torchaudio 2.7.0__cp313-cp313t-manylinux_2_28_x86_64.whl

torchaudio/functional/functional.py

@@ -0,0 +1,2535 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+
+import math
+import tempfile
+import warnings
+from collections.abc import Sequence
+from typing import List, Optional, Tuple, Union
+
+import torch
+import torchaudio
+from torch import Tensor
+from torchaudio._internal.module_utils import deprecated
+
+from .filtering import highpass_biquad, treble_biquad
+
+__all__ = [
+    "spectrogram",
+    "inverse_spectrogram",
+    "griffinlim",
+    "amplitude_to_DB",
+    "DB_to_amplitude",
+    "compute_deltas",
+    "melscale_fbanks",
+    "linear_fbanks",
+    "create_dct",
+    "compute_deltas",
+    "detect_pitch_frequency",
+    "DB_to_amplitude",
+    "mu_law_encoding",
+    "mu_law_decoding",
+    "phase_vocoder",
+    "mask_along_axis",
+    "mask_along_axis_iid",
+    "sliding_window_cmn",
+    "spectral_centroid",
+    "apply_codec",
+    "resample",
+    "edit_distance",
+    "loudness",
+    "pitch_shift",
+    "rnnt_loss",
+    "psd",
+    "mvdr_weights_souden",
+    "mvdr_weights_rtf",
+    "rtf_evd",
+    "rtf_power",
+    "apply_beamforming",
+    "fftconvolve",
+    "convolve",
+    "add_noise",
+    "speed",
+    "preemphasis",
+    "deemphasis",
+]
+
+
+def spectrogram(
+    waveform: Tensor,
+    pad: int,
+    window: Tensor,
+    n_fft: int,
+    hop_length: int,
+    win_length: int,
+    power: Optional[float],
+    normalized: Union[bool, str],
+    center: bool = True,
+    pad_mode: str = "reflect",
+    onesided: bool = True,
+    return_complex: Optional[bool] = None,
+) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Create a spectrogram or a batch of spectrograms from a raw audio signal.
+    The spectrogram can be either magnitude-only or complex.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        waveform (Tensor): Tensor of audio of dimension `(..., time)`
+        pad (int): Two sided padding of signal
+        window (Tensor): Window tensor that is applied/multiplied to each frame/window
+        n_fft (int): Size of FFT
+        hop_length (int): Length of hop between STFT windows
+        win_length (int): Window size
+        power (float or None): Exponent for the magnitude spectrogram,
+            (must be > 0) e.g., 1 for magnitude, 2 for power, etc.
+            If None, then the complex spectrum is returned instead.
+        normalized (bool or str): Whether to normalize by magnitude after stft. If input is str, choices are
+            ``"window"`` and ``"frame_length"``, if specific normalization type is desirable. ``True`` maps to
+            ``"window"``. When normalized on ``"window"``, waveform is normalized upon the window's L2 energy. If
+            normalized on ``"frame_length"``, waveform is normalized by dividing by
+            :math:`(\text{frame\_length})^{0.5}`.
+        center (bool, optional): whether to pad :attr:`waveform` on both sides so
+            that the :math:`t`-th frame is centered at time :math:`t \times \text{hop\_length}`.
+            Default: ``True``
+        pad_mode (string, optional): controls the padding method used when
+            :attr:`center` is ``True``. Default: ``"reflect"``
+        onesided (bool, optional): controls whether to return half of results to
+            avoid redundancy. Default: ``True``
+        return_complex (bool, optional):
+            Deprecated and not used.
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Dimension `(..., freq, time)`, freq is
+        ``n_fft // 2 + 1`` and ``n_fft`` is the number of
+        Fourier bins, and time is the number of window hops (n_frame).
+    """
+    if return_complex is not None:
+        warnings.warn(
+            "`return_complex` argument is now deprecated and is not effective."
+            "`torchaudio.functional.spectrogram(power=None)` always returns a tensor with "
+            "complex dtype. Please remove the argument in the function call."
+        )
+
+    if pad > 0:
+        # TODO add "with torch.no_grad():" back when JIT supports it
+        waveform = torch.nn.functional.pad(waveform, (pad, pad), "constant")
+
+    frame_length_norm, window_norm = _get_spec_norms(normalized)
+
+    # pack batch
+    shape = waveform.size()
+    waveform = waveform.reshape(-1, shape[-1])
+
+    # default values are consistent with librosa.core.spectrum._spectrogram
+    spec_f = torch.stft(
+        input=waveform,
+        n_fft=n_fft,
+        hop_length=hop_length,
+        win_length=win_length,
+        window=window,
+        center=center,
+        pad_mode=pad_mode,
+        normalized=frame_length_norm,
+        onesided=onesided,
+        return_complex=True,
+    )
+
+    # unpack batch
+    spec_f = spec_f.reshape(shape[:-1] + spec_f.shape[-2:])
+
+    if window_norm:
+        spec_f /= window.pow(2.0).sum().sqrt()
+    if power is not None:
+        if power == 1.0:
+            return spec_f.abs()
+        return spec_f.abs().pow(power)
+    return spec_f
+
+
+def inverse_spectrogram(
+    spectrogram: Tensor,
+    length: Optional[int],
+    pad: int,
+    window: Tensor,
+    n_fft: int,
+    hop_length: int,
+    win_length: int,
+    normalized: Union[bool, str],
+    center: bool = True,
+    pad_mode: str = "reflect",
+    onesided: bool = True,
+) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Create an inverse spectrogram or a batch of inverse spectrograms from the provided
+    complex-valued spectrogram.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        spectrogram (Tensor): Complex tensor of audio of dimension (..., freq, time).
+        length (int or None): The output length of the waveform.
+        pad (int): Two sided padding of signal. It is only effective when ``length`` is provided.
+        window (Tensor): Window tensor that is applied/multiplied to each frame/window
+        n_fft (int): Size of FFT
+        hop_length (int): Length of hop between STFT windows
+        win_length (int): Window size
+        normalized (bool or str): Whether the stft output was normalized by magnitude. If input is str, choices are
+            ``"window"`` and ``"frame_length"``, dependent on normalization mode. ``True`` maps to
+            ``"window"``.
+        center (bool, optional): whether the waveform was padded on both sides so
+            that the :math:`t`-th frame is centered at time :math:`t \times \text{hop\_length}`.
+            Default: ``True``
+        pad_mode (string, optional): controls the padding method used when
+            :attr:`center` is ``True``. This parameter is provided for compatibility with the
+            spectrogram function and is not used. Default: ``"reflect"``
+        onesided (bool, optional): controls whether spectrogram was done in onesided mode.
+            Default: ``True``
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Dimension `(..., time)`. Least squares estimation of the original signal.
+    """
+
+    frame_length_norm, window_norm = _get_spec_norms(normalized)
+
+    if not spectrogram.is_complex():
+        raise ValueError("Expected `spectrogram` to be complex dtype.")
+
+    if window_norm:
+        spectrogram = spectrogram * window.pow(2.0).sum().sqrt()
+
+    # pack batch
+    shape = spectrogram.size()
+    spectrogram = spectrogram.reshape(-1, shape[-2], shape[-1])
+
+    # default values are consistent with librosa.core.spectrum._spectrogram
+    waveform = torch.istft(
+        input=spectrogram,
+        n_fft=n_fft,
+        hop_length=hop_length,
+        win_length=win_length,
+        window=window,
+        center=center,
+        normalized=frame_length_norm,
+        onesided=onesided,
+        length=length + 2 * pad if length is not None else None,
+        return_complex=False,
+    )
+
+    if length is not None and pad > 0:
+        # remove padding from front and back
+        waveform = waveform[:, pad:-pad]
+
+    # unpack batch
+    waveform = waveform.reshape(shape[:-2] + waveform.shape[-1:])
+
+    return waveform
+
+
+def _get_spec_norms(normalized: Union[str, bool]):
+    frame_length_norm, window_norm = False, False
+    if torch.jit.isinstance(normalized, str):
+        if normalized not in ["frame_length", "window"]:
+            raise ValueError("Invalid normalized parameter: {}".format(normalized))
+        if normalized == "frame_length":
+            frame_length_norm = True
+        elif normalized == "window":
+            window_norm = True
+    elif torch.jit.isinstance(normalized, bool):
+        if normalized:
+            window_norm = True
+    else:
+        raise TypeError("Input type not supported")
+    return frame_length_norm, window_norm
+
+
+def _get_complex_dtype(real_dtype: torch.dtype):
+    if real_dtype == torch.double:
+        return torch.cdouble
+    if real_dtype == torch.float:
+        return torch.cfloat
+    if real_dtype == torch.half:
+        return torch.complex32
+    raise ValueError(f"Unexpected dtype {real_dtype}")
+
+
+def griffinlim(
+    specgram: Tensor,
+    window: Tensor,
+    n_fft: int,
+    hop_length: int,
+    win_length: int,
+    power: float,
+    n_iter: int,
+    momentum: float,
+    length: Optional[int],
+    rand_init: bool,
+) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Compute waveform from a linear scale magnitude spectrogram using the Griffin-Lim transformation.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Implementation ported from
+    *librosa* :cite:`brian_mcfee-proc-scipy-2015`, *A fast Griffin-Lim algorithm* :cite:`6701851`
+    and *Signal estimation from modified short-time Fourier transform* :cite:`1172092`.
+
+    Args:
+        specgram (Tensor): A magnitude-only STFT spectrogram of dimension `(..., freq, frames)`
+            where freq is ``n_fft // 2 + 1``.
+        window (Tensor): Window tensor that is applied/multiplied to each frame/window
+        n_fft (int): Size of FFT, creates ``n_fft // 2 + 1`` bins
+        hop_length (int): Length of hop between STFT windows. (
+            Default: ``win_length // 2``)
+        win_length (int): Window size. (Default: ``n_fft``)
+        power (float): Exponent for the magnitude spectrogram,
+            (must be > 0) e.g., 1 for magnitude, 2 for power, etc.
+        n_iter (int): Number of iteration for phase recovery process.
+        momentum (float): The momentum parameter for fast Griffin-Lim.
+            Setting this to 0 recovers the original Griffin-Lim method.
+            Values near 1 can lead to faster convergence, but above 1 may not converge.
+        length (int or None): Array length of the expected output.
+        rand_init (bool): Initializes phase randomly if True, to zero otherwise.
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: waveform of `(..., time)`, where time equals the ``length`` parameter if given.
+    """
+    if not 0 <= momentum < 1:
+        raise ValueError("momentum must be in range [0, 1). Found: {}".format(momentum))
+
+    momentum = momentum / (1 + momentum)
+
+    # pack batch
+    shape = specgram.size()
+    specgram = specgram.reshape([-1] + list(shape[-2:]))
+
+    specgram = specgram.pow(1 / power)
+
+    # initialize the phase
+    if rand_init:
+        angles = torch.rand(specgram.size(), dtype=_get_complex_dtype(specgram.dtype), device=specgram.device)
+    else:
+        angles = torch.full(specgram.size(), 1, dtype=_get_complex_dtype(specgram.dtype), device=specgram.device)
+
+    # And initialize the previous iterate to 0
+    tprev = torch.tensor(0.0, dtype=specgram.dtype, device=specgram.device)
+    for _ in range(n_iter):
+        # Invert with our current estimate of the phases
+        inverse = torch.istft(
+            specgram * angles, n_fft=n_fft, hop_length=hop_length, win_length=win_length, window=window, length=length
+        )
+
+        # Rebuild the spectrogram
+        rebuilt = torch.stft(
+            input=inverse,
+            n_fft=n_fft,
+            hop_length=hop_length,
+            win_length=win_length,
+            window=window,
+            center=True,
+            pad_mode="reflect",
+            normalized=False,
+            onesided=True,
+            return_complex=True,
+        )
+
+        # Update our phase estimates
+        angles = rebuilt
+        if momentum:
+            angles = angles - tprev.mul_(momentum)
+        angles = angles.div(angles.abs().add(1e-16))
+
+        # Store the previous iterate
+        tprev = rebuilt
+
+    # Return the final phase estimates
+    waveform = torch.istft(
+        specgram * angles, n_fft=n_fft, hop_length=hop_length, win_length=win_length, window=window, length=length
+    )
+
+    # unpack batch
+    waveform = waveform.reshape(shape[:-2] + waveform.shape[-1:])
+
+    return waveform
+
+
+def amplitude_to_DB(
+    x: Tensor, multiplier: float, amin: float, db_multiplier: float, top_db: Optional[float] = None
+) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Turn a spectrogram from the power/amplitude scale to the decibel scale.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    The output of each tensor in a batch depends on the maximum value of that tensor,
+    and so may return different values for an audio clip split into snippets vs. a full clip.
+
+    Args:
+
+        x (Tensor): Input spectrogram(s) before being converted to decibel scale.
