skinoptics 0.0.1b9__py3-none-any.whl → 0.0.2__py3-none-any.whl

skinoptics/colors.py

@@ -1,1403 +1,1543 @@
-'''
-| SkinOptics
-| Copyright (C) 2024-2025 Victor Lima
-
-    | This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
-    | it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
-    | the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
-    | (at your option) any later version.
-
-    | This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
-    | but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
-    | MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
-    | GNU General Public License for more details.
-
-    | You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
-    | along with this program.  If not, see <https://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
-     
-| Victor Lima
-| victorporto\@ifsc.usp.br
-| victor.lima\@ufscar.br
-| victorportog.github.io
-
-| Release date:
-| October 2024
-| Last modification:
-| October 2024
-
-| References:
-
-| [CCH91] Chardon, Cretois & Hourseau 1991.
-| Skin colour typology and suntanning pathways.
-| https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2494.1991.tb00561.x
-
-| [T*94] Takiwaki, Shirai, Kanno, Watanabe & Arase 1994.
-| Quantification of erythema and pigmentation using a videomicroscope and a computer.
-| https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.1994.tb08462.x
-
-| [F*96] Fullerton, Fischer, Lahti, Wilhelm, Takiwaki & Serup 1996.
-| Guidetines for measurement of skin colour and erythema: A report from the Standardization Group of the European Society of Contact Dermatitis.
-| https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0536.1996.tb02258.x
-
-| [S*96] Stokes, Anderson, Chandrasekar & Motta 1996.
-| A Standard Default Color Space for the Internet - sRGB.
-| https://www.w3.org/Graphics/Color/sRGB.html
-
-| [IEC99] IEC 1999.
-| Multimedia systems and equipment - Colour measurement and management - Part 2-1: Colour management - Default RGB colour space - sRGB.
-| IEC 61966-2-1:1999
-
-| [CIE04] CIE 2004.
-| Colorimetry, 3rd edition.
-| CIE 15:2004
-
-| [D*06] Del Bino, Sok, Bessac & Bernerd 2006.
-| Relationship between skin response to ultraviolet exposure and skin color type.
-| https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0749.2006.00338.x
-
-| [S07] Schanda (editor) 2007.
-| Colorimetry: Understanding the CIE System.
-| http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470175637
-
-| [HP11] Hunt & Pointer 2011.
-| Measuring Colour.
-| https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119975595
-
-| [DB13] Del Bino & Bernerd 2013.
-| Variations in skin colour and the biological consequences of ultraviolet radiation exposure.
-| https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.12529
-
-| [WSS13] Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013.
-| Simple Analytic Approximations to the CIE XYZ Color Matching Functions.
-| https://jcgt.org/published/0002/02/01/
-
-| [CIE18a] CIE 2018.
-| CIE standard illuminant A - 1 nm.
-| https://doi.org/10.25039/CIE.DS.8jsxjrsn
-
-| [CIE18b] CIE 2018.
-| CIE standard illuminant D55.
-| https://doi.org/10.25039/CIE.DS.qewfb3kp
-
-| [CIE18c] CIE 2018.
-| CIE standard illuminant D75.
-| https://doi.org/10.25039/CIE.DS.9fvcmrk4
-
-| [CIE19a] CIE 2019.
-| CIE 1931 colour-matching functions, 2 degree observer.
-| https://doi.org/10.25039/CIE.DS.xvudnb9b
-
-| [CIE19b] CIE 2019.
-| CIE 1964 colour-matching functions, 10 degree observer
-| https://doi.org/10.25039/CIE.DS.sqksu2n5
-
-| [L*20] Ly, Dyer, Feig, Chien & Del Bino 2020.
-| Research Techniques Made Simple: Cutaneous Colorimetry: A Reliable Technique for Objective Skin Color Measurement.
-| https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jid.2019.11.003
-
-| [CIE22a] CIE 2022.
-| CIE standard illuminant D50.
-| https://doi.org/10.25039/CIE.DS.etgmuqt5
-
-| [CIE22b] CIE 2022.
-| CIE standard illuminant D65.
-| https://doi.org/10.25039/CIE.DS.hjfjmt59
-'''
-
-import numpy as np
-from scipy.interpolate import interp1d
-from scipy.integrate import trapezoid
-
-from skinoptics.utils import *
-from skinoptics.dataframes import *
-
-def rspd(lambda0, illuminant):
-    r'''
-    | The relative spectral power distribution S(:math:`\lambda`) of a chosen standard illuminant
-    | as a function of wavelength.
-    | Linear interpolation of data from CIE datasets [CIE18a] [CIE22a] [CIE18b] [CIE22b] [CIE18c].
-    
-    | wavelength range:
-    | [300 nm, 830 nm] (at 1 nm intervals, for illuminant = 'A', 'D50' or 'D65')
-    | or [300 nm, 780 nm] (at 5 nm intervals, for illuminant = 'D55' or 'D75')
-    
-    :param lambda0: wavelength [nm] (must be in range [300 nm, 830 nm] or [300 nm, 780 nm])
-    :type lambda0: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param illuminant: the user can choose one of the following... 'A', 'D50', 'D55', 'D65' or 'D75'
-    :type illuminant: str
-
-    | 'A' refers to the CIE standard illuminant A
-    | 'D50' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D50
-    | 'D55' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D55
-    | 'D65' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D65
-    | 'D75' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D75
-    
-    :return: - **rspd** (*float or np.ndarray*) – relative spectral power distribution [-]
-    '''
-    
-    if illuminant == 'A' or 'D50' or 'D65':
-        if isinstance(lambda0, np.ndarray) == True:
-            if np.any(lambda0 < 300) or np.any(lambda0 > 830):
-                msg = 'At least one element in the input lambda0 is out of the range [300 nm, 830 nm].'
-                raise Exception(msg)
-        else:
-            if lambda0 < 300 or lambda0 > 830:
-                msg = 'The input lambda0 = {} nm is out of the range [300 nm, 830 nm].'.format(lambda0)
-                raise Exception(msg)
-    elif illuminant == 'D55' or 'D75':
-        if isinstance(lambda0, np.ndarray) == True:
-            if np.any(lambda0 < 300) or np.any(lambda0 > 780):
-                msg = 'At least one element in the input lambda0 is out of the range [300 nm, 780 nm].'
-                raise Exception(msg)
-        else:
-            if lambda0 < 300 or lambda0 > 780:
-                msg = 'The input lambda0 = {} nm is out of the range [300 nm, 780 nm].'.format(lambda0)
-                raise Exception(msg)
-    
-    if illuminant == 'A': 
-        rspd = interp1d(np.array(rspds_A_D50_D65_dataframe)[:,0],
-                        np.array(rspds_A_D50_D65_dataframe)[:,1])(lambda0)
-    elif illuminant == 'D50':
-        rspd = interp1d(np.array(rspds_A_D50_D65_dataframe)[:,0],
-                        np.array(rspds_A_D50_D65_dataframe)[:,2])(lambda0)
-    elif illuminant == 'D55':
-        rspd = interp1d(np.array(rspds_D55_D75_dataframe)[:,0],
-                        np.array(rspds_D55_D75_dataframe)[:,1])(lambda0)
-    elif illuminant == 'D65':
-        rspd = interp1d(np.array(rspds_A_D50_D65_dataframe)[:,0],
-                        np.array(rspds_A_D50_D65_dataframe)[:,3])(lambda0)
-    elif illuminant == 'D75':
-        rspd = interp1d(np.array(rspds_D55_D75_dataframe)[:,0],
-                        np.array(rspds_D55_D75_dataframe)[:,2])(lambda0)
-    else:
-        msg = 'The input illuminant = {} is not valid.'.format(illuminant)
-        raise Exception(msg)
-        
-    return rspd 
-
-def cmfs(lambda0, observer, cmfs_model = 'CIE'):
-    r'''
-    | The CIE color-matching functions :math:`\bar{x}(\lambda)`, :math:`\bar{y}(\lambda)` and :math:`\bar{z}(\lambda)` for a chosen standard observer
-    | as a function of wavelength.
-    
-    | wavelength range: [360 nm, 830 nm] (at 1 nm intervals for cmfs_model = 'CIE')
-    
-    :param lambda0: wavelength [nm] (must be in range [360., 830.] for cmfs_model = 'CIE')
-    :type lambda0: float or np.ndarray 
-    
-    :param observer: the user can choose one of the following... '2o' or '10o'
-    :type observer: str
-    
-    :param cmfs_model: the user can choose one of the following... 'CIE', 'Wyman_singlelobe' or 'Wyman_multilobe' (default to 'CIE')
-    :type cmfs_model: str
-
-    | '2o' refers to the CIE 1931 2 degree standard observer
-    | '10o' refers to the CIE 1964 10 degree standard observer
-
-    | 'CIE' for the linear interpolation of data from CIE datasets [CIE19a] [CIE19b]
-    | 'Wyman_singlelobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.1)
-    | 'Wyman_multilobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.2)
-    
-    :return: - **xbar** (*float or np.ndarray*) – :math:`\bar{x}(\lambda`) color-matching function [-]
-       - **ybar** (*float or np.ndarray*) – :math:`\bar{y}(\lambda`) color-matching function [-]
-       - **zbar** (*float or np.ndarray*) – :math:`\bar{z}(\lambda`) color-matching function [-]
-    '''
-    
-    if cmfs_model == 'CIE':
-        if isinstance(lambda0, np.ndarray) == True:
-            if np.any(lambda0 < 360) or np.any(lambda0 > 830):
-                msg = 'At least one element in the input lambda0 is out of the range [360 nm, 830 nm].'
-                raise Exception(msg)
-        else:
-            if lambda0 < 360 or lambda0 > 830:
-                msg = 'The input lambda0 = {} nm is out of the range [360 nm, 830 nm].'.format(lambda0)
-                raise Exception(msg)
-        if observer == '2o':
-            xbar = interp1d(np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,0],
-                            np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,1])(lambda0)
-            ybar = interp1d(np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,0],
-                            np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,2])(lambda0)
-            zbar = interp1d(np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,0],
-                            np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,3])(lambda0)
-        elif observer == '10o':
-            xbar = interp1d(np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,0],
-                            np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,4])(lambda0)
-            ybar = interp1d(np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,0],
-                            np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,5])(lambda0)
-            zbar = interp1d(np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,0],
-                            np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,6])(lambda0)
-        else:
-            msg = 'The input observer = {} is not valid.'.format(observer)
-            raise Exception(msg)
-    elif cmfs_model == 'Wyman_singlelobe':
-        if observer == '2o':
-            xbar = gaussian(lambda0, 1.065, 595.8, 33.33) \
-            + gaussian(lambda0, 0.366, 446.8, 19.44)
-            ybar = gaussian(np.log(lambda0), 1.014, np.log(556.3), 0.075)
-            zbar = gaussian(np.log(lambda0), 1.839, np.log(449.8), 0.051)
-        elif observer == '10o':
-            xbar = mod_gaussian_Wyman(lambda0, 0.398, -570.1, 1014, 1250) \
-            + mod_gaussian_Wyman(-lambda0, 1.132, -1338, 743.5, 234)
-            ybar = gaussian(lambda0, 1.011, 556.1, 46.14)
-            zbar = mod_gaussian_Wyman(lambda0, 2.06, 265.8, 180.4,32)
-        else:
-            msg = 'The input observer = {} is not valid.'.format(observer)
-            raise Exception(msg)
-    elif cmfs_model == 'Wyman_multilobe':
-        if observer == '2o':
-            coeffs = [[0.362, 1.056, -0.065, 0.821, 0.286, 0., 1.217, 0.681, 0.],
-                      [442.0, 599.8, 501.1, 568.8, 530.9, 0., 437.0, 459.0, 0.],
-                      [0.0624, 0.0264, 0.0490, 0.0213, 0.0613, 0., 0.0845, 0.0385, 0.],
-                      [0.0374, 0.0323, 0.0382, 0.0247, 0.0322, 0., 0.0278, 0.0725, 0.]]
-            if isinstance(lambda0, np.ndarray) == True:
-                xbar, ybar, zbar = np.zeros((3,len(lambda0)))
-                c = 0
-                for j in range(len(lambda0)):
-                    X, Y, Z = 0., 0., 0.  
-                    for i in range(3):
-                        X += piecewise_gaussian_Wyman(lambda0[j], coeffs[0][i], coeffs[1][i],
-                                                      coeffs[2][i], coeffs[3][i])
-                        Y += piecewise_gaussian_Wyman(lambda0[j], coeffs[0][i+3], coeffs[1][i+3],
-                                                      coeffs[2][i+3], coeffs[3][i+3])
-                        Z += piecewise_gaussian_Wyman(lambda0[j], coeffs[0][i+6], coeffs[1][i+6],
-                                                      coeffs[2][i+6], coeffs[3][i+6])
-                    xbar[j], ybar[j], zbar[j] = X, Y, Z
-            elif isinstance(lambda0, (int, float)) == True: 
-                X, Y, Z = 0., 0., 0. 
-                for i in range(3):
-                    X += piecewise_gaussian_Wyman(lambda0, coeffs[0][i], coeffs[1][i],
-                                                  coeffs[2][i], coeffs[3][i])
-                    Y += piecewise_gaussian_Wyman(lambda0, coeffs[0][i+3], coeffs[1][i+3],
-                                                  coeffs[2][i+3], coeffs[3][i+3])
-                    Z += piecewise_gaussian_Wyman(lambda0, coeffs[0][i+6], coeffs[1][i+6],
-                                                  coeffs[2][i+6], coeffs[3][i+6])
-                xbar, ybar, zbar = X, Y, Z
-            else:
-                msg = 'The input lambda0 must be int, float or np.ndarray.'
-                raise Exception(msg)
-        else:
-            msg = 'The input observer = {} is not valid for cmfs_model = Wyman_multilobe.'.format(observer)
-            raise Exception(msg) 
-    else:
-        msg = 'The input cmfs_model = {} is not valid.'.format(cmfs_model)
-        raise Exception(msg) 
-        
-    return xbar, ybar, zbar
-
-def xy_from_XYZ(X, Y, Z):
-    r'''
-    | Calculate CIE xy chromaticities from CIE XYZ coordinates.
-    
-    | :math:`x = \frac{X}{X + Y + Z}`
-    | :math:`y = \frac{Y}{X + Y + Z}`
-
-    :param X: X coordinate [-]
-    :type X: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param Y: Y coordinate [-]
-    :type Y: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param Z: Z coordinate [-]
-    :type Z: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :return: - **x** (*float or np.ndarray*) – x chromaticity [-]
-       - **y** (*float or np.ndarray*) – y chromaticity [-]
-    '''
-    
-    x = X/(X + Y + Z)
-    y = Y/(X + Y + Z)
-    
-    return x, y
-
-def XYZ_wp(illuminant, observer, cmfs_model = 'CIE', K = 1.):
-    r'''
-    The white point CIE XYZ coordinates for a chosen standard illuminant and standard observer.
-    
-    :param illuminant: the user can choose one of the following... 'A', 'D50', 'D55', 'D65' or 'D75'
-    :type illuminant: str
-    
-    :param observer: the user can choose one of the following... '2o' or '10o'
-    :type observer: str
-    
-    :param cmfs_model: the user can choose one of the following... 'CIE', 'Wyman_singlelobe' or 'Wyman_multilobe' (default to 'CIE')
-    :type cmfs_model: str
-    
-    :param K: scaling factor (usually 1. or 100.) [-] (default to 1.)
-    :type K: float
-
-    | 'A' refers to the CIE standard illuminant A
-    | 'D50' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D50
-    | 'D55' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D55
-    | 'D65' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D65
-    | 'D75' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D75
-
-    | '2o' refers to the CIE 1931 2 degree standard observer
-    | '10o' refers to the CIE 1964 10 degree standard observer
-
-    | 'CIE' for the linear interpolation of data from CIE datasets [CIE19a] [CIE19b]
-    | 'Wyman_singlelobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.1)
-    | 'Wyman_multilobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.2)
-    
-    | K = 1. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 1]
-    | K = 100. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 100]
-    
-    :return: - **Xn** (*float*) – white point X coordinate [-]
-       - **Yn** (*float*) – white point Y coordinate [-]
-       - **Zn** (*float*) – white point Z coordinate [-]
-    '''
-    
-    if illuminant == 'D55' or illuminant == 'D75':
-        Xn, Yn, Zn = XYZ_from_spectrum(np.arange(360, 780, 1), np.ones(len(np.arange(360, 780, 1)))*100,
-                                       lambda_max = 780, illuminant = illuminant, observer = observer, cmfs_model = cmfs_model, K = K)
-    else:
-        Xn, Yn, Zn = XYZ_from_spectrum(np.arange(360, 830, 1), np.ones(len(np.arange(360, 830, 1)))*100,
-                                       illuminant = illuminant, observer = observer, cmfs_model = cmfs_model, K = K)
-    
-    return Xn, Yn, Zn
-
-def xy_wp(illuminant, observer):
-    r'''
-    | The white point CIE xy chromaticities for a chosen standard illuminant and standard observer.
