scm2cpp-learn 0.18.0__py3-none-win_amd64.whl

scm2cpp_learn/__init__.py

@@ -0,0 +1,3836 @@
+"""Lasso by coordinate descent over a Gram matrix, from Scheme via C++.
+
+The solver is `examples/kernel-only/lasso-cov.scm` in the scm2cpp
+repository, translated to C++ and compiled at install time.  It takes
+the covariance route: given X'X and X'y, each coordinate step costs
+O(p) instead of O(n), so a whole regularization path is cheap once the
+Gram matrix exists.  The descent is exactly resumable, which is what
+lets a path be walked warm and a batch of lambdas be handed to a GPU.
+
+    from scm2cpp_learn import CovLasso
+
+    model = CovLasso(X, y)                     # forms the Gram matrix
+    path = model.fit_path(lambdas)             # warm, sequential
+    grid = model.fit_path_batch(lambdas)       # cold, one thread each
+
+`fit_path_batch` uses CUDA when the package was built with nvcc present
+and a device is visible, and falls back to the CPU otherwise; ask
+`cuda_available()` if you need to know which you got.
+
+Designs with structure need not form X'X the general way.  `kernel`
+exposes the translated functions directly, and `scm2cpp-tfs` uses them
+to build the Gram matrix of a moving-average design in O(n p) time and
+no design matrix at all.
+"""
+
+
+# start delvewheel patch
+def _delvewheel_patch_1_13_2():
+    import ctypes
+    import os
+    import platform
+    import sys
+    libs_dir = os.path.abspath(os.path.join(os.path.dirname(__file__), os.pardir, 'scm2cpp_learn.libs'))
+    is_conda_cpython = platform.python_implementation() == 'CPython' and (hasattr(ctypes.pythonapi, 'Anaconda_GetVersion') or 'packaged by conda-forge' in sys.version)
+    if sys.version_info[:2] >= (3, 8) and not is_conda_cpython or sys.version_info[:2] >= (3, 10):
+        if os.path.isdir(libs_dir):
+            os.add_dll_directory(libs_dir)
+    else:
+        load_order_filepath = os.path.join(libs_dir, '.load-order-scm2cpp_learn-0.18.0')
+        if os.path.isfile(load_order_filepath):
+            import ctypes.wintypes
+            with open(os.path.join(libs_dir, '.load-order-scm2cpp_learn-0.18.0'), encoding='utf-8') as file:
+                load_order = file.read().split()
+            kernel32 = ctypes.WinDLL('kernel32', use_last_error=True)
+            kernel32.LoadLibraryExW.restype = ctypes.wintypes.HMODULE
+            kernel32.LoadLibraryExW.argtypes = ctypes.wintypes.LPCWSTR, ctypes.wintypes.HANDLE, ctypes.wintypes.DWORD
+            for lib in load_order:
+                lib_path = os.path.join(os.path.join(libs_dir, lib))
+                if os.path.isfile(lib_path) and not kernel32.LoadLibraryExW(lib_path, None, 8):
+                    raise OSError('Error loading {}; {}'.format(lib, ctypes.FormatError(ctypes.get_last_error())))
+
+
+_delvewheel_patch_1_13_2()
+del _delvewheel_patch_1_13_2
+# end delvewheel patch
+
+import ctypes
+import warnings
+
+import numpy as np
+
+from ._generated import _loader as kernel
+from ._libfind import load_batch_lib, derived_backends, nmf_backends
+from ._compat import (BaseEstimator, ClassifierMixin, RegressorMixin, TransformerMixin,
+                      DensityMixin, Tagged, fit_xy, fit_x, pred_x, classes_of,
+                      check_is_fitted)
+
+# the derived kernel's variants that were built, each bound to its own
+# library: {'cublas': module, 'blas': module, 'loops': module}
+_DERIVED = {}
+for _v in derived_backends():
+    try:
+        _DERIVED[_v] = __import__("scm2cpp_learn._generated._loader_derived_" + _v,
+                                  fromlist=["lasso"])
+    except ImportError:
+        pass
+
+__all__ = ["GramLasso", "GramElasticNet", "GramRidge", "GramRidgeCV", "CovLasso", "CovRidge", "CovBayesianRidge", "CovLogistic", "CovGroupLasso",
+           "LinearSVM", "KernelSVM", "LinearSVR", "KernelSVR", "L1LogisticRegression",
+           "CDNMF", "nmf_backend", "CDGraphicalLasso", "LinearRANSAC",
+           "SGDLinearClassifier", "SGDLinearRegressor", "SGDPerceptron", "GramOMP", "GramLars", "GramLassoLars", "GramLassoLarsIC",
+           "LBFGSLogisticRegression", "LBFGSHuberRegressor", "LBFGSLogisticRegressionCV",
+           "LBFGSPoissonRegressor", "LBFGSGammaRegressor", "LBFGSTweedieRegressor",
+           "GramLarsCV", "GramLassoLarsCV", "GramOMPCV",
+           "EMGaussianMixture", "CovPCA", "GramKernelPCA", "GramLDA", "GramTruncatedSVD", "ParallelFastICA", "CovARDRegression",
+           "L1LinearSVM", "WeiszfeldTheilSen", "f_regression", "f_classif", "SelectKBest",
+           "SelectPercentile", "GramRFE",
+           "CovMultiTaskLasso", "CovMultiTaskLassoCV", "DerivedLasso",
+           "GramLogisticRegression", "GramGroupLasso", "GramMultiTaskLasso",
+           "GramMultiTaskElasticNet", "DesignLasso",
+           "cuda_available", "derived_backend", "kernel"]
+__version__ = "0.18.0"
+
+_BATCH = load_batch_lib()
+_DP = ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_double)
+
+
+def _scale(beta):
+    """What `tol` is measured against.
+
+    An absolute test on the coefficients is a trap when the features
+    are large: the Gram diagonal is then large too, every sweep moves
+    each coefficient by very little, and the descent declares victory
+    a long way from the solution.  Measuring the move against the size
+    of the coefficients themselves makes the test mean the same thing
+    at any scale, and falls back to absolute when they are still near
+    zero.
+    """
+    m = float(np.max(np.abs(beta))) if beta.size else 0.0
+    return m if m > 1.0 else 1.0
+
+
+def cuda_available():
+    """True when the GPU batch path was built and a device answers."""
+    if _BATCH is None:
+        return False
+    g, c, b = np.ones(1), np.zeros(1), np.zeros(1)
+    lam = np.array([1e9])          # a lambda that zeroes everything
+    return 0 == _BATCH.scm2cpp_batch_descend(
+        g.ctypes.data_as(_DP), 1, c.ctypes.data_as(_DP),
+        b.ctypes.data_as(_DP), lam.ctypes.data_as(_DP), 1.0, 1, 1, 1.0,
+        20, 20, 1e-8)
+
+
+class CovLasso:
+    """Lasso over a design given by its Gram matrix.
+
+    Either hand it the design and the target, in which case X'X and
+    X'y are formed here, or hand it a Gram matrix and correlations
+    somebody else built more cheaply.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    X : array (nobs, p), optional
+        The design matrix.
+    y : array (nobs,), optional
+        The target.
+    gram : array (p, p) or (p*p,), optional
+        X'X, if it is already known.
+    corr : array (p,), optional
+        X'y, likewise.
+    nobs : int, optional
+        Rows behind `gram`; required when passing one, since the
+        penalty is scaled by it as scikit-learn's alpha is.
+
+    The objective is the usual one, matching scikit-learn's `Lasso`
+    with `fit_intercept=False`:
+
+        (1 / 2 nobs) ||y - X b||^2 + lam ||b||_1
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, X=None, y=None, *, gram=None, corr=None, nobs=None):
+        if gram is not None:
+            if corr is None or nobs is None:
+                raise ValueError("gram needs corr and nobs alongside it")
+            g = np.ascontiguousarray(gram, dtype=np.float64).ravel()
+            c = np.ascontiguousarray(corr, dtype=np.float64)
+            p = c.size
+            if g.size != p * p:
+                raise ValueError(f"gram is {g.size} entries; expected {p*p}")
+            self.p, self.nobs, self.g, self.c0 = p, int(nobs), g, c
+        else:
+            if X is None or y is None:
+                raise ValueError("pass X and y, or gram, corr and nobs")
+            X = np.ascontiguousarray(X, dtype=np.float64)
+            y = np.ascontiguousarray(y, dtype=np.float64)
+            if X.ndim != 2 or y.ndim != 1 or X.shape[0] != y.size:
+                raise ValueError(
+                    f"X is {X.shape} and y is {y.shape}; expected (n, p) "
+                    "and (n,)")
+            self.nobs, self.p = X.shape
+            self.g = np.ascontiguousarray((X.T @ X).ravel())
+            self.c0 = np.ascontiguousarray(X.T @ y)
+            self.X, self.y = X, y
+
+
+    # ------------------------- choosing lambdas -------------------------
+
+    def lambda_max(self, l1_ratio=1.0):
+        """The smallest penalty that leaves every coefficient at zero.