+            The expected shapes are ``(freq, time)``, ``(channel, freq, time)`` or
+            ``(..., batch, channel, freq, time)``.
+
+            .. note::
+
+               When ``top_db`` is specified, cut-off values are computed for each audio
+               in the batch. Therefore if the input shape is 4D (or larger), different
+               cut-off values are used for audio data in the batch.
+               If the input shape is 2D or 3D, a single cutoff value is used.
+
+        multiplier (float): Use 10. for power and 20. for amplitude
+        amin (float): Number to clamp ``x``
+        db_multiplier (float): Log10(max(reference value and amin))
+        top_db (float or None, optional): Minimum negative cut-off in decibels. A reasonable number
+            is 80. (Default: ``None``)
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Output tensor in decibel scale
+    """
+    x_db = multiplier * torch.log10(torch.clamp(x, min=amin))
+    x_db -= multiplier * db_multiplier
+
+    if top_db is not None:
+        # Expand batch
+        shape = x_db.size()
+        packed_channels = shape[-3] if x_db.dim() > 2 else 1
+        x_db = x_db.reshape(-1, packed_channels, shape[-2], shape[-1])
+
+        x_db = torch.max(x_db, (x_db.amax(dim=(-3, -2, -1)) - top_db).view(-1, 1, 1, 1))
+
+        # Repack batch
+        x_db = x_db.reshape(shape)
+
+    return x_db
+
+
+def DB_to_amplitude(x: Tensor, ref: float, power: float) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Turn a tensor from the decibel scale to the power/amplitude scale.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        x (Tensor): Input tensor before being converted to power/amplitude scale.
+        ref (float): Reference which the output will be scaled by.
+        power (float): If power equals 1, will compute DB to power. If 0.5, will compute DB to amplitude.
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Output tensor in power/amplitude scale.
+    """
+    return ref * torch.pow(torch.pow(10.0, 0.1 * x), power)
+
+
+def _hz_to_mel(freq: float, mel_scale: str = "htk") -> float:
+    r"""Convert Hz to Mels.
+
+    Args:
+        freqs (float): Frequencies in Hz
+        mel_scale (str, optional): Scale to use: ``htk`` or ``slaney``. (Default: ``htk``)
+
+    Returns:
+        mels (float): Frequency in Mels
+    """
+
+    if mel_scale not in ["slaney", "htk"]:
+        raise ValueError('mel_scale should be one of "htk" or "slaney".')
+
+    if mel_scale == "htk":
+        return 2595.0 * math.log10(1.0 + (freq / 700.0))
+
+    # Fill in the linear part
+    f_min = 0.0
+    f_sp = 200.0 / 3
+
+    mels = (freq - f_min) / f_sp
+
+    # Fill in the log-scale part
+    min_log_hz = 1000.0
+    min_log_mel = (min_log_hz - f_min) / f_sp
+    logstep = math.log(6.4) / 27.0
+
+    if freq >= min_log_hz:
+        mels = min_log_mel + math.log(freq / min_log_hz) / logstep
+
+    return mels
+
+
+def _mel_to_hz(mels: Tensor, mel_scale: str = "htk") -> Tensor:
+    """Convert mel bin numbers to frequencies.
+
+    Args:
+        mels (Tensor): Mel frequencies
+        mel_scale (str, optional): Scale to use: ``htk`` or ``slaney``. (Default: ``htk``)
+
+    Returns:
+        freqs (Tensor): Mels converted in Hz
+    """
+
+    if mel_scale not in ["slaney", "htk"]:
+        raise ValueError('mel_scale should be one of "htk" or "slaney".')
+
+    if mel_scale == "htk":
+        return 700.0 * (10.0 ** (mels / 2595.0) - 1.0)
+
+    # Fill in the linear scale
+    f_min = 0.0
+    f_sp = 200.0 / 3
+    freqs = f_min + f_sp * mels
+
+    # And now the nonlinear scale
+    min_log_hz = 1000.0
+    min_log_mel = (min_log_hz - f_min) / f_sp
+    logstep = math.log(6.4) / 27.0
+
+    log_t = mels >= min_log_mel
+    freqs[log_t] = min_log_hz * torch.exp(logstep * (mels[log_t] - min_log_mel))
+
+    return freqs
+
+
+def _create_triangular_filterbank(
+    all_freqs: Tensor,
+    f_pts: Tensor,
+) -> Tensor:
+    """Create a triangular filter bank.
+
+    Args:
+        all_freqs (Tensor): STFT freq points of size (`n_freqs`).
+        f_pts (Tensor): Filter mid points of size (`n_filter`).
+
+    Returns:
+        fb (Tensor): The filter bank of size (`n_freqs`, `n_filter`).
+    """
+    # Adopted from Librosa
+    # calculate the difference between each filter mid point and each stft freq point in hertz
+    f_diff = f_pts[1:] - f_pts[:-1]  # (n_filter + 1)
+    slopes = f_pts.unsqueeze(0) - all_freqs.unsqueeze(1)  # (n_freqs, n_filter + 2)
+    # create overlapping triangles
+    zero = torch.zeros(1)
+    down_slopes = (-1.0 * slopes[:, :-2]) / f_diff[:-1]  # (n_freqs, n_filter)
+    up_slopes = slopes[:, 2:] / f_diff[1:]  # (n_freqs, n_filter)
+    fb = torch.max(zero, torch.min(down_slopes, up_slopes))
+
+    return fb
+
+
+def melscale_fbanks(
+    n_freqs: int,
+    f_min: float,
+    f_max: float,
+    n_mels: int,
+    sample_rate: int,
+    norm: Optional[str] = None,
+    mel_scale: str = "htk",
+) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Create a frequency bin conversion matrix.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU
+
+    .. properties:: TorchScript
+
+    Note:
+        For the sake of the numerical compatibility with librosa, not all the coefficients
+        in the resulting filter bank has magnitude of 1.
+
+        .. image:: https://download.pytorch.org/torchaudio/doc-assets/mel_fbanks.png
+           :alt: Visualization of generated filter bank
+
+    Args:
+        n_freqs (int): Number of frequencies to highlight/apply
+        f_min (float): Minimum frequency (Hz)
+        f_max (float): Maximum frequency (Hz)
+        n_mels (int): Number of mel filterbanks
+        sample_rate (int): Sample rate of the audio waveform
+        norm (str or None, optional): If "slaney", divide the triangular mel weights by the width of the mel band
+            (area normalization). (Default: ``None``)
+        mel_scale (str, optional): Scale to use: ``htk`` or ``slaney``. (Default: ``htk``)
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Triangular filter banks (fb matrix) of size (``n_freqs``, ``n_mels``)
+        meaning number of frequencies to highlight/apply to x the number of filterbanks.
+        Each column is a filterbank so that assuming there is a matrix A of
+        size (..., ``n_freqs``), the applied result would be
+        ``A @ melscale_fbanks(A.size(-1), ...)``.
+
+    """
+
+    if norm is not None and norm != "slaney":
+        raise ValueError('norm must be one of None or "slaney"')
+
+    # freq bins
+    all_freqs = torch.linspace(0, sample_rate // 2, n_freqs)
+
+    # calculate mel freq bins
+    m_min = _hz_to_mel(f_min, mel_scale=mel_scale)
+    m_max = _hz_to_mel(f_max, mel_scale=mel_scale)
+
+    m_pts = torch.linspace(m_min, m_max, n_mels + 2)
+    f_pts = _mel_to_hz(m_pts, mel_scale=mel_scale)
+
+    # create filterbank
+    fb = _create_triangular_filterbank(all_freqs, f_pts)
+
+    if norm is not None and norm == "slaney":
+        # Slaney-style mel is scaled to be approx constant energy per channel
+        enorm = 2.0 / (f_pts[2 : n_mels + 2] - f_pts[:n_mels])
+        fb *= enorm.unsqueeze(0)
+
+    if (fb.max(dim=0).values == 0.0).any():
+        warnings.warn(
+            "At least one mel filterbank has all zero values. "
+            f"The value for `n_mels` ({n_mels}) may be set too high. "
+            f"Or, the value for `n_freqs` ({n_freqs}) may be set too low."
+        )
+
+    return fb
+
+
+def linear_fbanks(
+    n_freqs: int,
+    f_min: float,
+    f_max: float,
+    n_filter: int,
+    sample_rate: int,
+) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Creates a linear triangular filterbank.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU
+
+    .. properties:: TorchScript
+
+    Note:
+        For the sake of the numerical compatibility with librosa, not all the coefficients
+        in the resulting filter bank has magnitude of 1.
+
+        .. image:: https://download.pytorch.org/torchaudio/doc-assets/lin_fbanks.png
+           :alt: Visualization of generated filter bank
+
+    Args:
+        n_freqs (int): Number of frequencies to highlight/apply
+        f_min (float): Minimum frequency (Hz)
+        f_max (float): Maximum frequency (Hz)
+        n_filter (int): Number of (linear) triangular filter
+        sample_rate (int): Sample rate of the audio waveform
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Triangular filter banks (fb matrix) of size (``n_freqs``, ``n_filter``)
+        meaning number of frequencies to highlight/apply to x the number of filterbanks.
+        Each column is a filterbank so that assuming there is a matrix A of
+        size (..., ``n_freqs``), the applied result would be
+        ``A * linear_fbanks(A.size(-1), ...)``.
+    """
+    # freq bins
+    all_freqs = torch.linspace(0, sample_rate // 2, n_freqs)
+
+    # filter mid-points
+    f_pts = torch.linspace(f_min, f_max, n_filter + 2)
+
+    # create filterbank
+    fb = _create_triangular_filterbank(all_freqs, f_pts)
+
+    return fb
+
+
+def create_dct(n_mfcc: int, n_mels: int, norm: Optional[str]) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Create a DCT transformation matrix with shape (``n_mels``, ``n_mfcc``),
+    normalized depending on norm.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU
+
+    .. properties:: TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        n_mfcc (int): Number of mfc coefficients to retain
+        n_mels (int): Number of mel filterbanks
+        norm (str or None): Norm to use (either "ortho" or None)
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: The transformation matrix, to be right-multiplied to
+        row-wise data of size (``n_mels``, ``n_mfcc``).
+    """
+
+    if norm is not None and norm != "ortho":
+        raise ValueError('norm must be either "ortho" or None')
+
+    # http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform#DCT-II
+    n = torch.arange(float(n_mels))
+    k = torch.arange(float(n_mfcc)).unsqueeze(1)
+    dct = torch.cos(math.pi / float(n_mels) * (n + 0.5) * k)  # size (n_mfcc, n_mels)
+
+    if norm is None:
+        dct *= 2.0
+    else:
+        dct[0] *= 1.0 / math.sqrt(2.0)
+        dct *= math.sqrt(2.0 / float(n_mels))
+    return dct.t()
+
+
+def mu_law_encoding(x: Tensor, quantization_channels: int) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Encode signal based on mu-law companding.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: TorchScript
+
+    For more info see the
+    `Wikipedia Entry <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C-law_algorithm>`_
+
+    This algorithm expects the signal has been scaled to between -1 and 1 and
+    returns a signal encoded with values from 0 to quantization_channels - 1.
+
+    Args:
+        x (Tensor): Input tensor
+        quantization_channels (int): Number of channels
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Input after mu-law encoding
+    """
+    mu = quantization_channels - 1.0
+    if not x.is_floating_point():
+        warnings.warn(
+            "The input Tensor must be of floating type. \
+            This will be an error in the v0.12 release."
+        )
+        x = x.to(torch.float)
+    mu = torch.tensor(mu, dtype=x.dtype)
+    x_mu = torch.sign(x) * torch.log1p(mu * torch.abs(x)) / torch.log1p(mu)
+    x_mu = ((x_mu + 1) / 2 * mu + 0.5).to(torch.int64)
+    return x_mu
+
+
+def mu_law_decoding(x_mu: Tensor, quantization_channels: int) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Decode mu-law encoded signal.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: TorchScript
+
+    For more info see the
+    `Wikipedia Entry <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C-law_algorithm>`_
+
+    This expects an input with values between 0 and quantization_channels - 1
+    and returns a signal scaled between -1 and 1.
+
+    Args:
+        x_mu (Tensor): Input tensor
+        quantization_channels (int): Number of channels
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Input after mu-law decoding
+    """
+    mu = quantization_channels - 1.0
+    if not x_mu.is_floating_point():
+        x_mu = x_mu.to(torch.float)
+    mu = torch.tensor(mu, dtype=x_mu.dtype)
+    x = ((x_mu) / mu) * 2 - 1.0
+    x = torch.sign(x) * (torch.exp(torch.abs(x) * torch.log1p(mu)) - 1.0) / mu
+    return x
+
+
+def phase_vocoder(complex_specgrams: Tensor, rate: float, phase_advance: Tensor) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Given a STFT tensor, speed up in time without modifying pitch by a factor of ``rate``.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        complex_specgrams (Tensor):
+            A tensor of dimension `(..., freq, num_frame)` with complex dtype.
