamPtsFromContent, avStream->time_base);
+    }
+    if (streamMetadata.endStreamPtsFromContent.has_value()) {
+      streamMetadata.endStreamPtsSecondsFromContent = ptsToSeconds(
+          *streamMetadata.endStreamPtsFromContent, avStream->time_base);
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Reset the seek-cursor back to the beginning.
+  int status = avformat_seek_file(formatContext_.get(), 0, INT64_MIN, 0, 0, 0);
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      status >= 0,
+      "Could not seek file to pts=0: ",
+      getFFMPEGErrorStringFromErrorCode(status));
+
+  // Sort all frames by their pts.
+  sortAllFrames();
+  scannedAllStreams_ = true;
+}
+
+void SingleStreamDecoder::readCustomFrameMappingsUpdateMetadataAndIndex(
+    int streamIndex,
+    FrameMappings customFrameMappings) {
+  auto& all_frames = customFrameMappings.all_frames;
+  auto& is_key_frame = customFrameMappings.is_key_frame;
+  auto& duration = customFrameMappings.duration;
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      all_frames.size(0) == is_key_frame.size(0) &&
+          is_key_frame.size(0) == duration.size(0),
+      "all_frames, is_key_frame, and duration from custom_frame_mappings were not same size.");
+
+  auto& streamMetadata = containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata[streamIndex];
+
+  streamMetadata.beginStreamPtsFromContent = all_frames[0].item<int64_t>();
+  streamMetadata.endStreamPtsFromContent =
+      all_frames[-1].item<int64_t>() + duration[-1].item<int64_t>();
+
+  auto avStream = formatContext_->streams[streamIndex];
+  streamMetadata.beginStreamPtsSecondsFromContent = ptsToSeconds(
+      *streamMetadata.beginStreamPtsFromContent, avStream->time_base);
+
+  streamMetadata.endStreamPtsSecondsFromContent = ptsToSeconds(
+      *streamMetadata.endStreamPtsFromContent, avStream->time_base);
+
+  streamMetadata.numFramesFromContent = all_frames.size(0);
+  for (int64_t i = 0; i < all_frames.size(0); ++i) {
+    FrameInfo frameInfo;
+    frameInfo.pts = all_frames[i].item<int64_t>();
+    frameInfo.isKeyFrame = is_key_frame[i].item<bool>();
+    streamInfos_[streamIndex].allFrames.push_back(frameInfo);
+    if (frameInfo.isKeyFrame) {
+      streamInfos_[streamIndex].keyFrames.push_back(frameInfo);
+    }
+  }
+  // Sort all frames by their pts
+  sortAllFrames();
+}
+
+ContainerMetadata SingleStreamDecoder::getContainerMetadata() const {
+  return containerMetadata_;
+}
+
+torch::Tensor SingleStreamDecoder::getKeyFrameIndices() {
+  validateActiveStream(AVMEDIA_TYPE_VIDEO);
+  validateScannedAllStreams("getKeyFrameIndices");
+
+  const std::vector<FrameInfo>& keyFrames =
+      streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_].keyFrames;
+  torch::Tensor keyFrameIndices =
+      torch::empty({static_cast<int64_t>(keyFrames.size())}, {torch::kInt64});
+  for (size_t i = 0; i < keyFrames.size(); ++i) {
+    keyFrameIndices[i] = keyFrames[i].frameIndex;
+  }
+
+  return keyFrameIndices;
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// ADDING STREAMS API
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+void SingleStreamDecoder::addStream(
+    int streamIndex,
+    AVMediaType mediaType,
+    const torch::Device& device,
+    std::optional<int> ffmpegThreadCount) {
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      activeStreamIndex_ == NO_ACTIVE_STREAM,
+      "Can only add one single stream.");
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      mediaType == AVMEDIA_TYPE_VIDEO || mediaType == AVMEDIA_TYPE_AUDIO,
+      "Can only add video or audio streams.");
+  TORCH_CHECK(formatContext_.get() != nullptr);
+
+  AVCodecOnlyUseForCallingAVFindBestStream avCodec = nullptr;
+
+  activeStreamIndex_ = av_find_best_stream(
+      formatContext_.get(), mediaType, streamIndex, -1, &avCodec, 0);
+
+  if (activeStreamIndex_ < 0) {
+    throw std::invalid_argument(
+        "No valid stream found in input file. Is " +
+        std::to_string(streamIndex) + " of the desired media type?");
+  }
+
+  TORCH_CHECK(avCodec != nullptr);
+
+  StreamInfo& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+  streamInfo.streamIndex = activeStreamIndex_;
+  streamInfo.timeBase = formatContext_->streams[activeStreamIndex_]->time_base;
+  streamInfo.stream = formatContext_->streams[activeStreamIndex_];
+  streamInfo.avMediaType = mediaType;
+
+  deviceInterface_ = createDeviceInterface(device);
+
+  // This should never happen, checking just to be safe.
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      streamInfo.stream->codecpar->codec_type == mediaType,
+      "FFmpeg found stream with index ",
+      activeStreamIndex_,
+      " which is of the wrong media type.");
+
+  // TODO_CODE_QUALITY it's pretty meh to have a video-specific logic within
+  // addStream() which is supposed to be generic
+  if (mediaType == AVMEDIA_TYPE_VIDEO) {
+    if (deviceInterface_) {
+      avCodec = makeAVCodecOnlyUseForCallingAVFindBestStream(
+          deviceInterface_->findCodec(streamInfo.stream->codecpar->codec_id)
+              .value_or(avCodec));
+    }
+  }
+
+  AVCodecContext* codecContext = avcodec_alloc_context3(avCodec);
+  TORCH_CHECK(codecContext != nullptr);
+  streamInfo.codecContext.reset(codecContext);
+
+  int retVal = avcodec_parameters_to_context(
+      streamInfo.codecContext.get(), streamInfo.stream->codecpar);
+  TORCH_CHECK_EQ(retVal, AVSUCCESS);
+
+  streamInfo.codecContext->thread_count = ffmpegThreadCount.value_or(0);
+  streamInfo.codecContext->pkt_timebase = streamInfo.stream->time_base;
+
+  // TODO_CODE_QUALITY same as above.
+  if (mediaType == AVMEDIA_TYPE_VIDEO) {
+    if (deviceInterface_) {
+      deviceInterface_->initializeContext(codecContext);
+    }
+  }
+
+  retVal = avcodec_open2(streamInfo.codecContext.get(), avCodec, nullptr);
+  TORCH_CHECK(retVal >= AVSUCCESS, getFFMPEGErrorStringFromErrorCode(retVal));
+
+  codecContext->time_base = streamInfo.stream->time_base;
+  containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata[activeStreamIndex_].codecName =
+      std::string(avcodec_get_name(codecContext->codec_id));
+
+  // We will only need packets from the active stream, so we tell FFmpeg to
+  // discard packets from the other streams. Note that av_read_frame() may still
+  // return some of those un-desired packet under some conditions, so it's still
+  // important to discard/demux correctly in the inner decoding loop.