-    | Calculated from the white point CIE XYZ coordinates (see function :meth:`skinoptics.colors.XYZ_wp`).
-    
-    :param illuminant: the user can choose one of the following... 'A', 'D50', 'D55', 'D65' or 'D75'
-    :type illuminant: str
-    
-    :param observer: the user can choose one of the following... '2o' or '10o'
-    :type observer: str
-
-    | 'A' refers to the CIE standard illuminant A
-    | 'D50' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D50
-    | 'D55' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D55
-    | 'D65' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D65
-    | 'D75' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D75
-
-    | '2o' refers to the CIE 1931 2 degree standard observer
-    | '10o' refers to the CIE 1964 10 degree standard observer
-    
-    :return: - **xn** (*float*) – white point CIE x chromaticity [-]
-       - **yn** (*float*) – white point CIE y chromaticity [-]
-    '''
-    
-    Xn, Yn, Zn = XYZ_wp(illuminant = illuminant, observer = observer)
-    xn, yn = xy_from_XYZ(Xn, Yn, Zn)
-    
-    return xn, yn
-
-def transf_matrix_sRGB_linear_from_XYZ():
-    r'''
-    The transformation matrix employed to obtain linear sRGB coordinates from CIE XYZ coordinates.
-
-    :math:`\mathcal{M} = 
-    \begin{bmatrix}
-    3.24062 & -1.5372 & -0.4986 \\
-    -0.9689 & 1.8758 & 0.0415 \\
-    0.0557 & -0.2040 & 1.0570
-    \end{bmatrix}`
-
-    :returns: - **M** (*np.ndarray*) – transformation matrix
-    '''
-
-    return np.array([[3.24062, -1.5372, -0.4986], [-0.9689, 1.8758, 0.0415], [0.0557, -0.2040, 1.0570]])
-
-def nonlinear_corr_sRGB(u):
-    r'''
-    The nonlinear correction for sRGB coordinates.
-    
-    :math:`\gamma(u) =  
-    \left \{ \begin{matrix}
-    12.92 \mbox{ } u, & \mbox{if } u \le 0.0031308 \\
-    1.055 \mbox{ } u^{1/2.4} - 0.055, & \mbox{if } u > 0.0031308 \\
-    \end{matrix} \right.`
-    
-    :param u: linear R, G or B coordinate [-]
-    :type u: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :return: - **gamma** (*float or np.ndarray*) – nonlinear R, G or B coordinate [-]
-    '''
-    
-    if isinstance(u, np.ndarray) == True:
-        gamma = np.zeros(len(u))
-        for i in range(len(u)):
-            if u[i] <= 0.0031308:
-                gamma[i] = 12.92*u[i]
-            else:
-                gamma[i] = 1.055*u[i]**(1./2.4) - 0.055
-    elif isinstance(u, (int, float)) == True:
-        if u <= 0.0031308:
-            gamma = 12.92*u
-        else:
-            gamma = 1.055*u**(1./2.4) - 0.055
-    else:
-        msg = 'u must be int, float or np.ndarray.'
-        raise Exception(msg)
-        
-    return gamma
-
-def inv_nonlinear_corr_sRGB(u):
-    r'''
-    The inverse nonlinear correction for sRGB coordinates.
-    
-    :math:`\gamma^{-1}(u) =  
-    \left \{ \begin{matrix}
-    u/12.92, & \mbox{if } u \le 0.04045 \\
-    [(u + 0.055)/1.055]^{2.4}, & \mbox{if } u > 0.04045 \\
-    \end{matrix} \right.`
-    
-    :param u: nonlinear R, G or B coordinate [-]
-    :type u: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :return: - **inv_gamma** (*float or np.ndarray*) – linear R, G or B coordinate [-]
-    '''
-    
-    if isinstance(u, np.ndarray) == True:
-        inv_gamma = np.zeros(len(u))
-        for i in range(len(u)):
-            if u[i] <= 0.04045:
-                inv_gamma[i] = u[i]/12.92
-            else:
-                inv_gamma[i] = ((u[i] + 0.055)/1.055)**(2.4)
-    elif isinstance(u, (int, float)) == True:
-        if u <= 0.04045:
-            inv_gamma = u/12.92
-        else:
-            inv_gamma = ((u + 0.055)/1.055)**(2.4)
-    else:
-        msg = 'u must be int, float or np.ndarray.'
-        raise Exception(msg)
-        
-    return inv_gamma
-
-def sRGB_from_XYZ(X, Y, Z, K = 1., sRGB_scale = 'norm'):
-    r'''
-    | Calculate sRGB coordinates from CIE XYZ coordinates.
-    | CIE XYZ coordinates must be for the standard illuminant D65 and the 2 degree standard observer.
-    | For details please check Stokes et al. [S*96] and IEC [IEC99].
-    
-    :math:`\begin{bmatrix}
-    R \\
-    G \\
-    B
-    \end{bmatrix}
-    =
-    \begin{bmatrix}
-    \gamma(R_{linear}) \\
-    \gamma(G_{linear}) \\
-    \gamma(B_{linear})
-    \end{bmatrix}`
-
-    in which
-
-    :math:`\begin{bmatrix}
-    R_{linear} \\
-    G_{linear} \\
-    B_{linear}
-    \end{bmatrix}
-    =
-    \mathcal{M}
-    \begin{bmatrix}
-    X \\
-    Y \\
-    Z
-    \end{bmatrix}`
-
-    and
-
-    :math:`\gamma(u) =  
-    \left \{ \begin{matrix}
-    12.92 \mbox{ } u, & \mbox{if } u \le 0.0031308 \\
-    1.055 \mbox{ } u^{1/2.4} - 0.055, & \mbox{if } u > 0.0031308 \\
-    \end{matrix} \right.`
-    
-    :param X: X coordinate [-]
-    :type X: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param Y: Y coordinate [-]
-    :type Y: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param Z: Z coordinate [-]
-    :type Z: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param K: scaling factor (usually 1. or 100.) [-] (default to 1.)
-    :type K: float
-    
-    :param sRGB_scale: the user can choose one of the following... 'norm' or '8bit'
-    :type sRGB_scale:: str (default to 'norm')
-
-    | K = 1. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 1]
-    | K = 100. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 100]
-
-    | 'norm' for sRGB coordinates in range [0,1] (normalized scale)
-    | '8bit' for sRGB coordinates in range [0, 255] (8-bit scale)
-    
-    :return: - **R** (*float or np.ndarray*) – R coordinate [-]
-       - **G** (*float or np.ndarray*) – G coordinate [-]
-       - **B** (*float or np.ndarray*) – B coordinate [-]
-    '''
-    
-    M = transf_matrix_sRGB_linear_from_XYZ()
-    
-    if isinstance(X, np.ndarray) == True and \
-    isinstance(Y, np.ndarray) == True and \
-    isinstance(Z, np.ndarray) == True:
-        if len(X) - len(Y) != 0 or len(X) - len(Z) != 0:
-            msg = 'X, Y and Z must have the same length.'
-            raise Exception(msg)
-        R, G, B = np.zeros((3, len(X)))
-        for i in range(len(X)):
-            R_linear, G_linear, B_linear = np.clip(np.matmul(M, np.array([X[i]/K, Y[i]/K, Z[i]/K])), 0, 1)
-            R[i], G[i], B[i] = nonlinear_corr_sRGB(np.array([R_linear, G_linear, B_linear])) 
-    elif isinstance(X, (int, float)) == True and \
-    isinstance(Y, (int, float)) == True and \
-    isinstance(Z, (int, float)): 
-        R_linear, G_linear, B_linear = np.clip(np.matmul(M, np.array([X/K, Y/K, Z/K])), 0 , 1)
-        R, G, B = nonlinear_corr_sRGB(np.array([R_linear, G_linear, B_linear])) 
-    else:
-        msg = 'X, Y and Z must be int, float or np.ndarray.'
-        raise Exception(msg)
-    
-    if sRGB_scale == 'norm':
-        pass
-    elif sRGB_scale == '8bit':
-        scaling = 255
-        R, G, B = np.round(scaling*np.array([R, G, B]))
-    else:
-        msg = 'The input sRGB_scale = {} is not valid.'.format(sRGB_scale)
-        raise Exception(msg)
-        
-    return R, G, B
-
-def XYZ_from_sRGB(R, G, B, K = 1., sRGB_scale = 'norm'):
-    r'''
-    | Calculate CIE XYZ coordinates from sRGB coordinates.
-    | The obtained CIE XYZ coordinates are respective to the standard illuminant D65 and the
-    | 2 degree standard observer.
-    | For details please check Stokes et al. [S*96] and IEC [IEC99].
-    
-    :math:`\begin{bmatrix}
-    X \\
-    Y \\
-    Z
-    \end{bmatrix}
-    =
-    \mathcal{M}^{-1}
-    \begin{bmatrix}
-    R_{linear} \\
-    G_{linear} \\
-    B_{linear}
-    \end{bmatrix}`
-
-    in which
-
-    :math:`\begin{bmatrix}
-    R_{linear} \\
-    G_{linear} \\
-    B_{linear}
-    \end{bmatrix}
-    =
-    \begin{bmatrix}
-    \gamma^{-1}(R) \\
-    \gamma^{-1}(G) \\
-    \gamma^{-1}(B)
-    \end{bmatrix}`
-
-    and
-
-    :math:`\gamma^{-1}(u) =  
-    \left \{ \begin{matrix}
-    u/12.92, & \mbox{if } u \le 0.04045 \\
-    [(u + 0.055)/1.055]^{2.4}, & \mbox{if } u > 0.04045 \\
-    \end{matrix} \right.`
-        
-    :param R: R coordinate [-]
-    :type R: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param G: G coordinate [-]
-    :type G: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param B: B coordinate [-]
-    :type B: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param K: scaling factor (usually 1. or 100.) [-] (default to 1.)
-    :type K: float
-    
-    :param sRGB_scale: the user can choose one of the following... 'norm' or '8bit'
-    :type sRGB_scale:: str (default to 'norm')
-
-    | K = 1. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 1]
-    | K = 100. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 100]
-
-    | 'norm' for sRGB coordinates in range [0,1] (normalized scale)
-    | '8bit' for sRGB coordinates in range [0, 255] (8-bit scale)
-    
-    :return: - **X** (*float or np.ndarray*) – X coordinate [-]
-       - **Y** (*float or np.ndarray*) – Y coordinate [-]
-       - **Z** (*float or np.ndarray*) – Z coordinate [-]
-    '''
-
-    if sRGB_scale == 'norm':
-        pass
-    elif sRGB_scale == '8bit':
-        scaling = 255
-        R, G, B = np.array([R, G, B])/scaling
-    else:
-        msg = 'The input sRGB_scale = {} is not valid.'.format(sRGB_scale) 
-        raise Exception(msg)
-    
-    inv_M = np.round(np.linalg.inv(transf_matrix_sRGB_linear_from_XYZ()), 4)
-    
-    if isinstance(R, np.ndarray) == True and \
-    isinstance(G, np.ndarray) == True and \
-    isinstance(B, np.ndarray) == True:
-        if len(R) - len(G) != 0 or len(R) - len(B) != 0:
-            msg = 'R, G and B must have the same length.'
-            raise Exception(msg)
-        X, Y, Z = np.zeros((3, len(R)))
-        for i in range(len(R)):
-            R_linear, G_linear, B_linear  = inv_nonlinear_corr_sRGB(np.array([R[i], G[i], B[i]]))
-            X[i], Y[i], Z[i] = np.matmul(inv_M, np.array([R_linear, G_linear, B_linear]))
-    elif isinstance(R, (int, float)) == True and \
-    isinstance(G, (int, float)) == True and \
-    isinstance(B, (int, float)):
-        R_linear, G_linear, B_linear  = inv_nonlinear_corr_sRGB(np.array([R, G, B]))
-        X, Y, Z = np.matmul(inv_M, np.array([R_linear, G_linear, B_linear]))
-    else:
-        msg = 'R, G and B must be int, float or np.ndarray.'
-        raise Exception(msg)
-    
-    return X*K, Y*K, Z*K
-
-def f_Lab_from_XYZ(u):
-    r'''
-    | The function :math:`f(u)` used to calculate CIE L*a*b* coordinates from CIE XYZ coordinates
-    | (see function :meth:`skinoptics.colors.Lab_from_XYZ`).
-    
-    :math:`f(u) = \left\{ 
-    \begin{matrix}
-    \sqrt[3]{u}, & \mbox{if }  u > \left(\frac{6}{29}\right)^3 \\
-    \frac{1}{3}\left(\frac{29}{6}\right)^2 u + \frac{4}{29}, & \mbox{if }  u \le \left(\frac{6}{29}\right)^3
-    \end{matrix}\right.`
-    
-    :param u: X/Xn, Y/Yn or Z/Zn ratio[-]
-    :type u: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :return: - **f** (*float or np.ndarray*) – evaluated function [-]
-    '''
-    
-    delta = 6./29.
-    if isinstance(u, np.ndarray) == True:
-        f = np.zeros(len(u))
-        for i in range(len(u)):
-            if u[i] > delta**3.:
-                f[i] = np.cbrt(u[i])
-            else:
-                f[i] = u[i]/3./delta**2. + 4./29.
-    elif isinstance(u, (int, float)) == True:
-        if u > delta**3.:
-            f = np.cbrt(u)
-        else:
-            f = u/3./delta**2. + 4./29.
-    else:
-        msg = 'u must be int, float or np.ndarray.'
-        raise Exception(msg)
-        
-    return f
-    
-def inv_f_Lab_from_XYZ(u):
-    r'''
-    The :math:`f^{-1}(u)` function, i.e. the inverse of the :math:`f(u)` function :meth:`skinoptics.colors.f_Lab_from_XYZ`.
-    
-    :math:`f^{-1}(u) = \left\{ 
-    \begin{matrix}
-    u^3, & \mbox{if }  u > \frac{6}{29} \\
-    3 \mbox{ } \left(\frac{6}{29}\right)^2\left(u - \frac{4}{29} \right), & \mbox{if } u \le \frac{6}{29}
-    \end{matrix}\right.`
-        
-    :param u: function variable [-]
-    :type u: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :return: - **f** (*float or np.ndarray*) – evaluated function [-]
-    '''
-    
-    delta = 6./29.  
-    if isinstance(u, np.ndarray) == True:
-        inv_f = np.zeros(len(u))
-        for i in range(len(u)):
-            if u[i] > delta:
-                inv_f[i] = u[i]**3
-            else:
-                inv_f[i] = 3.*delta**2.*(u[i] - 4./29.)
-    elif isinstance(u, (int, float)) == True:
-        if u > delta:
-            inv_f = u**3
-        else:
-            inv_f = 3.*delta**2.*(u - 4./29.)
-    else:
-        msg = 'u must be int, float or np.ndarray.'
-        raise Exception(msg)
-        
-    return inv_f
-
-def Lab_from_XYZ(X, Y, Z, illuminant = 'D65', observer = '10o', K = 1.):
-    r'''
-    | Calculate CIE L*a*b* coordinates from CIE XYZ coordinates.
-    | CIE XYZ and CIE L*a*b* coordinates must be for the same standard illuminant and standard observer.
-    | For detailts please check CIE [CIE04], Schanda 2006 [S06] and Hunt & Pointer 2011 [HP11].
-    
-    | :math:`L^* = 116 \mbox{ } f(Y/Y_n) - 16`
-    | :math:`a^* = 500 \mbox{ } [f(X/X_n) - f(Y/Y_n)]`
-    | :math:`b^* = 200 \mbox{ } [f(Y/Y_n) - f(Z/Z_n)]`
-
-    in which (:math:`X_n`, :math:`Y_n`, :math:`Z_n`) is the white point and 
-
-    :math:`f(u) = \left\{ 
-    \begin{matrix}
-    \sqrt[3]{u}, & \mbox{if }  u > \left(\frac{6}{29}\right)^3 \\
-    \frac{1}{3}\left(\frac{29}{6}\right)^2 u + \frac{4}{29}, & \mbox{if }  u \le \left(\frac{6}{29}\right)^3
-    \end{matrix}\right.`
-        
-    :param X: X coordinate [-]
-    :type X: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param Y: Y coordinate [-]
-    :type Y: float or np.ndarray
-
-    :param Z: Z coordinate [-]
-    :type Z: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param illuminant: the user can choose one of the following... 'A', 'D50', 'D55', 'D65' or 'D75'
-    :type illuminant: str
-    
-    :param observer: the user can choose one of the following... '2o' or '10o'
-    :type observer: str
-
-    :param K: scaling factor (usually 1. or 100.) [-] (default to 1.)