+        rate (float): Speed-up factor
+        phase_advance (Tensor): Expected phase advance in each bin. Dimension of `(freq, 1)`
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor:
+            Stretched spectrogram. The resulting tensor is of the same dtype as the input
+            spectrogram, but the number of frames is changed to ``ceil(num_frame / rate)``.
+
+    Example
+        >>> freq, hop_length = 1025, 512
+        >>> # (channel, freq, time)
+        >>> complex_specgrams = torch.randn(2, freq, 300, dtype=torch.cfloat)
+        >>> rate = 1.3 # Speed up by 30%
+        >>> phase_advance = torch.linspace(
+        >>>    0, math.pi * hop_length, freq)[..., None]
+        >>> x = phase_vocoder(complex_specgrams, rate, phase_advance)
+        >>> x.shape # with 231 == ceil(300 / 1.3)
+        torch.Size([2, 1025, 231])
+    """
+    if rate == 1.0:
+        return complex_specgrams
+
+    # pack batch
+    shape = complex_specgrams.size()
+    complex_specgrams = complex_specgrams.reshape([-1] + list(shape[-2:]))
+
+    # Figures out the corresponding real dtype, i.e. complex128 -> float64, complex64 -> float32
+    # Note torch.real is a view so it does not incur any memory copy.
+    real_dtype = torch.real(complex_specgrams).dtype
+    time_steps = torch.arange(0, complex_specgrams.size(-1), rate, device=complex_specgrams.device, dtype=real_dtype)
+
+    alphas = time_steps % 1.0
+    phase_0 = complex_specgrams[..., :1].angle()
+
+    # Time Padding
+    complex_specgrams = torch.nn.functional.pad(complex_specgrams, [0, 2])
+
+    # (new_bins, freq, 2)
+    complex_specgrams_0 = complex_specgrams.index_select(-1, time_steps.long())
+    complex_specgrams_1 = complex_specgrams.index_select(-1, (time_steps + 1).long())
+
+    angle_0 = complex_specgrams_0.angle()
+    angle_1 = complex_specgrams_1.angle()
+
+    norm_0 = complex_specgrams_0.abs()
+    norm_1 = complex_specgrams_1.abs()
+
+    phase = angle_1 - angle_0 - phase_advance
+    phase = phase - 2 * math.pi * torch.round(phase / (2 * math.pi))
+
+    # Compute Phase Accum
+    phase = phase + phase_advance
+    phase = torch.cat([phase_0, phase[..., :-1]], dim=-1)
+    phase_acc = torch.cumsum(phase, -1)
+
+    mag = alphas * norm_1 + (1 - alphas) * norm_0
+
+    complex_specgrams_stretch = torch.polar(mag, phase_acc)
+
+    # unpack batch
+    complex_specgrams_stretch = complex_specgrams_stretch.reshape(shape[:-2] + complex_specgrams_stretch.shape[1:])
+    return complex_specgrams_stretch
+
+
+def _get_mask_param(mask_param: int, p: float, axis_length: int) -> int:
+    if p == 1.0:
+        return mask_param
+    else:
+        return min(mask_param, int(axis_length * p))
+
+
+def mask_along_axis_iid(
+    specgrams: Tensor,
+    mask_param: int,
+    mask_value: float,
+    axis: int,
+    p: float = 1.0,
+) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Apply a mask along ``axis``.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Mask will be applied from indices ``[v_0, v_0 + v)``,
+    where ``v`` is sampled from ``uniform(0, max_v)`` and
+    ``v_0`` from ``uniform(0, specgrams.size(axis) - v)``,
+    with ``max_v = mask_param`` when ``p = 1.0`` and
+    ``max_v = min(mask_param, floor(specgrams.size(axis) * p))`` otherwise.
+
+    Args:
+        specgrams (Tensor): Real spectrograms `(..., freq, time)`, with at least 3 dimensions.
+        mask_param (int): Number of columns to be masked will be uniformly sampled from [0, mask_param]
+        mask_value (float): Value to assign to the masked columns
+        axis (int): Axis to apply masking on, which should be the one of the last two dimensions.
+        p (float, optional): maximum proportion of columns that can be masked. (Default: 1.0)
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Masked spectrograms with the same dimensions as input specgrams Tensor`
+    """
+
+    dim = specgrams.dim()
+
+    if dim < 3:
+        raise ValueError(f"Spectrogram must have at least three dimensions ({dim} given).")
+
+    if axis not in [dim - 2, dim - 1]:
+        raise ValueError(
+            f"Only Frequency and Time masking are supported (axis {dim-2} and axis {dim-1} supported; {axis} given)."
+        )
+
+    if not 0.0 <= p <= 1.0:
+        raise ValueError(f"The value of p must be between 0.0 and 1.0 ({p} given).")
+
+    mask_param = _get_mask_param(mask_param, p, specgrams.shape[axis])
+    if mask_param < 1:
+        return specgrams
+
+    device = specgrams.device
+    dtype = specgrams.dtype
+
+    value = torch.rand(specgrams.shape[: (dim - 2)], device=device, dtype=dtype) * mask_param
+    min_value = torch.rand(specgrams.shape[: (dim - 2)], device=device, dtype=dtype) * (specgrams.size(axis) - value)
+
+    # Create broadcastable mask
+    mask_start = min_value.long()[..., None, None]
+    mask_end = (min_value.long() + value.long())[..., None, None]
+    mask = torch.arange(0, specgrams.size(axis), device=device, dtype=dtype)
+
+    # Per batch example masking
+    specgrams = specgrams.transpose(axis, -1)
+    specgrams = specgrams.masked_fill((mask >= mask_start) & (mask < mask_end), mask_value)
+    specgrams = specgrams.transpose(axis, -1)
+
+    return specgrams
+
+
+def mask_along_axis(
+    specgram: Tensor,
+    mask_param: int,
+    mask_value: float,
+    axis: int,
+    p: float = 1.0,
+) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Apply a mask along ``axis``.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Mask will be applied from indices ``[v_0, v_0 + v)``,
+    where ``v`` is sampled from ``uniform(0, max_v)`` and
+    ``v_0`` from ``uniform(0, specgram.size(axis) - v)``, with
+    ``max_v = mask_param`` when ``p = 1.0`` and
+    ``max_v = min(mask_param, floor(specgram.size(axis) * p))``
+    otherwise.
+    All examples will have the same mask interval.
+
+    Args:
+        specgram (Tensor): Real spectrograms `(..., freq, time)`, with at least 2 dimensions.
+        mask_param (int): Number of columns to be masked will be uniformly sampled from [0, mask_param]
+        mask_value (float): Value to assign to the masked columns
+        axis (int): Axis to apply masking on, which should be the one of the last two dimensions.
+        p (float, optional): maximum proportion of columns that can be masked. (Default: 1.0)
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Masked spectrograms with the same dimensions as input specgram Tensor
+    """
+    dim = specgram.dim()
+
+    if dim < 2:
+        raise ValueError(f"Spectrogram must have at least two dimensions (time and frequency) ({dim} given).")
+
+    if axis not in [dim - 2, dim - 1]:
+        raise ValueError(
+            f"Only Frequency and Time masking are supported (axis {dim-2} and axis {dim-1} supported; {axis} given)."
+        )
+
+    if not 0.0 <= p <= 1.0:
+        raise ValueError(f"The value of p must be between 0.0 and 1.0 ({p} given).")
+
+    mask_param = _get_mask_param(mask_param, p, specgram.shape[axis])
+    if mask_param < 1:
+        return specgram
+
+    # pack batch
+    shape = specgram.size()
+    specgram = specgram.reshape([-1] + list(shape[-2:]))
+    # After packing, specgram is a 3D tensor, and the axis corresponding to the to-be-masked dimension
+    # is now (axis - dim + 3), e.g. a tensor of shape (10, 2, 50, 10, 2) becomes a tensor of shape (1000, 10, 2).
+    value = torch.rand(1) * mask_param
+    min_value = torch.rand(1) * (specgram.size(axis - dim + 3) - value)
+
+    mask_start = (min_value.long()).squeeze()
+    mask_end = (min_value.long() + value.long()).squeeze()
+    mask = torch.arange(0, specgram.shape[axis - dim + 3], device=specgram.device, dtype=specgram.dtype)
+    mask = (mask >= mask_start) & (mask < mask_end)
+    # unsqueeze the mask if the axis is frequency
+    if axis == dim - 2:
+        mask = mask.unsqueeze(-1)
+
+    if mask_end - mask_start >= mask_param:
+        raise ValueError("Number of columns to be masked should be less than mask_param")
+
+    specgram = specgram.masked_fill(mask, mask_value)
+
+    # unpack batch
+    specgram = specgram.reshape(shape[:-2] + specgram.shape[-2:])
+
+    return specgram
+
+
+def compute_deltas(specgram: Tensor, win_length: int = 5, mode: str = "replicate") -> Tensor:
+    r"""Compute delta coefficients of a tensor, usually a spectrogram:
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: TorchScript
+
+    .. math::
+       d_t = \frac{\sum_{n=1}^{\text{N}} n (c_{t+n} - c_{t-n})}{2 \sum_{n=1}^{\text{N}} n^2}
+
+    where :math:`d_t` is the deltas at time :math:`t`,
+    :math:`c_t` is the spectrogram coeffcients at time :math:`t`,
+    :math:`N` is ``(win_length-1)//2``.
+
+    Args:
+        specgram (Tensor): Tensor of audio of dimension `(..., freq, time)`
+        win_length (int, optional): The window length used for computing delta (Default: ``5``)
+        mode (str, optional): Mode parameter passed to padding (Default: ``"replicate"``)
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Tensor of deltas of dimension `(..., freq, time)`
+
+    Example
+        >>> specgram = torch.randn(1, 40, 1000)
+        >>> delta = compute_deltas(specgram)
+        >>> delta2 = compute_deltas(delta)
+    """
+    device = specgram.device
+    dtype = specgram.dtype
+
+    # pack batch
+    shape = specgram.size()
+    specgram = specgram.reshape(1, -1, shape[-1])
+
+    if win_length < 3:
+        raise ValueError(f"Window length should be greater than or equal to 3. Found win_length {win_length}")
+
+    n = (win_length - 1) // 2
+
+    # twice sum of integer squared
+    denom = n * (n + 1) * (2 * n + 1) / 3
+
+    specgram = torch.nn.functional.pad(specgram, (n, n), mode=mode)
+
+    kernel = torch.arange(-n, n + 1, 1, device=device, dtype=dtype).repeat(specgram.shape[1], 1, 1)
+
+    output = torch.nn.functional.conv1d(specgram, kernel, groups=specgram.shape[1]) / denom
+
+    # unpack batch
+    output = output.reshape(shape)
+
+    return output
+
+
+def _compute_nccf(waveform: Tensor, sample_rate: int, frame_time: float, freq_low: int) -> Tensor:
+    r"""
+    Compute Normalized Cross-Correlation Function (NCCF).
+
+    .. math::
+        \phi_i(m) = \frac{\sum_{n=b_i}^{b_i + N-1} w(n) w(m+n)}{\sqrt{E(b_i) E(m+b_i)}},
+
+    where
+    :math:`\phi_i(m)` is the NCCF at frame :math:`i` with lag :math:`m`,
+    :math:`w` is the waveform,
+    :math:`N` is the length of a frame,
+    :math:`b_i` is the beginning of frame :math:`i`,
+    :math:`E(j)` is the energy :math:`\sum_{n=j}^{j+N-1} w^2(n)`.
+    """
+
+    EPSILON = 10 ** (-9)
+
+    # Number of lags to check
+    lags = int(math.ceil(sample_rate / freq_low))
+
+    frame_size = int(math.ceil(sample_rate * frame_time))
+
+    waveform_length = waveform.size()[-1]
+    num_of_frames = int(math.ceil(waveform_length / frame_size))
+
+    p = lags + num_of_frames * frame_size - waveform_length
+    waveform = torch.nn.functional.pad(waveform, (0, p))
+
+    # Compute lags
+    output_lag = []
+    for lag in range(1, lags + 1):
+        s1 = waveform[..., :-lag].unfold(-1, frame_size, frame_size)[..., :num_of_frames, :]
+        s2 = waveform[..., lag:].unfold(-1, frame_size, frame_size)[..., :num_of_frames, :]
+
+        output_frames = (
+            (s1 * s2).sum(-1)
+            / (EPSILON + torch.linalg.vector_norm(s1, ord=2, dim=-1)).pow(2)
+            / (EPSILON + torch.linalg.vector_norm(s2, ord=2, dim=-1)).pow(2)
+        )
+
+        output_lag.append(output_frames.unsqueeze(-1))
+
+    nccf = torch.cat(output_lag, -1)
+
+    return nccf
+
+
+def _combine_max(a: Tuple[Tensor, Tensor], b: Tuple[Tensor, Tensor], thresh: float = 0.99) -> Tuple[Tensor, Tensor]:
+    """
+    Take value from first if bigger than a multiplicative factor of the second, elementwise.