+  for (unsigned int i = 0; i < formatContext_->nb_streams; ++i) {
+    if (i != static_cast<unsigned int>(activeStreamIndex_)) {
+      formatContext_->streams[i]->discard = AVDISCARD_ALL;
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+void SingleStreamDecoder::addVideoStream(
+    int streamIndex,
+    const VideoStreamOptions& videoStreamOptions,
+    std::optional<FrameMappings> customFrameMappings) {
+  addStream(
+      streamIndex,
+      AVMEDIA_TYPE_VIDEO,
+      videoStreamOptions.device,
+      videoStreamOptions.ffmpegThreadCount);
+
+  auto& streamMetadata =
+      containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata[activeStreamIndex_];
+
+  if (seekMode_ == SeekMode::approximate) {
+    TORCH_CHECK(
+        streamMetadata.averageFpsFromHeader.has_value(),
+        "Seek mode is approximate, but stream ",
+        std::to_string(activeStreamIndex_),
+        " does not have an average fps in its metadata.");
+  }
+
+  auto& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+  streamInfo.videoStreamOptions = videoStreamOptions;
+
+  streamMetadata.width = streamInfo.codecContext->width;
+  streamMetadata.height = streamInfo.codecContext->height;
+  streamMetadata.sampleAspectRatio =
+      streamInfo.codecContext->sample_aspect_ratio;
+
+  if (seekMode_ == SeekMode::custom_frame_mappings) {
+    TORCH_CHECK(
+        customFrameMappings.has_value(),
+        "Missing frame mappings when custom_frame_mappings seek mode is set.");
+    readCustomFrameMappingsUpdateMetadataAndIndex(
+        streamIndex, customFrameMappings.value());
+  }
+}
+
+void SingleStreamDecoder::addAudioStream(
+    int streamIndex,
+    const AudioStreamOptions& audioStreamOptions) {
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      seekMode_ == SeekMode::approximate,
+      "seek_mode must be 'approximate' for audio streams.");
+  if (audioStreamOptions.numChannels.has_value()) {
+    TORCH_CHECK(
+        *audioStreamOptions.numChannels > 0 &&
+            *audioStreamOptions.numChannels <= AV_NUM_DATA_POINTERS,
+        "num_channels must be > 0 and <= AV_NUM_DATA_POINTERS (usually 8). Got: ",
+        *audioStreamOptions.numChannels);
+  }
+
+  addStream(streamIndex, AVMEDIA_TYPE_AUDIO);
+
+  auto& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+  streamInfo.audioStreamOptions = audioStreamOptions;
+
+  auto& streamMetadata =
+      containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata[activeStreamIndex_];
+  streamMetadata.sampleRate =
+      static_cast<int64_t>(streamInfo.codecContext->sample_rate);
+  streamMetadata.numChannels =
+      static_cast<int64_t>(getNumChannels(streamInfo.codecContext));
+
+  // FFmpeg docs say that the decoder will try to decode natively in this
+  // format, if it can. Docs don't say what the decoder does when it doesn't
+  // support that format, but it looks like it does nothing, so this probably
+  // doesn't hurt.
+  streamInfo.codecContext->request_sample_fmt = AV_SAMPLE_FMT_FLTP;
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// HIGH-LEVEL DECODING ENTRY-POINTS
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+FrameOutput SingleStreamDecoder::getNextFrame() {
+  auto output = getNextFrameInternal();
+  if (streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_].avMediaType == AVMEDIA_TYPE_VIDEO) {
+    output.data = maybePermuteHWC2CHW(output.data);
+  }
+  return output;
+}
+
+FrameOutput SingleStreamDecoder::getNextFrameInternal(
+    std::optional<torch::Tensor> preAllocatedOutputTensor) {
+  validateActiveStream();
+  UniqueAVFrame avFrame = decodeAVFrame([this](const UniqueAVFrame& avFrame) {
+    return getPtsOrDts(avFrame) >= cursor_;
+  });
+  return convertAVFrameToFrameOutput(avFrame, preAllocatedOutputTensor);
+}
+
+FrameOutput SingleStreamDecoder::getFrameAtIndex(int64_t frameIndex) {
+  auto frameOutput = getFrameAtIndexInternal(frameIndex);
+  frameOutput.data = maybePermuteHWC2CHW(frameOutput.data);
+  return frameOutput;
+}
+
+FrameOutput SingleStreamDecoder::getFrameAtIndexInternal(
+    int64_t frameIndex,
+    std::optional<torch::Tensor> preAllocatedOutputTensor) {
+  validateActiveStream(AVMEDIA_TYPE_VIDEO);
+
+  const auto& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+  const auto& streamMetadata =
+      containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata[activeStreamIndex_];
+
+  std::optional<int64_t> numFrames = getNumFrames(streamMetadata);
+  if (numFrames.has_value()) {
+    // If the frameIndex is negative, we convert it to a positive index
+    frameIndex = frameIndex >= 0 ? frameIndex : frameIndex + numFrames.value();
+  }
+  validateFrameIndex(streamMetadata, frameIndex);
+
+  int64_t pts = getPts(frameIndex);
+  setCursorPtsInSeconds(ptsToSeconds(pts, streamInfo.timeBase));
+  return getNextFrameInternal(preAllocatedOutputTensor);
+}
+
+FrameBatchOutput SingleStreamDecoder::getFramesAtIndices(
+    const std::vector<int64_t>& frameIndices) {
+  validateActiveStream(AVMEDIA_TYPE_VIDEO);
+
+  auto indicesAreSorted =
+      std::is_sorted(frameIndices.begin(), frameIndices.end());
+
+  std::vector<size_t> argsort;
+  if (!indicesAreSorted) {
+    // if frameIndices is [13, 10, 12, 11]
+    // when sorted, it's  [10, 11, 12, 13] <-- this is the sorted order we want
+    //                                         to use to decode the frames
+    // and argsort is     [ 1,  3,  2,  0]
+    argsort.resize(frameIndices.size());
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < argsort.size(); ++i) {
+      argsort[i] = i;
+    }
+    std::sort(
+        argsort.begin(), argsort.end(), [&frameIndices](size_t a, size_t b) {
+          return frameIndices[a] < frameIndices[b];
+        });
+  }
+
+  const auto& streamMetadata =
+      containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata[activeStreamIndex_];
+  const auto& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+  const auto& videoStreamOptions = streamInfo.videoStreamOptions;
+  FrameBatchOutput frameBatchOutput(
+      frameIndices.size(), videoStreamOptions, streamMetadata);
+
+  auto previousIndexInVideo = -1;
+  for (size_t f = 0; f < frameIndices.size(); ++f) {
+    auto indexInOutput = indicesAreSorted ? f : argsort[f];
+    auto indexInVideo = frameIndices[indexInOutput];
+
+    if ((f > 0) && (indexInVideo == previousIndexInVideo)) {
+      // Avoid decoding the same frame twice
+      auto previousIndexInOutput = indicesAreSorted ? f - 1 : argsort[f - 1];
+      frameBatchOutput.data[indexInOutput].copy_(
+          frameBatchOutput.data[previousIndexInOutput]);
+      frameBatchOutput.ptsSeconds[indexInOutput] =
+          frameBatchOutput.ptsSeconds[previousIndexInOutput];
+      frameBatchOutput.durationSeconds[indexInOutput] =
+          frameBatchOutput.durationSeconds[previousIndexInOutput];
+    } else {
+      FrameOutput frameOutput = getFrameAtIndexInternal(
+          indexInVideo, frameBatchOutput.data[indexInOutput]);
+      frameBatchOutput.ptsSeconds[indexInOutput] = frameOutput.ptsSeconds;
+      frameBatchOutput.durationSeconds[indexInOutput] =
+          frameOutput.durationSeconds;
+    }
+    previousIndexInVideo = indexInVideo;
+  }
+  frameBatchOutput.data = maybePermuteHWC2CHW(frameBatchOutput.data);
+  return frameBatchOutput;
+}
+
+FrameBatchOutput SingleStreamDecoder::getFramesInRange(
+    int64_t start,
+    int64_t stop,
+    int64_t step) {
+  validateActiveStream(AVMEDIA_TYPE_VIDEO);
+
+  const auto& streamMetadata =
+      containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata[activeStreamIndex_];
+  const auto& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      start >= 0, "Range start, " + std::to_string(start) + " is less than 0.");
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      step > 0, "Step must be greater than 0; is " + std::to_string(step));
+
+  // Note that if we do not have the number of frames available in our metadata,
+  // then we assume that the upper part of the range is valid.