-    :type K: float
-
-    | 'A' refers to the CIE standard illuminant A
-    | 'D50' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D50
-    | 'D55' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D55
-    | 'D65' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D65
-    | 'D75' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D75
-
-    | '2o' refers to the CIE 1931 2 degree standard observer
-    | '10o' refers to the CIE 1964 10 degree standard observer
-    
-    | K = 1. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 1]
-    | K = 100. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 100]
-    
-    :return: - **L** (*float or np.ndarray*) – L* coordinate [-]
-       - **a** (*float or np.ndarray*) – a* coordinate [-]
-       - **b** (*float or np.ndarray*) – b* coordinate [-]
-    '''
-    
-    Xn, Yn, Zn = XYZ_wp(illuminant = illuminant, observer = observer, K = K)
-    f = f_Lab_from_XYZ
-    
-    if isinstance(X, np.ndarray) == True and \
-    isinstance(Y, np.ndarray) == True and \
-    isinstance(Z, np.ndarray) == True:
-        if len(X) - len(Y) != 0 or len(X) - len(Z) != 0:
-            msg = 'X, Y and Z must have the same length.'
-            raise Exception(msg)
-        L, a, b = np.zeros((3, len(X)))
-        for i in range(len(X)):
-            L[i] = 116.*f(Y[i]/Yn) - 16.
-            a[i] = 500.*(f(X[i]/Xn) - f(Y[i]/Yn))
-            b[i] = 200.*(f(Y[i]/Yn) - f(Z[i]/Zn))
-    elif isinstance(X, (int, float)) == True and \
-    isinstance(Y, (int, float)) == True and \
-    isinstance(Z, (int, float)):
-        L = 116.*f(Y/Yn) - 16.
-        a = 500.*(f(X/Xn) - f(Y/Yn))
-        b = 200.*(f(Y/Yn) - f(Z/Zn))
-    else:
-        msg = 'X, Y and Z must be int, float or np.ndarray.'
-        raise Exception(msg)
-    
-    return L, a, b
-        
-def XYZ_from_Lab(L, a, b, illuminant = 'D65', observer = '10o', K = 1.):
-    r'''
-    | Calculate CIE XYZ coordinates from CIE L*a*b* coordinates.
-    | CIE XYZ and CIE L*a*b* coordinates must be for the same standard illuminant and standard observer.
-    | For detailts please check CIE [CIE04], Schanda 2006 [S06] and Hunt & Pointer 2011 [HP11].
-    
-    | :math:`X = f^{-1}[(L^* + 16)/116 + a^*/500] \mbox{ } X_n`
-    | :math:`Y = f^{-1}[(L^* + 16)/116] \mbox{ } Y_n`
-    | :math:`Z = f^{-1}[(L^* + 16)/116 - b^*/200] \mbox{ } Z_n`
-
-    in which (:math:`X_n`, :math:`Y_n`, :math:`Z_n`) is the white point and 
-
-    :math:`f^{-1}(u) = \left\{ 
-    \begin{matrix}
-    u^3, & \mbox{if }  u > \frac{6}{29} \\
-    3 \mbox{ } \left(\frac{6}{29}\right)^2\left(u - \frac{4}{29} \right), & \mbox{if } u \le \frac{6}{29}
-    \end{matrix}\right.`
-        
-    :param L: L* coordinate [-] (must be in range [0, 100])
-    :type L: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param a: a* coordinate [-]
-    :type a: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param b: b* coordinate [-]
-    :type b: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param illuminant: the user can choose one of the following... 'A', 'D50', 'D55', 'D65' or 'D75'
-    :type illuminant: str
-    
-    :param observer: the user can choose one of the following... '2o' or '10o'
-    :type observer: str
-
-    :param K: scaling factor (usually 1. or 100.) [-] (default to 1.)
-    :type K: float
-
-    | 'A' refers to the CIE standard illuminant A
-    | 'D50' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D50
-    | 'D55' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D55
-    | 'D65' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D65
-    | 'D75' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D75
-
-    | '2o' refers to the CIE 1931 2 degree standard observer
-    | '10o' refers to the CIE 1964 10 degree standard observer
-    
-    | K = 1. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 1]
-    | K = 100. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 100]
-    
-    :return: - **X** (*float or np.ndarray*) – X* coordinate [-]
-       - **Y** (*float or np.ndarray*) – Y* coordinate [-]
-       - **Z** (*float or np.ndarray*) – Z* coordinate [-]
-    '''
-    
-    if isinstance(L, np.ndarray) == True:
-        if np.any(L < 0) or np.any(L > 100):
-            msg = 'At least one element in the input L is out of the range [0, 100].'
-            raise Exception(msg)
-    else:
-        if L < 0 or L > 100:
-            msg = 'The input L = {} is out of the range [0, 100].'.format(L)
-            raise Exception(msg)
-                
-    Xn, Yn, Zn = XYZ_wp(illuminant = illuminant, observer = observer, K = K)
-    inv_f = inv_f_Lab_from_XYZ
-    
-    if isinstance(L, np.ndarray) == True and \
-    isinstance(a, np.ndarray) == True and \
-    isinstance(b, np.ndarray) == True:
-        if len(L) - len(a) != 0 or len(L) - len(b) != 0:
-            msg = 'L, a and b must have the same length.'
-            raise Exception(msg)
-        X, Y, Z = np.zeros((3, len(L)))
-        for i in range(len(L)):
-            X[i] = Xn*inv_f((L[i] + 16.)/116. + a[i]/500.)
-            Y[i] = Yn*inv_f((L[i] + 16.)/116.)
-            Z[i] = Zn*inv_f((L[i] + 16.)/116. - b[i]/200.)
-    elif isinstance(L, (int, float)) == True and \
-    isinstance(a, (int, float)) == True and \
-    isinstance(b, (int, float)):
-        X = Xn*inv_f((L + 16.)/116. + a/500.)
-        Y = Yn*inv_f((L + 16.)/116.)
-        Z = Zn*inv_f((L + 16.)/116. - b/200.)
-    else:
-        msg = 'L, a and b must be float or np.ndarray.'
-        raise Exception(msg)
-
-    return X, Y, Z
-
-def chroma(a, b):
-    r'''
-    Calculate the chroma C* from a* and b* coordinates.
-    
-    :math:`C^* = \sqrt{a^{*2} + b^{*2}}`
-    
-    :param a: a* coordinate [-]
-    :type a: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param b: b* coordinate [-]
-    :type b: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :return: - **chroma** (*float or np.ndarray*) – chroma [-]
-    '''
-        
-    return np.sqrt(a**2. + b**2.)
-
-def hue(a, b):
-    r'''
-    Calculate the hue angle h* from a* and b* coordinates.
-    
-    :math:`h^* = \mbox{arctan2 } (b^*, a^*) \times \frac{180}{\pi}`
-    
-    :param a: a* coordinate [-]
-    :type a: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param b: b* coordinate [-]
-    :type b: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :return: - **hue** (*float or np.ndarray*) – hue angle [degrees] (in range [0, 360])
-    '''
-    
-    hue = np.arctan2(b,a)*180./np.pi
-
-    hue_shape = hue.shape
-    hue_flatten = hue.flatten()
-    
-    if isinstance(hue, np.ndarray) == True:
-        for i in hue_flatten:
-            if i < 0:
-                i += 360
-        hue = hue_flatten.reshape(hue_shape)
-    elif isinstance(hue, (int, float)) == True:
-        if hue < 0:
-            hue += 360
-    
-    return hue
-
-def ITA(L, b, L0 = 50.):
-    r'''
-    | Calculate the Individual Typology Angle (ITA) from L* and b* coordinates.
-    | For details please check Chardon, Cretois & Hourseau 1991 [CCH91], Del Bino et al. 2006 [D*06],
-    | Del Bino & Bernerd 2013 [DB13] and Ly et al. [L*20].
-    
-    :math:`\mbox{ITA} = \arctan\left(\frac{L^*-L_0^*}{b^*}\right) \times \frac{180}{\pi}`
-    
-    :param L: L* coordinate [-]
-    :type L: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param b: b* coordinate [-]
-    :type b: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param L0: L0 coordinate [-] (default to 50.)
-    :type L0: float
-    
-    :return: - **ITA** (*float or np.ndarray*) – Individual Typology Angle [degrees]
-    '''
-    
-    return np.arctan((L - L0)/b)*180./np.pi
-
-def ITA_class(ITA):
-    r'''
-    | Skin color classification based on the Individual Typology Angle :meth:`skinoptics.colors.ITA`.
-    | For details please check Chardon, Cretois & Hourseau 1991 [CCH91], Del Bino et al. 2006 [D*06],
-    | Del Bino & Bernerd 2013 [DB13] and Ly et al. [L*20].
-    
-    +---------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-    | skin color classification | ITA range                                     |
-    +===========================+===============================================+
-    | very light                | ITA :math:`> 55^\circ`                        |
-    +---------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-    | light                     | :math:`41^\circ <` ITA :math:`\le 55^\circ`   |
-    +---------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-    | intermediate              | :math:`28^\circ <` ITA :math:`\le 41^\circ`   |
-    +---------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-    | tan                       | :math:`10^\circ <` ITA :math:`\le 28^\circ`   |
-    +---------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-    | brown                     | :math:`-30^\circ <` ITA :math:`\le 10^\circ`  |
-    +---------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
-    | dark                      | ITA :math:`\le -30^\circ`                     |
-    +---------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+ 
-    
-    :param ITA: Individual Typology Angle [degrees] (must be greater than -90 and less than 90)
-    :type ITA: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :return: - **ITA_class** (*str or np.ndarray*) – skin color classification based on the Individual Typology Angle
-    '''
-    
-    if isinstance(ITA, np.ndarray) == True:
-        if np.any(ITA < -90) or np.any(ITA > 90):
-            msg = 'At least one element in the input ITA is out of the range [-90, 90].'
-            raise Exception(msg)
-    else:
-        if ITA < -90 or ITA > 90:
-            msg = 'The input ITA = {} is out of the range [-90, 90].'.format(ITA)
-            raise Exception(msg)
-    
-    if isinstance(ITA, np.ndarray) == True:
-        ITA_class_list = ['']*len(ITA)
-        for i in range(len(ITA)):
-            if ITA[i] > 55:
-                ITA_class_list[i] = 'very light'
-            elif ITA[i] > 41 and ITA[i] <= 55:
-                ITA_class_list[i] = 'light'
-            elif ITA[i] > 28 and ITA[i] <= 41:
-                ITA_class_list[i] = 'intermediate'
-            elif ITA[i] > 10 and ITA[i] <= 28:
-                ITA_class_list[i] = 'tan'
-            elif ITA[i] > -30 and ITA[i] <= 10:
-                ITA_class_list[i] = 'brown'
-            else:
-                ITA_class_list[i] = 'dark'
-        ITA_class = np.array(ITA_class_list)
-    else:
-        if ITA > 55:
-            ITA_class = 'very light'
-        elif ITA > 41 and ITA <= 55:
-            ITA_class = 'light'
-        elif ITA > 28 and ITA <= 41:
-            ITA_class = 'intermediate'
-        elif ITA > 10 and ITA <= 28:
-            ITA_class = 'tan'
-        elif ITA > -30 and ITA <= 10:
-            ITA_class = 'brown'
-        else:
-            ITA_class = 'dark'
-    
-    return ITA_class
-
-def Delta_L(L0, L1):
-    r'''
-    Calculate the lightness difference :math:`\Delta L^*` between a reference color lightness :math:`L^*_0`
-    and a test color lightness :math:`L^*_1`.
-    
-    :math:`\Delta L^* = L^*_1 - L^*_0`
-    
-    :param L0: reference color L* coordinate [-]
-    :type L0: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param L1: test color L* coordinate [-]
-    :type L1: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :return: - **delta_L** (*float or np.ndarray*) – lightness difference [-]
-    '''
-    
-    return L1 - L0
-
-def Delta_a(a0, a1):
-    r'''
-    Calculate the difference :math:`\Delta a^*` between a reference color :math:`a^*_0` coordinate
-    and a test color :math:`a^*_1` coordinate.
-    
-    :math:`\Delta a^* = a^*_1 - a^*_0`
-    
-    :param a0: reference color a* coordinate [-]
-    :type a0: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param a1: test color a* coordinate [-]
-    :type a1: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :return: - **delta_a** (*float or np.ndarray*) – a* difference [-]
-    '''
-    
-    return a1 - a0
-
-def Delta_b(b0, b1):
-    r'''
-    Calculate the difference :math:`\Delta b^*` between a reference color :math:`b^*_0` coordinate
-    and a test color :math:`b^*_1` coordinate.
-    
-    :math:`\Delta b^* = b^*_1 - b^*_0`
-    
-    :param b0: reference color b* coordinate [-]
-    :type b0: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param b1: test color b* coordinate [-]
-    :type b1: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :return: - **delta_b** (*float or np.ndarray*) – b* difference [-]
-    '''
-    
-    return b1 - b0
-
-def Delta_E(L0, a0, b0, L1, a1, b1):
-    r'''
-    Calculate the color difference :math:`\Delta E^*` between between
-    a reference color (:math:`L^*_0`, :math:`a^*_0`, :math:`b^*_0`) and
-    a test color (:math:`L^*_1`, :math:`a^*_1`, :math:`b^*_1`).
-    
-    :math:`\Delta E^* = \sqrt{(L^*_1 - L^*_0)^2 + (a^*_1 - a^*_0)^2 + (b^*_1 - b^*_0)^2}`
-    
-    :param L0: reference color L* coordinate [-]
-    :type L0: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param a0: reference color a* coordinate [-]
-    :type a0: float or np.ndarray
-
-    :param b0: reference color b* coordinate [-]
-    :type b0: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param L1: test color L* coordinate [-]
-    :type L1: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param a1: test color a* coordinate [-]
-    :type a1: float or np.ndarray
-
-    :param b1: test color b* coordinate [-]
-    :type b1: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :return: - **delta_E** (*float or np.ndarray*) – color difference [-]
-    '''
-    
-    return np.sqrt(Delta_L(L0 = L0, L1 = L1)**2 + Delta_a(a0 = a0, a1 = a1)**2 + Delta_b(b0 = b0, b1 = b1)**2)
-
-def EI(R_green, R_red):
-    r'''
-    | Calculate the Erythema Index (EI) from the reflectances on chosen green 
-    | (usually approx. 568 nm) and red bands (usually approx. 655 nm).
-    | For details please check Takiwaki et al. 1994 [T*94] and Fullerton et al. 1996 [F*96].
-    
-    :math:`\mbox{EI} = 100 \mbox{ } [\mbox{log}_{10}(R_\mbox{red}) - \mbox{log}_{10}(R_\mbox{green})]`
-    
-    :param R_green: reflectance on a chosen green band [%]
-    :type R_green: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param R_red: reflectance on a chosen red band [%]
-    :type R_red: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :return: - **EI** (*float or np.ndarray*) – Erythema Index [-]
-    '''
-    
-    return 100*(np.log10(R_red/100) - np.log10(R_green/100))
-
-def MI(R_red):
-    r'''
-    | Calculate the Melanin Index (MI) from the reflectance on a chosen red band
-    | (usually approx. 655 nm).
-    | For details please check Takiwaki et al. 1994 [T*94] and Fullerton et al. 1996 [F*96].
-    
-    :math:`\mbox{MI} = 100 \mbox{ } [-\mbox{log}_{10}(R_\mbox{red})]`
-    
-    :param R_red: reflectance on a chosen red band [%]
-    :type R_red: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :return: - **MI** (*float or np.ndarray* – Melanin Index [-]
-    '''
-    
-    return 100*(-np.log10(R_red/100))
-
-def XYZ_from_spectrum(all_lambda, spectrum, lambda_min = 360., lambda_max = 830., lambda_step = 1.,
-                      illuminant = 'D65', observer = '10o', cmfs_model = 'CIE', K = 1., interp1d_kind = 'cubic'):
-    r'''
-    | Calculate the CIE XYZ coordinates from the reflectance spectrum :math:`R(\lambda)` or the
-    | transmittance spectrum :math:`T(\lambda)` for a chosen standard illuminant and standard observer.