+    """
+    mask = a[0] > thresh * b[0]
+    values = mask * a[0] + ~mask * b[0]
+    indices = mask * a[1] + ~mask * b[1]
+    return values, indices
+
+
+def _find_max_per_frame(nccf: Tensor, sample_rate: int, freq_high: int) -> Tensor:
+    r"""
+    For each frame, take the highest value of NCCF,
+    apply centered median smoothing, and convert to frequency.
+
+    Note: If the max among all the lags is very close
+    to the first half of lags, then the latter is taken.
+    """
+
+    lag_min = int(math.ceil(sample_rate / freq_high))
+
+    # Find near enough max that is smallest
+
+    best = torch.max(nccf[..., lag_min:], -1)
+
+    half_size = nccf.shape[-1] // 2
+    half = torch.max(nccf[..., lag_min:half_size], -1)
+
+    best = _combine_max(half, best)
+    indices = best[1]
+
+    # Add back minimal lag
+    indices += lag_min
+    # Add 1 empirical calibration offset
+    indices += 1
+
+    return indices
+
+
+def _median_smoothing(indices: Tensor, win_length: int) -> Tensor:
+    r"""
+    Apply median smoothing to the 1D tensor over the given window.
+    """
+
+    # Centered windowed
+    pad_length = (win_length - 1) // 2
+
+    # "replicate" padding in any dimension
+    indices = torch.nn.functional.pad(indices, (pad_length, 0), mode="constant", value=0.0)
+
+    indices[..., :pad_length] = torch.cat(pad_length * [indices[..., pad_length].unsqueeze(-1)], dim=-1)
+    roll = indices.unfold(-1, win_length, 1)
+
+    values, _ = torch.median(roll, -1)
+    return values
+
+
+def detect_pitch_frequency(
+    waveform: Tensor,
+    sample_rate: int,
+    frame_time: float = 10 ** (-2),
+    win_length: int = 30,
+    freq_low: int = 85,
+    freq_high: int = 3400,
+) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Detect pitch frequency.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: TorchScript
+
+    It is implemented using normalized cross-correlation function and median smoothing.
+
+    Args:
+        waveform (Tensor): Tensor of audio of dimension `(..., freq, time)`
+        sample_rate (int): The sample rate of the waveform (Hz)
+        frame_time (float, optional): Duration of a frame (Default: ``10 ** (-2)``).
+        win_length (int, optional): The window length for median smoothing (in number of frames) (Default: ``30``).
+        freq_low (int, optional): Lowest frequency that can be detected (Hz) (Default: ``85``).
+        freq_high (int, optional): Highest frequency that can be detected (Hz) (Default: ``3400``).
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Tensor of freq of dimension `(..., frame)`
+    """
+    # pack batch
+    shape = list(waveform.size())
+    waveform = waveform.reshape([-1] + shape[-1:])
+
+    nccf = _compute_nccf(waveform, sample_rate, frame_time, freq_low)
+    indices = _find_max_per_frame(nccf, sample_rate, freq_high)
+    indices = _median_smoothing(indices, win_length)
+
+    # Convert indices to frequency
+    EPSILON = 10 ** (-9)
+    freq = sample_rate / (EPSILON + indices.to(torch.float))
+
+    # unpack batch
+    freq = freq.reshape(shape[:-1] + list(freq.shape[-1:]))
+
+    return freq
+
+
+def sliding_window_cmn(
+    specgram: Tensor,
+    cmn_window: int = 600,
+    min_cmn_window: int = 100,
+    center: bool = False,
+    norm_vars: bool = False,
+) -> Tensor:
+    r"""
+    Apply sliding-window cepstral mean (and optionally variance) normalization per utterance.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        specgram (Tensor): Tensor of spectrogram of dimension `(..., time, freq)`
+        cmn_window (int, optional): Window in frames for running average CMN computation (int, default = 600)
+        min_cmn_window (int, optional):  Minimum CMN window used at start of decoding (adds latency only at start).
+            Only applicable if center == false, ignored if center==true (int, default = 100)
+        center (bool, optional): If true, use a window centered on the current frame
+            (to the extent possible, modulo end effects). If false, window is to the left. (bool, default = false)
+        norm_vars (bool, optional): If true, normalize variance to one. (bool, default = false)
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Tensor matching input shape `(..., freq, time)`
+    """
+    input_shape = specgram.shape
+    num_frames, num_feats = input_shape[-2:]
+    specgram = specgram.view(-1, num_frames, num_feats)
+    num_channels = specgram.shape[0]
+
+    dtype = specgram.dtype
+    device = specgram.device
+    last_window_start = last_window_end = -1
+    cur_sum = torch.zeros(num_channels, num_feats, dtype=dtype, device=device)
+    cur_sumsq = torch.zeros(num_channels, num_feats, dtype=dtype, device=device)
+    cmn_specgram = torch.zeros(num_channels, num_frames, num_feats, dtype=dtype, device=device)
+    for t in range(num_frames):
+        window_start = 0
+        window_end = 0
+        if center:
+            window_start = t - cmn_window // 2
+            window_end = window_start + cmn_window
+        else:
+            window_start = t - cmn_window
+            window_end = t + 1
+        if window_start < 0:
+            window_end -= window_start
+            window_start = 0
+        if not center:
+            if window_end > t:
+                window_end = max(t + 1, min_cmn_window)
+        if window_end > num_frames:
+            window_start -= window_end - num_frames
+            window_end = num_frames
+            if window_start < 0:
+                window_start = 0
+        if last_window_start == -1:
+            input_part = specgram[:, window_start : window_end - window_start, :]
+            cur_sum += torch.sum(input_part, 1)
+            if norm_vars:
+                cur_sumsq += torch.cumsum(input_part**2, 1)[:, -1, :]
+        else:
+            if window_start > last_window_start:
+                frame_to_remove = specgram[:, last_window_start, :]
+                cur_sum -= frame_to_remove
+                if norm_vars:
+                    cur_sumsq -= frame_to_remove**2
+            if window_end > last_window_end:
+                frame_to_add = specgram[:, last_window_end, :]
+                cur_sum += frame_to_add
+                if norm_vars:
+                    cur_sumsq += frame_to_add**2
+        window_frames = window_end - window_start
+        last_window_start = window_start
+        last_window_end = window_end
+        cmn_specgram[:, t, :] = specgram[:, t, :] - cur_sum / window_frames
+        if norm_vars:
+            if window_frames == 1:
+                cmn_specgram[:, t, :] = torch.zeros(num_channels, num_feats, dtype=dtype, device=device)
+            else:
+                variance = cur_sumsq
+                variance = variance / window_frames
+                variance -= (cur_sum**2) / (window_frames**2)
+                variance = torch.pow(variance, -0.5)
+                cmn_specgram[:, t, :] *= variance
+
+    cmn_specgram = cmn_specgram.view(input_shape[:-2] + (num_frames, num_feats))
+    if len(input_shape) == 2:
+        cmn_specgram = cmn_specgram.squeeze(0)
+    return cmn_specgram
+
+
+def spectral_centroid(
+    waveform: Tensor,
+    sample_rate: int,
+    pad: int,
+    window: Tensor,
+    n_fft: int,
+    hop_length: int,
+    win_length: int,
+) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Compute the spectral centroid for each channel along the time axis.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    The spectral centroid is defined as the weighted average of the
+    frequency values, weighted by their magnitude.
+
+    Args:
+        waveform (Tensor): Tensor of audio of dimension `(..., time)`
+        sample_rate (int): Sample rate of the audio waveform
+        pad (int): Two sided padding of signal
+        window (Tensor): Window tensor that is applied/multiplied to each frame/window
+        n_fft (int): Size of FFT
+        hop_length (int): Length of hop between STFT windows
+        win_length (int): Window size
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Dimension `(..., time)`
+    """
+    specgram = spectrogram(
+        waveform,
+        pad=pad,
+        window=window,
+        n_fft=n_fft,
+        hop_length=hop_length,
+        win_length=win_length,
+        power=1.0,
+        normalized=False,
+    )
+    freqs = torch.linspace(0, sample_rate // 2, steps=1 + n_fft // 2, device=specgram.device).reshape((-1, 1))
+    freq_dim = -2
+    return (freqs * specgram).sum(dim=freq_dim) / specgram.sum(dim=freq_dim)
+
+
+@deprecated("Please migrate to :py:class:`torchaudio.io.AudioEffector`.", remove=False)
+def apply_codec(
+    waveform: Tensor,
+    sample_rate: int,
+    format: str,
+    channels_first: bool = True,
+    compression: Optional[float] = None,
+    encoding: Optional[str] = None,
+    bits_per_sample: Optional[int] = None,
+) -> Tensor:
+    r"""
+    Apply codecs as a form of augmentation.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU
+
+    Args:
+        waveform (Tensor): Audio data. Must be 2 dimensional. See also ```channels_first```.
+        sample_rate (int): Sample rate of the audio waveform.
+        format (str): File format.
+        channels_first (bool, optional):
+            When True, both the input and output Tensor have dimension `(channel, time)`.
+            Otherwise, they have dimension `(time, channel)`.
+        compression (float or None, optional): Used for formats other than WAV.
+            For more details see :py:func:`torchaudio.backend.sox_io_backend.save`.
+        encoding (str or None, optional): Changes the encoding for the supported formats.
+            For more details see :py:func:`torchaudio.backend.sox_io_backend.save`.
+        bits_per_sample (int or None, optional): Changes the bit depth for the supported formats.
+            For more details see :py:func:`torchaudio.backend.sox_io_backend.save`.
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Resulting Tensor.
+        If ``channels_first=True``, it has `(channel, time)` else `(time, channel)`.
+    """
+    from torchaudio.backend import _sox_io_backend
+
+    with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile() as f:
+        torchaudio.backend._sox_io_backend.save(
+            f.name, waveform, sample_rate, channels_first, compression, format, encoding, bits_per_sample
+        )
+        augmented, sr = _sox_io_backend.load(f.name, channels_first=channels_first, format=format)
+    if sr != sample_rate:
+        augmented = resample(augmented, sr, sample_rate)
+    return augmented
+
+
+_CPU = torch.device("cpu")
+
+
+def _get_sinc_resample_kernel(
+    orig_freq: int,
+    new_freq: int,
+    gcd: int,
+    lowpass_filter_width: int = 6,
+    rolloff: float = 0.99,
+    resampling_method: str = "sinc_interp_hann",
+    beta: Optional[float] = None,
+    device: torch.device = _CPU,
+    dtype: Optional[torch.dtype] = None,
+):
+    if not (int(orig_freq) == orig_freq and int(new_freq) == new_freq):
+        raise Exception(
+            "Frequencies must be of integer type to ensure quality resampling computation. "
+            "To work around this, manually convert both frequencies to integer values "
+            "that maintain their resampling rate ratio before passing them into the function. "
+            "Example: To downsample a 44100 hz waveform by a factor of 8, use "
+            "`orig_freq=8` and `new_freq=1` instead of `orig_freq=44100` and `new_freq=5512.5`. "
+            "For more information, please refer to https://github.com/pytorch/audio/issues/1487."
+        )
+
+    if resampling_method in ["sinc_interpolation", "kaiser_window"]:
+        method_map = {
+            "sinc_interpolation": "sinc_interp_hann",
+            "kaiser_window": "sinc_interp_kaiser",
+        }
+        warnings.warn(
+            f'"{resampling_method}" resampling method name is being deprecated and replaced by '
+            f'"{method_map[resampling_method]}" in the next release. '
+            "The default behavior remains unchanged.",
+            stacklevel=3,
+        )
+    elif resampling_method not in ["sinc_interp_hann", "sinc_interp_kaiser"]:
+        raise ValueError("Invalid resampling method: {}".format(resampling_method))
+
+    orig_freq = int(orig_freq) // gcd
+    new_freq = int(new_freq) // gcd
+
+    if lowpass_filter_width <= 0:
+        raise ValueError("Low pass filter width should be positive.")
+    base_freq = min(orig_freq, new_freq)
+    # This will perform antialiasing filtering by removing the highest frequencies.
+    # At first I thought I only needed this when downsampling, but when upsampling
+    # you will get edge artifacts without this, as the edge is equivalent to zero padding,
+    # which will add high freq artifacts.