+  std::optional<int64_t> numFrames = getNumFrames(streamMetadata);
+  if (numFrames.has_value()) {
+    TORCH_CHECK(
+        stop <= numFrames.value(),
+        "Range stop, " + std::to_string(stop) +
+            ", is more than the number of frames, " +
+            std::to_string(numFrames.value()));
+  }
+
+  int64_t numOutputFrames = std::ceil((stop - start) / double(step));
+  const auto& videoStreamOptions = streamInfo.videoStreamOptions;
+  FrameBatchOutput frameBatchOutput(
+      numOutputFrames, videoStreamOptions, streamMetadata);
+
+  for (int64_t i = start, f = 0; i < stop; i += step, ++f) {
+    FrameOutput frameOutput =
+        getFrameAtIndexInternal(i, frameBatchOutput.data[f]);
+    frameBatchOutput.ptsSeconds[f] = frameOutput.ptsSeconds;
+    frameBatchOutput.durationSeconds[f] = frameOutput.durationSeconds;
+  }
+  frameBatchOutput.data = maybePermuteHWC2CHW(frameBatchOutput.data);
+  return frameBatchOutput;
+}
+
+FrameOutput SingleStreamDecoder::getFramePlayedAt(double seconds) {
+  validateActiveStream(AVMEDIA_TYPE_VIDEO);
+  StreamInfo& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+  double lastDecodedStartTime =
+      ptsToSeconds(streamInfo.lastDecodedAvFramePts, streamInfo.timeBase);
+  double lastDecodedEndTime = ptsToSeconds(
+      streamInfo.lastDecodedAvFramePts + streamInfo.lastDecodedAvFrameDuration,
+      streamInfo.timeBase);
+  if (seconds >= lastDecodedStartTime && seconds < lastDecodedEndTime) {
+    // We are in the same frame as the one we just returned. However, since we
+    // don't cache it locally, we have to rewind back.
+    seconds = lastDecodedStartTime;
+  }
+
+  setCursorPtsInSeconds(seconds);
+  UniqueAVFrame avFrame =
+      decodeAVFrame([seconds, this](const UniqueAVFrame& avFrame) {
+        StreamInfo& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+        double frameStartTime =
+            ptsToSeconds(getPtsOrDts(avFrame), streamInfo.timeBase);
+        double frameEndTime = ptsToSeconds(
+            getPtsOrDts(avFrame) + getDuration(avFrame), streamInfo.timeBase);
+        if (frameStartTime > seconds) {
+          // FFMPEG seeked past the frame we are looking for even though we
+          // set max_ts to be our needed timestamp in avformat_seek_file()
+          // in maybeSeekToBeforeDesiredPts().
+          // This could be a bug in FFMPEG: https://trac.ffmpeg.org/ticket/11137
+          // In this case we return the very next frame instead of throwing an
+          // exception.
+          // TODO: Maybe log to stderr for Debug builds?
+          return true;
+        }
+        return seconds >= frameStartTime && seconds < frameEndTime;
+      });
+
+  // Convert the frame to tensor.
+  FrameOutput frameOutput = convertAVFrameToFrameOutput(avFrame);
+  frameOutput.data = maybePermuteHWC2CHW(frameOutput.data);
+  return frameOutput;
+}
+
+FrameBatchOutput SingleStreamDecoder::getFramesPlayedAt(
+    const std::vector<double>& timestamps) {
+  validateActiveStream(AVMEDIA_TYPE_VIDEO);
+
+  const auto& streamMetadata =
+      containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata[activeStreamIndex_];
+
+  double minSeconds = getMinSeconds(streamMetadata);
+  std::optional<double> maxSeconds = getMaxSeconds(streamMetadata);
+
+  // The frame played at timestamp t and the one played at timestamp `t +
+  // eps` are probably the same frame, with the same index. The easiest way to
+  // avoid decoding that unique frame twice is to convert the input timestamps
+  // to indices, and leverage the de-duplication logic of getFramesAtIndices.
+
+  std::vector<int64_t> frameIndices(timestamps.size());
+  for (size_t i = 0; i < timestamps.size(); ++i) {
+    auto frameSeconds = timestamps[i];
+    TORCH_CHECK(
+        frameSeconds >= minSeconds,
+        "frame pts is " + std::to_string(frameSeconds) +
+            "; must be greater than or equal to " + std::to_string(minSeconds) +
+            ".");
+
+    // Note that if we can't determine the maximum number of seconds from the
+    // metadata, then we assume the frame's pts is valid.
+    if (maxSeconds.has_value()) {
+      TORCH_CHECK(
+          frameSeconds < maxSeconds.value(),
+          "frame pts is " + std::to_string(frameSeconds) +
+              "; must be less than " + std::to_string(maxSeconds.value()) +
+              ".");
+    }
+
+    frameIndices[i] = secondsToIndexLowerBound(frameSeconds);
+  }
+
+  return getFramesAtIndices(frameIndices);
+}
+
+FrameBatchOutput SingleStreamDecoder::getFramesPlayedInRange(
+    double startSeconds,
+    double stopSeconds) {
+  validateActiveStream(AVMEDIA_TYPE_VIDEO);
+  const auto& streamMetadata =
+      containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata[activeStreamIndex_];
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      startSeconds <= stopSeconds,
+      "Start seconds (" + std::to_string(startSeconds) +
+          ") must be less than or equal to stop seconds (" +
+          std::to_string(stopSeconds) + ".");
+
+  const auto& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+  const auto& videoStreamOptions = streamInfo.videoStreamOptions;
+
+  // Special case needed to implement a half-open range. At first glance, this
+  // may seem unnecessary, as our search for stopFrame can return the end, and
+  // we don't include stopFramIndex in our output. However, consider the
+  // following scenario:
+  //
+  //   frame=0, pts=0.0
+  //   frame=1, pts=0.3
+  //
+  //   interval A: [0.2, 0.2)
+  //   interval B: [0.2, 0.15)
+  //
+  // Both intervals take place between the pts values for frame 0 and frame 1,
+  // which by our abstract player, means that both intervals map to frame 0. By
+  // the definition of a half open interval, interval A should return no frames.
+  // Interval B should return frame 0. However, for both A and B, the individual
+  // values of the intervals will map to the same frame indices below. Hence, we
+  // need this special case below.
+  if (startSeconds == stopSeconds) {
+    FrameBatchOutput frameBatchOutput(0, videoStreamOptions, streamMetadata);
+    frameBatchOutput.data = maybePermuteHWC2CHW(frameBatchOutput.data);
+    return frameBatchOutput;
+  }
+
+  double minSeconds = getMinSeconds(streamMetadata);
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      startSeconds >= minSeconds,
+      "Start seconds is " + std::to_string(startSeconds) +
+          "; must be greater than or equal to " + std::to_string(minSeconds) +
+          ".");
+
+  // Note that if we can't determine the maximum seconds from the metadata, then
+  // we assume upper range is valid.