+
+        Above it the solution is exactly zero, so a path that starts
+        here starts where the first coefficient is about to enter --
+        which is the only scale-free place to start, since the penalty
+        is compared against correlations on the features' own scale.
+        """
+        
+        return float(np.max(np.abs(self.c0))) / (self.nobs * l1_ratio)
+
+    def lambda_grid(self, num=100, eps=1e-3, l1_ratio=1.0):
+        """A log-spaced path from lambda_max down to eps * lambda_max.
+
+        The same construction scikit-learn uses, and the same default
+        ratio; give the result to fit_path, which expects descending
+        lambdas.
+        """
+        hi = self.lambda_max(l1_ratio)
+        return hi * np.logspace(0, np.log10(eps), int(num))
+
+    # ---------------------------- fitting ----------------------------
+
+    def fit(self, lam, **kw):
+        """Coefficients at one lambda.
+
+        A single penalty is the one-element special case of the path:
+        the Gram matrix was built in the constructor, so this costs one
+        descent and nothing per row -- and a warm-started path over a
+        whole grid costs barely more, which is why fit_path is the
+        primary interface rather than this convenience.
+        """
+        return self.fit_path([lam], **kw)[0]
+
+    def fit_path(self, lambdas, tol=1e-8, chunk=20, max_sweeps=100000,
+                 l1_ratio=1.0):
+        """Coefficients per lambda, each warm-started from the last.
+
+        Returns an array of shape (len(lambdas), p).  Give lambdas in
+        descending order: that is what makes the warm start pay.
+        """
+        lambdas = np.asarray(lambdas, dtype=np.float64)
+        beta, c = np.zeros(self.p), self.c0.copy()
+        prev = np.empty(self.p)
+        out = np.empty((lambdas.size, self.p))
+        for i, lam in enumerate(lambdas):
+            swept = 0
+            while swept < max_sweeps:
+                prev[:] = beta
+                kernel.enet_descend(self.g, c, beta,
+                                    float(lam) * l1_ratio,
+                                    float(lam) * (1.0 - l1_ratio), chunk,
+                                    float(self.nobs), self.p)
+                swept += chunk
+                if np.max(np.abs(beta - prev)) < tol * _scale(beta):
+                    break
+            out[i] = beta
+        return out
+
+
+    def bootstrap(self, lam, n_boot=200, l1_ratio=1.0, seed=None,
+                  force_cpu=False, **kw):
+        """Pairs-bootstrap coefficients at one lambda, (n_boot, p).
+
+        Each resample draws rows with replacement; its Gram matrix is
+        X' diag(m) X with the multiplicity counts m, formed as Xs' Xs
+        for Xs = diag(sqrt m) X so that numpy takes the symmetric
+        rank-k product (dsyrk, half the flops of a general product)
+        -- one BLAS call per resample -- and the descents run as one
+        batch: on the GPU one block of threads per resample over its
+        own Gram, since the problems are independent.  Needs the
+        design matrix, so it is unavailable when the model was built
+        from a Gram matrix alone.
+        """
+        if not hasattr(self, "X"):
+            raise ValueError("bootstrap needs X; construct from X and y")
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(seed)
+        B = int(n_boot)
+        grams = np.empty((B, self.p * self.p))
+        corrs = np.empty((B, self.p))
+        for b in range(B):
+            m = rng.multinomial(self.nobs,
+                                np.full(self.nobs, 1.0 / self.nobs))
+            Xs = self.X * np.sqrt(m)[:, None]
+            grams[b] = (Xs.T @ Xs).ravel()
+            corrs[b] = self.X.T @ (m * self.y)
+        lams = (np.ascontiguousarray(lam, dtype=np.float64)
+                if np.ndim(lam) else np.full(B, float(lam)))
+        if not force_cpu:
+            beta = _grid_descend(grams, corrs, lams, self.p, 0,
+                                 l1_ratio=l1_ratio, nobs=float(self.nobs),
+                                 **kw)
+            if beta is not None:
+                return beta
+        return _batch_descend_multi(grams, corrs, lams, self.nobs, self.p,
+                                    l1_ratio=l1_ratio, force_cpu=True,
+                                    kernel_fn=kernel.enet_descend, **kw)
+
+    def fit_path_batch(self, lambdas, tol=1e-8, chunk=20,
+                       max_sweeps=100000, force_cpu=False, l1_ratio=1.0):
+        """Coefficients per lambda, every lambda solved from zero.
+
+        Independent problems, so they go to the GPU together when one
+        is available: one launch, one block of threads per lambda, all
+        sharing this Gram matrix.  This is the shape of a
+        cross-validation grid, where warm starting across lambdas is
+        not on offer anyway.
+        """
+        lambdas = np.ascontiguousarray(lambdas, dtype=np.float64)
+        batch = lambdas.size
+        if not force_cpu:
+            beta = _grid_descend(self.g[None, :], self.c0[None, :], lambdas,
+                                 self.p, 0, tol=tol, chunk=chunk,
+                                 max_sweeps=max_sweeps, l1_ratio=l1_ratio,
+                                 nobs=float(self.nobs))
+            if beta is not None:
+                return beta
+            # a device that refused the work is not a reason to fail
+        beta = np.zeros((batch, self.p))
+        c = np.tile(self.c0, (batch, 1))
+        prev = np.empty(self.p)
+        for t in range(batch):
+            bt, ct, swept = beta[t], c[t], 0
+            while swept < max_sweeps:
+                prev[:] = bt
+                kernel.enet_descend(self.g, ct, bt,
+                                    float(lambdas[t]) * l1_ratio,
+                                    float(lambdas[t]) * (1.0 - l1_ratio), chunk,
+                                    float(self.nobs), self.p)
+                swept += chunk
+                if np.max(np.abs(bt - prev)) < tol * _scale(bt):
+                    break
+        return beta
+
+
+class DerivedLasso:
+    """Lasso from the design matrix, by the kernel the translator derived.
+
+    CovLasso above is the usable one: numpy forms the Gram matrix, a
+    hand-written sweep (lasso-cov.scm) runs over it, and cross-
+    validation, bootstrap and the GPU grid all feed that sweep their
+    own Gram matrices.  This class exists to show the translator's
+    work instead.  Its kernel is examples/kernel-only/lasso-design.scm
+    -- the residual-form coordinate descent, the algorithm inside
+    scikit-learn's Lasso(precompute=False), written as flat loops over
+    X as numpy holds it (n rows of p), the residual and the column
+    norms taken inside, no Gram matrix in sight -- translated with
+    --derive and --blas:
+    the translator raised the loops to the array algebra, replaced the
+    residual by the memo c = X'r kept current through a Gram matrix it
+    hoisted in front of the penalty path, folded the column norms into
+    that Gram's diagonal, folded the products into one dsyrk and two
+    dgemv calls, and put the result under (if (< p n) ..)
+    with the original sweep in the else branch -- scikit-learn's
+    precompute='auto' rule, derived.  Nothing in it is written at the Gram level by hand, and numpy
+    prepares nothing: X and y go in as they are.
+
+    Three variants of the same derivation can be built: 'cublas'
+    (--derive --cublas: the products on the device, X uploaded once per
+    fit_path call), 'blas' (--derive --blas, CBLAS) and 'loops'
+    (--derive alone: the Gram a scalar loop nest, much slower on large
+    designs).  backend=None takes the best one this machine built and
+    can run -- cublas only when a device answers -- and
+    derived_backend() says which that is; backend='blas' etc. insists.
+
+    The constructor only checks shapes and keeps X (C-contiguous, as
+    numpy makes it) and y; everything else happens inside fit_path.