+    base_freq *= rolloff
+
+    # The key idea of the algorithm is that x(t) can be exactly reconstructed from x[i] (tensor)
+    # using the sinc interpolation formula:
+    #   x(t) = sum_i x[i] sinc(pi * orig_freq * (i / orig_freq - t))
+    # We can then sample the function x(t) with a different sample rate:
+    #    y[j] = x(j / new_freq)
+    # or,
+    #    y[j] = sum_i x[i] sinc(pi * orig_freq * (i / orig_freq - j / new_freq))
+
+    # We see here that y[j] is the convolution of x[i] with a specific filter, for which
+    # we take an FIR approximation, stopping when we see at least `lowpass_filter_width` zeros crossing.
+    # But y[j+1] is going to have a different set of weights and so on, until y[j + new_freq].
+    # Indeed:
+    # y[j + new_freq] = sum_i x[i] sinc(pi * orig_freq * ((i / orig_freq - (j + new_freq) / new_freq))
+    #                 = sum_i x[i] sinc(pi * orig_freq * ((i - orig_freq) / orig_freq - j / new_freq))
+    #                 = sum_i x[i + orig_freq] sinc(pi * orig_freq * (i / orig_freq - j / new_freq))
+    # so y[j+new_freq] uses the same filter as y[j], but on a shifted version of x by `orig_freq`.
+    # This will explain the F.conv1d after, with a stride of orig_freq.
+    width = math.ceil(lowpass_filter_width * orig_freq / base_freq)
+    # If orig_freq is still big after GCD reduction, most filters will be very unbalanced, i.e.,
+    # they will have a lot of almost zero values to the left or to the right...
+    # There is probably a way to evaluate those filters more efficiently, but this is kept for
+    # future work.
+    idx_dtype = dtype if dtype is not None else torch.float64
+
+    idx = torch.arange(-width, width + orig_freq, dtype=idx_dtype, device=device)[None, None] / orig_freq
+
+    t = torch.arange(0, -new_freq, -1, dtype=dtype, device=device)[:, None, None] / new_freq + idx
+    t *= base_freq
+    t = t.clamp_(-lowpass_filter_width, lowpass_filter_width)
+
+    # we do not use built in torch windows here as we need to evaluate the window
+    # at specific positions, not over a regular grid.
+    if resampling_method == "sinc_interp_hann":
+        window = torch.cos(t * math.pi / lowpass_filter_width / 2) ** 2
+    else:
+        # sinc_interp_kaiser
+        if beta is None:
+            beta = 14.769656459379492
+        beta_tensor = torch.tensor(float(beta))
+        window = torch.i0(beta_tensor * torch.sqrt(1 - (t / lowpass_filter_width) ** 2)) / torch.i0(beta_tensor)
+
+    t *= math.pi
+
+    scale = base_freq / orig_freq
+    kernels = torch.where(t == 0, torch.tensor(1.0).to(t), t.sin() / t)
+    kernels *= window * scale
+
+    if dtype is None:
+        kernels = kernels.to(dtype=torch.float32)
+
+    return kernels, width
+
+
+def _apply_sinc_resample_kernel(
+    waveform: Tensor,
+    orig_freq: int,
+    new_freq: int,
+    gcd: int,
+    kernel: Tensor,
+    width: int,
+):
+    if not waveform.is_floating_point():
+        raise TypeError(f"Expected floating point type for waveform tensor, but received {waveform.dtype}.")
+
+    orig_freq = int(orig_freq) // gcd
+    new_freq = int(new_freq) // gcd
+
+    # pack batch
+    shape = waveform.size()
+    waveform = waveform.view(-1, shape[-1])
+
+    num_wavs, length = waveform.shape
+    waveform = torch.nn.functional.pad(waveform, (width, width + orig_freq))
+    resampled = torch.nn.functional.conv1d(waveform[:, None], kernel, stride=orig_freq)
+    resampled = resampled.transpose(1, 2).reshape(num_wavs, -1)
+    target_length = torch.ceil(torch.as_tensor(new_freq * length / orig_freq)).long()
+    resampled = resampled[..., :target_length]
+
+    # unpack batch
+    resampled = resampled.view(shape[:-1] + resampled.shape[-1:])
+    return resampled
+
+
+def resample(
+    waveform: Tensor,
+    orig_freq: int,
+    new_freq: int,
+    lowpass_filter_width: int = 6,
+    rolloff: float = 0.99,
+    resampling_method: str = "sinc_interp_hann",
+    beta: Optional[float] = None,
+) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Resamples the waveform at the new frequency using bandlimited interpolation. :cite:`RESAMPLE`.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Note:
+        ``transforms.Resample`` precomputes and reuses the resampling kernel, so using it will result in
+        more efficient computation if resampling multiple waveforms with the same resampling parameters.
+
+    Args:
+        waveform (Tensor): The input signal of dimension `(..., time)`
+        orig_freq (int): The original frequency of the signal
+        new_freq (int): The desired frequency
+        lowpass_filter_width (int, optional): Controls the sharpness of the filter, more == sharper
+            but less efficient. (Default: ``6``)
+        rolloff (float, optional): The roll-off frequency of the filter, as a fraction of the Nyquist.
+            Lower values reduce anti-aliasing, but also reduce some of the highest frequencies. (Default: ``0.99``)
+        resampling_method (str, optional): The resampling method to use.
+            Options: [``"sinc_interp_hann"``, ``"sinc_interp_kaiser"``] (Default: ``"sinc_interp_hann"``)
+        beta (float or None, optional): The shape parameter used for kaiser window.
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: The waveform at the new frequency of dimension `(..., time).`
+    """
+
+    if orig_freq <= 0.0 or new_freq <= 0.0:
+        raise ValueError("Original frequency and desired frequecy should be positive")
+
+    if orig_freq == new_freq:
+        return waveform
+
+    gcd = math.gcd(int(orig_freq), int(new_freq))
+
+    kernel, width = _get_sinc_resample_kernel(
+        orig_freq,
+        new_freq,
+        gcd,
+        lowpass_filter_width,
+        rolloff,
+        resampling_method,
+        beta,
+        waveform.device,
+        waveform.dtype,
+    )
+    resampled = _apply_sinc_resample_kernel(waveform, orig_freq, new_freq, gcd, kernel, width)
+    return resampled
+
+
+@torch.jit.unused
+def edit_distance(seq1: Sequence, seq2: Sequence) -> int:
+    """
+    Calculate the word level edit (Levenshtein) distance between two sequences.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU
+
+    The function computes an edit distance allowing deletion, insertion and
+    substitution. The result is an integer.
+
+    For most applications, the two input sequences should be the same type. If
+    two strings are given, the output is the edit distance between the two
+    strings (character edit distance). If two lists of strings are given, the
+    output is the edit distance between sentences (word edit distance). Users
+    may want to normalize the output by the length of the reference sequence.
+
+    Args:
+        seq1 (Sequence): the first sequence to compare.
+        seq2 (Sequence): the second sequence to compare.
+    Returns:
+        int: The distance between the first and second sequences.
+    """
+    len_sent2 = len(seq2)
+    dold = list(range(len_sent2 + 1))
+    dnew = [0 for _ in range(len_sent2 + 1)]
+
+    for i in range(1, len(seq1) + 1):
+        dnew[0] = i
+        for j in range(1, len_sent2 + 1):
+            if seq1[i - 1] == seq2[j - 1]:
+                dnew[j] = dold[j - 1]
+            else:
+                substitution = dold[j - 1] + 1
+                insertion = dnew[j - 1] + 1
+                deletion = dold[j] + 1
+                dnew[j] = min(substitution, insertion, deletion)
+
+        dnew, dold = dold, dnew
+
+    return int(dold[-1])
+
+
+def loudness(waveform: Tensor, sample_rate: int):
+    r"""Measure audio loudness according to the ITU-R BS.1770-4 recommendation.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        waveform(torch.Tensor): audio waveform of dimension `(..., channels, time)`
+        sample_rate (int): sampling rate of the waveform
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: loudness estimates (LKFS)
+
+    Reference:
+        - https://www.itu.int/rec/R-REC-BS.1770-4-201510-I/en
+    """
+
+    if waveform.size(-2) > 5:
+        raise ValueError("Only up to 5 channels are supported.")
+
+    gate_duration = 0.4
+    overlap = 0.75
+    gamma_abs = -70.0
+    kweight_bias = -0.691
+    gate_samples = int(round(gate_duration * sample_rate))
+    step = int(round(gate_samples * (1 - overlap)))
+
+    # Apply K-weighting
+    waveform = treble_biquad(waveform, sample_rate, 4.0, 1500.0, 1 / math.sqrt(2))
+    waveform = highpass_biquad(waveform, sample_rate, 38.0, 0.5)
+
+    # Compute the energy for each block
+    energy = torch.square(waveform).unfold(-1, gate_samples, step)
+    energy = torch.mean(energy, dim=-1)
+
+    # Compute channel-weighted summation
+    g = torch.tensor([1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.41, 1.41], dtype=waveform.dtype, device=waveform.device)
+    g = g[: energy.size(-2)]
+
+    energy_weighted = torch.sum(g.unsqueeze(-1) * energy, dim=-2)
+    loudness = -0.691 + 10 * torch.log10(energy_weighted)
+
+    # Apply absolute gating of the blocks
+    gated_blocks = loudness > gamma_abs
+    gated_blocks = gated_blocks.unsqueeze(-2)
+
+    energy_filtered = torch.sum(gated_blocks * energy, dim=-1) / torch.count_nonzero(gated_blocks, dim=-1)
+    energy_weighted = torch.sum(g * energy_filtered, dim=-1)
+    gamma_rel = kweight_bias + 10 * torch.log10(energy_weighted) - 10
+
+    # Apply relative gating of the blocks
+    gated_blocks = torch.logical_and(gated_blocks.squeeze(-2), loudness > gamma_rel.unsqueeze(-1))
+    gated_blocks = gated_blocks.unsqueeze(-2)
+
+    energy_filtered = torch.sum(gated_blocks * energy, dim=-1) / torch.count_nonzero(gated_blocks, dim=-1)
+    energy_weighted = torch.sum(g * energy_filtered, dim=-1)
+    LKFS = kweight_bias + 10 * torch.log10(energy_weighted)
+    return LKFS
+
+
+def pitch_shift(
+    waveform: Tensor,
+    sample_rate: int,
+    n_steps: int,
+    bins_per_octave: int = 12,
+    n_fft: int = 512,
+    win_length: Optional[int] = None,
+    hop_length: Optional[int] = None,
+    window: Optional[Tensor] = None,
+) -> Tensor:
+    """
+    Shift the pitch of a waveform by ``n_steps`` steps.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        waveform (Tensor): The input waveform of shape `(..., time)`.
+        sample_rate (int): Sample rate of `waveform`.
+        n_steps (int): The (fractional) steps to shift `waveform`.
+        bins_per_octave (int, optional): The number of steps per octave (Default: ``12``).
+        n_fft (int, optional): Size of FFT, creates ``n_fft // 2 + 1`` bins (Default: ``512``).
+        win_length (int or None, optional): Window size. If None, then ``n_fft`` is used. (Default: ``None``).
+        hop_length (int or None, optional): Length of hop between STFT windows. If None, then
+            ``win_length // 4`` is used (Default: ``None``).
+        window (Tensor or None, optional): Window tensor that is applied/multiplied to each frame/window.
+            If None, then ``torch.hann_window(win_length)`` is used (Default: ``None``).
+
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: The pitch-shifted audio waveform of shape `(..., time)`.
+    """
+    waveform_stretch = _stretch_waveform(
+        waveform,
+        n_steps,
+        bins_per_octave,
+        n_fft,
+        win_length,
+        hop_length,
+        window,
+    )
+    rate = 2.0 ** (-float(n_steps) / bins_per_octave)
+    waveform_shift = resample(waveform_stretch, int(sample_rate / rate), sample_rate)
+
+    return _fix_waveform_shape(waveform_shift, waveform.size())
+
+
+def _stretch_waveform(
+    waveform: Tensor,
+    n_steps: int,
+    bins_per_octave: int = 12,
+    n_fft: int = 512,
+    win_length: Optional[int] = None,
+    hop_length: Optional[int] = None,
+    window: Optional[Tensor] = None,
+) -> Tensor:
+    """
+    Pitch shift helper function to preprocess and stretch waveform before resampling step.
+
+    Args:
+        See pitch_shift arg descriptions.
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: The preprocessed waveform stretched prior to resampling.