+  std::optional<double> maxSeconds = getMaxSeconds(streamMetadata);
+  if (maxSeconds.has_value()) {
+    TORCH_CHECK(
+        startSeconds < maxSeconds.value(),
+        "Start seconds is " + std::to_string(startSeconds) +
+            "; must be less than " + std::to_string(maxSeconds.value()) + ".");
+    TORCH_CHECK(
+        stopSeconds <= maxSeconds.value(),
+        "Stop seconds (" + std::to_string(stopSeconds) +
+            "; must be less than or equal to " +
+            std::to_string(maxSeconds.value()) + ").");
+  }
+
+  // Note that we look at nextPts for a frame, and not its pts or duration.
+  // Our abstract player displays frames starting at the pts for that frame
+  // until the pts for the next frame. There are two consequences:
+  //
+  //   1. We ignore the duration for a frame. A frame is played until the
+  //   next frame replaces it. This model is robust to durations being 0 or
+  //   incorrect; our source of truth is the pts for frames. If duration is
+  //   accurate, the nextPts for a frame would be equivalent to pts +
+  //   duration.
+  //   2. In order to establish if the start of an interval maps to a
+  //   particular frame, we need to figure out if it is ordered after the
+  //   frame's pts, but before the next frames's pts.
+
+  int64_t startFrameIndex = secondsToIndexLowerBound(startSeconds);
+  int64_t stopFrameIndex = secondsToIndexUpperBound(stopSeconds);
+  int64_t numFrames = stopFrameIndex - startFrameIndex;
+
+  FrameBatchOutput frameBatchOutput(
+      numFrames, videoStreamOptions, streamMetadata);
+  for (int64_t i = startFrameIndex, f = 0; i < stopFrameIndex; ++i, ++f) {
+    FrameOutput frameOutput =
+        getFrameAtIndexInternal(i, frameBatchOutput.data[f]);
+    frameBatchOutput.ptsSeconds[f] = frameOutput.ptsSeconds;
+    frameBatchOutput.durationSeconds[f] = frameOutput.durationSeconds;
+  }
+  frameBatchOutput.data = maybePermuteHWC2CHW(frameBatchOutput.data);
+
+  return frameBatchOutput;
+}
+
+// Note [Audio Decoding Design]
+// This note explains why audio decoding is implemented the way it is, and why
+// it inherently differs from video decoding.
+//
+// Like for video, FFmpeg exposes the concept of a frame for audio streams. An
+// audio frame is a contiguous sequence of samples, where a sample consists of
+// `numChannels` values. An audio frame, or a sequence thereof, is always
+// converted into a tensor of shape `(numChannels, numSamplesPerChannel)`.
+//
+// The notion of 'frame' in audio isn't what users want to interact with. Users
+// want to interact with samples. The C++ and core APIs return frames, because
+// we want those to be close to FFmpeg concepts, but the higher-level public
+// APIs expose samples. As a result:
+// - We don't expose index-based APIs for audio, because that would mean
+//   exposing the concept of audio frame. For now, we think exposing time-based
+//   APIs is more natural.
+// - We never perform a scan for audio streams. We don't need to, since we won't
+//   be converting timestamps to indices. That's why we enforce the seek_mode
+//   to be "approximate" (which is slightly misleading, because technically the
+//   output samples will be at their exact positions. But this incongruence is
+//   only exposed at the C++/core private levels).
+//
+// Audio frames are of variable dimensions: in the same stream, a frame can
+// contain 1024 samples and the next one may contain 512 [1]. This makes it
+// impossible to stack audio frames in the same way we can stack video frames.
+// This is one of the main reasons we cannot reuse the same pre-allocation logic
+// we have for videos in getFramesPlayedInRange(): pre-allocating a batch
+// requires constant (and known) frame dimensions. That's also why
+// *concatenated* along the samples dimension, not stacked.
+//
+// [IMPORTANT!] There is one key invariant that we must respect when decoding
+// audio frames:
+//
+// BEFORE DECODING FRAME i, WE MUST DECODE ALL FRAMES j < i.
+//
+// Always. Why? We don't know. What we know is that if we don't, we get clipped,
+// incorrect audio as output [2]. All other (correct) libraries like TorchAudio
+// or Decord do something similar, whether it was intended or not. This has a
+// few implications:
+// - The **only** place we're allowed to seek to in an audio stream is the
+//   stream's beginning. This ensures that if we need a frame, we'll have
+//   decoded all previous frames.
+// - Because of that, we don't allow the public APIs to seek. Public APIs can
+//   call next() and `getFramesPlayedInRangeAudio()`, but they cannot manually
+//   seek.
+// - We try not to seek, when we can avoid it. Typically if the next frame we
+//   need is in the future, we don't seek back to the beginning, we just decode
+//   all the frames in-between.
+//
+// [2] If you're brave and curious, you can read the long "Seek offset for
+// audio" note in https://github.com/pytorch/torchcodec/pull/507/files, which
+// sums up past (and failed) attemps at working around this issue.
+AudioFramesOutput SingleStreamDecoder::getFramesPlayedInRangeAudio(
+    double startSeconds,
+    std::optional<double> stopSecondsOptional) {
+  validateActiveStream(AVMEDIA_TYPE_AUDIO);
+
+  if (stopSecondsOptional.has_value()) {
+    TORCH_CHECK(
+        startSeconds <= *stopSecondsOptional,
+        "Start seconds (" + std::to_string(startSeconds) +
+            ") must be less than or equal to stop seconds (" +
+            std::to_string(*stopSecondsOptional) + ").");
+  }
+
+  StreamInfo& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+
+  if (stopSecondsOptional.has_value() && startSeconds == *stopSecondsOptional) {
+    // For consistency with video
+    int numChannels = getNumChannels(streamInfo.codecContext);
+    return AudioFramesOutput{torch::empty({numChannels, 0}), 0.0};
+  }
+
+  auto startPts = secondsToClosestPts(startSeconds, streamInfo.timeBase);
+  if (startPts < streamInfo.lastDecodedAvFramePts +
+          streamInfo.lastDecodedAvFrameDuration) {
+    // If we need to seek backwards, then we have to seek back to the beginning
+    // of the stream.
+    // See [Audio Decoding Design].
+    setCursor(INT64_MIN);
+  }
+
+  // TODO-AUDIO Pre-allocate a long-enough tensor instead of creating a vec +
+  // cat(). This would save a copy. We know the duration of the output and the
+  // sample rate, so in theory we know the number of output samples.
+  std::vector<torch::Tensor> frames;
+
+  std::optional<double> firstFramePtsSeconds = std::nullopt;
+  auto stopPts = stopSecondsOptional.has_value()
+      ? secondsToClosestPts(*stopSecondsOptional, streamInfo.timeBase)
+      : INT64_MAX;
+  auto finished = false;
+  while (!finished) {
+    try {
+      UniqueAVFrame avFrame =
+          decodeAVFrame([startPts, stopPts](const UniqueAVFrame& avFrame) {
+            return startPts < getPtsOrDts(avFrame) + getDuration(avFrame) &&
+                stopPts > getPtsOrDts(avFrame);
+          });
+      auto frameOutput = convertAVFrameToFrameOutput(avFrame);
+      if (!firstFramePtsSeconds.has_value()) {
+        firstFramePtsSeconds = frameOutput.ptsSeconds;
+      }
+      frames.push_back(frameOutput.data);
+    } catch (const EndOfFileException& e) {
+      finished = true;
+    }
+
+    // If stopSeconds is in [begin, end] of the last decoded frame, we should
+    // stop decoding more frames. Note that if we were to use [begin, end),
+    // which may seem more natural, then we would decode the frame starting at
+    // stopSeconds, which isn't what we want!