-    | Integration using the composite trapezoid rule from 360 nm to 830 nm (as default).
-    | If the wavelength array does not cover the whole region, a constant extrapolation is perfomed.
-    | For details please check CIE [CIE04] (see their section 7).
-    
-    | :math:`X = \frac{K}{N} \int_\lambda \mbox{ } R(\lambda) \mbox{ } S(\lambda) \mbox{ } \bar{x}(\lambda) \mbox{ } d\lambda`
-    | :math:`Y = \frac{K}{N} \int_\lambda \mbox{ } R(\lambda) \mbox{ } S(\lambda) \mbox{ } \bar{y}(\lambda) \mbox{ } d\lambda`
-    | :math:`Z = \frac{K}{N} \int_\lambda \mbox{ } R(\lambda) \mbox{ } S(\lambda) \mbox{ } \bar{z}(\lambda) \mbox{ } d\lambda`
-
-    in which 
-
-    | :math:`N = \int_\lambda \mbox{ } S(\lambda) \mbox{ } \bar{y}(\lambda) \mbox{ } d\lambda`
-    
-    The reflectance spectrum :math:`R(\lambda)` is replaced by the transmittance spectrum
-    :math:`T(\lambda)` when dealing with color in some cases.
-        
-    :param all_lambda: wavelength array
-    :type all_lambda: np.ndarray
-    
-    :param spectrum: reflectance or transmittance spectrum respective to the wavelength array [%]
-    :type spectrum: np.ndarray
-    
-    :param lambda_min: lower limit of summation/integration (minimum wavelength to take into account) [nm] (default to 360.)
-    :type lambda_min: float
-    
-    :param lambda_max: upper limit of summation/integration (maximum wavelength to take into account) [nm] (default to 830.)
-    :type lambda_max: float
-    
-    :param lambda_step: summation interval (wavelength step) [nm] (default to 1.)
-    :type lambda_step: float
-    
-     :param illuminant: the user can choose one of the following... 'A', 'D50', 'D55', 'D65' or 'D75'
-    :type illuminant: str
-    
-    :param observer: the user can choose one of the following... '2o' or '10o'
-    :type observer: str
-    
-    :param cmfs_model: the user can choose one of the following... 'CIE', 'Wyman_singlelobe' or 'Wyman_multilobe' (default to 'CIE')
-    :type cmfs_model: str
-    
-    :param K: scaling factor (usually 1. or 100.) [-] (default to 1.)
-    :type K: float
-
-    :param interp1d_kind: kind argument of scipy.interpolation.interp1d (default to 'cubic' [CIE04] (see their section 7.2.1.1))
-    :type interp1d_kind: str
-
-    | 'A' refers to the CIE standard illuminant A
-    | 'D50' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D50
-    | 'D55' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D55
-    | 'D65' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D65
-    | 'D75' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D75
-
-    | '2o' refers to the CIE 1931 2 degree standard observer
-    | '10o' refers to the CIE 1964 10 degree standard observer
-
-    | 'CIE' for the linear interpolation of data from CIE datasets [CIE19a] [CIE19b]
-    | 'Wyman_singlelobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.1)
-    | 'Wyman_multilobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.2)
-    
-    | K = 1. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 1]
-    | K = 100. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 100]
-    
-    :return: - **X** (*float*) – X coordinate [-]
-             - **Y** (*float*) – Y coordinate [-]
-             - **Z** (*float*) – Z coordinate [-]
-    '''
-    
-    x = np.arange(lambda_min, lambda_max + lambda_step, lambda_step)
-    R_or_T_lambda = interp1d(all_lambda, spectrum/100, kind = interp1d_kind,
-                             bounds_error = False, fill_value = (spectrum[0]/100, 
-                                                                  spectrum[-1]/100))(x)
-    S_lambda = rspd(x, illuminant = illuminant)
-    xbar_lambda, ybar_lambda, zbar_lambda = cmfs(x, observer = observer, cmfs_model = cmfs_model)
-    
-    y0 = S_lambda*ybar_lambda
-    N = trapezoid(y0, x = x, dx = lambda_step)
-    
-    R_or_T_lambda_times_S_lambda = R_or_T_lambda*S_lambda
-    
-    y1 = R_or_T_lambda_times_S_lambda*xbar_lambda
-    X = K/N*trapezoid(y1, x = x, dx = lambda_step)
-    
-    y2 = R_or_T_lambda_times_S_lambda*ybar_lambda
-    Y = K/N*trapezoid(y2, x = x, dx = lambda_step)
-    
-    y3 = R_or_T_lambda_times_S_lambda*zbar_lambda
-    Z = K/N*trapezoid(y3, x = x, dx = lambda_step)
-    
-    return X, Y, Z
-
-def sRGB_from_spectrum(all_lambda, spectrum, lambda_min = 360, lambda_max = 830, lambda_step = 1,
-                       cmfs_model = 'CIE', interp1d_kind = 'cubic', sRGB_scale = 'norm'):
-    r'''
-    | Calculate the sRGB coordinates from the reflectance or the transmittance spectrum.
-    | First calculate CIE XYZ coordinates (respective to the standard illuminant D65 and
-    | the 2 degree standard observer) from the spectrum and then calculate sRGB coordinates
-    | from CIE XYZ coordinates (see functions :meth:`skinoptics.colors.sRGB_from_XYZ` and
-    | :meth:`skinoptics.colors.XYZ_from_spectrum`).
-
-    :param all_lambda: wavelength array
-    :type all_lambda: np.ndarray
-    
-    :param spectrum: reflectance or transmittance spectrum respective to the wavelength array [%]
-    :type spectrum: np.ndarray
-    
-    :param lambda_min: lower limit of summation/integration (minimum wavelength to take into account) [nm] (default to 360.)
-    :type lambda_min: float
-    
-    :param lambda_max: upper limit of summation/integration (maximum wavelength to take into account) [nm] (default to 830.)
-    :type lambda_max: float
-    
-    :param lambda_step: summation interval (wavelength step) [nm] (default to 1.)
-    :type lambda_step: float
-    
-    :param cmfs_model: the user can choose one of the following... 'CIE', 'Wyman_singlelobe' or 'Wyman_multilobe' (default to 'CIE')
-    :type cmfs_model: str
-
-    :param interp1d_kind: kind argument of scipy.interpolation.interp1d (default to 'cubic' [CIE04] (see their section 7.2.1.1))
-    :type interp1d_kind: str
-
-    :param sRGB_scale: the user can choose one of the following... 'norm' or '8bit' (default to 'norm')
-    :type sRGB_scale: str
-
-    | 'CIE' for the linear interpolation of data from CIE datasets [CIE19a] [CIE19b]
-    | 'Wyman_singlelobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.1)
-    | 'Wyman_multilobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.2)    
-
-    | 'norm' for sRGB coordinates in range [0,1] (normalized scale)
-    | '8bit' for sRGB coordinates in range [0, 255] (8-bit scale)
-    
-    :return: - **R** (*float*) – R coordinate [-]
-       - **G** (*float*) – G coordinate [-]
-       - **B** (*float*) – B coordinate [-]
-    '''
-    
-    return sRGB_from_XYZ(*XYZ_from_spectrum(all_lambda = all_lambda, spectrum = spectrum,
-                                            lambda_min = lambda_min, lambda_max = lambda_max,
-                                            lambda_step = lambda_step,
-                                            illuminant = 'D65', observer = '2o', cmfs_model = cmfs_model,
-                                            K = 1., interp1d_kind = interp1d_kind),
-                         K = 1., sRGB_scale = sRGB_scale)
-
-def Lab_from_spectrum(all_lambda, spectrum, lambda_min = 360, lambda_max = 830, lambda_step = 1,
-                     illuminant = 'D65', observer = '10o', cmfs_model = 'CIE', interp1d_kind = 'cubic'):
-    r'''
-    | Calculate the CIE L*a*b* coordinates from the reflectance or the transmittance spectrum.
-    | First calculate CIE XYZ coordinates from the spectrum for a chosen standard illuminant
-    | and standard observer and then calculate CIE L*a*b* coordinates from CIE XYZ coordinates
-    | (see functions :meth:`skinoptics.colors.Lab_from_XYZ` and :meth:`skinoptics.colors.XYZ_from_spectrum`).
-        
-    :param all_lambda: wavelength array
-    :type all_lambda: np.ndarray
-    
-    :param spectrum: reflectance or transmittance spectrum respective to the wavelength array [%]
-    :type spectrum: np.ndarray
-    
-    :param lambda_min: lower limit of summation/integration (minimum wavelength to take into account) [nm] (default to 360.)
-    :type lambda_min: float
-    
-    :param lambda_max: upper limit of summation/integration (maximum wavelength to take into account) [nm] (default to 830.)
-    :type lambda_max: float
-    
-    :param lambda_step: summation interval (wavelength step) [nm] (default to 1.)
-    :type lambda_step: float
-    
-     :param illuminant: the user can choose one of the following... 'A', 'D50', 'D55', 'D65' or 'D75'
-    :type illuminant: str
-    
-    :param observer: the user can choose one of the following... '2o' or '10o'
-    :type observer: str
-    
-    :param cmfs_model: the user can choose one of the following... 'CIE', 'Wyman_singlelobe' or 'Wyman_multilobe' (default to 'CIE')
-    :type cmfs_model: str
-
-    :param interp1d_kind: kind argument of scipy.interpolation.interp1d (default to 'cubic' [CIE04] (see their section 7.2.1.1))
-    :type interp1d_kind: str
-
-    | 'A' refers to the CIE standard illuminant A
-    | 'D50' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D50
-    | 'D55' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D55
-    | 'D65' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D65
-    | 'D75' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D75
-
-    | '2o' refers to the CIE 1931 2 degree standard observer
-    | '10o' refers to the CIE 1964 10 degree standard observer
-
-    | 'CIE' for the linear interpolation of data from CIE datasets [CIE19a] [CIE19b]
-    | 'Wyman_singlelobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.1)
-    | 'Wyman_multilobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.2)
-    
-    :return: - **L** (*float*) – L* coordinate [-]
-       - **a** (*float*) – a* coordinate [-]
-       - **b** (*float*) – b* coordinate [-]
-    '''
-
-    return Lab_from_XYZ(*XYZ_from_spectrum(all_lambda = all_lambda, spectrum = spectrum,
-                                           lambda_min = lambda_min, lambda_max = lambda_max,
-                                           lambda_step = lambda_step,
-                                           illuminant = illuminant, observer = observer, cmfs_model = cmfs_model,
-                                           K = 1., interp1d_kind = interp1d_kind),
-                        illuminant = illuminant, observer = observer, K = 1.)
-
-def sRGB_from_lambda0(lambda0, cmfs_model = 'CIE', sRGB_scale = 'norm'):
-    r'''
-    | Calculate the sRGB coordinates respective to the color of a monochromatic light
-    | (single wavelength).
-    
-    wavelength range: [360 nm, 830 nm]
-    
-    :param lambda0: wavelength of the monochromatic light [nm]
-    :type lambda0: float or np.ndarray
-    
-    :param cmfs_model: the user can choose one of the following... 'CIE', 'Wyman_singlelobe' or 'Wyman_multilobe' (default to 'CIE')
-    :type cmfs_model: str
-
-    :param sRGB_scale: the user can choose one of the following... 'norm' or '8bit' (default to 'norm')
-    :type sRGB_scale: str
-
-    | 'CIE' for the linear interpolation of data from CIE datasets [CIE19a] [CIE19b]
-    | 'Wyman_singlelobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.1)
-    | 'Wyman_multilobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.2)    
-
-    | 'norm' for sRGB coordinates in range [0,1] (normalized scale)
-    | '8bit' for sRGB coordinates in range [0, 255] (8-bit scale)
-
-    :return: - **R** (*float or np.ndarray*) – R coordinate [-]
-       - **G** (*float or np.ndarray*) – G coordinate [-]
-       - **B** (*float or np.ndarray*) – B coordinate [-]
-    '''
-    
-    return sRGB_from_XYZ(*cmfs(lambda0, observer = '2o', cmfs_model = cmfs_model),
-                         K = 1., sRGB_scale = sRGB_scale)
+'''
+| SkinOptics
+| Copyright (C) 2024-2025 Victor Lima
+
+    | This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
+    | it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
+    | the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or
+    | (at your option) any later version.
+
+    | This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
+    | but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
+    | MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
+    | GNU General Public License for more details.
+
+    | You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
+    | along with this program.  If not, see <https://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
+     
+| Victor Lima
+| victor.lima\@ufscar.br
+| victorportog.github.io
+
+| Release date:
+| October 2024
+| Last modification:
+| October 2025
+
+| References:
+
+| [CCH91] Chardon, Cretois & Hourseau 1991.
+| Skin colour typology and suntanning pathways.
+| https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2494.1991.tb00561.x
+
+| [T*94] Takiwaki, Shirai, Kanno, Watanabe & Arase 1994.
+| Quantification of erythema and pigmentation using a videomicroscope and a computer.
+| https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.1994.tb08462.x
+
+| [F*96] Fullerton, Fischer, Lahti, Wilhelm, Takiwaki & Serup 1996.
+| Guidetines for measurement of skin colour and erythema: A report from the Standardization Group of the European Society of Contact Dermatitis.
+| https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0536.1996.tb02258.x
+
+| [S*96] Stokes, Anderson, Chandrasekar & Motta 1996.
+| A Standard Default Color Space for the Internet - sRGB.
+| https://www.w3.org/Graphics/Color/sRGB.html
+
+| [IEC99] IEC 1999.
+| IEC 61966-2-1:1999 - Multimedia systems and equipment - Colour measurement and management - Part 2-1: Colour management - Default RGB colour space - sRGB.
+
+| [CIE04] CIE 2004.
+| Colorimetry, 3rd edition.
+| CIE 15:2004
+
+| [SWD04] Sharma, Wu & Dalal 2004.
+| The CIEDE2000 Color-Difference Formula: Implementation Notes, Supplementary Test Data, and Mathematical Observations.
+| https://doi.org/10.1002/col.20070
+
+| [D*06] Del Bino, Sok, Bessac & Bernerd 2006.
+| Relationship between skin response to ultraviolet exposure and skin color type.
+| https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0749.2006.00338.x
+
+| [S07] Schanda (editor) 2007.
+| Colorimetry: Understanding the CIE System.
+| http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470175637
+
+| [IC08] ISO/CIE 2008.
+| ISO 11664-4:2008 - CIE S 014-4/E:2007 - Colorimetry - Part 4: CIE 1976 L*a*b* Colour space.
+
+| [HP11] Hunt & Pointer 2011.
+| Measuring Colour.
+| https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119975595
+
+| [DB13] Del Bino & Bernerd 2013.
+| Variations in skin colour and the biological consequences of ultraviolet radiation exposure.
+| https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.12529
+
+| [WSS13] Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013.
+| Simple Analytic Approximations to the CIE XYZ Color Matching Functions.
+| https://jcgt.org/published/0002/02/01/
+
+| [IC14] ISO/CIE 2014.
+| ISO/CIE 11664-6:2014 - Colorimetry - Part 6: CIEDE2000 Colour-difference formula.
+
+| [CIE18a] CIE 2018.
+| CIE standard illuminant A - 1 nm.
+| https://doi.org/10.25039/CIE.DS.8jsxjrsn
+
+| [CIE18b] CIE 2018.
+| CIE standard illuminant D55.
+| https://doi.org/10.25039/CIE.DS.qewfb3kp
+
+| [CIE18c] CIE 2018.
+| CIE standard illuminant D75.
+| https://doi.org/10.25039/CIE.DS.9fvcmrk4
+
+| [CIE19a] CIE 2019.
+| CIE 1931 colour-matching functions, 2 degree observer.
+| https://doi.org/10.25039/CIE.DS.xvudnb9b
+
+| [CIE19b] CIE 2019.
+| CIE 1964 colour-matching functions, 10 degree observer
+| https://doi.org/10.25039/CIE.DS.sqksu2n5
+
+| [L*20] Ly, Dyer, Feig, Chien & Del Bino 2020.
+| Research Techniques Made Simple: Cutaneous Colorimetry: A Reliable Technique for Objective Skin Color Measurement.