+    """
+    if hop_length is None:
+        hop_length = n_fft // 4
+    if win_length is None:
+        win_length = n_fft
+    if window is None:
+        window = torch.hann_window(window_length=win_length, device=waveform.device)
+
+    # pack batch
+    shape = waveform.size()
+    waveform = waveform.reshape(-1, shape[-1])
+
+    ori_len = shape[-1]
+    rate = 2.0 ** (-float(n_steps) / bins_per_octave)
+    spec_f = torch.stft(
+        input=waveform,
+        n_fft=n_fft,
+        hop_length=hop_length,
+        win_length=win_length,
+        window=window,
+        center=True,
+        pad_mode="reflect",
+        normalized=False,
+        onesided=True,
+        return_complex=True,
+    )
+    phase_advance = torch.linspace(0, math.pi * hop_length, spec_f.shape[-2], device=spec_f.device)[..., None]
+    spec_stretch = phase_vocoder(spec_f, rate, phase_advance)
+    len_stretch = int(round(ori_len / rate))
+    waveform_stretch = torch.istft(
+        spec_stretch, n_fft=n_fft, hop_length=hop_length, win_length=win_length, window=window, length=len_stretch
+    )
+    return waveform_stretch
+
+
+def _fix_waveform_shape(
+    waveform_shift: Tensor,
+    shape: List[int],
+) -> Tensor:
+    """
+    PitchShift helper function to process after resampling step to fix the shape back.
+
+    Args:
+        waveform_shift(Tensor): The waveform after stretch and resample
+        shape (List[int]): The shape of initial waveform
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: The pitch-shifted audio waveform of shape `(..., time)`.
+    """
+    ori_len = shape[-1]
+    shift_len = waveform_shift.size()[-1]
+    if shift_len > ori_len:
+        waveform_shift = waveform_shift[..., :ori_len]
+    else:
+        waveform_shift = torch.nn.functional.pad(waveform_shift, [0, ori_len - shift_len])
+
+    # unpack batch
+    waveform_shift = waveform_shift.view(shape[:-1] + waveform_shift.shape[-1:])
+    return waveform_shift
+
+
+def rnnt_loss(
+    logits: Tensor,
+    targets: Tensor,
+    logit_lengths: Tensor,
+    target_lengths: Tensor,
+    blank: int = -1,
+    clamp: float = -1,
+    reduction: str = "mean",
+    fused_log_softmax: bool = True,
+):
+    """Compute the RNN Transducer loss from *Sequence Transduction with Recurrent Neural Networks*
+    :cite:`graves2012sequence`.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    The RNN Transducer loss extends the CTC loss by defining a distribution over output
+    sequences of all lengths, and by jointly modelling both input-output and output-output
+    dependencies.
+
+    Args:
+        logits (Tensor): Tensor of dimension `(batch, max seq length, max target length + 1, class)`
+            containing output from joiner
+        targets (Tensor): Tensor of dimension `(batch, max target length)` containing targets with zero padded
+        logit_lengths (Tensor): Tensor of dimension `(batch)` containing lengths of each sequence from encoder
+        target_lengths (Tensor): Tensor of dimension `(batch)` containing lengths of targets for each sequence
+        blank (int, optional): blank label (Default: ``-1``)
+        clamp (float, optional): clamp for gradients (Default: ``-1``)
+        reduction (string, optional): Specifies the reduction to apply to the output:
+            ``"none"`` | ``"mean"`` | ``"sum"``. (Default: ``"mean"``)
+        fused_log_softmax (bool): set to False if calling log_softmax outside of loss (Default: ``True``)
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Loss with the reduction option applied. If ``reduction`` is  ``"none"``, then size `(batch)`,
+        otherwise scalar.
+    """
+    if reduction not in ["none", "mean", "sum"]:
+        raise ValueError('reduction should be one of "none", "mean", or "sum"')
+
+    if blank < 0:  # reinterpret blank index if blank < 0.
+        blank = logits.shape[-1] + blank
+
+    costs, _ = torch.ops.torchaudio.rnnt_loss(
+        logits=logits,
+        targets=targets,
+        logit_lengths=logit_lengths,
+        target_lengths=target_lengths,
+        blank=blank,
+        clamp=clamp,
+        fused_log_softmax=fused_log_softmax,
+    )
+
+    if reduction == "mean":
+        return costs.mean()
+    elif reduction == "sum":
+        return costs.sum()
+
+    return costs
+
+
+def psd(
+    specgram: Tensor,
+    mask: Optional[Tensor] = None,
+    normalize: bool = True,
+    eps: float = 1e-10,
+) -> Tensor:
+    """Compute cross-channel power spectral density (PSD) matrix.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        specgram (torch.Tensor): Multi-channel complex-valued spectrum.
+            Tensor with dimensions `(..., channel, freq, time)`.
+        mask (torch.Tensor or None, optional): Time-Frequency mask for normalization.
+            Tensor with dimensions `(..., freq, time)`. (Default: ``None``)
+        normalize (bool, optional): If ``True``, normalize the mask along the time dimension. (Default: ``True``)
+        eps (float, optional): Value to add to the denominator in mask normalization. (Default: ``1e-15``)
+
+    Returns:
+        torch.Tensor: The complex-valued PSD matrix of the input spectrum.
+        Tensor with dimensions `(..., freq, channel, channel)`
+    """
+    specgram = specgram.transpose(-3, -2)  # shape (freq, channel, time)
+    # outer product:
+    # (..., ch_1, time) x (..., ch_2, time) -> (..., time, ch_1, ch_2)
+    psd = torch.einsum("...ct,...et->...tce", [specgram, specgram.conj()])
+
+    if mask is not None:
+        if mask.shape[:-1] != specgram.shape[:-2] or mask.shape[-1] != specgram.shape[-1]:
+            raise ValueError(
+                "The dimensions of mask except the channel dimension should be the same as specgram."
+                f"Found {mask.shape} for mask and {specgram.shape} for specgram."
+            )
+        # Normalized mask along time dimension:
+        if normalize:
+            mask = mask / (mask.sum(dim=-1, keepdim=True) + eps)
+
+        psd = psd * mask[..., None, None]
+
+    psd = psd.sum(dim=-3)
+    return psd
+
+
+def _compute_mat_trace(input: torch.Tensor, dim1: int = -1, dim2: int = -2) -> torch.Tensor:
+    r"""Compute the trace of a Tensor along ``dim1`` and ``dim2`` dimensions.
+
+    Args:
+        input (torch.Tensor): Tensor with dimensions `(..., channel, channel)`.
+        dim1 (int, optional): The first dimension of the diagonal matrix.
+            (Default: ``-1``)
+        dim2 (int, optional): The second dimension of the diagonal matrix.
+            (Default: ``-2``)
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: The trace of the input Tensor.
+    """
+    if input.ndim < 2:
+        raise ValueError("The dimension of the tensor must be at least 2.")
+    if input.shape[dim1] != input.shape[dim2]:
+        raise ValueError("The size of ``dim1`` and ``dim2`` must be the same.")
+    input = torch.diagonal(input, 0, dim1=dim1, dim2=dim2)
+    return input.sum(dim=-1)
+
+
+def _tik_reg(mat: torch.Tensor, reg: float = 1e-7, eps: float = 1e-8) -> torch.Tensor:
+    """Perform Tikhonov regularization (only modifying real part).
+
+    Args:
+        mat (torch.Tensor): Input matrix with dimensions `(..., channel, channel)`.
+        reg (float, optional): Regularization factor. (Default: 1e-8)
+        eps (float, optional): Value to avoid the correlation matrix is all-zero. (Default: ``1e-8``)
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: Regularized matrix with dimensions `(..., channel, channel)`.
+    """
+    # Add eps
+    C = mat.size(-1)
+    eye = torch.eye(C, dtype=mat.dtype, device=mat.device)
+    epsilon = _compute_mat_trace(mat).real[..., None, None] * reg
+    # in case that correlation_matrix is all-zero
+    epsilon = epsilon + eps
+    mat = mat + epsilon * eye[..., :, :]
+    return mat
+
+
+def _assert_psd_matrices(psd_s: torch.Tensor, psd_n: torch.Tensor) -> None:
+    """Assertion checks of the PSD matrices of target speech and noise.
+
+    Args:
+        psd_s (torch.Tensor): The complex-valued power spectral density (PSD) matrix of target speech.
+            Tensor with dimensions `(..., freq, channel, channel)`.
+        psd_n (torch.Tensor): The complex-valued power spectral density (PSD) matrix of noise.
+            Tensor with dimensions `(..., freq, channel, channel)`.
+    """
+    if psd_s.ndim < 3 or psd_n.ndim < 3:
+        raise ValueError(
+            "Expected at least 3D Tensor (..., freq, channel, channel) for psd_s and psd_n. "
+            f"Found {psd_s.shape} for psd_s and {psd_n.shape} for psd_n."
+        )
+    if not (psd_s.is_complex() and psd_n.is_complex()):
+        raise TypeError(
+            "The type of psd_s and psd_n must be ``torch.cfloat`` or ``torch.cdouble``. "
+            f"Found {psd_s.dtype} for psd_s and {psd_n.dtype} for psd_n."
+        )
+    if psd_s.shape != psd_n.shape:
+        raise ValueError(
+            f"The dimensions of psd_s and psd_n should be the same. Found {psd_s.shape} and {psd_n.shape}."
+        )
+    if psd_s.shape[-1] != psd_s.shape[-2]:
+        raise ValueError(f"The last two dimensions of psd_s should be the same. Found {psd_s.shape}.")
+
+
+def mvdr_weights_souden(
+    psd_s: Tensor,
+    psd_n: Tensor,
+    reference_channel: Union[int, Tensor],
+    diagonal_loading: bool = True,
+    diag_eps: float = 1e-7,
+    eps: float = 1e-8,
+) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Compute the Minimum Variance Distortionless Response (*MVDR* :cite:`capon1969high`) beamforming weights
+    by the method proposed by *Souden et, al.* :cite:`souden2009optimal`.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Given the power spectral density (PSD) matrix of target speech :math:`\bf{\Phi}_{\textbf{SS}}`,
+    the PSD matrix of noise :math:`\bf{\Phi}_{\textbf{NN}}`, and a one-hot vector that represents the
+    reference channel :math:`\bf{u}`, the method computes the MVDR beamforming weight martrix
+    :math:`\textbf{w}_{\text{MVDR}}`. The formula is defined as:
+
+    .. math::
+        \textbf{w}_{\text{MVDR}}(f) =
+        \frac{{{\bf{\Phi}_{\textbf{NN}}^{-1}}(f){\bf{\Phi}_{\textbf{SS}}}}(f)}
+        {\text{Trace}({{{\bf{\Phi}_{\textbf{NN}}^{-1}}(f) \bf{\Phi}_{\textbf{SS}}}(f))}}\bm{u}
+
+    Args:
+        psd_s (torch.Tensor): The complex-valued power spectral density (PSD) matrix of target speech.
+            Tensor with dimensions `(..., freq, channel, channel)`.
+        psd_n (torch.Tensor): The complex-valued power spectral density (PSD) matrix of noise.
+            Tensor with dimensions `(..., freq, channel, channel)`.
+        reference_channel (int or torch.Tensor): Specifies the reference channel.
+            If the dtype is ``int``, it represents the reference channel index.
+            If the dtype is ``torch.Tensor``, its shape is `(..., channel)`, where the ``channel`` dimension
+            is one-hot.
+        diagonal_loading (bool, optional): If ``True``, enables applying diagonal loading to ``psd_n``.
+            (Default: ``True``)
+        diag_eps (float, optional): The coefficient multiplied to the identity matrix for diagonal loading.
+            It is only effective when ``diagonal_loading`` is set to ``True``. (Default: ``1e-7``)
+        eps (float, optional): Value to add to the denominator in the beamforming weight formula.
+            (Default: ``1e-8``)
+
+    Returns:
+        torch.Tensor: The complex-valued MVDR beamforming weight matrix with dimensions `(..., freq, channel)`.
+    """
+    _assert_psd_matrices(psd_s, psd_n)
+
+    if diagonal_loading:
+        psd_n = _tik_reg(psd_n, reg=diag_eps)
+    numerator = torch.linalg.solve(psd_n, psd_s)  # psd_n.inv() @ psd_s
+    # ws: (..., C, C) / (...,) -> (..., C, C)
+    ws = numerator / (_compute_mat_trace(numerator)[..., None, None] + eps)
+    if torch.jit.isinstance(reference_channel, int):
+        beamform_weights = ws[..., :, reference_channel]
+    elif torch.jit.isinstance(reference_channel, Tensor):
+        reference_channel = reference_channel.to(psd_n.dtype)
+        # h: (..., F, C_1, C_2) x (..., C_2) -> (..., F, C_1)
+        beamform_weights = torch.einsum("...c,...c->...", [ws, reference_channel[..., None, None, :]])
+    else:
+        raise TypeError(f'Expected "int" or "Tensor" for reference_channel. Found: {type(reference_channel)}.')