+    auto lastDecodedAvFrameEnd = streamInfo.lastDecodedAvFramePts +
+        streamInfo.lastDecodedAvFrameDuration;
+    finished |= (streamInfo.lastDecodedAvFramePts) <= stopPts &&
+        (stopPts <= lastDecodedAvFrameEnd);
+  }
+
+  auto lastSamples = maybeFlushSwrBuffers();
+  if (lastSamples.has_value()) {
+    frames.push_back(*lastSamples);
+  }
+
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      frames.size() > 0 && firstFramePtsSeconds.has_value(),
+      "No audio frames were decoded. ",
+      "This is probably because start_seconds is too high(",
+      startSeconds,
+      "),",
+      "or because stop_seconds(",
+      stopSecondsOptional,
+      ") is too low.");
+
+  return AudioFramesOutput{torch::cat(frames, 1), *firstFramePtsSeconds};
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// SEEKING APIs
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+void SingleStreamDecoder::setCursorPtsInSeconds(double seconds) {
+  // We don't allow public audio decoding APIs to seek, see [Audio Decoding
+  // Design]
+  validateActiveStream(AVMEDIA_TYPE_VIDEO);
+  setCursor(
+      secondsToClosestPts(seconds, streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_].timeBase));
+}
+
+void SingleStreamDecoder::setCursor(int64_t pts) {
+  cursorWasJustSet_ = true;
+  cursor_ = pts;
+}
+
+/*
+Videos have I frames and non-I frames (P and B frames). Non-I frames need data
+from the previous I frame to be decoded.
+
+Imagine the cursor is at a random frame with PTS=lastDecodedAvFramePts (x for
+brevity) and we wish to seek to a user-specified PTS=y.
+
+If y < x, we don't have a choice but to seek backwards to the highest I frame
+before y.
+
+If y > x, we have two choices:
+
+1. We could keep decoding forward until we hit y. Illustrated below:
+
+I    P     P    P    I    P    P    P    I    P    P    I    P    P    I    P
+                          x         y
+
+2. We could try to jump to an I frame between x and y (indicated by j below).
+And then start decoding until we encounter y. Illustrated below:
+
+I    P     P    P    I    P    P    P    I    P    P    I    P    P    I    P
+                          x              j         y
+
+(2) is more efficient than (1) if there is an I frame between x and y.
+*/
+bool SingleStreamDecoder::canWeAvoidSeeking() const {
+  const StreamInfo& streamInfo = streamInfos_.at(activeStreamIndex_);
+  if (streamInfo.avMediaType == AVMEDIA_TYPE_AUDIO) {
+    // For audio, we only need to seek if a backwards seek was requested within
+    // getFramesPlayedInRangeAudio(), when setCursorPtsInSeconds() was called.
+    // For more context, see [Audio Decoding Design]
+    return !cursorWasJustSet_;
+  }
+  int64_t lastDecodedAvFramePts =
+      streamInfos_.at(activeStreamIndex_).lastDecodedAvFramePts;
+  if (cursor_ < lastDecodedAvFramePts) {
+    // We can never skip a seek if we are seeking backwards.
+    return false;
+  }
+  if (lastDecodedAvFramePts == cursor_) {
+    // We are seeking to the exact same frame as we are currently at. Without
+    // caching we have to rewind back and decode the frame again.
+    // TODO: https://github.com/pytorch/torchcodec/issues/84 we could
+    // implement caching.
+    return false;
+  }
+  // We are seeking forwards.
+  // We can only skip a seek if both lastDecodedAvFramePts and
+  // cursor_ share the same keyframe.
+  int lastDecodedAvFrameIndex = getKeyFrameIndexForPts(lastDecodedAvFramePts);
+  int targetKeyFrameIndex = getKeyFrameIndexForPts(cursor_);
+  return lastDecodedAvFrameIndex >= 0 && targetKeyFrameIndex >= 0 &&
+      lastDecodedAvFrameIndex == targetKeyFrameIndex;
+}
+
+// This method looks at currentPts and desiredPts and seeks in the
+// AVFormatContext if it is needed. We can skip seeking in certain cases. See
+// the comment of canWeAvoidSeeking() for details.
+void SingleStreamDecoder::maybeSeekToBeforeDesiredPts() {
+  validateActiveStream();
+  StreamInfo& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+
+  decodeStats_.numSeeksAttempted++;
+  if (canWeAvoidSeeking()) {
+    decodeStats_.numSeeksSkipped++;
+    return;
+  }
+
+  int64_t desiredPts = cursor_;
+
+  // For some encodings like H265, FFMPEG sometimes seeks past the point we
+  // set as the max_ts. So we use our own index to give it the exact pts of
+  // the key frame that we want to seek to.
+  // See https://github.com/pytorch/torchcodec/issues/179 for more details.
+  // See https://trac.ffmpeg.org/ticket/11137 for the underlying ffmpeg bug.
+  if (!streamInfo.keyFrames.empty()) {
+    int desiredKeyFrameIndex = getKeyFrameIndexForPtsUsingScannedIndex(
+        streamInfo.keyFrames, desiredPts);
+    desiredKeyFrameIndex = std::max(desiredKeyFrameIndex, 0);
+    desiredPts = streamInfo.keyFrames[desiredKeyFrameIndex].pts;
+  }
+
+  int status = avformat_seek_file(
+      formatContext_.get(),
+      streamInfo.streamIndex,
+      INT64_MIN,
+      desiredPts,
+      desiredPts,
+      0);
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      status >= 0,
+      "Could not seek file to pts=",
+      std::to_string(desiredPts),
+      ": ",
+      getFFMPEGErrorStringFromErrorCode(status));
+
+  decodeStats_.numFlushes++;
+  avcodec_flush_buffers(streamInfo.codecContext.get());
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// LOW-LEVEL DECODING
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+UniqueAVFrame SingleStreamDecoder::decodeAVFrame(
+    std::function<bool(const UniqueAVFrame&)> filterFunction) {
+  validateActiveStream();
+
+  resetDecodeStats();
+
+  if (cursorWasJustSet_) {
+    maybeSeekToBeforeDesiredPts();
+    cursorWasJustSet_ = false;
+  }
+
+  StreamInfo& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+
+  // Need to get the next frame or error from PopFrame.
+  UniqueAVFrame avFrame(av_frame_alloc());
+  AutoAVPacket autoAVPacket;
+  int status = AVSUCCESS;
+  bool reachedEOF = false;
+  while (true) {
+    status =
+        avcodec_receive_frame(streamInfo.codecContext.get(), avFrame.get());
+
+    if (status != AVSUCCESS && status != AVERROR(EAGAIN)) {
+      // Non-retriable error
+      break;
+    }
+
+    decodeStats_.numFramesReceivedByDecoder++;
+    // Is this the kind of frame we're looking for?
+    if (status == AVSUCCESS && filterFunction(avFrame)) {
+      // Yes, this is the frame we'll return; break out of the decoding loop.