+
+    Convergence is the kernel's: a sweep in which no coefficient moved
+    by more than tol (absolute) ends the fit at that lambda, max_sweeps
+    bounds it; tol=0.0 asks for the exact fixed point.  Same objective
+    as CovLasso.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, X, y, backend=None):
+        if backend is None:
+            backend = derived_backend()
+            if backend is None:
+                raise ImportError(
+                    "scm2cpp_learn: the derived kernel was not built; "
+                    "reinstall the package (pip install --force-reinstall "
+                    "scm2cpp-learn)")
+        elif backend not in _DERIVED:
+            raise ValueError(f"derived kernel backend {backend!r} is not built; "
+                             f"built: {sorted(_DERIVED)}")
+        self.backend = backend
+        self._kernel = _DERIVED[backend]
+        X = np.ascontiguousarray(X, dtype=np.float64)
+        y = np.ascontiguousarray(y, dtype=np.float64)
+        if X.ndim != 2 or y.ndim != 1 or X.shape[0] != y.size:
+            raise ValueError(
+                f"X is {X.shape} and y is {y.shape}; expected (n, p) and (n,)")
+        self.nobs, self.p = X.shape
+        self.X, self.y = X, y
+        self._c0 = None
+
+    @property
+    def c0(self):
+        # X'y, needed only to place the penalty grid
+        if self._c0 is None:
+            self._c0 = self.X.T @ self.y
+        return self._c0
+
+    def lambda_max(self):
+        return float(np.max(np.abs(self.c0))) / self.nobs
+
+    def lambda_grid(self, num=100, eps=1e-3):
+        hi = self.lambda_max()
+        return hi * np.logspace(0, np.log10(eps), int(num))
+
+    def fit(self, lam, **kw):
+        return self.fit_path([lam], **kw)[0]
+
+    def fit_path(self, lambdas, tol=1e-8, max_sweeps=100000):
+        """Coefficients per lambda, warm-started, shape (len(lambdas), p).
+
+        One call into the derived kernel: it takes the residual and
+        the column norms (folded into the Gram's diagonal when p < n),
+        builds the Gram matrix, walks the penalties, and leaves the
+        coefficient at each in a row of the result.  tol is the largest move of
+        one coefficient in a sweep below which that lambda is done.  The
+        kernel's value, the sweeps run over the whole path, is kept as
+        n_iter_.
+        """
+        lams = np.ascontiguousarray(lambdas, dtype=np.float64).ravel()
+        beta = np.zeros(self.p)
+        resid = np.empty(self.nobs)      # filled by the kernel from y
+        xnorm = np.empty(self.p)         # the column norms, taken inside
+        betas = np.zeros(lams.size * self.p)
+        self.n_iter_ = int(self._kernel.lasso_design(
+            self.X, self.y, resid, xnorm, beta, lams, betas, int(max_sweeps), float(tol),
+            self.nobs, self.p, lams.size))
+        return betas.reshape(lams.size, self.p)
+
+
+class DesignLasso(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """scikit-learn's ``Lasso`` interface over DerivedLasso: fit(X, y)
+    centres the data when ``fit_intercept`` and runs the derived kernel
+    at one penalty ``alpha``, same objective as GramLasso.  ``tol`` is
+    the kernel's (the largest absolute move of one coefficient in a
+    sweep), ``max_iter`` its sweep cap and ``backend`` DerivedLasso's.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, n_iter_ (the sweeps the
+    kernel ran), n_features_in_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, alpha=1.0, *, fit_intercept=True, tol=1e-8, max_iter=100000,
+                 backend=None):
+        self.alpha, self.fit_intercept, self.tol, self.max_iter = alpha, fit_intercept, tol, max_iter
+        self.backend = backend
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        Xc, yc, xm, ym = _centered(X, y, self.fit_intercept)
+        m = DerivedLasso(Xc, yc, backend=self.backend)
+        self.coef_ = m.fit(float(self.alpha), tol=float(self.tol), max_sweeps=int(self.max_iter))
+        self.n_iter_ = m.n_iter_
+        self.intercept_ = float(ym - xm @ self.coef_)
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+
+def derived_backend():
+    """The derived kernel variant DerivedLasso takes by default: 'cublas'
+    when built and a device answers, else 'blas', else 'loops'; None
+    when none was built."""
+    for v in ("cublas", "blas", "loops"):
+        if v in _DERIVED and (v != "cublas" or cuda_available()):
+            return v
+    return None
+
+
+def _batch_descend_multi(grams, corrs, lam, nobs, p, tol=1e-8, chunk=20,
+                         max_sweeps=100000, l1_ratio=1.0, force_cpu=False,
+                         kernel_fn=None):
+    """Descend a batch where every problem has its own Gram matrix.
+
+    grams is (B, p*p) and corrs (B, p); one thread per problem on the
+    GPU when it is there (the kernel before 0.7.0, kept for the
+    comparison in bench/cv-grid-designs.py), the same chunked-tolerance
+    loop on the CPU when it is not -- which is what the bootstrap
+    falls back to.
+    """
+    B = corrs.shape[0]
+    import ctypes
+    beta = np.zeros((B, p))
+    c = np.ascontiguousarray(corrs.copy())
+    g = np.ascontiguousarray(grams)
+    # lam may be one penalty for every thread or one per thread; the
+    # kernel always reads a per-thread array
+    lams = (np.ascontiguousarray(lam, dtype=np.float64)
+            if np.ndim(lam) else np.full(B, float(lam)))
+    if _BATCH is not None and not force_cpu:
+        dp = ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_double)
+        rc = _BATCH.scm2cpp_batch_descend(
+            g.ctypes.data_as(dp), int(B), c.ctypes.data_as(dp),
+            beta.ctypes.data_as(dp), lams.ctypes.data_as(dp),
+            float(l1_ratio), int(B), int(p), float(nobs),
+            int(max_sweeps), int(chunk), float(tol))
+        if rc == 0:
+            return beta
+    prev = np.empty(p)
+    for b in range(B):
+        gb, cb, bb = g[b], c[b], beta[b]
+        lam_b = float(lams[b])
+        swept = 0
+        while swept < max_sweeps:
+            prev[:] = bb
+            kernel_fn(gb, cb, bb, lam_b * l1_ratio,
+                      lam_b * (1.0 - l1_ratio), chunk,
+                      float(nobs), p)
+            swept += chunk
+            if np.max(np.abs(bb - prev)) < tol * max(
+                    1.0, float(np.max(np.abs(bb)))):
+                break
+    return beta
+
+
+def _grid_descend(grams, corrs, lams, p, ntask, tol=1e-8, chunk=20,
+                  max_sweeps=100000, l1_ratio=1.0, nobs=1.0):
+    """A batch of cold descents on the GPU, one block per problem.
+
+    grams is (n_grams, p*p), corrs (n_grams, width) with width p or
+    p*ntask, and lams the penalties of the batch in Gram-major order:
+    problem i uses Gram i // (batch // n_grams).  Every problem starts
+    from zero and nothing is replicated: a cross-validation grid of cv
+    folds by num penalties moves cv Gram matrices, a fit_path_batch
+    one, a bootstrap one per resample.  Returns (batch, width), or
+    None when the GPU path is not there or declined the shape, in
+    which case the caller runs its CPU path.
+    """
+    fn = getattr(_BATCH, "scm2cpp_cv_descend", None) if _BATCH else None
+    if fn is None:
+        return None
+    n_grams, batch = corrs.shape[0], lams.size
+    if batch % n_grams:
+        return None
+    width = p * (ntask if ntask > 0 else 1)
+    g = np.ascontiguousarray(grams, dtype=np.float64)
+    c = np.ascontiguousarray(np.repeat(corrs, batch // n_grams, axis=0),
+                             dtype=np.float64)
+    w = np.zeros((batch, width))
+    lams = np.ascontiguousarray(lams, dtype=np.float64)
+    rc = fn(g.ctypes.data_as(_DP), int(n_grams), c.ctypes.data_as(_DP),
+            w.ctypes.data_as(_DP), lams.ctypes.data_as(_DP),
+            float(l1_ratio), int(batch), int(p), int(ntask), float(nobs),
+            int(max_sweeps), int(chunk), float(tol), 1, 1)
+    return w if rc == 0 else None
+
+
+class CovLassoCV(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """Cross-validated lasso, scikit-learn's LassoCV semantics.
+
+    The lambda grid comes from the full data (lambda_max down, the
+    sklearn construction), the folds are contiguous splits in order
+    (sklearn's KFold default), and validation error is one matrix
+    product per fold.  alpha_ minimises the mean validation MSE, ties
+    going to the larger penalty as in scikit-learn, and coef_ is the
+    refit on all rows at alpha_.