+| https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jid.2019.11.003
+
+| [CIE22a] CIE 2022.
+| CIE standard illuminant D50.
+| https://doi.org/10.25039/CIE.DS.etgmuqt5
+
+| [CIE22b] CIE 2022.
+| CIE standard illuminant D65.
+| https://doi.org/10.25039/CIE.DS.hjfjmt59
+'''
+
+import numpy as np
+from scipy.interpolate import interp1d
+from scipy.integrate import trapezoid
+
+from skinoptics.utils import *
+from skinoptics.dataframes import *
+
+def rspd(lambda0, illuminant):
+    r'''
+    | The relative spectral power distribution S(:math:`\lambda`) of a chosen standard illuminant
+    | as a function of wavelength.
+    | Linear interpolation of data from CIE datasets [CIE18a] [CIE22a] [CIE18b] [CIE22b] [CIE18c].
+    
+    | wavelength range:
+    | [300 nm, 830 nm] (at 1 nm intervals, for illuminant = 'A', 'D50' or 'D65')
+    | or [300 nm, 780 nm] (at 5 nm intervals, for illuminant = 'D55' or 'D75')
+    
+    :param lambda0: wavelength [nm] (must be in range [300 nm, 830 nm] or [300 nm, 780 nm])
+    :type lambda0: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param illuminant: the user can choose one of the following... 'A', 'D50', 'D55', 'D65' or 'D75'
+    :type illuminant: str
+
+    | 'A' refers to the CIE standard illuminant A
+    | 'D50' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D50
+    | 'D55' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D55
+    | 'D65' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D65
+    | 'D75' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D75
+    
+    :return: - **rspd** (*float or np.ndarray*) – relative spectral power distribution [-]
+    '''
+    
+    if illuminant == 'A' or 'D50' or 'D65':
+        if isinstance(lambda0, np.ndarray) == True:
+            if np.any(lambda0 < 300) or np.any(lambda0 > 830):
+                msg = 'At least one element in the input lambda0 is out of the range [300 nm, 830 nm].'
+                raise Exception(msg)
+        else:
+            if lambda0 < 300 or lambda0 > 830:
+                msg = 'The input lambda0 = {} nm is out of the range [300 nm, 830 nm].'.format(lambda0)
+                raise Exception(msg)
+    elif illuminant == 'D55' or 'D75':
+        if isinstance(lambda0, np.ndarray) == True:
+            if np.any(lambda0 < 300) or np.any(lambda0 > 780):
+                msg = 'At least one element in the input lambda0 is out of the range [300 nm, 780 nm].'
+                raise Exception(msg)
+        else:
+            if lambda0 < 300 or lambda0 > 780:
+                msg = 'The input lambda0 = {} nm is out of the range [300 nm, 780 nm].'.format(lambda0)
+                raise Exception(msg)
+    
+    if illuminant == 'A': 
+        rspd = interp1d(np.array(rspds_A_D50_D65_dataframe)[:,0],
+                        np.array(rspds_A_D50_D65_dataframe)[:,1])(lambda0)
+    elif illuminant == 'D50':
+        rspd = interp1d(np.array(rspds_A_D50_D65_dataframe)[:,0],
+                        np.array(rspds_A_D50_D65_dataframe)[:,2])(lambda0)
+    elif illuminant == 'D55':
+        rspd = interp1d(np.array(rspds_D55_D75_dataframe)[:,0],
+                        np.array(rspds_D55_D75_dataframe)[:,1])(lambda0)
+    elif illuminant == 'D65':
+        rspd = interp1d(np.array(rspds_A_D50_D65_dataframe)[:,0],
+                        np.array(rspds_A_D50_D65_dataframe)[:,3])(lambda0)
+    elif illuminant == 'D75':
+        rspd = interp1d(np.array(rspds_D55_D75_dataframe)[:,0],
+                        np.array(rspds_D55_D75_dataframe)[:,2])(lambda0)
+    else:
+        msg = 'The input illuminant = {} is not valid.'.format(illuminant)
+        raise Exception(msg)
+        
+    return rspd 
+
+def cmfs(lambda0, observer, cmfs_model = 'CIE'):
+    r'''
+    | The CIE color-matching functions :math:`\bar{x}(\lambda)`, :math:`\bar{y}(\lambda)` and :math:`\bar{z}(\lambda)` for a chosen standard observer
+    | as a function of wavelength.
+    
+    | wavelength range: [360 nm, 830 nm] (at 1 nm intervals for cmfs_model = 'CIE')
+    
+    :param lambda0: wavelength [nm] (must be in range [360., 830.] for cmfs_model = 'CIE')
+    :type lambda0: float or np.ndarray 
+    
+    :param observer: the user can choose one of the following... '2o' or '10o'
+    :type observer: str
+    
+    :param cmfs_model: the user can choose one of the following... 'CIE', 'Wyman_singlelobe' or 'Wyman_multilobe' (default to 'CIE')
+    :type cmfs_model: str
+
+    | '2o' refers to the CIE 1931 2 degree standard observer
+    | '10o' refers to the CIE 1964 10 degree standard observer
+
+    | 'CIE' for the linear interpolation of data from CIE datasets [CIE19a] [CIE19b]
+    | 'Wyman_singlelobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.1)
+    | 'Wyman_multilobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.2)
+    
+    :return: - **xbar** (*float or np.ndarray*) – :math:`\bar{x}(\lambda`) color-matching function [-]
+       - **ybar** (*float or np.ndarray*) – :math:`\bar{y}(\lambda`) color-matching function [-]
+       - **zbar** (*float or np.ndarray*) – :math:`\bar{z}(\lambda`) color-matching function [-]
+    '''
+    
+    if cmfs_model == 'CIE':
+        if isinstance(lambda0, np.ndarray) == True:
+            if np.any(lambda0 < 360) or np.any(lambda0 > 830):
+                msg = 'At least one element in the input lambda0 is out of the range [360 nm, 830 nm].'
+                raise Exception(msg)
+        else:
+            if lambda0 < 360 or lambda0 > 830:
+                msg = 'The input lambda0 = {} nm is out of the range [360 nm, 830 nm].'.format(lambda0)
+                raise Exception(msg)
+        if observer == '2o':
+            xbar = interp1d(np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,0],
+                            np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,1])(lambda0)
+            ybar = interp1d(np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,0],
+                            np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,2])(lambda0)
+            zbar = interp1d(np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,0],
+                            np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,3])(lambda0)
+        elif observer == '10o':
+            xbar = interp1d(np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,0],
+                            np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,4])(lambda0)
+            ybar = interp1d(np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,0],
+                            np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,5])(lambda0)
+            zbar = interp1d(np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,0],
+                            np.array(cmfs_dataframe)[:,6])(lambda0)
+        else:
+            msg = 'The input observer = {} is not valid.'.format(observer)
+            raise Exception(msg)
+    elif cmfs_model == 'Wyman_singlelobe':
+        if observer == '2o':
+            xbar = gaussian(lambda0, 1.065, 595.8, 33.33) \
+            + gaussian(lambda0, 0.366, 446.8, 19.44)
+            ybar = gaussian(np.log(lambda0), 1.014, np.log(556.3), 0.075)
+            zbar = gaussian(np.log(lambda0), 1.839, np.log(449.8), 0.051)
+        elif observer == '10o':
+            xbar = mod_gaussian_Wyman(lambda0, 0.398, -570.1, 1014, 1250) \
+            + mod_gaussian_Wyman(-lambda0, 1.132, -1338, 743.5, 234)
+            ybar = gaussian(lambda0, 1.011, 556.1, 46.14)
+            zbar = mod_gaussian_Wyman(lambda0, 2.06, 265.8, 180.4,32)
+        else:
+            msg = 'The input observer = {} is not valid.'.format(observer)
+            raise Exception(msg)
+    elif cmfs_model == 'Wyman_multilobe':
+        if observer == '2o':
+            coeffs = [[0.362, 1.056, -0.065, 0.821, 0.286, 0., 1.217, 0.681, 0.],
+                      [442.0, 599.8, 501.1, 568.8, 530.9, 0., 437.0, 459.0, 0.],
+                      [0.0624, 0.0264, 0.0490, 0.0213, 0.0613, 0., 0.0845, 0.0385, 0.],
+                      [0.0374, 0.0323, 0.0382, 0.0247, 0.0322, 0., 0.0278, 0.0725, 0.]]
+            if isinstance(lambda0, np.ndarray) == True:
+                xbar, ybar, zbar = np.zeros((3,len(lambda0)))
+                c = 0
+                for j in range(len(lambda0)):
+                    X, Y, Z = 0., 0., 0.  
+                    for i in range(3):
+                        X += piecewise_gaussian_Wyman(lambda0[j], coeffs[0][i], coeffs[1][i],
+                                                      coeffs[2][i], coeffs[3][i])
+                        Y += piecewise_gaussian_Wyman(lambda0[j], coeffs[0][i+3], coeffs[1][i+3],
+                                                      coeffs[2][i+3], coeffs[3][i+3])
+                        Z += piecewise_gaussian_Wyman(lambda0[j], coeffs[0][i+6], coeffs[1][i+6],
+                                                      coeffs[2][i+6], coeffs[3][i+6])
+                    xbar[j], ybar[j], zbar[j] = X, Y, Z
+            elif isinstance(lambda0, (int, float)) == True: 
+                X, Y, Z = 0., 0., 0. 
+                for i in range(3):
+                    X += piecewise_gaussian_Wyman(lambda0, coeffs[0][i], coeffs[1][i],
+                                                  coeffs[2][i], coeffs[3][i])
+                    Y += piecewise_gaussian_Wyman(lambda0, coeffs[0][i+3], coeffs[1][i+3],
+                                                  coeffs[2][i+3], coeffs[3][i+3])
+                    Z += piecewise_gaussian_Wyman(lambda0, coeffs[0][i+6], coeffs[1][i+6],
+                                                  coeffs[2][i+6], coeffs[3][i+6])
+                xbar, ybar, zbar = X, Y, Z
+            else:
+                msg = 'The input lambda0 must be int, float or np.ndarray.'
+                raise Exception(msg)
+        else:
+            msg = 'The input observer = {} is not valid for cmfs_model = Wyman_multilobe.'.format(observer)
+            raise Exception(msg) 
+    else:
+        msg = 'The input cmfs_model = {} is not valid.'.format(cmfs_model)
+        raise Exception(msg) 
+        
+    return xbar, ybar, zbar
+
+def xy_from_XYZ(X, Y, Z):
+    r'''
+    | Calculate CIE xy chromaticities from CIE XYZ coordinates.
+    
+    | :math:`x = \frac{X}{X + Y + Z}`
+    | :math:`y = \frac{Y}{X + Y + Z}`
+
+    :param X: X coordinate [-]
+    :type X: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param Y: Y coordinate [-]
+    :type Y: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param Z: Z coordinate [-]
+    :type Z: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :return: - **x** (*float or np.ndarray*) – x chromaticity [-]
+       - **y** (*float or np.ndarray*) – y chromaticity [-]
+    '''
+    
+    x = X/(X + Y + Z)
+    y = Y/(X + Y + Z)
+    
+    return x, y
+
+def XYZ_wp(illuminant, observer, cmfs_model = 'CIE', K = 1.):
+    r'''
+    The white point CIE XYZ coordinates for a chosen standard illuminant and standard observer.
+    
+    :param illuminant: the user can choose one of the following... 'A', 'D50', 'D55', 'D65' or 'D75'
+    :type illuminant: str
+    
+    :param observer: the user can choose one of the following... '2o' or '10o'
+    :type observer: str
+    
+    :param cmfs_model: the user can choose one of the following... 'CIE', 'Wyman_singlelobe' or 'Wyman_multilobe' (default to 'CIE')
+    :type cmfs_model: str
+    
+    :param K: scaling factor (usually 1. or 100.) [-] (default to 1.)
+    :type K: float
+
+    | 'A' refers to the CIE standard illuminant A
+    | 'D50' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D50
+    | 'D55' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D55
+    | 'D65' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D65
+    | 'D75' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D75
+
+    | '2o' refers to the CIE 1931 2 degree standard observer
+    | '10o' refers to the CIE 1964 10 degree standard observer
+
+    | 'CIE' for the linear interpolation of data from CIE datasets [CIE19a] [CIE19b]
+    | 'Wyman_singlelobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.1)
+    | 'Wyman_multilobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.2)
+    
+    | K = 1. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 1]
+    | K = 100. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 100]
+    
+    :return: - **Xn** (*float*) – white point X coordinate [-]
+       - **Yn** (*float*) – white point Y coordinate [-]
+       - **Zn** (*float*) – white point Z coordinate [-]
+    '''
+    
+    if illuminant == 'D55' or illuminant == 'D75':
+        Xn, Yn, Zn = XYZ_from_spectrum(np.arange(360, 780, 1), np.ones(len(np.arange(360, 780, 1)))*100,
+                                       lambda_max = 780, illuminant = illuminant, observer = observer, cmfs_model = cmfs_model, K = K)
+    else:
+        Xn, Yn, Zn = XYZ_from_spectrum(np.arange(360, 830, 1), np.ones(len(np.arange(360, 830, 1)))*100,
+                                       illuminant = illuminant, observer = observer, cmfs_model = cmfs_model, K = K)
+    
+    return Xn, Yn, Zn
+
+def xy_wp(illuminant, observer):
+    r'''
+    | The white point CIE xy chromaticities for a chosen standard illuminant and standard observer.
+    | Calculated from the white point CIE XYZ coordinates (see function :meth:`skinoptics.colors.XYZ_wp`).
+    
+    :param illuminant: the user can choose one of the following... 'A', 'D50', 'D55', 'D65' or 'D75'
+    :type illuminant: str
+    
+    :param observer: the user can choose one of the following... '2o' or '10o'
+    :type observer: str
+
+    | 'A' refers to the CIE standard illuminant A
+    | 'D50' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D50
+    | 'D55' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D55
+    | 'D65' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D65
+    | 'D75' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D75
+
+    | '2o' refers to the CIE 1931 2 degree standard observer
+    | '10o' refers to the CIE 1964 10 degree standard observer
+    
+    :return: - **xn** (*float*) – white point CIE x chromaticity [-]
+       - **yn** (*float*) – white point CIE y chromaticity [-]
+    '''
+    
+    Xn, Yn, Zn = XYZ_wp(illuminant = illuminant, observer = observer)
+    xn, yn = xy_from_XYZ(Xn, Yn, Zn)
+    
+    return xn, yn
+
+def transf_matrix_sRGB_linear_from_XYZ():
+    r'''
+    The transformation matrix employed to obtain linear sRGB coordinates from CIE XYZ coordinates.
+
+    :math:`\mathcal{M} = 
+    \begin{bmatrix}
+    3.24062 & -1.5372 & -0.4986 \\
+    -0.9689 & 1.8758 & 0.0415 \\
+    0.0557 & -0.2040 & 1.0570
+    \end{bmatrix}`
+
+    :returns: - **M** (*np.ndarray*) – transformation matrix
+    '''
+
+    return np.array([[3.24062, -1.5372, -0.4986], [-0.9689, 1.8758, 0.0415], [0.0557, -0.2040, 1.0570]])
+
+def nonlinear_corr_sRGB(u):
+    r'''
+    The nonlinear correction for sRGB coordinates.
+    
+    :math:`\gamma(u) =  
+    \left \{ \begin{matrix}
+    12.92 \mbox{ } u, & \mbox{if } u \le 0.0031308 \\
+    1.055 \mbox{ } u^{1/2.4} - 0.055, & \mbox{if } u > 0.0031308 \\
+    \end{matrix} \right.`
+    
+    :param u: linear R, G or B coordinate [-]
+    :type u: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :return: - **gamma** (*float or np.ndarray*) – nonlinear R, G or B coordinate [-]
+    '''
+    
+    if isinstance(u, np.ndarray) == True:
+        gamma = np.zeros(len(u))
+        for i in range(len(u)):
+            if u[i] <= 0.0031308:
+                gamma[i] = 12.92*u[i]
+            else:
+                gamma[i] = 1.055*u[i]**(1./2.4) - 0.055
+    elif isinstance(u, (int, float)) == True:
+        if u <= 0.0031308:
+            gamma = 12.92*u
+        else:
+            gamma = 1.055*u**(1./2.4) - 0.055
+    else:
+        msg = 'u must be int, float or np.ndarray.'
+        raise Exception(msg)
+        
+    return gamma
+
+def inv_nonlinear_corr_sRGB(u):
+    r'''
+    The inverse nonlinear correction for sRGB coordinates.