+      break;
+    } else if (status == AVSUCCESS) {
+      // No, but we received a valid frame - just not the kind we're looking
+      // for. The logic below will read packets and send them to the decoder.
+      // But since we did just receive a frame, we should skip reading more
+      // packets and sending them to the decoder and just try to receive more
+      // frames from the decoder.
+      continue;
+    }
+
+    if (reachedEOF) {
+      // We don't have any more packets to receive. So keep on pulling frames
+      // from its internal buffers.
+      continue;
+    }
+
+    // We still haven't found the frame we're looking for. So let's read more
+    // packets and send them to the decoder.
+    ReferenceAVPacket packet(autoAVPacket);
+    do {
+      status = av_read_frame(formatContext_.get(), packet.get());
+      decodeStats_.numPacketsRead++;
+
+      if (status == AVERROR_EOF) {
+        // End of file reached. We must drain the codec by sending a nullptr
+        // packet.
+        status = avcodec_send_packet(
+            streamInfo.codecContext.get(),
+            /*avpkt=*/nullptr);
+        TORCH_CHECK(
+            status >= AVSUCCESS,
+            "Could not flush decoder: ",
+            getFFMPEGErrorStringFromErrorCode(status));
+
+        reachedEOF = true;
+        break;
+      }
+
+      TORCH_CHECK(
+          status >= AVSUCCESS,
+          "Could not read frame from input file: ",
+          getFFMPEGErrorStringFromErrorCode(status));
+
+    } while (packet->stream_index != activeStreamIndex_);
+
+    if (reachedEOF) {
+      // We don't have any more packets to send to the decoder. So keep on
+      // pulling frames from its internal buffers.
+      continue;
+    }
+
+    // We got a valid packet. Send it to the decoder, and we'll receive it in
+    // the next iteration.
+    status = avcodec_send_packet(streamInfo.codecContext.get(), packet.get());
+    TORCH_CHECK(
+        status >= AVSUCCESS,
+        "Could not push packet to decoder: ",
+        getFFMPEGErrorStringFromErrorCode(status));
+
+    decodeStats_.numPacketsSentToDecoder++;
+  }
+
+  if (status < AVSUCCESS) {
+    if (reachedEOF || status == AVERROR_EOF) {
+      throw SingleStreamDecoder::EndOfFileException(
+          "Requested next frame while there are no more frames left to "
+          "decode.");
+    }
+    TORCH_CHECK(
+        false,
+        "Could not receive frame from decoder: ",
+        getFFMPEGErrorStringFromErrorCode(status));
+  }
+
+  // Note that we don't flush the decoder when we reach EOF (even though that's
+  // mentioned in https://ffmpeg.org/doxygen/trunk/group__lavc__encdec.html).
+  // This is because we may have packets internally in the decoder that we
+  // haven't received as frames. Eventually we will either hit AVERROR_EOF from
+  // av_receive_frame() or the user will have seeked to a different location in
+  // the file and that will flush the decoder.
+  streamInfo.lastDecodedAvFramePts = getPtsOrDts(avFrame);
+  streamInfo.lastDecodedAvFrameDuration = getDuration(avFrame);
+
+  return avFrame;
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// AVFRAME <-> FRAME OUTPUT CONVERSION
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+FrameOutput SingleStreamDecoder::convertAVFrameToFrameOutput(
+    UniqueAVFrame& avFrame,
+    std::optional<torch::Tensor> preAllocatedOutputTensor) {
+  // Convert the frame to tensor.
+  FrameOutput frameOutput;
+  auto& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+  frameOutput.ptsSeconds = ptsToSeconds(
+      getPtsOrDts(avFrame),
+      formatContext_->streams[activeStreamIndex_]->time_base);
+  frameOutput.durationSeconds = ptsToSeconds(
+      getDuration(avFrame),
+      formatContext_->streams[activeStreamIndex_]->time_base);
+  if (streamInfo.avMediaType == AVMEDIA_TYPE_AUDIO) {
+    convertAudioAVFrameToFrameOutputOnCPU(avFrame, frameOutput);
+  } else if (deviceInterface_) {
+    deviceInterface_->convertAVFrameToFrameOutput(
+        streamInfo.videoStreamOptions,
+        streamInfo.timeBase,
+        avFrame,
+        frameOutput,
+        preAllocatedOutputTensor);
+  }
+  return frameOutput;
+}
+
+void SingleStreamDecoder::convertAudioAVFrameToFrameOutputOnCPU(
+    UniqueAVFrame& srcAVFrame,
+    FrameOutput& frameOutput) {
+  AVSampleFormat srcSampleFormat =
+      static_cast<AVSampleFormat>(srcAVFrame->format);
+  AVSampleFormat outSampleFormat = AV_SAMPLE_FMT_FLTP;
+
+  StreamInfo& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+  int srcSampleRate = srcAVFrame->sample_rate;
+  int outSampleRate =
+      streamInfo.audioStreamOptions.sampleRate.value_or(srcSampleRate);
+
+  int srcNumChannels = getNumChannels(streamInfo.codecContext);
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      srcNumChannels == getNumChannels(srcAVFrame),
+      "The frame has ",
+      getNumChannels(srcAVFrame),
+      " channels, expected ",
+      srcNumChannels,
+      ". If you are hitting this, it may be because you are using "
+      "a buggy FFmpeg version. FFmpeg4 is known to fail here in some "
+      "valid scenarios. Try to upgrade FFmpeg?");
+  int outNumChannels =
+      streamInfo.audioStreamOptions.numChannels.value_or(srcNumChannels);
+
+  bool mustConvert =
+      (srcSampleFormat != outSampleFormat || srcSampleRate != outSampleRate ||
+       srcNumChannels != outNumChannels);
+
+  UniqueAVFrame convertedAVFrame;
+  if (mustConvert) {
+    if (!streamInfo.swrContext) {
+      streamInfo.swrContext.reset(createSwrContext(
+          srcSampleFormat,
+          outSampleFormat,
+          srcSampleRate,
+          outSampleRate,
+          srcAVFrame,
+          outNumChannels));
+    }
+
+    convertedAVFrame = convertAudioAVFrameSamples(
+        streamInfo.swrContext,
+        srcAVFrame,
+        outSampleFormat,
+        outSampleRate,
+        outNumChannels);
+  }
+  const UniqueAVFrame& avFrame = mustConvert ? convertedAVFrame : srcAVFrame;
+
+  AVSampleFormat format = static_cast<AVSampleFormat>(avFrame->format);
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      format == outSampleFormat,
+      "Something went wrong, the frame didn't get converted to the desired format. ",
+      "Desired format = ",
+      av_get_sample_fmt_name(outSampleFormat),
+      "source format = ",
+      av_get_sample_fmt_name(format));
+
+  int numChannels = getNumChannels(avFrame);
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      numChannels == outNumChannels,
+      "Something went wrong, the frame didn't get converted to the desired ",
+      "number of channels = ",
+      outNumChannels,
+      ". Got ",
+      numChannels,
+      " instead.");
+
+  auto numSamples = avFrame->nb_samples; // per channel
+
+  frameOutput.data = torch::empty({numChannels, numSamples}, torch::kFloat32);
+
+  if (numSamples > 0) {
+    uint8_t* outputChannelData =
+        static_cast<uint8_t*>(frameOutput.data.data_ptr());
+    auto numBytesPerChannel = numSamples * av_get_bytes_per_sample(format);
+    for (auto channel = 0; channel < numChannels;
+         ++channel, outputChannelData += numBytesPerChannel) {
+      std::memcpy(
+          outputChannelData,
+          avFrame->extended_data[channel],
+          numBytesPerChannel);
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+std::optional<torch::Tensor> SingleStreamDecoder::maybeFlushSwrBuffers() {
+  // When sample rate conversion is involved, swresample buffers some of the
+  // samples in-between calls to swr_convert (see the libswresample docs).