+
+    With a GPU the whole grid -- cv folds by num penalties, each from
+    zero -- is one launch with one block of threads per problem, the
+    fold's Gram matrix shared by its problems; on the CPU each fold's
+    path is walked warm.  force_cpu picks the CPU path; force_gpu is
+    accepted for compatibility (the GPU is now taken whenever it is
+    there and force_cpu is not set).
+
+    Attributes after fit: alphas_, mse_path_ (num, cv), alpha_, coef_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, cv=5, num=100, eps=1e-3, tol=1e-8, l1_ratio=1.0,
+                 force_cpu=False, force_gpu=False, n_jobs=1):
+        # Folds are independent, the descent is a ctypes call and the
+        # products are BLAS calls, both of which release the GIL, so
+        # plain threads scale the CPU path across folds. Default 1:
+        # sequential, like scikit-learn's n_jobs=None.
+        self.cv, self.num, self.eps, self.tol = cv, num, eps, tol
+        self.l1_ratio, self.force_cpu, self.force_gpu = l1_ratio, force_cpu, force_gpu
+        self.n_jobs = n_jobs
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        n = len(y)
+        cv, num = int(self.cv), int(self.num)
+        tol, l1_ratio = float(self.tol), float(self.l1_ratio)
+        full = CovLasso(X, y)
+        self.alphas_ = full.lambda_grid(num=num, eps=float(self.eps),
+                                        l1_ratio=l1_ratio)
+        # contiguous folds in row order, sizes as even as they come --
+        # sklearn's KFold(shuffle=False)
+        bounds = np.linspace(0, n, cv + 1).astype(int)
+        self.mse_path_ = np.empty((num, cv))
+        G = full.g.reshape(full.p, full.p)
+        if cuda_available() and not self.force_cpu:
+            done = self._fit_gpu(X, y, full, G, bounds, n)
+            if done is not None:
+                return done
+
+        def one_fold(k):
+            lo, hi = bounds[k], bounds[k + 1]
+            Xf, yf = X[lo:hi], y[lo:hi]
+            # The Gram is additive over rows, so a fold's training Gram
+            # is a subtraction: G_full - Xf'Xf costs O(n_fold p^2) where
+            # rebuilding from the complement costs O((n - n_fold) p^2).
+            # Over five folds that is the whole Gram work twice instead
+            # of four times, and the Gram is the dominant O(n p^2) step.
+            m = CovLasso(gram=(G - Xf.T @ Xf).ravel(),
+                         corr=full.c0 - Xf.T @ yf,
+                         nobs=n - (hi - lo))
+            # The warm-started path: after the Gram, each lambda resumes
+            # where the previous stopped and costs O(p) per moving
+            # coordinate. That warm path is what makes searching the
+            # alpha grid cheap -- the grid costs barely more than its
+            # hardest single alpha.
+            path = m.fit_path(self.alphas_, tol=tol, l1_ratio=l1_ratio)
+            resid = Xf @ path.T - yf[:, None]
+            self.mse_path_[:, k] = np.mean(resid * resid, axis=0)
+
+        if int(self.n_jobs) > 1:
+            from concurrent.futures import ThreadPoolExecutor
+            with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=int(self.n_jobs)) as ex:
+                list(ex.map(one_fold, range(cv)))
+        else:
+            for k in range(cv):
+                one_fold(k)
+        return self._finish(full)
+
+    def _fit_gpu(self, X, y, full, G, bounds, n):
+        # Every fold and every alpha is an independent problem, so all of
+        # them go to the device as one batch, one block per problem,
+        # the problems of a fold sharing its Gram on the device.  Fold
+        # sizes may differ by a row; the kernel only ever uses lam
+        # through the product lam * nobs, so each problem's nobs is
+        # absorbed into its lambda and nobs is passed as 1 -- exact,
+        # not approximate.  Returns None when the device declined, and
+        # the CPU path takes over.
+        p_ = full.p
+        num, cv = int(self.num), int(self.cv)
+        grams = np.empty((cv, p_ * p_))
+        corrs = np.empty((cv, p_))
+        nobs_k = np.empty(cv)
+        for k in range(cv):
+            lo, hi = bounds[k], bounds[k + 1]
+            Xf, yf = X[lo:hi], y[lo:hi]
+            grams[k] = (G - Xf.T @ Xf).ravel()
+            corrs[k] = full.c0 - Xf.T @ yf
+            nobs_k[k] = n - (hi - lo)
+        lams = (np.tile(self.alphas_, cv) * np.repeat(nobs_k, num))
+        betas = _grid_descend(grams, corrs, lams, p_, 0, tol=float(self.tol),
+                              l1_ratio=float(self.l1_ratio))
+        if betas is None:
+            return None
+        betas = betas.reshape(cv, num, p_)
+        for k in range(cv):
+            lo, hi = bounds[k], bounds[k + 1]
+            resid = X[lo:hi] @ betas[k].T - y[lo:hi, None]
+            self.mse_path_[:, k] = np.mean(resid * resid, axis=0)
+        return self._finish(full)
+
+    def _finish(self, full):
+        mean = self.mse_path_.mean(axis=1)
+        # alphas_ descends, so argmin's first hit is the larger penalty
+        self.alpha_ = float(self.alphas_[int(np.argmin(mean))])
+        self.coef_ = full.fit(self.alpha_, tol=float(self.tol),
+                              l1_ratio=float(self.l1_ratio))
+        self.intercept_ = 0.0 if self.coef_.ndim == 1 else np.zeros(self.coef_.shape[1])
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_
+
+
+class CovRidge:
+    """Ridge regression over a design given by its Gram matrix.
+
+    The objective matches scikit-learn's ``Ridge`` with
+    ``fit_intercept=False``:
+
+        ||y - X b||^2 + alpha ||b||^2
+
+    (note: unlike the lasso objective, scikit-learn does not scale this
+    one by the number of rows), so the solution is
+    ``b = (X'X + alpha I)^{-1} X'y``.
+
+    The design matrix enters only through X'X and X'y, so the
+    constructor takes either the design or a Gram matrix somebody built
+    more cheaply.  One symmetric eigendecomposition is done on first
+    use, O(p^3); every alpha after that costs O(p^2), which is what
+    makes a whole path cheap.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, X=None, y=None, *, gram=None, corr=None):
+        if gram is not None:
+            if corr is None:
+                raise ValueError("gram needs corr alongside it")
+            g = np.ascontiguousarray(gram, dtype=np.float64).ravel()
+            c = np.ascontiguousarray(corr, dtype=np.float64)
+            p = c.size
+            if g.size != p * p:
+                raise ValueError(f"gram is {g.size} entries; expected {p*p}")
+            self.p, self.g, self.c0 = p, g, c
+        else:
+            if X is None or y is None:
+                raise ValueError("pass X and y, or gram and corr")
+            X = np.ascontiguousarray(X, dtype=np.float64)
+            y = np.ascontiguousarray(y, dtype=np.float64)
+            if X.ndim != 2 or y.ndim != 1 or X.shape[0] != y.size:
+                raise ValueError(
+                    f"X is {X.shape} and y is {y.shape}; expected (n, p) "
+                    "and (n,)")
+            self.p = X.shape[1]
+            self.g = np.ascontiguousarray(_gram(X).ravel())
+            self.c0 = np.ascontiguousarray(_gram_xy(X, y))
+        self._eig = None
+
+    def _eigen(self):
+        if self._eig is None:
+            w, Q = np.linalg.eigh(self.g.reshape(self.p, self.p))
+            self._eig = (w, Q, Q.T @ self.c0)
+        return self._eig
+
+    def alpha_grid(self, num=100, eps=1e-6):
+        """A log-spaced path from the top eigenvalue of X'X downward.
+
+        At ``alpha`` around the largest eigenvalue the fit is heavily
+        shrunk; by ``eps`` times it the fit is essentially least
+        squares.  Descending, like the lasso grids.
+        """
+        w, _, _ = self._eigen()
+        hi = float(w.max())
+        return hi * np.logspace(0, np.log10(eps), int(num))
+
+    def fit(self, alpha):
+        """Coefficients at one alpha: one solve of X'X + alpha I while no
+        path has needed the eigendecomposition (at p = 200 a few
+        milliseconds against eigh's tenth of a second), through it after."""
+        if self._eig is None and float(alpha) > 0.0:
+            b = _ridge_solve(self.g.reshape(self.p, self.p), self.c0, float(alpha))
+            if b is not None:
+                return b
+        w, Q, qc = self._eigen()
+        return Q @ (qc / (w + float(alpha)))
+
+    def fit_path(self, alphas):
+        """Coefficients per alpha, shape (len(alphas), p).