+
+    return beamform_weights
+
+
+def mvdr_weights_rtf(
+    rtf: Tensor,
+    psd_n: Tensor,
+    reference_channel: Optional[Union[int, Tensor]] = None,
+    diagonal_loading: bool = True,
+    diag_eps: float = 1e-7,
+    eps: float = 1e-8,
+) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Compute the Minimum Variance Distortionless Response (*MVDR* :cite:`capon1969high`) beamforming weights
+    based on the relative transfer function (RTF) and power spectral density (PSD) matrix of noise.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Given the relative transfer function (RTF) matrix or the steering vector of target speech :math:`\bm{v}`,
+    the PSD matrix of noise :math:`\bf{\Phi}_{\textbf{NN}}`, and a one-hot vector that represents the
+    reference channel :math:`\bf{u}`, the method computes the MVDR beamforming weight martrix
+    :math:`\textbf{w}_{\text{MVDR}}`. The formula is defined as:
+
+    .. math::
+        \textbf{w}_{\text{MVDR}}(f) =
+        \frac{{{\bf{\Phi}_{\textbf{NN}}^{-1}}(f){\bm{v}}(f)}}
+        {{\bm{v}^{\mathsf{H}}}(f){\bf{\Phi}_{\textbf{NN}}^{-1}}(f){\bm{v}}(f)}
+
+    where :math:`(.)^{\mathsf{H}}` denotes the Hermitian Conjugate operation.
+
+    Args:
+        rtf (torch.Tensor): The complex-valued RTF vector of target speech.
+            Tensor with dimensions `(..., freq, channel)`.
+        psd_n (torch.Tensor): The complex-valued power spectral density (PSD) matrix of noise.
+            Tensor with dimensions `(..., freq, channel, channel)`.
+        reference_channel (int or torch.Tensor): Specifies the reference channel.
+            If the dtype is ``int``, it represents the reference channel index.
+            If the dtype is ``torch.Tensor``, its shape is `(..., channel)`, where the ``channel`` dimension
+            is one-hot.
+        diagonal_loading (bool, optional): If ``True``, enables applying diagonal loading to ``psd_n``.
+            (Default: ``True``)
+        diag_eps (float, optional): The coefficient multiplied to the identity matrix for diagonal loading.
+            It is only effective when ``diagonal_loading`` is set to ``True``. (Default: ``1e-7``)
+        eps (float, optional): Value to add to the denominator in the beamforming weight formula.
+            (Default: ``1e-8``)
+
+    Returns:
+        torch.Tensor: The complex-valued MVDR beamforming weight matrix with dimensions `(..., freq, channel)`.
+    """
+    if rtf.ndim < 2:
+        raise ValueError(f"Expected at least 2D Tensor (..., freq, channel) for rtf. Found {rtf.shape}.")
+    if psd_n.ndim < 3:
+        raise ValueError(f"Expected at least 3D Tensor (..., freq, channel, channel) for psd_n. Found {psd_n.shape}.")
+    if not (rtf.is_complex() and psd_n.is_complex()):
+        raise TypeError(
+            "The type of rtf and psd_n must be ``torch.cfloat`` or ``torch.cdouble``. "
+            f"Found {rtf.dtype} for rtf and {psd_n.dtype} for psd_n."
+        )
+    if rtf.shape != psd_n.shape[:-1]:
+        raise ValueError(
+            "The dimensions of rtf and the dimensions withou the last dimension of psd_n should be the same. "
+            f"Found {rtf.shape} for rtf and {psd_n.shape} for psd_n."
+        )
+    if psd_n.shape[-1] != psd_n.shape[-2]:
+        raise ValueError(f"The last two dimensions of psd_n should be the same. Found {psd_n.shape}.")
+
+    if diagonal_loading:
+        psd_n = _tik_reg(psd_n, reg=diag_eps)
+    # numerator = psd_n.inv() @ stv
+    numerator = torch.linalg.solve(psd_n, rtf.unsqueeze(-1)).squeeze(-1)  # (..., freq, channel)
+    # denominator = stv^H @ psd_n.inv() @ stv
+    denominator = torch.einsum("...d,...d->...", [rtf.conj(), numerator])
+    beamform_weights = numerator / (denominator.real.unsqueeze(-1) + eps)
+    # normalize the numerator
+    if reference_channel is not None:
+        if torch.jit.isinstance(reference_channel, int):
+            scale = rtf[..., reference_channel].conj()
+        elif torch.jit.isinstance(reference_channel, Tensor):
+            reference_channel = reference_channel.to(psd_n.dtype)
+            scale = torch.einsum("...c,...c->...", [rtf.conj(), reference_channel[..., None, :]])
+        else:
+            raise TypeError(f'Expected "int" or "Tensor" for reference_channel. Found: {type(reference_channel)}.')
+
+        beamform_weights = beamform_weights * scale[..., None]
+
+    return beamform_weights
+
+
+def rtf_evd(psd_s: Tensor) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Estimate the relative transfer function (RTF) or the steering vector by eigenvalue decomposition.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        psd_s (Tensor): The complex-valued power spectral density (PSD) matrix of target speech.
+            Tensor of dimension `(..., freq, channel, channel)`
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: The estimated complex-valued RTF of target speech.
+        Tensor of dimension `(..., freq, channel)`
+    """
+    if not psd_s.is_complex():
+        raise TypeError(f"The type of psd_s must be ``torch.cfloat`` or ``torch.cdouble``. Found {psd_s.dtype}.")
+    if psd_s.shape[-1] != psd_s.shape[-2]:
+        raise ValueError(f"The last two dimensions of psd_s should be the same. Found {psd_s.shape}.")
+    _, v = torch.linalg.eigh(psd_s)  # v is sorted along with eigenvalues in ascending order
+    rtf = v[..., -1]  # choose the eigenvector with max eigenvalue
+    return rtf
+
+
+def rtf_power(
+    psd_s: Tensor,
+    psd_n: Tensor,
+    reference_channel: Union[int, Tensor],
+    n_iter: int = 3,
+    diagonal_loading: bool = True,
+    diag_eps: float = 1e-7,
+) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Estimate the relative transfer function (RTF) or the steering vector by the power method.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        psd_s (torch.Tensor): The complex-valued power spectral density (PSD) matrix of target speech.
+            Tensor with dimensions `(..., freq, channel, channel)`.
+        psd_n (torch.Tensor): The complex-valued power spectral density (PSD) matrix of noise.
+            Tensor with dimensions `(..., freq, channel, channel)`.
+        reference_channel (int or torch.Tensor): Specifies the reference channel.
+            If the dtype is ``int``, it represents the reference channel index.
+            If the dtype is ``torch.Tensor``, its shape is `(..., channel)`, where the ``channel`` dimension
+            is one-hot.
+        diagonal_loading (bool, optional): If ``True``, enables applying diagonal loading to ``psd_n``.
+            (Default: ``True``)
+        diag_eps (float, optional): The coefficient multiplied to the identity matrix for diagonal loading.
+            It is only effective when ``diagonal_loading`` is set to ``True``. (Default: ``1e-7``)
+
+    Returns:
+        torch.Tensor: The estimated complex-valued RTF of target speech.
+        Tensor of dimension `(..., freq, channel)`.
+    """
+    _assert_psd_matrices(psd_s, psd_n)
+    if n_iter <= 0:
+        raise ValueError("The number of iteration must be greater than 0.")
+
+    # Apply diagonal loading to psd_n to improve robustness.
+    if diagonal_loading:
+        psd_n = _tik_reg(psd_n, reg=diag_eps)
+    # phi is regarded as the first iteration
+    phi = torch.linalg.solve(psd_n, psd_s)  # psd_n.inv() @ psd_s
+    if torch.jit.isinstance(reference_channel, int):
+        rtf = phi[..., reference_channel]
+    elif torch.jit.isinstance(reference_channel, Tensor):
+        reference_channel = reference_channel.to(psd_n.dtype)
+        rtf = torch.einsum("...c,...c->...", [phi, reference_channel[..., None, None, :]])
+    else:
+        raise TypeError(f'Expected "int" or "Tensor" for reference_channel. Found: {type(reference_channel)}.')
+    rtf = rtf.unsqueeze(-1)  # (..., freq, channel, 1)
+    if n_iter >= 2:
+        # The number of iterations in the for loop is `n_iter - 2`
+        # because the `phi` above and `torch.matmul(psd_s, rtf)` are regarded as
+        # two iterations.
+        for _ in range(n_iter - 2):
+            rtf = torch.matmul(phi, rtf)
+        rtf = torch.matmul(psd_s, rtf)
+    else:
+        # if there is only one iteration, the rtf is the psd_s[..., referenc_channel]
+        # which is psd_n @ phi @ ref_channel
+        rtf = torch.matmul(psd_n, rtf)
+    return rtf.squeeze(-1)
+
+
+def apply_beamforming(beamform_weights: Tensor, specgram: Tensor) -> Tensor:
+    r"""Apply the beamforming weight to the multi-channel noisy spectrum to obtain the single-channel enhanced spectrum.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    .. math::
+        \hat{\textbf{S}}(f) = \textbf{w}_{\text{bf}}(f)^{\mathsf{H}} \textbf{Y}(f)
+
+    where :math:`\textbf{w}_{\text{bf}}(f)` is the beamforming weight for the :math:`f`-th frequency bin,
+    :math:`\textbf{Y}` is the multi-channel spectrum for the :math:`f`-th frequency bin.
+
+    Args:
+        beamform_weights (Tensor): The complex-valued beamforming weight matrix.
+            Tensor of dimension `(..., freq, channel)`
+        specgram (Tensor): The multi-channel complex-valued noisy spectrum.
+            Tensor of dimension `(..., channel, freq, time)`
+
+    Returns:
+        Tensor: The single-channel complex-valued enhanced spectrum.
+            Tensor of dimension `(..., freq, time)`
+    """
+    if beamform_weights.shape[:-2] != specgram.shape[:-3]:
+        raise ValueError(
+            "The dimensions except the last two dimensions of beamform_weights should be the same "
+            "as the dimensions except the last three dimensions of specgram. "
+            f"Found {beamform_weights.shape} for beamform_weights and {specgram.shape} for specgram."
+        )
+
+    if not (beamform_weights.is_complex() and specgram.is_complex()):
+        raise TypeError(
+            "The type of beamform_weights and specgram must be ``torch.cfloat`` or ``torch.cdouble``. "
+            f"Found {beamform_weights.dtype} for beamform_weights and {specgram.dtype} for specgram."
+        )
+
+    # (..., freq, channel) x (..., channel, freq, time) -> (..., freq, time)
+    specgram_enhanced = torch.einsum("...fc,...cft->...ft", [beamform_weights.conj(), specgram])
+    return specgram_enhanced
+
+
+def _check_shape_compatible(x: torch.Tensor, y: torch.Tensor) -> None:
+    if x.ndim != y.ndim:
+        raise ValueError(f"The operands must be the same dimension (got {x.ndim} and {y.ndim}).")
+
+    for i in range(x.ndim - 1):
+        xi = x.size(i)
+        yi = y.size(i)
+        if xi == yi or xi == 1 or yi == 1:
+            continue
+        raise ValueError(f"Leading dimensions of x and y are not broadcastable (got {x.shape} and {y.shape}).")
+
+
+def _check_convolve_mode(mode: str) -> None:
+    valid_convolve_modes = ["full", "valid", "same"]
+    if mode not in valid_convolve_modes:
+        raise ValueError(f"Unrecognized mode value '{mode}'. Please specify one of {valid_convolve_modes}.")
+
+
+def _apply_convolve_mode(conv_result: torch.Tensor, x_length: int, y_length: int, mode: str) -> torch.Tensor:
+    valid_convolve_modes = ["full", "valid", "same"]
+    if mode == "full":
+        return conv_result
+    elif mode == "valid":
+        target_length = max(x_length, y_length) - min(x_length, y_length) + 1
+        start_idx = (conv_result.size(-1) - target_length) // 2
+        return conv_result[..., start_idx : start_idx + target_length]
+    elif mode == "same":
+        start_idx = (conv_result.size(-1) - x_length) // 2
+        return conv_result[..., start_idx : start_idx + x_length]
+    else:
+        raise ValueError(f"Unrecognized mode value '{mode}'. Please specify one of {valid_convolve_modes}.")
+
+
+def fftconvolve(x: torch.Tensor, y: torch.Tensor, mode: str = "full") -> torch.Tensor:
+    r"""
+    Convolves inputs along their last dimension using FFT. For inputs with large last dimensions, this function
+    is generally much faster than :meth:`convolve`.
+    Note that, in contrast to :meth:`torch.nn.functional.conv1d`, which actually applies the valid cross-correlation
+    operator, this function applies the true `convolution`_ operator.
+    Also note that this function can only output float tensors (int tensor inputs will be cast to float).
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        x (torch.Tensor): First convolution operand, with shape `(..., N)`.
+        y (torch.Tensor): Second convolution operand, with shape `(..., M)`
+            (leading dimensions must be broadcast-able with those of ``x``).