+  // That's because the last few samples in a given frame require future samples
+  // from the next frame to be properly converted. This function flushes out the
+  // samples that are stored in swresample's buffers.
+  auto& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+  if (!streamInfo.swrContext) {
+    return std::nullopt;
+  }
+  auto numRemainingSamples = // this is an upper bound
+      swr_get_out_samples(streamInfo.swrContext.get(), 0);
+
+  if (numRemainingSamples == 0) {
+    return std::nullopt;
+  }
+
+  int numChannels = streamInfo.audioStreamOptions.numChannels.value_or(
+      getNumChannels(streamInfo.codecContext));
+  torch::Tensor lastSamples =
+      torch::empty({numChannels, numRemainingSamples}, torch::kFloat32);
+
+  std::vector<uint8_t*> outputBuffers(numChannels);
+  for (auto i = 0; i < numChannels; i++) {
+    outputBuffers[i] = static_cast<uint8_t*>(lastSamples[i].data_ptr());
+  }
+
+  auto actualNumRemainingSamples = swr_convert(
+      streamInfo.swrContext.get(),
+      outputBuffers.data(),
+      numRemainingSamples,
+      nullptr,
+      0);
+
+  return lastSamples.narrow(
+      /*dim=*/1, /*start=*/0, /*length=*/actualNumRemainingSamples);
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// OUTPUT ALLOCATION AND SHAPE CONVERSION
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+FrameBatchOutput::FrameBatchOutput(
+    int64_t numFrames,
+    const VideoStreamOptions& videoStreamOptions,
+    const StreamMetadata& streamMetadata)
+    : ptsSeconds(torch::empty({numFrames}, {torch::kFloat64})),
+      durationSeconds(torch::empty({numFrames}, {torch::kFloat64})) {
+  auto frameDims = getHeightAndWidthFromOptionsOrMetadata(
+      videoStreamOptions, streamMetadata);
+  int height = frameDims.height;
+  int width = frameDims.width;
+  data = allocateEmptyHWCTensor(
+      height, width, videoStreamOptions.device, numFrames);
+}
+
+// Returns a [N]CHW *view* of a [N]HWC input tensor, if the options require so.
+// The [N] leading batch-dimension is optional i.e. the input tensor can be 3D
+// or 4D.
+// Calling permute() is guaranteed to return a view as per the docs:
+// https://pytorch.org/docs/stable/generated/torch.permute.html
+torch::Tensor SingleStreamDecoder::maybePermuteHWC2CHW(
+    torch::Tensor& hwcTensor) {
+  if (streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_].videoStreamOptions.dimensionOrder ==
+      "NHWC") {
+    return hwcTensor;
+  }
+  auto numDimensions = hwcTensor.dim();
+  auto shape = hwcTensor.sizes();
+  if (numDimensions == 3) {
+    TORCH_CHECK(shape[2] == 3, "Not a HWC tensor: ", shape);
+    return hwcTensor.permute({2, 0, 1});
+  } else if (numDimensions == 4) {
+    TORCH_CHECK(shape[3] == 3, "Not a NHWC tensor: ", shape);
+    return hwcTensor.permute({0, 3, 1, 2});
+  } else {
+    TORCH_CHECK(
+        false, "Expected tensor with 3 or 4 dimensions, got ", numDimensions);
+  }
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// PTS <-> INDEX CONVERSIONS
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+int SingleStreamDecoder::getKeyFrameIndexForPts(int64_t pts) const {
+  const StreamInfo& streamInfo = streamInfos_.at(activeStreamIndex_);
+  if (streamInfo.keyFrames.empty()) {
+    return av_index_search_timestamp(
+        streamInfo.stream, pts, AVSEEK_FLAG_BACKWARD);
+  } else {
+    return getKeyFrameIndexForPtsUsingScannedIndex(streamInfo.keyFrames, pts);
+  }
+}
+
+int SingleStreamDecoder::getKeyFrameIndexForPtsUsingScannedIndex(
+    const std::vector<SingleStreamDecoder::FrameInfo>& keyFrames,
+    int64_t pts) const {
+  auto upperBound = std::upper_bound(
+      keyFrames.begin(),
+      keyFrames.end(),
+      pts,
+      [](int64_t pts, const SingleStreamDecoder::FrameInfo& frameInfo) {
+        return pts < frameInfo.pts;
+      });
+  if (upperBound == keyFrames.begin()) {
+    return -1;
+  }
+  return upperBound - 1 - keyFrames.begin();
+}
+
+int64_t SingleStreamDecoder::secondsToIndexLowerBound(double seconds) {
+  auto& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+  switch (seekMode_) {
+    case SeekMode::custom_frame_mappings:
+    case SeekMode::exact: {
+      auto frame = std::lower_bound(
+          streamInfo.allFrames.begin(),
+          streamInfo.allFrames.end(),
+          seconds,
+          [&streamInfo](const FrameInfo& info, double start) {
+            return ptsToSeconds(info.nextPts, streamInfo.timeBase) <= start;
+          });
+
+      return frame - streamInfo.allFrames.begin();
+    }
+    case SeekMode::approximate: {
+      auto& streamMetadata =
+          containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata[activeStreamIndex_];
+      TORCH_CHECK(
+          streamMetadata.averageFpsFromHeader.has_value(),
+          "Cannot use approximate mode since we couldn't find the average fps from the metadata.");
+      return std::floor(seconds * streamMetadata.averageFpsFromHeader.value());
+    }
+    default:
+      TORCH_CHECK(false, "Unknown SeekMode");
+  }
+}
+
+int64_t SingleStreamDecoder::secondsToIndexUpperBound(double seconds) {
+  auto& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+  switch (seekMode_) {
+    case SeekMode::custom_frame_mappings:
+    case SeekMode::exact: {
+      auto frame = std::upper_bound(
+          streamInfo.allFrames.begin(),
+          streamInfo.allFrames.end(),
+          seconds,
+          [&streamInfo](double stop, const FrameInfo& info) {
+            return stop <= ptsToSeconds(info.pts, streamInfo.timeBase);
+          });
+
+      return frame - streamInfo.allFrames.begin();
+    }
+    case SeekMode::approximate: {
+      auto& streamMetadata =
+          containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata[activeStreamIndex_];
+      TORCH_CHECK(
+          streamMetadata.averageFpsFromHeader.has_value(),
+          "Cannot use approximate mode since we couldn't find the average fps from the metadata.");
+      return std::ceil(seconds * streamMetadata.averageFpsFromHeader.value());
+    }
+    default:
+      TORCH_CHECK(false, "Unknown SeekMode");
+  }
+}
+
+int64_t SingleStreamDecoder::getPts(int64_t frameIndex) {
+  auto& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+  switch (seekMode_) {
+    case SeekMode::custom_frame_mappings:
+    case SeekMode::exact:
+      return streamInfo.allFrames[frameIndex].pts;
+    case SeekMode::approximate: {
+      auto& streamMetadata =
+          containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata[activeStreamIndex_];
+      TORCH_CHECK(
+          streamMetadata.averageFpsFromHeader.has_value(),
+          "Cannot use approximate mode since we couldn't find the average fps from the metadata.");