+
+        After the one eigendecomposition this is a single dense
+        product, so thousands of alphas cost what one does.
+        """
+        w, Q, qc = self._eigen()
+        alphas = np.asarray(alphas, dtype=np.float64)
+        return (Q @ (qc[:, None] / (w[:, None] + alphas[None, :]))).T
+
+
+def _centered(X, y, fit_intercept):
+    # the data the intercept-free solvers see: centred when an intercept
+    # is fitted (scikit-learn's _preprocess_data), as they are otherwise
+    if not fit_intercept:
+        return X, y, np.zeros(X.shape[1]), np.zeros(y.shape[1:]) if y.ndim > 1 else 0.0
+    xm, ym = X.mean(axis=0), y.mean(axis=0)
+    return np.ascontiguousarray(X - xm), y - ym, xm, ym
+
+
+def _centered_gram(X, y, fit_intercept):
+    """(Xc'Xc, Xc'yc, xm, ym) for the centred data Xc, yc, without
+    forming Xc: X'X - n xm xm' and X'y - n xm ym, which saves the copy
+    of X (as long as the Gram product itself on 20000 x 200 rows, where
+    it took the intercept from free to twice the fit).  The correction
+    cancels digits when a column's mean is large against its spread,
+    about (mean / sd)^2 ulps, so a column with mean over 100 sd (or no
+    spread at all) sends the whole fit through the centred copy."""
+    n = X.shape[0]
+    G, c = _gram(X), _gram_xy(X, y)
+    if not fit_intercept:
+        return G, c, np.zeros(X.shape[1]), np.zeros(y.shape[1:]) if y.ndim > 1 else 0.0
+    xm, ym = X.mean(axis=0), y.mean(axis=0)
+    nm2 = n * xm * xm
+    if np.all(np.diagonal(G) - nm2 > 1e-4 * nm2):
+        G -= np.outer(xm, n * xm)
+        c -= np.multiply.outer(n * xm, ym)
+        return G, c, xm, ym
+    Xc, yc = np.ascontiguousarray(X - xm), y - ym
+    return Xc.T @ Xc, Xc.T @ yc, xm, ym
+
+
+class GramElasticNet(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """scikit-learn's ``ElasticNet(precompute=True)`` interface over
+    CovLasso: fit(X, y) centres the data when ``fit_intercept``, forms
+    the Gram matrix once and runs the covariance sweep at ``alpha``,
+
+        (1 / 2 n) ||y - X b - b0||^2 + alpha l1_ratio ||b||_1
+                  + (alpha / 2)(1 - l1_ratio) ||b||^2.
+
+    ``tol`` is CovLasso's (the largest coefficient move in a sweep,
+    relative to the coefficients' size) and ``max_iter`` its sweep cap.
+    For a whole path or a grid, CovLasso itself (fit_path,
+    fit_path_batch) is the faster interface.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, n_features_in_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, alpha=1.0, *, l1_ratio=0.5, fit_intercept=True, tol=1e-8,
+                 max_iter=100000):
+        self.alpha, self.l1_ratio, self.fit_intercept = alpha, l1_ratio, fit_intercept
+        self.tol, self.max_iter = tol, max_iter
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        G, c, xm, ym = _centered_gram(X, y, self.fit_intercept)
+        g = np.ascontiguousarray(G.ravel())
+        c = np.ascontiguousarray(c)
+        lam, r = float(self.alpha), float(self.l1_ratio)
+        tol, cap = float(self.tol), int(self.max_iter)
+        beta, prev = np.zeros(p), np.empty(p)
+        swept = 0
+        # CovLasso.fit_path's loop at one lambda, counting the sweeps
+        while swept < cap:
+            chunk = min(20, cap - swept)
+            prev[:] = beta
+            kernel.enet_descend(g, c, beta, lam * r, lam * (1.0 - r), chunk, float(n), p)
+            swept += chunk
+            if np.max(np.abs(beta - prev)) < tol * _scale(beta):
+                break
+        self.coef_, self.n_iter_ = beta, swept
+        self.intercept_ = float(ym - xm @ self.coef_)
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+
+class GramLasso(GramElasticNet):
+    """scikit-learn's ``Lasso(precompute=True)`` interface over CovLasso:
+    GramElasticNet with l1_ratio 1.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, n_features_in_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, alpha=1.0, *, fit_intercept=True, tol=1e-8, max_iter=100000):
+        self.alpha, self.fit_intercept, self.tol, self.max_iter = alpha, fit_intercept, tol, max_iter
+
+    @property
+    def l1_ratio(self):
+        return 1.0
+
+
+class GramRidge(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """scikit-learn's ``Ridge`` interface over the Gram matrix:
+    (X'X + alpha I) b = X'y on the centred data by one Cholesky solve
+    (least squares when alpha is 0 and X'X singular), y one target or
+    several (coef_ then (n_targets, p), as Ridge has it).  For many
+    alphas, CovRidge's fit_path is the faster interface.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, n_features_in_.
+    """
+    _multi_output = True
+
+    def __init__(self, alpha=1.0, *, fit_intercept=True):
+        self.alpha, self.fit_intercept = alpha, fit_intercept
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y, multi_output=True)
+        p = X.shape[1]
+        A, b, xm, ym = _centered_gram(X, y, self.fit_intercept)
+        coef = _ridge_solve(A, b, float(self.alpha))
+        if coef is None:
+            A.flat[::p + 1] += float(self.alpha)
+            try:
+                coef = np.linalg.solve(A, b)
+            except np.linalg.LinAlgError:
+                coef = np.linalg.lstsq(A, b, rcond=None)[0]
+        self.coef_ = coef.T if coef.ndim > 1 else coef
+        self.intercept_ = ym - xm @ coef
+        if np.ndim(self.intercept_) == 0:
+            self.intercept_ = float(self.intercept_)
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_.T + self.intercept_
+
+
+class GramRidgeCV(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """scikit-learn's ``RidgeCV`` with ``cv=None``: the alpha whose
+    leave-one-out mean squared error is least, every alpha from one
+    eigenproblem (``examples/kernel-only/ridge-gcv.scm``).  With the hat
+    matrix H = Z diag(1 / (lam + alpha)) Z' (plus 1/n with an
+    intercept), the leave-one-out residual is (y - yhat) / (1 - diag H),
+    and diag H and yhat at every alpha are two products.  Z comes from
+    the eigenvectors of Xc'Xc (``gcv_mode="svd"``, the default when
+    n > p, X'X by dsyrk) or of Xc Xc' (``"eigen"``, the default
+    otherwise); the eigenproblem is LAPACK's dsyevd where the BLAS
+    build is here.  Only ``cv=None`` and ``scoring=None`` are taken.
+
+    Attributes after fit: alpha_, best_score_ (minus the mean squared
+    leave-one-out error), coef_, intercept_, cv_results_ (with
+    ``store_cv_results``: the squared errors, (n, n_alphas) or
+    (n, n_targets, n_alphas)), n_features_in_.