+    
+    :math:`\gamma^{-1}(u) =  
+    \left \{ \begin{matrix}
+    u/12.92, & \mbox{if } u \le 0.04045 \\
+    [(u + 0.055)/1.055]^{2.4}, & \mbox{if } u > 0.04045 \\
+    \end{matrix} \right.`
+    
+    :param u: nonlinear R, G or B coordinate [-]
+    :type u: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :return: - **inv_gamma** (*float or np.ndarray*) – linear R, G or B coordinate [-]
+    '''
+    
+    if isinstance(u, np.ndarray) == True:
+        inv_gamma = np.zeros(len(u))
+        for i in range(len(u)):
+            if u[i] <= 0.04045:
+                inv_gamma[i] = u[i]/12.92
+            else:
+                inv_gamma[i] = ((u[i] + 0.055)/1.055)**(2.4)
+    elif isinstance(u, (int, float)) == True:
+        if u <= 0.04045:
+            inv_gamma = u/12.92
+        else:
+            inv_gamma = ((u + 0.055)/1.055)**(2.4)
+    else:
+        msg = 'u must be int, float or np.ndarray.'
+        raise Exception(msg)
+        
+    return inv_gamma
+
+def sRGB_from_XYZ(X, Y, Z, K = 1., sRGB_scale = 'norm'):
+    r'''
+    | Calculate sRGB coordinates from CIE XYZ coordinates.
+    | CIE XYZ coordinates must be for the standard illuminant D65 and the 2 degree standard observer.
+    | For details please check Stokes et al. [S*96] and IEC [IEC99].
+    
+    :math:`\begin{bmatrix}
+    R \\
+    G \\
+    B
+    \end{bmatrix}
+    =
+    \begin{bmatrix}
+    \gamma(R_{linear}) \\
+    \gamma(G_{linear}) \\
+    \gamma(B_{linear})
+    \end{bmatrix}`
+
+    in which
+
+    :math:`\begin{bmatrix}
+    R_{linear} \\
+    G_{linear} \\
+    B_{linear}
+    \end{bmatrix}
+    =
+    \mathcal{M}
+    \begin{bmatrix}
+    X \\
+    Y \\
+    Z
+    \end{bmatrix}`
+
+    and
+
+    :math:`\gamma(u) =  
+    \left \{ \begin{matrix}
+    12.92 \mbox{ } u, & \mbox{if } u \le 0.0031308 \\
+    1.055 \mbox{ } u^{1/2.4} - 0.055, & \mbox{if } u > 0.0031308 \\
+    \end{matrix} \right.`
+    
+    :param X: X coordinate [-]
+    :type X: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param Y: Y coordinate [-]
+    :type Y: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param Z: Z coordinate [-]
+    :type Z: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param K: scaling factor (usually 1. or 100.) [-] (default to 1.)
+    :type K: float
+    
+    :param sRGB_scale: the user can choose one of the following... 'norm' or '8bit'
+    :type sRGB_scale:: str (default to 'norm')
+
+    | K = 1. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 1]
+    | K = 100. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 100]
+
+    | 'norm' for sRGB coordinates in range [0,1] (normalized scale)
+    | '8bit' for sRGB coordinates in range [0, 255] (8-bit scale)
+    
+    :return: - **R** (*float or np.ndarray*) – R coordinate [-]
+       - **G** (*float or np.ndarray*) – G coordinate [-]
+       - **B** (*float or np.ndarray*) – B coordinate [-]
+    '''
+    
+    M = transf_matrix_sRGB_linear_from_XYZ()
+    
+    if isinstance(X, np.ndarray) == True and \
+    isinstance(Y, np.ndarray) == True and \
+    isinstance(Z, np.ndarray) == True:
+        if len(X) - len(Y) != 0 or len(X) - len(Z) != 0:
+            msg = 'X, Y and Z must have the same length.'
+            raise Exception(msg)
+        R, G, B = np.zeros((3, len(X)))
+        for i in range(len(X)):
+            R_linear, G_linear, B_linear = np.clip(np.matmul(M, np.array([X[i]/K, Y[i]/K, Z[i]/K])), 0, 1)
+            R[i], G[i], B[i] = nonlinear_corr_sRGB(np.array([R_linear, G_linear, B_linear])) 
+    elif isinstance(X, (int, float)) == True and \
+    isinstance(Y, (int, float)) == True and \
+    isinstance(Z, (int, float)): 
+        R_linear, G_linear, B_linear = np.clip(np.matmul(M, np.array([X/K, Y/K, Z/K])), 0 , 1)
+        R, G, B = nonlinear_corr_sRGB(np.array([R_linear, G_linear, B_linear])) 
+    else:
+        msg = 'X, Y and Z must be int, float or np.ndarray.'
+        raise Exception(msg)
+    
+    if sRGB_scale == 'norm':
+        pass
+    elif sRGB_scale == '8bit':
+        scaling = 255
+        R, G, B = np.round(scaling*np.array([R, G, B]))
+    else:
+        msg = 'The input sRGB_scale = {} is not valid.'.format(sRGB_scale)
+        raise Exception(msg)
+        
+    return R, G, B
+
+def XYZ_from_sRGB(R, G, B, K = 1., sRGB_scale = 'norm'):
+    r'''
+    | Calculate CIE XYZ coordinates from sRGB coordinates.
+    | The obtained CIE XYZ coordinates are respective to the standard illuminant D65 and the
+    | 2 degree standard observer.
+    | For details please check Stokes et al. [S*96] and IEC [IEC99].
+    
+    :math:`\begin{bmatrix}
+    X \\
+    Y \\
+    Z
+    \end{bmatrix}
+    =
+    \mathcal{M}^{-1}
+    \begin{bmatrix}
+    R_{linear} \\
+    G_{linear} \\
+    B_{linear}
+    \end{bmatrix}`
+
+    in which
+
+    :math:`\begin{bmatrix}
+    R_{linear} \\
+    G_{linear} \\
+    B_{linear}
+    \end{bmatrix}
+    =
+    \begin{bmatrix}
+    \gamma^{-1}(R) \\
+    \gamma^{-1}(G) \\
+    \gamma^{-1}(B)
+    \end{bmatrix}`
+
+    and
+
+    :math:`\gamma^{-1}(u) =  
+    \left \{ \begin{matrix}
+    u/12.92, & \mbox{if } u \le 0.04045 \\
+    [(u + 0.055)/1.055]^{2.4}, & \mbox{if } u > 0.04045 \\
+    \end{matrix} \right.`
+        
+    :param R: R coordinate [-]
+    :type R: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param G: G coordinate [-]
+    :type G: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param B: B coordinate [-]
+    :type B: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param K: scaling factor (usually 1. or 100.) [-] (default to 1.)
+    :type K: float
+    
+    :param sRGB_scale: the user can choose one of the following... 'norm' or '8bit'
+    :type sRGB_scale:: str (default to 'norm')
+
+    | K = 1. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 1]
+    | K = 100. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 100]
+
+    | 'norm' for sRGB coordinates in range [0,1] (normalized scale)
+    | '8bit' for sRGB coordinates in range [0, 255] (8-bit scale)
+    
+    :return: - **X** (*float or np.ndarray*) – X coordinate [-]
+       - **Y** (*float or np.ndarray*) – Y coordinate [-]
+       - **Z** (*float or np.ndarray*) – Z coordinate [-]
+    '''
+
+    if sRGB_scale == 'norm':
+        pass
+    elif sRGB_scale == '8bit':
+        scaling = 255
+        R, G, B = np.array([R, G, B])/scaling
+    else:
+        msg = 'The input sRGB_scale = {} is not valid.'.format(sRGB_scale) 
+        raise Exception(msg)
+    
+    inv_M = np.round(np.linalg.inv(transf_matrix_sRGB_linear_from_XYZ()), 4)
+    
+    if isinstance(R, np.ndarray) == True and \
+    isinstance(G, np.ndarray) == True and \
+    isinstance(B, np.ndarray) == True:
+        if len(R) - len(G) != 0 or len(R) - len(B) != 0:
+            msg = 'R, G and B must have the same length.'
+            raise Exception(msg)
+        X, Y, Z = np.zeros((3, len(R)))
+        for i in range(len(R)):
+            R_linear, G_linear, B_linear  = inv_nonlinear_corr_sRGB(np.array([R[i], G[i], B[i]]))
+            X[i], Y[i], Z[i] = np.matmul(inv_M, np.array([R_linear, G_linear, B_linear]))
+    elif isinstance(R, (int, float)) == True and \
+    isinstance(G, (int, float)) == True and \
+    isinstance(B, (int, float)):
+        R_linear, G_linear, B_linear  = inv_nonlinear_corr_sRGB(np.array([R, G, B]))
+        X, Y, Z = np.matmul(inv_M, np.array([R_linear, G_linear, B_linear]))
+    else:
+        msg = 'R, G and B must be int, float or np.ndarray.'
+        raise Exception(msg)
+    
+    return X*K, Y*K, Z*K
+
+def f_Lab_from_XYZ(u):
+    r'''
+    | The function :math:`f(u)` used to calculate CIE L*a*b* coordinates from CIE XYZ coordinates
+    | (see function :meth:`skinoptics.colors.Lab_from_XYZ`).
+    
+    :math:`f(u) = \left\{ 
+    \begin{matrix}
+    \sqrt[3]{u}, & \mbox{if }  u > \left(\frac{6}{29}\right)^3 \\
+    \frac{1}{3}\left(\frac{29}{6}\right)^2 u + \frac{4}{29}, & \mbox{if }  u \le \left(\frac{6}{29}\right)^3
+    \end{matrix}\right.`
+    
+    :param u: X/Xn, Y/Yn or Z/Zn ratio[-]
+    :type u: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :return: - **f** (*float or np.ndarray*) – evaluated function [-]
+    '''
+    
+    delta = 6./29.
+    if isinstance(u, np.ndarray) == True:
+        f = np.zeros(len(u))
+        for i in range(len(u)):
+            if u[i] > delta**3.:
+                f[i] = np.cbrt(u[i])
+            else:
+                f[i] = u[i]/3./delta**2. + 4./29.
+    elif isinstance(u, (int, float)) == True:
+        if u > delta**3.:
+            f = np.cbrt(u)
+        else:
+            f = u/3./delta**2. + 4./29.
+    else:
+        msg = 'u must be int, float or np.ndarray.'
+        raise Exception(msg)
+        
+    return f
+    
+def inv_f_Lab_from_XYZ(u):
+    r'''
+    The :math:`f^{-1}(u)` function, i.e. the inverse of the :math:`f(u)` function :meth:`skinoptics.colors.f_Lab_from_XYZ`.
+    
+    :math:`f^{-1}(u) = \left\{ 
+    \begin{matrix}
+    u^3, & \mbox{if }  u > \frac{6}{29} \\
+    3 \mbox{ } \left(\frac{6}{29}\right)^2\left(u - \frac{4}{29} \right), & \mbox{if } u \le \frac{6}{29}
+    \end{matrix}\right.`
+        
+    :param u: function variable [-]
+    :type u: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :return: - **f** (*float or np.ndarray*) – evaluated function [-]
+    '''
+    
+    delta = 6./29.  
+    if isinstance(u, np.ndarray) == True:
+        inv_f = np.zeros(len(u))
+        for i in range(len(u)):
+            if u[i] > delta:
+                inv_f[i] = u[i]**3
+            else:
+                inv_f[i] = 3.*delta**2.*(u[i] - 4./29.)
+    elif isinstance(u, (int, float)) == True:
+        if u > delta:
+            inv_f = u**3
+        else:
+            inv_f = 3.*delta**2.*(u - 4./29.)
+    else:
+        msg = 'u must be int, float or np.ndarray.'
+        raise Exception(msg)
+        
+    return inv_f
+
+def Lab_from_XYZ(X, Y, Z, illuminant = 'D65', observer = '10o', K = 1.):
+    r'''
+    | Calculate CIE L*a*b* coordinates from CIE XYZ coordinates.
+    | CIE XYZ and CIE L*a*b* coordinates must be for the same standard illuminant and standard observer.
+    | For detailts please check CIE [CIE04], Schanda 2006 [S06], ISO/CIE [IC08] and Hunt & Pointer 2011 [HP11].
+    
+    | :math:`L^* = 116 \mbox{ } f(Y/Y_n) - 16`
+    | :math:`a^* = 500 \mbox{ } [f(X/X_n) - f(Y/Y_n)]`
+    | :math:`b^* = 200 \mbox{ } [f(Y/Y_n) - f(Z/Z_n)]`
+
+    in which (:math:`X_n`, :math:`Y_n`, :math:`Z_n`) is the white point and 
+
+    :math:`f(u) = \left\{ 
+    \begin{matrix}
+    \sqrt[3]{u}, & \mbox{if }  u > \left(\frac{6}{29}\right)^3 \\
+    \frac{1}{3}\left(\frac{29}{6}\right)^2 u + \frac{4}{29}, & \mbox{if }  u \le \left(\frac{6}{29}\right)^3
+    \end{matrix}\right.`
+        
+    :param X: X coordinate [-]
+    :type X: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param Y: Y coordinate [-]
+    :type Y: float or np.ndarray
+
+    :param Z: Z coordinate [-]
+    :type Z: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param illuminant: the user can choose one of the following... 'A', 'D50', 'D55', 'D65' or 'D75'
+    :type illuminant: str
+    
+    :param observer: the user can choose one of the following... '2o' or '10o'
+    :type observer: str
+
+    :param K: scaling factor (usually 1. or 100.) [-] (default to 1.)
+    :type K: float
+
+    | 'A' refers to the CIE standard illuminant A
+    | 'D50' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D50
+    | 'D55' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D55
+    | 'D65' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D65
+    | 'D75' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D75
+
+    | '2o' refers to the CIE 1931 2 degree standard observer
+    | '10o' refers to the CIE 1964 10 degree standard observer
+    
+    | K = 1. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 1]
+    | K = 100. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 100]
+    
+    :return: - **L** (*float or np.ndarray*) – L* coordinate [-]
+       - **a** (*float or np.ndarray*) – a* coordinate [-]
+       - **b** (*float or np.ndarray*) – b* coordinate [-]
+    '''
+    
+    Xn, Yn, Zn = XYZ_wp(illuminant = illuminant, observer = observer, K = K)
+    f = f_Lab_from_XYZ
+    
+    if isinstance(X, np.ndarray) == True and \
+    isinstance(Y, np.ndarray) == True and \
+    isinstance(Z, np.ndarray) == True:
+        if len(X) - len(Y) != 0 or len(X) - len(Z) != 0:
+            msg = 'X, Y and Z must have the same length.'
+            raise Exception(msg)
+        L, a, b = np.zeros((3, len(X)))
+        for i in range(len(X)):
+            L[i] = 116.*f(Y[i]/Yn) - 16.
+            a[i] = 500.*(f(X[i]/Xn) - f(Y[i]/Yn))
+            b[i] = 200.*(f(Y[i]/Yn) - f(Z[i]/Zn))
+    elif isinstance(X, (int, float)) == True and \
+    isinstance(Y, (int, float)) == True and \
+    isinstance(Z, (int, float)):
+        L = 116.*f(Y/Yn) - 16.
+        a = 500.*(f(X/Xn) - f(Y/Yn))
+        b = 200.*(f(Y/Yn) - f(Z/Zn))
+    else:
+        msg = 'X, Y and Z must be int, float or np.ndarray.'
+        raise Exception(msg)
+    
+    return L, a, b
+        
+def XYZ_from_Lab(L, a, b, illuminant = 'D65', observer = '10o', K = 1.):
+    r'''
+    | Calculate CIE XYZ coordinates from CIE L*a*b* coordinates.
+    | CIE XYZ and CIE L*a*b* coordinates must be for the same standard illuminant and standard observer.
+    | For detailts please check CIE [CIE04], Schanda 2006 [S06] and Hunt & Pointer 2011 [HP11].