+        mode (str, optional): Must be one of ("full", "valid", "same").
+
+            * "full": Returns the full convolution result, with shape `(..., N + M - 1)`. (Default)
+            * "valid": Returns the segment of the full convolution result corresponding to where
+              the two inputs overlap completely, with shape `(..., max(N, M) - min(N, M) + 1)`.
+            * "same": Returns the center segment of the full convolution result, with shape `(..., N)`.
+
+    Returns:
+        torch.Tensor: Result of convolving ``x`` and ``y``, with shape `(..., L)`, where
+        the leading dimensions match those of ``x`` and `L` is dictated by ``mode``.
+
+    .. _convolution:
+        https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convolution
+    """
+    _check_shape_compatible(x, y)
+    _check_convolve_mode(mode)
+
+    n = x.size(-1) + y.size(-1) - 1
+    fresult = torch.fft.rfft(x, n=n) * torch.fft.rfft(y, n=n)
+    result = torch.fft.irfft(fresult, n=n)
+    return _apply_convolve_mode(result, x.size(-1), y.size(-1), mode)
+
+
+def convolve(x: torch.Tensor, y: torch.Tensor, mode: str = "full") -> torch.Tensor:
+    r"""
+    Convolves inputs along their last dimension using the direct method.
+    Note that, in contrast to :meth:`torch.nn.functional.conv1d`, which actually applies the valid cross-correlation
+    operator, this function applies the true `convolution`_ operator.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        x (torch.Tensor): First convolution operand, with shape `(..., N)`.
+        y (torch.Tensor): Second convolution operand, with shape `(..., M)`
+            (leading dimensions must be broadcast-able with those of ``x``).
+        mode (str, optional): Must be one of ("full", "valid", "same").
+
+            * "full": Returns the full convolution result, with shape `(..., N + M - 1)`. (Default)
+            * "valid": Returns the segment of the full convolution result corresponding to where
+              the two inputs overlap completely, with shape `(..., max(N, M) - min(N, M) + 1)`.
+            * "same": Returns the center segment of the full convolution result, with shape `(..., N)`.
+
+    Returns:
+        torch.Tensor: Result of convolving ``x`` and ``y``, with shape `(..., L)`, where
+        the leading dimensions match those of ``x`` and `L` is dictated by ``mode``.
+
+    .. _convolution:
+        https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convolution
+    """
+    _check_shape_compatible(x, y)
+    _check_convolve_mode(mode)
+
+    x_size, y_size = x.size(-1), y.size(-1)
+
+    if x.size(-1) < y.size(-1):
+        x, y = y, x
+
+    if x.shape[:-1] != y.shape[:-1]:
+        new_shape = [max(i, j) for i, j in zip(x.shape[:-1], y.shape[:-1])]
+        x = x.broadcast_to(new_shape + [x.shape[-1]])
+        y = y.broadcast_to(new_shape + [y.shape[-1]])
+
+    num_signals = torch.tensor(x.shape[:-1]).prod()
+    reshaped_x = x.reshape((int(num_signals), x.size(-1)))
+    reshaped_y = y.reshape((int(num_signals), y.size(-1)))
+    output = torch.nn.functional.conv1d(
+        input=reshaped_x,
+        weight=reshaped_y.flip(-1).unsqueeze(1),
+        stride=1,
+        groups=reshaped_x.size(0),
+        padding=reshaped_y.size(-1) - 1,
+    )
+    output_shape = x.shape[:-1] + (-1,)
+    result = output.reshape(output_shape)
+    return _apply_convolve_mode(result, x_size, y_size, mode)
+
+
+def add_noise(
+    waveform: torch.Tensor, noise: torch.Tensor, snr: torch.Tensor, lengths: Optional[torch.Tensor] = None
+) -> torch.Tensor:
+    r"""Scales and adds noise to waveform per signal-to-noise ratio.
+
+    Specifically, for each pair of waveform vector :math:`x \in \mathbb{R}^L` and noise vector
+    :math:`n \in \mathbb{R}^L`, the function computes output :math:`y` as
+
+    .. math::
+        y = x + a n \, \text{,}
+
+    where
+
+    .. math::
+        a = \sqrt{ \frac{ ||x||_{2}^{2} }{ ||n||_{2}^{2} } \cdot 10^{-\frac{\text{SNR}}{10}} } \, \text{,}
+
+    with :math:`\text{SNR}` being the desired signal-to-noise ratio between :math:`x` and :math:`n`, in dB.
+
+    Note that this function broadcasts singleton leading dimensions in its inputs in a manner that is
+    consistent with the above formulae and PyTorch's broadcasting semantics.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        waveform (torch.Tensor): Input waveform, with shape `(..., L)`.
+        noise (torch.Tensor): Noise, with shape `(..., L)` (same shape as ``waveform``).
+        snr (torch.Tensor): Signal-to-noise ratios in dB, with shape `(...,)`.
+        lengths (torch.Tensor or None, optional): Valid lengths of signals in ``waveform`` and ``noise``, with shape
+            `(...,)` (leading dimensions must match those of ``waveform``). If ``None``, all elements in ``waveform``
+            and ``noise`` are treated as valid. (Default: ``None``)
+
+    Returns:
+        torch.Tensor: Result of scaling and adding ``noise`` to ``waveform``, with shape `(..., L)`
+        (same shape as ``waveform``).
+    """
+
+    if not (waveform.ndim - 1 == noise.ndim - 1 == snr.ndim and (lengths is None or lengths.ndim == snr.ndim)):
+        raise ValueError("Input leading dimensions don't match.")
+
+    L = waveform.size(-1)
+
+    if L != noise.size(-1):
+        raise ValueError(f"Length dimensions of waveform and noise don't match (got {L} and {noise.size(-1)}).")
+
+    # compute scale
+    if lengths is not None:
+        mask = torch.arange(0, L, device=lengths.device).expand(waveform.shape) < lengths.unsqueeze(
+            -1
+        )  # (*, L) < (*, 1) = (*, L)
+        masked_waveform = waveform * mask
+        masked_noise = noise * mask
+    else:
+        masked_waveform = waveform
+        masked_noise = noise
+
+    energy_signal = torch.linalg.vector_norm(masked_waveform, ord=2, dim=-1) ** 2  # (*,)
+    energy_noise = torch.linalg.vector_norm(masked_noise, ord=2, dim=-1) ** 2  # (*,)
+    original_snr_db = 10 * (torch.log10(energy_signal) - torch.log10(energy_noise))
+    scale = 10 ** ((original_snr_db - snr) / 20.0)  # (*,)
+
+    # scale noise
+    scaled_noise = scale.unsqueeze(-1) * noise  # (*, 1) * (*, L) = (*, L)
+
+    return waveform + scaled_noise  # (*, L)
+
+
+def speed(
+    waveform: torch.Tensor, orig_freq: int, factor: float, lengths: Optional[torch.Tensor] = None
+) -> Tuple[torch.Tensor, Optional[torch.Tensor]]:
+    r"""Adjusts waveform speed.
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        waveform (torch.Tensor): Input signals, with shape `(..., time)`.
+        orig_freq (int): Original frequency of the signals in ``waveform``.
+        factor (float): Factor by which to adjust speed of input. Values greater than 1.0
+            compress ``waveform`` in time, whereas values less than 1.0 stretch ``waveform`` in time.
+        lengths (torch.Tensor or None, optional): Valid lengths of signals in ``waveform``, with shape `(...)`.
+            If ``None``, all elements in ``waveform`` are treated as valid. (Default: ``None``)
+
+    Returns:
+        (torch.Tensor, torch.Tensor or None):
+            torch.Tensor
+                Speed-adjusted waveform, with shape `(..., new_time).`
+            torch.Tensor or None
+                If ``lengths`` is not ``None``, valid lengths of signals in speed-adjusted waveform,
+                with shape `(...)`; otherwise, ``None``.
+    """
+
+    source_sample_rate = int(factor * orig_freq)
+    target_sample_rate = int(orig_freq)
+
+    gcd = math.gcd(source_sample_rate, target_sample_rate)
+    source_sample_rate = source_sample_rate // gcd
+    target_sample_rate = target_sample_rate // gcd
+
+    if lengths is None:
+        out_lengths = None
+    else:
+        out_lengths = torch.ceil(lengths * target_sample_rate / source_sample_rate).to(lengths.dtype)
+
+    return resample(waveform, source_sample_rate, target_sample_rate), out_lengths
+
+
+def preemphasis(waveform, coeff: float = 0.97) -> torch.Tensor:
+    r"""Pre-emphasizes a waveform along its last dimension, i.e.
+    for each signal :math:`x` in ``waveform``, computes
+    output :math:`y` as
+
+    .. math::
+        y[i] = x[i] - \text{coeff} \cdot x[i - 1]
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        waveform (torch.Tensor): Waveform, with shape `(..., N)`.
+        coeff (float, optional): Pre-emphasis coefficient. Typically between 0.0 and 1.0.
+            (Default: 0.97)
+
+    Returns:
+        torch.Tensor: Pre-emphasized waveform, with shape `(..., N)`.
+    """
+    waveform = waveform.clone()
+    waveform[..., 1:] -= coeff * waveform[..., :-1]
+    return waveform
+
+
+def deemphasis(waveform, coeff: float = 0.97) -> torch.Tensor:
+    r"""De-emphasizes a waveform along its last dimension.
+    Inverse of :meth:`preemphasis`. Concretely, for each signal
+    :math:`x` in ``waveform``, computes output :math:`y` as
+
+    .. math::
+        y[i] = x[i] + \text{coeff} \cdot y[i - 1]
+
+    .. devices:: CPU CUDA
+
+    .. properties:: Autograd TorchScript
+
+    Args:
+        waveform (torch.Tensor): Waveform, with shape `(..., N)`.
+        coeff (float, optional): De-emphasis coefficient. Typically between 0.0 and 1.0.
+            (Default: 0.97)
+
+    Returns:
+        torch.Tensor: De-emphasized waveform, with shape `(..., N)`.
+    """
+    a_coeffs = torch.tensor([1.0, -coeff], dtype=waveform.dtype, device=waveform.device)
+    b_coeffs = torch.tensor([1.0, 0.0], dtype=waveform.dtype, device=waveform.device)
+    return torchaudio.functional.lfilter(waveform, a_coeffs=a_coeffs, b_coeffs=b_coeffs)
+
+
+def frechet_distance(mu_x, sigma_x, mu_y, sigma_y):
+    r"""Computes the Fréchet distance between two multivariate normal distributions :cite:`dowson1982frechet`.
+
+    Concretely, for multivariate Gaussians :math:`X(\mu_X, \Sigma_X)`
+    and :math:`Y(\mu_Y, \Sigma_Y)`, the function computes and returns :math:`F` as
+
+    .. math::
+        F(X, Y) = || \mu_X - \mu_Y ||_2^2
+        + \text{Tr}\left( \Sigma_X + \Sigma_Y - 2 \sqrt{\Sigma_X \Sigma_Y} \right)
+
+    Args:
+        mu_x (torch.Tensor): mean :math:`\mu_X` of multivariate Gaussian :math:`X`, with shape `(N,)`.
+        sigma_x (torch.Tensor): covariance matrix :math:`\Sigma_X` of :math:`X`, with shape `(N, N)`.
+        mu_y (torch.Tensor): mean :math:`\mu_Y` of multivariate Gaussian :math:`Y`, with shape `(N,)`.
+        sigma_y (torch.Tensor): covariance matrix :math:`\Sigma_Y` of :math:`Y`, with shape `(N, N)`.
+
+    Returns:
+        torch.Tensor: the Fréchet distance between :math:`X` and :math:`Y`.
+    """
+    if len(mu_x.size()) != 1:
+        raise ValueError(f"Input mu_x must be one-dimensional; got dimension {len(mu_x.size())}.")
+    if len(sigma_x.size()) != 2:
+        raise ValueError(f"Input sigma_x must be two-dimensional; got dimension {len(sigma_x.size())}.")
+    if sigma_x.size(0) != sigma_x.size(1) != mu_x.size(0):
+        raise ValueError("Each of sigma_x's dimensions must match mu_x's size.")
+    if mu_x.size() != mu_y.size():
+        raise ValueError(f"Inputs mu_x and mu_y must have the same shape; got {mu_x.size()} and {mu_y.size()}.")
+    if sigma_x.size() != sigma_y.size():
+        raise ValueError(
+            f"Inputs sigma_x and sigma_y must have the same shape; got {sigma_x.size()} and {sigma_y.size()}."
+        )
+
+    a = (mu_x - mu_y).square().sum()
+    b = sigma_x.trace() + sigma_y.trace()
+    c = torch.linalg.eigvals(sigma_x @ sigma_y).sqrt().real.sum()
+    return a + b - 2 * c