+    """
+    _multi_output = True
+
+    def __init__(self, alphas=(0.1, 1.0, 10.0), *, fit_intercept=True, scoring=None,
+                 cv=None, gcv_mode=None, store_cv_results=False, alpha_per_target=False):
+        self.alphas, self.fit_intercept, self.scoring, self.cv = alphas, fit_intercept, scoring, cv
+        self.gcv_mode, self.store_cv_results = gcv_mode, store_cv_results
+        self.alpha_per_target = alpha_per_target
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        if self.cv is not None or self.scoring is not None:
+            raise ValueError("GramRidgeCV takes cv=None and scoring=None only "
+                             "(leave-one-out by GCV, mean squared error)")
+        if self.gcv_mode not in (None, "auto", "svd", "eigen"):
+            raise ValueError(f"gcv_mode={self.gcv_mode!r}: expected None, 'auto', 'svd' or 'eigen'")
+        alphas = np.ascontiguousarray(np.atleast_1d(np.asarray(self.alphas, dtype=np.float64)))
+        if alphas.ndim != 1 or alphas.size == 0 or not np.all(alphas > 0.0):
+            raise ValueError(f"alphas={self.alphas!r}: expected positive values")
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y, multi_output=True)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        Y = y.reshape(n, -1)
+        t = Y.shape[1]
+        k = _gramops_kernels()
+        if self.fit_intercept:
+            xm, ym = X.mean(axis=0), Y.mean(axis=0)
+        else:
+            xm, ym = np.zeros(p), np.zeros(t)
+        yc = np.ascontiguousarray(Y - ym)
+        mode = self.gcv_mode if self.gcv_mode in ("svd", "eigen") else ("svd" if n > p else "eigen")
+        if mode == "svd":
+            G = _gram(X)
+            Xs, xs = X, xm
+            nm2 = n * xm * xm
+            if self.fit_intercept and not np.all(np.diagonal(G) - nm2 > 1e-4 * nm2):
+                # a column whose mean dwarfs its spread: the correction
+                # X'X - n xm xm' would cancel its digits (_centered_gram)
+                Xs, xs = np.ascontiguousarray(X - xm), np.zeros(p)
+                G = _gram(Xs)
+            else:
+                G -= np.outer(xm, n * xm)
+            m = p
+            V, lam, Z, R = np.zeros((p, p)), np.zeros(p), np.zeros((n, p)), np.zeros((p, t))
+            k.ridge_gcv_primal(Xs, xs, yc, np.ascontiguousarray(G), V, lam, Z, R, n, p, t)
+        else:
+            Xc = np.ascontiguousarray(X - xm)
+            K = _gram(np.ascontiguousarray(Xc.T))
+            m = n
+            V, lam, Z, R = np.zeros((n, n)), np.zeros(n), np.zeros((n, n)), np.zeros((n, t))
+            k.ridge_gcv_dual(K, V, lam, yc, Z, R, n, t)
+        na = alphas.size
+        mse = np.zeros((na, t))
+        loo = np.zeros((n, t, na)) if self.store_cv_results else np.zeros(1)
+        k.ridge_gcv_scan(Z, lam, R, yc, alphas, 1.0 / n if self.fit_intercept else 0.0,
+                         mse, loo, int(bool(self.store_cv_results)), n, m, t, na)
+        if self.alpha_per_target and t > 1:
+            best = np.argmin(mse, axis=0)
+            al = alphas[best]
+            self.alpha_ = al
+            self.best_score_ = -mse[best, np.arange(t)]
+        else:
+            best = int(np.argmin(mse.mean(axis=1)))
+            al = np.full(t, alphas[best])
+            self.alpha_ = float(alphas[best])
+            self.best_score_ = float(-mse[best].mean())
+        if mode == "svd":
+            coef = V @ (R / (lam[:, None] + al[None, :]))
+        else:
+            # (Xc Xc' + alpha I)^-1 yc by the eigenvectors, then Xc' of it
+            qy = V.T @ yc
+            coef = Xc.T @ (V @ (qy / (lam[:, None] + al[None, :])))
+        if y.ndim == 1:
+            self.coef_ = coef[:, 0]
+            self.intercept_ = float(ym[0] - xm @ coef[:, 0])
+            if self.alpha_per_target:
+                self.alpha_ = float(np.ravel(self.alpha_)[0])
+                self.best_score_ = float(np.ravel(self.best_score_)[0])
+        else:
+            self.coef_ = coef.T
+            self.intercept_ = ym - xm @ coef
+        if self.store_cv_results:
+            self.cv_results_ = loo[:, 0, :] if y.ndim == 1 else loo
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_.T + self.intercept_
+
+
+class CovBayesianRidge(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """Bayesian ridge regression, scikit-learn's ``BayesianRidge``,
+    with the linear algebra in the eigenbasis of the Gram matrix.
+
+    The model, the defaults (``max_iter=300``, ``tol=1e-3``, the four
+    gamma hyperpriors at 1e-6, ``alpha`` starting at ``1/var(y)``,
+    ``lambda`` at 1) and the iteration are scikit-learn's: MacKay's
+    updates of the noise precision ``alpha`` and the weight precision
+    ``lambda``, the posterior mean recomputed after each, a stop when
+    the mean moves by less than ``tol`` in L1.  What differs is where
+    the work goes.  scikit-learn takes the SVD of X once and then, per
+    iteration, multiplies by X again for the squared error, O(n p).
+    Here, for n > p, X enters once, through X'X and X'y: one symmetric
+    eigendecomposition, after which the posterior mean, its squared
+    norm and the squared error are sums over the p eigenvalues, O(p) per
+    iteration.  For n <= p the same is done with the n x n kernel
+    matrix X X'.  With ``fit_intercept`` the data are centred, as in
+    scikit-learn, and the Gram is centred in place.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, alpha_, lambda_, sigma_
+    (the posterior covariance of the weights, p x p), n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, *, max_iter=300, tol=1e-3, alpha_1=1e-6,
+                 alpha_2=1e-6, lambda_1=1e-6, lambda_2=1e-6,
+                 alpha_init=None, lambda_init=None, fit_intercept=True):
+        self.max_iter, self.tol = max_iter, tol
+        self.alpha_1, self.alpha_2 = alpha_1, alpha_2
+        self.lambda_1, self.lambda_2 = lambda_1, lambda_2
+        self.alpha_init, self.lambda_init = alpha_init, lambda_init
+        self.fit_intercept = fit_intercept
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        max_iter, tol = int(self.max_iter), float(self.tol)
+        a1, a2 = float(self.alpha_1), float(self.alpha_2)
+        l1, l2 = float(self.lambda_1), float(self.lambda_2)
+        y_var = float(y.var())
+        if self.fit_intercept:
+            xm, ym = X.mean(axis=0), float(y.mean())
+        else:
+            xm, ym = np.zeros(p), 0.0
+        tall = n > p
+        if tall:
+            # X'X and X'y of the centred data, without centring X
+            G = X.T @ X
+            c = X.T @ y
+            if self.fit_intercept:
+                G -= n * np.outer(xm, xm)
+                c -= n * ym * xm
+            e, V = np.linalg.eigh(G)
+            z = V.T @ c
+            yy = float(y @ y) - n * ym * ym
+        else:
+            Xc = X - xm if self.fit_intercept else X
+            yc = y - ym
+            e, U = np.linalg.eigh(Xc @ Xc.T)
+            u = U.T @ yc
+        e = np.maximum(e, 0.0)
+
+        def mean_stats(alpha, lam):
+            # the posterior mean at (alpha, lam), its squared norm, and
+            # the squared error, without touching X when n > p
+            r = lam / alpha
+            if tall:
+                w = z / (e + r)
+                coef = V @ w
+                sse = yy - 2.0 * float(w @ z) + float((e * w) @ w)
+                return coef, float(w @ w), max(sse, 0.0)
+            d = u / (e + r)
+            coef = Xc.T @ (U @ d)
+            resid = yc - Xc @ coef
+            return coef, float((e * d) @ d), float(resid @ resid)
+
+        eps = np.finfo(np.float64).eps
+        alpha = 1.0 / (y_var + eps) if self.alpha_init is None else float(self.alpha_init)
+        lam = 1.0 if self.lambda_init is None else float(self.lambda_init)
+        old = None
+        for it in range(max_iter):
+            coef, cc, sse = mean_stats(alpha, lam)
+            gamma = float(np.sum(alpha * e / (lam + alpha * e)))
+            lam = (gamma + 2 * l1) / (cc + 2 * l2)
+            alpha = (n - gamma + 2 * a1) / (sse + 2 * a2)
+            if it != 0 and float(np.sum(np.abs(old - coef))) < tol:
+                break
+            old = coef
+        self.n_iter_ = it + 1
+        self.alpha_, self.lambda_ = alpha, lam
+        self.coef_, _, _ = mean_stats(alpha, lam)
+        self.intercept_ = ym - float(xm @ self.coef_) if self.fit_intercept else 0.0
+        self.X_offset_ = xm
+        # the posterior covariance (lambda I + alpha X'X)^-1
+        if tall:
+            self.sigma_ = (V / (alpha * e + lam)) @ V.T
+        else:
+            # Woodbury through the kernel side: (1/lam)(I - X'U D U'X),
+            # D = alpha / (lam + alpha e)
+            B = Xc.T @ U
+            self.sigma_ = (np.eye(p) - (B * (alpha / (lam + alpha * e))) @ B.T) / lam
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X, return_std=False):
+        X = pred_x(self, X)
+        mean = X @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+        if not return_std:
+            return mean
+        Xc = X - self.X_offset_
+        var = np.einsum("ij,jk,ik->i", Xc, self.sigma_, Xc) + 1.0 / self.alpha_
+        return mean, np.sqrt(var)
+
+def _classifier_kernels():
+    # imported on first use: the classifiers are their own library
+    from ._generated import _loader_classifiers
+    return _loader_classifiers
+
+
+def _binary_labels(y):
+    """Two classes as (classes_, y in {-1, +1}), classes_[1] the +1."""