+    
+    | :math:`X = f^{-1}[(L^* + 16)/116 + a^*/500] \mbox{ } X_n`
+    | :math:`Y = f^{-1}[(L^* + 16)/116] \mbox{ } Y_n`
+    | :math:`Z = f^{-1}[(L^* + 16)/116 - b^*/200] \mbox{ } Z_n`
+
+    in which (:math:`X_n`, :math:`Y_n`, :math:`Z_n`) is the white point and 
+
+    :math:`f^{-1}(u) = \left\{ 
+    \begin{matrix}
+    u^3, & \mbox{if }  u > \frac{6}{29} \\
+    3 \mbox{ } \left(\frac{6}{29}\right)^2\left(u - \frac{4}{29} \right), & \mbox{if } u \le \frac{6}{29}
+    \end{matrix}\right.`
+        
+    :param L: L* coordinate [-] (must be in range [0, 100])
+    :type L: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param a: a* coordinate [-]
+    :type a: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param b: b* coordinate [-]
+    :type b: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param illuminant: the user can choose one of the following... 'A', 'D50', 'D55', 'D65' or 'D75'
+    :type illuminant: str
+    
+    :param observer: the user can choose one of the following... '2o' or '10o'
+    :type observer: str
+
+    :param K: scaling factor (usually 1. or 100.) [-] (default to 1.)
+    :type K: float
+
+    | 'A' refers to the CIE standard illuminant A
+    | 'D50' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D50
+    | 'D55' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D55
+    | 'D65' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D65
+    | 'D75' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D75
+
+    | '2o' refers to the CIE 1931 2 degree standard observer
+    | '10o' refers to the CIE 1964 10 degree standard observer
+    
+    | K = 1. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 1]
+    | K = 100. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 100]
+    
+    :return: - **X** (*float or np.ndarray*) – X* coordinate [-]
+       - **Y** (*float or np.ndarray*) – Y* coordinate [-]
+       - **Z** (*float or np.ndarray*) – Z* coordinate [-]
+    '''
+    
+    if isinstance(L, np.ndarray) == True:
+        if np.any(L < 0) or np.any(L > 100):
+            msg = 'At least one element in the input L is out of the range [0, 100].'
+            raise Exception(msg)
+    else:
+        if L < 0 or L > 100:
+            msg = 'The input L = {} is out of the range [0, 100].'.format(L)
+            raise Exception(msg)
+                
+    Xn, Yn, Zn = XYZ_wp(illuminant = illuminant, observer = observer, K = K)
+    inv_f = inv_f_Lab_from_XYZ
+    
+    if isinstance(L, np.ndarray) == True and \
+    isinstance(a, np.ndarray) == True and \
+    isinstance(b, np.ndarray) == True:
+        if len(L) - len(a) != 0 or len(L) - len(b) != 0:
+            msg = 'L, a and b must have the same length.'
+            raise Exception(msg)
+        X, Y, Z = np.zeros((3, len(L)))
+        for i in range(len(L)):
+            X[i] = Xn*inv_f((L[i] + 16.)/116. + a[i]/500.)
+            Y[i] = Yn*inv_f((L[i] + 16.)/116.)
+            Z[i] = Zn*inv_f((L[i] + 16.)/116. - b[i]/200.)
+    elif isinstance(L, (int, float)) == True and \
+    isinstance(a, (int, float)) == True and \
+    isinstance(b, (int, float)):
+        X = Xn*inv_f((L + 16.)/116. + a/500.)
+        Y = Yn*inv_f((L + 16.)/116.)
+        Z = Zn*inv_f((L + 16.)/116. - b/200.)
+    else:
+        msg = 'L, a and b must be float or np.ndarray.'
+        raise Exception(msg)
+
+    return X, Y, Z
+
+def chroma(a, b):
+    r'''
+    Calculate the chroma C* from a* and b* coordinates.
+    
+    :math:`C^* = \sqrt{a^{*2} + b^{*2}}`
+    
+    :param a: a* coordinate [-]
+    :type a: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param b: b* coordinate [-]
+    :type b: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :return: - **chroma** (*float or np.ndarray*) – chroma [-]
+    '''
+        
+    return np.sqrt(a**2. + b**2.)
+
+def hue(a, b):
+    r'''
+    Calculate the hue angle h* from a* and b* coordinates.
+    
+    :math:`h^* = \mbox{arctan2 } (b^*, a^*) \times \frac{180}{\pi}`
+    
+    :param a: a* coordinate [-]
+    :type a: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param b: b* coordinate [-]
+    :type b: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :return: - **hue** (*float or np.ndarray*) – hue angle [degrees] (in range [0, 360])
+    '''
+    
+    hue = np.arctan2(b,a)*180./np.pi
+
+    hue_shape = hue.shape
+    hue_flatten = hue.flatten()
+    
+    if isinstance(hue, np.ndarray) == True:
+        for i in hue_flatten:
+            if i < 0:
+                i += 360
+        hue = hue_flatten.reshape(hue_shape)
+    elif isinstance(hue, (int, float)) == True:
+        if hue < 0:
+            hue += 360
+    
+    return hue
+
+def ITA(L, b, L0 = 50.):
+    r'''
+    | Calculate the Individual Typology Angle (ITA) from L* and b* coordinates.
+    | For details please check Chardon, Cretois & Hourseau 1991 [CCH91], Del Bino et al. 2006 [D*06],
+    | Del Bino & Bernerd 2013 [DB13] and Ly et al. 2020 [L*20].
+    
+    :math:`\mbox{ITA} = \arctan\left(\frac{L^*-L_0^*}{b^*}\right) \times \frac{180}{\pi}`
+    
+    :param L: L* coordinate [-]
+    :type L: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param b: b* coordinate [-]
+    :type b: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param L0: L0 coordinate [-] (default to 50.)
+    :type L0: float
+    
+    :return: - **ITA** (*float or np.ndarray*) – Individual Typology Angle [degrees]
+    '''
+    
+    return np.arctan((L - L0)/b)*180./np.pi
+
+def ITA_class(ITA):
+    r'''
+    | Skin color classification based on the Individual Typology Angle :meth:`skinoptics.colors.ITA`.
+    | For details please check Chardon, Cretois & Hourseau 1991 [CCH91], Del Bino et al. 2006 [D*06],
+    | Del Bino & Bernerd 2013 [DB13] and Ly et al. [L*20].
+    
+    +---------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+    | skin color classification | ITA range                                     |
+    +===========================+===============================================+
+    | very light                | ITA :math:`> 55^\circ`                        |
+    +---------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+    | light                     | :math:`41^\circ <` ITA :math:`\le 55^\circ`   |
+    +---------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+    | intermediate              | :math:`28^\circ <` ITA :math:`\le 41^\circ`   |
+    +---------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+    | tan                       | :math:`10^\circ <` ITA :math:`\le 28^\circ`   |
+    +---------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+    | brown                     | :math:`-30^\circ <` ITA :math:`\le 10^\circ`  |
+    +---------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
+    | dark                      | ITA :math:`\le -30^\circ`                     |
+    +---------------------------+-----------------------------------------------+ 
+    
+    :param ITA: Individual Typology Angle [degrees] (must be greater than -90 and less than 90)
+    :type ITA: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :return: - **ITA_class** (*str or np.ndarray*) – skin color classification based on the Individual Typology Angle
+    '''
+    
+    if isinstance(ITA, np.ndarray) == True:
+        if np.any(ITA < -90) or np.any(ITA > 90):
+            msg = 'At least one element in the input ITA is out of the range [-90, 90].'
+            raise Exception(msg)
+    else:
+        if ITA < -90 or ITA > 90:
+            msg = 'The input ITA = {} is out of the range [-90, 90].'.format(ITA)
+            raise Exception(msg)
+    
+    if isinstance(ITA, np.ndarray) == True:
+        ITA_class_list = ['']*len(ITA)
+        for i in range(len(ITA)):
+            if ITA[i] > 55:
+                ITA_class_list[i] = 'very light'
+            elif ITA[i] > 41 and ITA[i] <= 55:
+                ITA_class_list[i] = 'light'
+            elif ITA[i] > 28 and ITA[i] <= 41:
+                ITA_class_list[i] = 'intermediate'
+            elif ITA[i] > 10 and ITA[i] <= 28:
+                ITA_class_list[i] = 'tan'
+            elif ITA[i] > -30 and ITA[i] <= 10:
+                ITA_class_list[i] = 'brown'
+            else:
+                ITA_class_list[i] = 'dark'
+        ITA_class = np.array(ITA_class_list)
+    else:
+        if ITA > 55:
+            ITA_class = 'very light'
+        elif ITA > 41 and ITA <= 55:
+            ITA_class = 'light'
+        elif ITA > 28 and ITA <= 41:
+            ITA_class = 'intermediate'
+        elif ITA > 10 and ITA <= 28:
+            ITA_class = 'tan'
+        elif ITA > -30 and ITA <= 10:
+            ITA_class = 'brown'
+        else:
+            ITA_class = 'dark'
+    
+    return ITA_class
+
+def Delta_L(L0, L1):
+    r'''
+    Calculate the lightness difference :math:`\Delta L^*` between a reference color lightness :math:`L^*_0`
+    and a test color lightness :math:`L^*_1`.
+    
+    :math:`\Delta L^* = L^*_1 - L^*_0`
+    
+    :param L0: reference color L* coordinate [-]
+    :type L0: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param L1: test color L* coordinate [-]
+    :type L1: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :return: - **delta_L** (*float or np.ndarray*) – lightness difference [-]
+    '''
+    
+    return L1 - L0
+
+def Delta_a(a0, a1):
+    r'''
+    Calculate the difference :math:`\Delta a^*` between a reference color :math:`a^*_0` coordinate
+    and a test color :math:`a^*_1` coordinate.
+    
+    :math:`\Delta a^* = a^*_1 - a^*_0`
+    
+    :param a0: reference color a* coordinate [-]
+    :type a0: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param a1: test color a* coordinate [-]
+    :type a1: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :return: - **delta_a** (*float or np.ndarray*) – a* difference [-]
+    '''
+    
+    return a1 - a0
+
+def Delta_b(b0, b1):
+    r'''
+    Calculate the difference :math:`\Delta b^*` between a reference color :math:`b^*_0` coordinate
+    and a test color :math:`b^*_1` coordinate.
+    
+    :math:`\Delta b^* = b^*_1 - b^*_0`
+    
+    :param b0: reference color b* coordinate [-]
+    :type b0: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param b1: test color b* coordinate [-]
+    :type b1: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :return: - **delta_b** (*float or np.ndarray*) – b* difference [-]
+    '''
+    
+    return b1 - b0
+
+def Delta_E(L0, a0, b0, L1, a1, b1):
+    r'''
+    Calculate the CIELAB color difference :math:`\Delta E^*_{ab}` between
+    a reference color (:math:`L^*_0`, :math:`a^*_0`, :math:`b^*_0`) and
+    a test color (:math:`L^*_1`, :math:`a^*_1`, :math:`b^*_1`).
+    
+    :math:`\Delta E^*_{ab} = \sqrt{(L^*_1 - L^*_0)^2 + (a^*_1 - a^*_0)^2 + (b^*_1 - b^*_0)^2}`
+    
+    :param L0: reference color L* coordinate [-]
+    :type L0: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param a0: reference color a* coordinate [-]
+    :type a0: float or np.ndarray
+
+    :param b0: reference color b* coordinate [-]
+    :type b0: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param L1: test color L* coordinate [-]
+    :type L1: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param a1: test color a* coordinate [-]
+    :type a1: float or np.ndarray
+
+    :param b1: test color b* coordinate [-]
+    :type b1: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :return: - **delta_E** (*float or np.ndarray*) – CIELAB color difference [-]
+    '''
+    
+    return np.sqrt(Delta_L(L0 = L0, L1 = L1)**2 + Delta_a(a0 = a0, a1 = a1)**2 + Delta_b(b0 = b0, b1 = b1)**2)
+
+def Delta_E_00(L0, a0, b0, L1, a1, b1, kL = 1., kC = 1., kH = 1.):
+    r'''
+    Calculate the CIEDE2000 color difference :math:`\Delta E^*_{00}` between
+    a reference color (:math:`L^*_0`, :math:`a^*_0`, :math:`b^*_0`) and
+    a test color (:math:`L^*_1`, :math:`a^*_1`, :math:`b^*_1`).
+
+    :math:`\Delta E^*_{00} = \sqrt{\left(\frac{\Delta L'}{k_L S_L}\right)^2 + \left(\frac{\Delta C'}{k_C S_C}\right)^2 + \left(\frac{\Delta H'}{k_H S_H}\right)^2 + R_T \left(\frac{\Delta C'}{k_C S_C}\right) \left(\frac{\Delta H'}{k_H S_H}\right)}`
+
+    | For details please check Sharma, Wu & Dalal 2004 [SWD04] and ISO/CIE 2014 [IC14].
+
+    :param L0: reference color L* coordinate [-]
+    :type L0: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param a0: reference color a* coordinate [-]
+    :type a0: float or np.ndarray
+
+    :param b0: reference color b* coordinate [-]
+    :type b0: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param L1: test color L* coordinate [-]
+    :type L1: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param a1: test color a* coordinate [-]
+    :type a1: float or np.ndarray
+
+    :param b1: test color b* coordinate [-]
+    :type b1: float or np.ndarray
+
+    :param kL: lightness parametric factor [-] (default to 1.)
+    :type kL: float
+
+    :param kC: chroma parametric factor [-] (default to 1.)
+    :type kC: float
+
+    :param kH: hue parametric factor [-] (default to 1.)
+    :type kH: float
+    
+    :return: - **delta_E_00** (*float or np.ndarray*) – CIEDE2000 color difference [-]
+    '''
+    
+    C0 = chroma(a = a0, b = b0)
+    C1 = chroma(a = a1, b = b1)
+    
+    C_bar = np.mean((C0, C1))
+    
+    G = 0.5*(1 - np.sqrt(C_bar**7/(C_bar**7 + 25**7)))
+    
+    Ll0 = L0
+    al0 = (1 + G)*a0
+    bl0 = b0
+    Cl0 = chroma(a = al0, b = bl0)
+    hl0 = hue(a = al0, b = bl0)
+    
+    Ll1 = L1
+    al1 = (1 + G)*a1
+    bl1 = b1
+    Cl1 = chroma(a = al1, b = bl1)
+    hl1 = hue(a = al1, b = bl1)
+
+    abs_diff_hl = np.abs(hl1 - hl0)
+
+    Delta_Ll = Ll1 - Ll0
+    Delta_Cl = Cl1 - Cl0
+    if isinstance(abs_diff_hl, np.ndarray) == True:
+        Delta_hl = np.zeros(len(abs_diff_hl))
+        for i in range(len(Delta_hl)):
+            if Cl0[i]*Cl1[i] == 0:
+                Delta_hl[i] = 0
+            elif Cl0[i]*Cl1[i] != 0 and abs_diff_hl[i] <= 180:
+                Delta_hl[i] = hl1[i] - hl0[i]
+            elif Cl0[i]*Cl1[i] != 0 and hl1[i] - hl0[i] > 180:
+                Delta_hl[i] = hl1[i] - hl0[i] - 360
+            elif Cl0[i]*Cl1[i] != 0 and hl1[i] - hl0[i] < -180:
+                Delta_hl[i] = hl1[i] - hl0[i] + 360
+    elif isinstance(abs_diff_hl, (int, float)) == True:
+        if Cl0*Cl1 == 0:
+            Delta_hl = 0
+        elif Cl0*Cl1 != 0 and abs_diff_hl <= 180:
+            Delta_hl = hl1 - hl0
+        elif Cl0*Cl1 != 0 and hl1 - hl0 > 180:
+            Delta_hl = hl1 - hl0 - 360
+        elif Cl0*Cl1 != 0 and hl1 - hl0 < -180:
+            Delta_hl = hl1 - hl0 + 360
+    else:
+        msg = 'The input (L0, a0, b0, L1, a1, b1 = {} is not valid.'.format(np.array(L0, a0, b0, L1, a1, b1))
+        raise Exception(msg)
+    Delta_Hl = 2*np.sqrt(Cl0*Cl1)*np.sin(np.radians(Delta_hl/2))
+    
+    Ll_bar = np.mean((Ll0, Ll1))
+    Cl_bar = np.mean((Cl0, Cl1))
+    if isinstance(abs_diff_hl, np.ndarray) == True:
+        hl_bar = np.zeros(len(abs_diff_hl))
+        for i in range(len(hl_bar)):
+            if Cl0[i]*Cl1[i] == 0:
+                hl_bar[i] = hl0[i] + hl1[i]
+            elif Cl0[i]*Cl1[i] != 0 and abs_diff_hl[i] <= 180:
+                hl_bar[i] = np.mean((hl0[i], hl1[i]))
+            elif Cl0[i]*Cl1[i] != 0 and abs_diff_hl[i] > 180 and hl0[i] + hl1[i] < 360:
+                hl_bar[i] = (hl0[i] + hl1[i] + 360)/2
+            elif Cl0[i]*Cl1[i] != 0 and abs_diff_hl[i] > 180 and hl0[i] + hl1[i] >= 360:
+                hl_bar[i] = (hl0[i] + hl1[i] - 360)/2
+    elif isinstance(abs_diff_hl, (int, float)) == True:
+        if Cl0*Cl1 == 0:
+            hl_bar = hl0 + hl1
+        elif Cl0*Cl1 != 0 and abs_diff_hl <= 180:
+            hl_bar = np.mean((hl0, hl1))
+        elif Cl0*Cl1 != 0 and abs_diff_hl > 180 and hl0 + hl1 < 360:
+            hl_bar = (hl0 + hl1 + 360)/2
+        elif Cl0*Cl1 != 0 and abs_diff_hl > 180 and hl0 + hl1 >= 360:
+            hl_bar = (hl0 + hl1 - 360)/2
+    else:
+        msg = 'The input (L0, a0, b0, L1, a1, b1 = {} is not valid.'.format(np.array(L0, a0, b0, L1, a1, b1))
+        raise Exception(msg)
+    
+    T = 1 - 0.17*np.cos(np.radians(hl_bar - 30)) + 0.24*np.cos(np.radians(2*hl_bar)) \
+        + 0.32*np.cos(np.radians(3*hl_bar + 6)) - 0.2*np.cos(np.radians(4*hl_bar - 63))                                     
+    
+    SL = 1 + (0.015*(Ll_bar - 50)**2)/np.sqrt(20 + (Ll_bar - 50)**2)
+    SC = 1 + 0.045*Cl_bar
+    SH = 1 + 0.015*Cl_bar*T
+    
+    Delta_theta = 30*np.exp(-((hl_bar - 275)/25)**2)
+    RC = 2*np.sqrt(Cl_bar**7/(Cl_bar**7 + 25**7))
+    RT = - np.sin(np.radians(2*Delta_theta))*RC
+    
+    Delta_E_00_1st = (Delta_Ll/(kL*SL))**2
+    Delta_E_00_2nd = (Delta_Cl/(kC*SC))**2
+    Delta_E_00_3rd = (Delta_Hl/(kH*SH))**2
+    Delta_E_00_4th = RT*(Delta_Cl/(kC*SC))*(Delta_Hl/(kH*SH))
+    
+    return np.sqrt(Delta_E_00_1st + Delta_E_00_2nd + Delta_E_00_3rd + Delta_E_00_4th)
+
+def EI(R_green, R_red):
+    r'''
+    | Calculate the Erythema Index (EI) from the reflectances on chosen green 
+    | (usually approx. 568 nm) and red bands (usually approx. 655 nm).