+      return secondsToClosestPts(
+          frameIndex / streamMetadata.averageFpsFromHeader.value(),
+          streamInfo.timeBase);
+    }
+    default:
+      TORCH_CHECK(false, "Unknown SeekMode");
+  }
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// STREAM AND METADATA APIS
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+std::optional<int64_t> SingleStreamDecoder::getNumFrames(
+    const StreamMetadata& streamMetadata) {
+  switch (seekMode_) {
+    case SeekMode::custom_frame_mappings:
+    case SeekMode::exact:
+      return streamMetadata.numFramesFromContent.value();
+    case SeekMode::approximate: {
+      return streamMetadata.numFramesFromHeader;
+    }
+    default:
+      TORCH_CHECK(false, "Unknown SeekMode");
+  }
+}
+
+double SingleStreamDecoder::getMinSeconds(
+    const StreamMetadata& streamMetadata) {
+  switch (seekMode_) {
+    case SeekMode::custom_frame_mappings:
+    case SeekMode::exact:
+      return streamMetadata.beginStreamPtsSecondsFromContent.value();
+    case SeekMode::approximate:
+      return 0;
+    default:
+      TORCH_CHECK(false, "Unknown SeekMode");
+  }
+}
+
+std::optional<double> SingleStreamDecoder::getMaxSeconds(
+    const StreamMetadata& streamMetadata) {
+  switch (seekMode_) {
+    case SeekMode::custom_frame_mappings:
+    case SeekMode::exact:
+      return streamMetadata.endStreamPtsSecondsFromContent.value();
+    case SeekMode::approximate: {
+      return streamMetadata.durationSecondsFromHeader;
+    }
+    default:
+      TORCH_CHECK(false, "Unknown SeekMode");
+  }
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// VALIDATION UTILS
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+void SingleStreamDecoder::validateActiveStream(
+    std::optional<AVMediaType> avMediaType) {
+  auto errorMsg =
+      "Provided stream index=" + std::to_string(activeStreamIndex_) +
+      " was not previously added.";
+  TORCH_CHECK(activeStreamIndex_ != NO_ACTIVE_STREAM, errorMsg);
+  TORCH_CHECK(streamInfos_.count(activeStreamIndex_) > 0, errorMsg);
+
+  int allStreamMetadataSize =
+      static_cast<int>(containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata.size());
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      activeStreamIndex_ >= 0 && activeStreamIndex_ < allStreamMetadataSize,
+      "Invalid stream index=" + std::to_string(activeStreamIndex_) +
+          "; valid indices are in the range [0, " +
+          std::to_string(allStreamMetadataSize) + ").");
+
+  if (avMediaType.has_value()) {
+    TORCH_CHECK(
+        streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_].avMediaType == avMediaType.value(),
+        "The method you called isn't supported. ",
+        "If you're seeing this error, you are probably trying to call an ",
+        "unsupported method on an audio stream.");
+  }
+}
+
+void SingleStreamDecoder::validateScannedAllStreams(const std::string& msg) {
+  TORCH_CHECK(
+      scannedAllStreams_,
+      "Must scan all streams to update metadata before calling ",
+      msg);
+}
+
+void SingleStreamDecoder::validateFrameIndex(
+    const StreamMetadata& streamMetadata,
+    int64_t frameIndex) {
+  if (frameIndex < 0) {
+    throw std::out_of_range(
+        "Invalid frame index=" + std::to_string(frameIndex) +
+        " for streamIndex=" + std::to_string(streamMetadata.streamIndex) +
+        "; negative indices must have an absolute value less than the number of frames, "
+        "and the number of frames must be known.");
+  }
+
+  // Note that if we do not have the number of frames available in our metadata,
+  // then we assume that the frameIndex is valid.
+  std::optional<int64_t> numFrames = getNumFrames(streamMetadata);
+  if (numFrames.has_value()) {
+    if (frameIndex >= numFrames.value()) {
+      throw std::out_of_range(
+          "Invalid frame index=" + std::to_string(frameIndex) +
+          " for streamIndex=" + std::to_string(streamMetadata.streamIndex) +
+          "; must be less than " + std::to_string(numFrames.value()));
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// MORALLY PRIVATE UTILS
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+SingleStreamDecoder::DecodeStats SingleStreamDecoder::getDecodeStats() const {
+  return decodeStats_;
+}
+
+std::ostream& operator<<(
+    std::ostream& os,
+    const SingleStreamDecoder::DecodeStats& stats) {
+  os << "DecodeStats{"
+     << "numFramesReceivedByDecoder=" << stats.numFramesReceivedByDecoder
+     << ", numPacketsRead=" << stats.numPacketsRead
+     << ", numPacketsSentToDecoder=" << stats.numPacketsSentToDecoder
+     << ", numSeeksAttempted=" << stats.numSeeksAttempted
+     << ", numSeeksSkipped=" << stats.numSeeksSkipped
+     << ", numFlushes=" << stats.numFlushes << "}";
+
+  return os;
+}
+
+void SingleStreamDecoder::resetDecodeStats() {
+  decodeStats_ = DecodeStats{};
+}
+
+double SingleStreamDecoder::getPtsSecondsForFrame(int64_t frameIndex) {
+  validateActiveStream(AVMEDIA_TYPE_VIDEO);
+  validateScannedAllStreams("getPtsSecondsForFrame");
+
+  const auto& streamInfo = streamInfos_[activeStreamIndex_];
+  const auto& streamMetadata =
+      containerMetadata_.allStreamMetadata[activeStreamIndex_];
+  validateFrameIndex(streamMetadata, frameIndex);
+
+  return ptsToSeconds(
+      streamInfo.allFrames[frameIndex].pts, streamInfo.timeBase);
+}
+
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// FrameDims APIs
+// --------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+FrameDims getHeightAndWidthFromResizedAVFrame(const AVFrame& resizedAVFrame) {
+  return FrameDims(resizedAVFrame.height, resizedAVFrame.width);
+}
+
+FrameDims getHeightAndWidthFromOptionsOrMetadata(
+    const VideoStreamOptions& videoStreamOptions,
+    const StreamMetadata& streamMetadata) {
+  return FrameDims(
+      videoStreamOptions.height.value_or(*streamMetadata.height),
+      videoStreamOptions.width.value_or(*streamMetadata.width));
+}
+
+FrameDims getHeightAndWidthFromOptionsOrAVFrame(
+    const VideoStreamOptions& videoStreamOptions,
+    const UniqueAVFrame& avFrame) {
+  return FrameDims(
+      videoStreamOptions.height.value_or(avFrame->height),
+      videoStreamOptions.width.value_or(avFrame->width));
+}
+
+SingleStreamDecoder::SeekMode seekModeFromString(std::string_view seekMode) {
+  if (seekMode == "exact") {
+    return SingleStreamDecoder::SeekMode::exact;
+  } else if (seekMode == "approximate") {
+    return SingleStreamDecoder::SeekMode::approximate;
+  } else if (seekMode == "custom_frame_mappings") {
+    return SingleStreamDecoder::SeekMode::custom_frame_mappings;
+  } else {
+    TORCH_CHECK(false, "Invalid seek mode: " + std::string(seekMode));
+  }
+}
+
+} // namespace facebook::torchcodec