+    y = np.asarray(y)
+    classes = np.unique(y)
+    if classes.size == 1:
+        raise ValueError("expected two classes, got 1 class")
+    if classes.size != 2:
+        raise ValueError("Only binary classification is supported. The type of the target "
+                         f"is multiclass ({classes.size} classes).")
+    return classes, np.where(y == classes[1], 1.0, -1.0)
+
+
+def _seed(random_state):
+    # the solvers' Park-Miller generator wants a seed in [1, 2^31 - 2]
+    return int(random_state) % 2147483646 + 1
+
+
+class LinearSVM(Tagged, ClassifierMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """The L1-loss (hinge) linear SVM by liblinear's own algorithm.
+
+    ``examples/kernel-only/svm-liblinear.scm`` translated plainly:
+    liblinear's solve_l2r_l1l2_svc, dual coordinate descent with a
+    random order in every sweep, shrinking, and the projected-gradient
+    stop -- what scikit-learn's ``LinearSVC(loss="hinge", dual=True,
+    fit_intercept=False)`` runs, on the same problem
+
+        min_w  1/2 ||w||^2 + C sum_i max(0, 1 - y_i w.x_i).
+
+    No intercept (as ``fit_intercept=False``); two classes, the second
+    of ``classes_`` being the positive one.  ``tol`` and ``max_iter``
+    are LinearSVC's (the projected-gradient span and the sweep cap).
+
+    Attributes after fit: classes_, coef_, dual_coef_ (the alphas),
+    n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    _binary_only = True
+
+    def __init__(self, C=1.0, tol=1e-4, max_iter=1000, random_state=0):
+        self.C, self.tol, self.max_iter = C, tol, max_iter
+        self.random_state = random_state
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y, classifier=True)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        self.classes_, ys = _binary_labels(y)
+        w = np.zeros(p)
+        alpha = np.zeros(n)
+        xnorm = np.zeros(n)
+        self.n_iter_ = _classifier_kernels().svm_liblinear(
+            X, ys, w, alpha, xnorm, float(self.C), int(self.max_iter), float(self.tol),
+            _seed(self.random_state), n, p)
+        self.coef_, self.dual_coef_ = w, alpha
+        return self
+
+    def decision_function(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        z = self.decision_function(X)
+        return self.classes_[(z > 0).astype(int)]
+
+
+class _KernelMatrix:
+    # the kernel matrix of KernelSVM and KernelSVR, as SVC and SVR take
+    # it: rbf (gamma "scale", "auto" or a number), linear, or precomputed
+    def _k(self, A, B):
+        if self.kernel == "linear":
+            return A @ B.T
+        if self.kernel == "rbf":
+            if A.shape[0] * B.shape[0] < 200_000:
+                # numpy's vectorised exp, while the matrix sits in cache:
+                # 0.14 ms to the loop's 0.31 at 200 x 200
+                sa = (A * A).sum(1)[:, None]
+                sb = (B * B).sum(1)[None, :]
+                return np.exp(-self._gamma * np.maximum(sa + sb - 2.0 * (A @ B.T), 0.0))
+            # the product by BLAS, the rest in place by svm-smo.scm's
+            # rbf-from-products (on every thread of an OpenMP build;
+            # 76 ms to numpy's 96 at 3,000 on one core, 50 to 105 on 20)
+            G = np.ascontiguousarray(A @ B.T)
+            _classifier_kernels().rbf_from_products(
+                G, (A * A).sum(1), (B * B).sum(1), float(self._gamma), A.shape[0], B.shape[0])
+            return G
+        raise ValueError(f"kernel {self.kernel!r}: expected rbf, linear or precomputed")
+
+    def _train_kernel(self, X):
+        if self.kernel == "precomputed":
+            return X
+        p = X.shape[1]
+        if self.gamma == "scale":
+            v = float(X.var())
+            self._gamma = 1.0 / (p * v) if v > 0 else 1.0
+        elif self.gamma == "auto":
+            self._gamma = 1.0 / p
+        else:
+            self._gamma = float(self.gamma)
+        return self._k(X, X)
+
+    def _support_kernel(self, X):
+        X = pred_x(self, X)
+        if self.kernel == "precomputed":
+            return X[:, self.support_]
+        return self._k(X, self.support_vectors_)
+
+
+class KernelSVM(Tagged, ClassifierMixin, _KernelMatrix, BaseEstimator):
+    """C-SVC by libsvm's own algorithm, over the whole kernel matrix.
+
+    ``examples/kernel-only/svm-smo.scm`` translated plainly: libsvm's
+    Solver::Solve -- SMO with the second-order working-set selection
+    (WSS3), shrinking with gradient reconstruction, and the bias -- the
+    solver scikit-learn's ``SVC`` runs, on the same problem (with the
+    intercept).  The kernel matrix is built once in numpy and held
+    whole, n x n doubles (800 MB at n = 10,000): libsvm with every row
+    in its cache.  ``kernel`` is "rbf" (``gamma`` "scale", "auto" or a
+    number, as in SVC), "linear", or "precomputed" (X is then the
+    kernel matrix, and decision_function takes the kernel between new
+    points and the training points).
+
+    Attributes after fit: classes_, support_, dual_coef_ (alpha_i y_i
+    over the support), intercept_, n_iter_; support_vectors_ unless
+    precomputed.
+    """
+
+    _binary_only = True
+    _pairwise = True
+
+    def __init__(self, C=1.0, kernel="rbf", gamma="scale", tol=1e-3, max_iter=-1):
+        self.C, self.kernel, self.gamma = C, kernel, gamma
+        self.tol, self.max_iter = tol, max_iter
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y, classifier=True)
+        self.classes_, ys = _binary_labels(y)
+        n = ys.size
+        K = self._train_kernel(X)
+        alpha = np.zeros(n)
+        rho = np.zeros(1)
+        iters = int(self.max_iter) if self.max_iter > 0 else 10_000_000
+        self.n_iter_ = _classifier_kernels().svm_smo(
+            np.ascontiguousarray(K), ys, alpha, rho, float(self.C), iters, float(self.tol), n)
+        self.support_ = np.flatnonzero(alpha > 0)
+        self.dual_coef_ = (alpha * ys)[self.support_]
+        self.intercept_ = -float(rho[0])
+        if self.kernel != "precomputed":
+            self.support_vectors_ = X[self.support_]
+        return self
+
+    def decision_function(self, X):
+        return self._support_kernel(X) @ self.dual_coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        z = self.decision_function(X)
+        return self.classes_[(z > 0).astype(int)]
+
+
+class LinearSVR(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """The linear epsilon-SVR with the L1 loss, by liblinear's own algorithm.
+
+    ``examples/kernel-only/svr-liblinear.scm`` translated plainly:
+    liblinear's solve_l2r_l1l2_svr (dual coordinate descent, random
+    order, shrinking) -- what scikit-learn's
+    ``LinearSVR(loss="epsilon_insensitive", dual=True,
+    fit_intercept=False)`` runs, on the same problem
+
+        min_w  1/2 ||w||^2 + C sum_i max(0, |y_i - w.x_i| - epsilon).
+
+    ``epsilon`` defaults to 0, ``tol`` to 1e-4 and ``max_iter`` to 1000
+    sweeps, as in LinearSVR; no intercept.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, dual_coef_ (the betas), n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, C=1.0, epsilon=0.0, tol=1e-4, max_iter=1000, random_state=0):
+        self.C, self.epsilon = C, epsilon
+        self.tol, self.max_iter = tol, max_iter
+        self.random_state = random_state
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        w = np.zeros(p)
+        beta = np.zeros(n)
+        xnorm = np.zeros(n)
+        self.n_iter_ = _classifier_kernels().svr_liblinear(
+            X, y, w, beta, xnorm, float(self.C), float(self.epsilon), int(self.max_iter),
+            float(self.tol), _seed(self.random_state), n, p)
+        self.coef_, self.dual_coef_ = w, beta
+        self.intercept_ = 0.0
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_
+
+
+class KernelSVR(Tagged, RegressorMixin, _KernelMatrix, BaseEstimator):
+    """epsilon-SVR by libsvm's own algorithm, over the whole kernel matrix.