+    | For details please check Takiwaki et al. 1994 [T*94] and Fullerton et al. 1996 [F*96].
+    
+    :math:`\mbox{EI} = 100 \mbox{ } [\mbox{log}_{10}(R_\mbox{red}) - \mbox{log}_{10}(R_\mbox{green})]`
+    
+    :param R_green: reflectance on a chosen green band [%]
+    :type R_green: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param R_red: reflectance on a chosen red band [%]
+    :type R_red: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :return: - **EI** (*float or np.ndarray*) – Erythema Index [-]
+    '''
+    
+    return 100*(np.log10(R_red/100) - np.log10(R_green/100))
+
+def MI(R_red):
+    r'''
+    | Calculate the Melanin Index (MI) from the reflectance on a chosen red band
+    | (usually approx. 655 nm).
+    | For details please check Takiwaki et al. 1994 [T*94] and Fullerton et al. 1996 [F*96].
+    
+    :math:`\mbox{MI} = 100 \mbox{ } [-\mbox{log}_{10}(R_\mbox{red})]`
+    
+    :param R_red: reflectance on a chosen red band [%]
+    :type R_red: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :return: - **MI** (*float or np.ndarray* – Melanin Index [-]
+    '''
+    
+    return 100*(-np.log10(R_red/100))
+
+def XYZ_from_spectrum(all_lambda, spectrum, lambda_min = 360., lambda_max = 830., lambda_step = 1.,
+                      illuminant = 'D65', observer = '10o', cmfs_model = 'CIE', K = 1., interp1d_kind = 'cubic'):
+    r'''
+    | Calculate the CIE XYZ coordinates from the reflectance spectrum :math:`R(\lambda)` or the
+    | transmittance spectrum :math:`T(\lambda)` for a chosen standard illuminant and standard observer.
+    | Integration using the composite trapezoid rule from 360 nm to 830 nm (as default).
+    | If the wavelength array does not cover the whole region, a constant extrapolation is perfomed.
+    | For details please check CIE [CIE04] (see their section 7).
+    
+    | :math:`X = \frac{K}{N} \int_\lambda \mbox{ } R(\lambda) \mbox{ } S(\lambda) \mbox{ } \bar{x}(\lambda) \mbox{ } d\lambda`
+    | :math:`Y = \frac{K}{N} \int_\lambda \mbox{ } R(\lambda) \mbox{ } S(\lambda) \mbox{ } \bar{y}(\lambda) \mbox{ } d\lambda`
+    | :math:`Z = \frac{K}{N} \int_\lambda \mbox{ } R(\lambda) \mbox{ } S(\lambda) \mbox{ } \bar{z}(\lambda) \mbox{ } d\lambda`
+
+    in which 
+
+    | :math:`N = \int_\lambda \mbox{ } S(\lambda) \mbox{ } \bar{y}(\lambda) \mbox{ } d\lambda`
+    
+    The reflectance spectrum :math:`R(\lambda)` is replaced by the transmittance spectrum
+    :math:`T(\lambda)` when dealing with color in some cases.
+        
+    :param all_lambda: wavelength array
+    :type all_lambda: np.ndarray
+    
+    :param spectrum: reflectance or transmittance spectrum respective to the wavelength array [%]
+    :type spectrum: np.ndarray
+    
+    :param lambda_min: lower limit of summation/integration (minimum wavelength to take into account) [nm] (default to 360.)
+    :type lambda_min: float
+    
+    :param lambda_max: upper limit of summation/integration (maximum wavelength to take into account) [nm] (default to 830.)
+    :type lambda_max: float
+    
+    :param lambda_step: summation interval (wavelength step) [nm] (default to 1.)
+    :type lambda_step: float
+    
+     :param illuminant: the user can choose one of the following... 'A', 'D50', 'D55', 'D65' or 'D75'
+    :type illuminant: str
+    
+    :param observer: the user can choose one of the following... '2o' or '10o'
+    :type observer: str
+    
+    :param cmfs_model: the user can choose one of the following... 'CIE', 'Wyman_singlelobe' or 'Wyman_multilobe' (default to 'CIE')
+    :type cmfs_model: str
+    
+    :param K: scaling factor (usually 1. or 100.) [-] (default to 1.)
+    :type K: float
+
+    :param interp1d_kind: kind argument of scipy.interpolation.interp1d (default to 'cubic' [CIE04] (see their section 7.2.1.1))
+    :type interp1d_kind: str
+
+    | 'A' refers to the CIE standard illuminant A
+    | 'D50' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D50
+    | 'D55' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D55
+    | 'D65' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D65
+    | 'D75' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D75
+
+    | '2o' refers to the CIE 1931 2 degree standard observer
+    | '10o' refers to the CIE 1964 10 degree standard observer
+
+    | 'CIE' for the linear interpolation of data from CIE datasets [CIE19a] [CIE19b]
+    | 'Wyman_singlelobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.1)
+    | 'Wyman_multilobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.2)
+    
+    | K = 1. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 1]
+    | K = 100. for CIE XYZ coordinates in range [0, 100]
+    
+    :return: - **X** (*float*) – X coordinate [-]
+             - **Y** (*float*) – Y coordinate [-]
+             - **Z** (*float*) – Z coordinate [-]
+    '''
+    
+    x = np.arange(lambda_min, lambda_max + lambda_step, lambda_step)
+    R_or_T_lambda = interp1d(all_lambda, spectrum/100, kind = interp1d_kind,
+                             bounds_error = False, fill_value = (spectrum[0]/100, 
+                                                                  spectrum[-1]/100))(x)
+    S_lambda = rspd(x, illuminant = illuminant)
+    xbar_lambda, ybar_lambda, zbar_lambda = cmfs(x, observer = observer, cmfs_model = cmfs_model)
+    
+    y0 = S_lambda*ybar_lambda
+    N = trapezoid(y0, x = x, dx = lambda_step)
+    
+    R_or_T_lambda_times_S_lambda = R_or_T_lambda*S_lambda
+    
+    y1 = R_or_T_lambda_times_S_lambda*xbar_lambda
+    X = K/N*trapezoid(y1, x = x, dx = lambda_step)
+    
+    y2 = R_or_T_lambda_times_S_lambda*ybar_lambda
+    Y = K/N*trapezoid(y2, x = x, dx = lambda_step)
+    
+    y3 = R_or_T_lambda_times_S_lambda*zbar_lambda
+    Z = K/N*trapezoid(y3, x = x, dx = lambda_step)
+    
+    return X, Y, Z
+
+def sRGB_from_spectrum(all_lambda, spectrum, lambda_min = 360, lambda_max = 830, lambda_step = 1,
+                       cmfs_model = 'CIE', interp1d_kind = 'cubic', sRGB_scale = 'norm'):
+    r'''
+    | Calculate the sRGB coordinates from the reflectance or the transmittance spectrum.
+    | First calculate CIE XYZ coordinates (respective to the standard illuminant D65 and
+    | the 2 degree standard observer) from the spectrum and then calculate sRGB coordinates
+    | from CIE XYZ coordinates (see functions :meth:`skinoptics.colors.sRGB_from_XYZ` and
+    | :meth:`skinoptics.colors.XYZ_from_spectrum`).
+
+    :param all_lambda: wavelength array
+    :type all_lambda: np.ndarray
+    
+    :param spectrum: reflectance or transmittance spectrum respective to the wavelength array [%]
+    :type spectrum: np.ndarray
+    
+    :param lambda_min: lower limit of summation/integration (minimum wavelength to take into account) [nm] (default to 360.)
+    :type lambda_min: float
+    
+    :param lambda_max: upper limit of summation/integration (maximum wavelength to take into account) [nm] (default to 830.)
+    :type lambda_max: float
+    
+    :param lambda_step: summation interval (wavelength step) [nm] (default to 1.)
+    :type lambda_step: float
+    
+    :param cmfs_model: the user can choose one of the following... 'CIE', 'Wyman_singlelobe' or 'Wyman_multilobe' (default to 'CIE')
+    :type cmfs_model: str
+
+    :param interp1d_kind: kind argument of scipy.interpolation.interp1d (default to 'cubic' [CIE04] (see their section 7.2.1.1))
+    :type interp1d_kind: str
+
+    :param sRGB_scale: the user can choose one of the following... 'norm' or '8bit' (default to 'norm')
+    :type sRGB_scale: str
+
+    | 'CIE' for the linear interpolation of data from CIE datasets [CIE19a] [CIE19b]
+    | 'Wyman_singlelobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.1)
+    | 'Wyman_multilobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.2)    
+
+    | 'norm' for sRGB coordinates in range [0,1] (normalized scale)
+    | '8bit' for sRGB coordinates in range [0, 255] (8-bit scale)
+    
+    :return: - **R** (*float*) – R coordinate [-]
+       - **G** (*float*) – G coordinate [-]
+       - **B** (*float*) – B coordinate [-]
+    '''
+    
+    return sRGB_from_XYZ(*XYZ_from_spectrum(all_lambda = all_lambda, spectrum = spectrum,
+                                            lambda_min = lambda_min, lambda_max = lambda_max,
+                                            lambda_step = lambda_step,
+                                            illuminant = 'D65', observer = '2o', cmfs_model = cmfs_model,
+                                            K = 1., interp1d_kind = interp1d_kind),
+                         K = 1., sRGB_scale = sRGB_scale)
+
+def Lab_from_spectrum(all_lambda, spectrum, lambda_min = 360, lambda_max = 830, lambda_step = 1,
+                     illuminant = 'D65', observer = '10o', cmfs_model = 'CIE', interp1d_kind = 'cubic'):
+    r'''
+    | Calculate the CIE L*a*b* coordinates from the reflectance or the transmittance spectrum.
+    | First calculate CIE XYZ coordinates from the spectrum for a chosen standard illuminant
+    | and standard observer and then calculate CIE L*a*b* coordinates from CIE XYZ coordinates
+    | (see functions :meth:`skinoptics.colors.Lab_from_XYZ` and :meth:`skinoptics.colors.XYZ_from_spectrum`).
+        
+    :param all_lambda: wavelength array
+    :type all_lambda: np.ndarray
+    
+    :param spectrum: reflectance or transmittance spectrum respective to the wavelength array [%]
+    :type spectrum: np.ndarray
+    
+    :param lambda_min: lower limit of summation/integration (minimum wavelength to take into account) [nm] (default to 360.)
+    :type lambda_min: float
+    
+    :param lambda_max: upper limit of summation/integration (maximum wavelength to take into account) [nm] (default to 830.)
+    :type lambda_max: float
+    
+    :param lambda_step: summation interval (wavelength step) [nm] (default to 1.)
+    :type lambda_step: float
+    
+     :param illuminant: the user can choose one of the following... 'A', 'D50', 'D55', 'D65' or 'D75'
+    :type illuminant: str
+    
+    :param observer: the user can choose one of the following... '2o' or '10o'
+    :type observer: str
+    
+    :param cmfs_model: the user can choose one of the following... 'CIE', 'Wyman_singlelobe' or 'Wyman_multilobe' (default to 'CIE')
+    :type cmfs_model: str
+
+    :param interp1d_kind: kind argument of scipy.interpolation.interp1d (default to 'cubic' [CIE04] (see their section 7.2.1.1))
+    :type interp1d_kind: str
+
+    | 'A' refers to the CIE standard illuminant A
+    | 'D50' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D50
+    | 'D55' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D55
+    | 'D65' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D65
+    | 'D75' refers to the CIE standard illuminant D75
+
+    | '2o' refers to the CIE 1931 2 degree standard observer
+    | '10o' refers to the CIE 1964 10 degree standard observer
+
+    | 'CIE' for the linear interpolation of data from CIE datasets [CIE19a] [CIE19b]
+    | 'Wyman_singlelobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.1)
+    | 'Wyman_multilobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.2)
+    
+    :return: - **L** (*float*) – L* coordinate [-]
+       - **a** (*float*) – a* coordinate [-]
+       - **b** (*float*) – b* coordinate [-]
+    '''
+
+    return Lab_from_XYZ(*XYZ_from_spectrum(all_lambda = all_lambda, spectrum = spectrum,
+                                           lambda_min = lambda_min, lambda_max = lambda_max,
+                                           lambda_step = lambda_step,
+                                           illuminant = illuminant, observer = observer, cmfs_model = cmfs_model,
+                                           K = 1., interp1d_kind = interp1d_kind),
+                        illuminant = illuminant, observer = observer, K = 1.)
+
+def sRGB_from_lambda0(lambda0, cmfs_model = 'CIE', sRGB_scale = 'norm'):
+    r'''
+    | Calculate the sRGB coordinates respective to the color of a monochromatic light
+    | (single wavelength).
+    
+    wavelength range: [360 nm, 830 nm]
+    
+    :param lambda0: wavelength of the monochromatic light [nm]
+    :type lambda0: float or np.ndarray
+    
+    :param cmfs_model: the user can choose one of the following... 'CIE', 'Wyman_singlelobe' or 'Wyman_multilobe' (default to 'CIE')
+    :type cmfs_model: str
+
+    :param sRGB_scale: the user can choose one of the following... 'norm' or '8bit' (default to 'norm')
+    :type sRGB_scale: str
+
+    | 'CIE' for the linear interpolation of data from CIE datasets [CIE19a] [CIE19b]
+    | 'Wyman_singlelobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.1)
+    | 'Wyman_multilobe' for the functions from Wyman, Sloan & Shirley 2013 [WSS13] (section 2.2)    
+
+    | 'norm' for sRGB coordinates in range [0,1] (normalized scale)
+    | '8bit' for sRGB coordinates in range [0, 255] (8-bit scale)
+
+    :return: - **R** (*float or np.ndarray*) – R coordinate [-]
+       - **G** (*float or np.ndarray*) – G coordinate [-]
+       - **B** (*float or np.ndarray*) – B coordinate [-]
+    '''
+    
+    return sRGB_from_XYZ(*cmfs(lambda0, observer = '2o', cmfs_model = cmfs_model),
+                         K = 1., sRGB_scale = sRGB_scale)