+
+    The same translated SMO solver as KernelSVM (``svm-smo.scm``), set
+    up as libsvm's solve_epsilon_svr sets it up: the 2n variables
+    alpha and alpha* with linear terms epsilon -/+ y_i.  scikit-learn's
+    ``SVR``, with the intercept; ``epsilon=0.1``, ``tol=1e-3`` and the
+    kernels as there.  The kernel matrix is held whole.
+
+    Attributes after fit: support_, dual_coef_ (alpha - alpha* over the
+    support), intercept_, n_iter_; support_vectors_ unless precomputed.
+    """
+
+    _pairwise = True
+
+    def __init__(self, C=1.0, epsilon=0.1, kernel="rbf", gamma="scale", tol=1e-3, max_iter=-1):
+        self.C, self.epsilon, self.kernel, self.gamma = C, epsilon, kernel, gamma
+        self.tol, self.max_iter = tol, max_iter
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        n = y.size
+        K = self._train_kernel(X)
+        beta = np.zeros(n)
+        rho = np.zeros(1)
+        iters = int(self.max_iter) if self.max_iter > 0 else 10_000_000
+        self.n_iter_ = _classifier_kernels().svr_smo(
+            np.ascontiguousarray(K), y, beta, rho, float(self.C), float(self.epsilon), iters,
+            float(self.tol), n)
+        self.support_ = np.flatnonzero(beta != 0)
+        self.dual_coef_ = beta[self.support_]
+        self.intercept_ = -float(rho[0])
+        if self.kernel != "precomputed":
+            self.support_vectors_ = X[self.support_]
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return self._support_kernel(X) @ self.dual_coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+
+def nmf_backend():
+    """The variant CDNMF takes by default: cublas when a device
+    answers, else blas, else loops."""
+    built = nmf_backends()
+    if not built:
+        raise ImportError("scm2cpp_learn: no variant of the derived NMF was built")
+    if "cublas" in built and cuda_available():
+        return "cublas"
+    cpu = [v for v in built if v != "cublas"]
+    return cpu[0] if cpu else built[0]
+
+
+class CDNMF(Tagged, TransformerMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """Non-negative matrix factorization by coordinate descent, the
+    translator's derivation end to end.
+
+    ``examples/kernel-only/nmf-cd.scm`` writes scikit-learn's
+    NMF(solver="cd") iteration the plain way, with the residual
+    R = X - W H: each half step sweeps the coordinates of one factor and
+    moves R along the other.  ``--derive`` turns that half step into
+    scikit-learn's own form -- the memo X H' - W H H' over the hoisted
+    Gram H H', with R never formed -- and ``--blas`` / ``--cublas`` hand
+    the products to (cu)BLAS.  Nothing of the Gram form is written by
+    hand.  The iteration, the stopping rule (the projected-gradient
+    violation down to ``tol`` times the first iteration's) and the
+    result are scikit-learn's with Frobenius loss, no regularization and
+    no shuffling.
+
+    ``init`` is "random" (scikit-learn's: |N(0, 1)| scaled by
+    sqrt(mean(X) / k), H drawn before W, from ``random_state``) or
+    "custom" (W and H given to fit_transform).  scikit-learn's default
+    "nndsvda" is not offered; pass "custom" with its W and H for an
+    exact comparison.  ``backend`` is "cublas", "blas" or "loops", or
+    None for the best built (``nmf_backend()``).
+
+    ``transform`` solves for W with H fixed by the same coordinate
+    descent (scikit-learn's NMF.transform), in numpy.
+
+    Attributes after fit: components_ (H, k x p), n_components_, n_iter_,
+    reconstruction_err_ (||X - W H||_F).
+    """
+    _positive_X = True
+
+    def __init__(self, n_components=None, *, init="random", tol=1e-4, max_iter=200,
+                 random_state=None, backend=None):
+        self.n_components = n_components
+        self.init, self.tol, self.max_iter = init, tol, max_iter
+        self.random_state = random_state
+        self.backend = backend
+
+    def _lib(self):
+        import importlib
+        v = self.backend or nmf_backend()
+        return importlib.import_module(f"{__name__}._generated._loader_nmf_{v}")
+
+    def fit_transform(self, X, y=None, W=None, H=None):
+        X = fit_x(self, X)
+        if X.min() < 0:
+            raise ValueError("Negative values in data passed to CDNMF (input X)")
+        n, p = X.shape
+        k = p if self.n_components is None else int(self.n_components)
+        if k < 1:
+            raise ValueError(f"n_components must be at least 1, got {self.n_components!r}")
+        if self.init == "custom":
+            if W is None or H is None:
+                raise ValueError('init="custom" needs W and H')
+            W = np.array(W, dtype=np.float64, copy=True)
+            H = np.array(H, dtype=np.float64)
+        elif self.init == "random":
+            rng = np.random.RandomState(self.random_state)
+            avg = np.sqrt(X.mean() / k)
+            H = np.abs(avg * rng.standard_normal(size=(k, p)))
+            W = np.abs(avg * rng.standard_normal(size=(n, k)))
+        else:
+            raise ValueError(f"init {self.init!r}: expected 'random' or 'custom'")
+        W = np.ascontiguousarray(W)
+        HT = np.ascontiguousarray(H.T)
+        XT = np.ascontiguousarray(X.T)
+        self.n_iter_ = self._lib().nmf(X, XT, W, HT, int(self.max_iter), float(self.tol),
+                                       n, p, k)
+        self.components_ = np.ascontiguousarray(HT.T)
+        self.n_components_ = k
+        self.reconstruction_err_ = float(np.linalg.norm(X - W @ self.components_))
+        return W
+
+    def fit(self, X, y=None, W=None, H=None):
+        self.fit_transform(X, W=W, H=H)
+        return self
+
+    def transform(self, X):
+        X = pred_x(self, X)
+        if X.min() < 0:
+            raise ValueError("Negative values in data passed to CDNMF (input X)")
+        H = self.components_
+        k = H.shape[0]
+        HHt = H @ H.T
+        XHt = X @ H.T
+        avg = np.sqrt(X.mean() / k) if X.size else 0.0
+        W = np.full((X.shape[0], k), avg)
+        tol = float(self.tol)
+        # the half step of the fit on W alone, H fixed; the stop on the
+        # projected gradient, measured against the first sweep's, as there
+        first = None
+        for _ in range(int(self.max_iter)):
+            viol = 0.0
+            for j in range(k):
+                if HHt[j, j] <= 0.0:
+                    continue
+                grad = W @ HHt[:, j] - XHt[:, j]
+                pg = np.where(W[:, j] == 0.0, np.minimum(grad, 0.0), grad)
+                viol += float(np.abs(pg).sum())
+                W[:, j] = np.maximum(W[:, j] - grad / HHt[j, j], 0.0)
+            if first is None:
+                first = viol
+            if first == 0.0 or viol / first <= tol:
+                break
+        return W
+
+
+class CDGraphicalLasso(Tagged, BaseEstimator):
+    """The graphical lasso, scikit-learn's own algorithm translated.
+
+    ``examples/kernel-only/graphical-lasso.scm`` is scikit-learn's
+    _graphical_lasso in mode "cd" and its inner solver
+    enet_coordinate_descent_gram (the gap-safe rule included), written
+    out whole; ``--blas`` makes its two matrix-vector products dgemv.
+    The same model and stopping rule as ``GraphicalLasso(mode="cd")``:
+    ``alpha``, ``tol``, ``enet_tol``, ``max_iter`` and
+    ``assume_centered`` mean what they mean there.  scikit-learn's
+    ``costs_`` (the objective each iteration, a log-determinant) is not
+    computed.
+
+    Attributes after fit: covariance_, precision_, location_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, alpha=0.01, *, tol=1e-4, enet_tol=1e-4, max_iter=100,
+                 assume_centered=False):
+        self.alpha, self.tol, self.enet_tol = alpha, tol, enet_tol
+        self.max_iter, self.assume_centered = max_iter, assume_centered
+
+    def fit(self, X, y=None):
+        import importlib
+        from ._libfind import gramops_backend
+        X = fit_x(self, X, ensure_min_samples=2, ensure_min_features=2)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        self.location_ = np.zeros(p) if self.assume_centered else X.mean(axis=0)
+        Xc = X - self.location_
+        emp = np.ascontiguousarray(Xc.T @ Xc / n)
+        lib = importlib.import_module(f"{__name__}._generated._loader_gramops_{gramops_backend()}")
+        self.covariance_ = np.zeros((p, p))
+        self.precision_ = np.zeros((p, p))
+        self.n_iter_ = lib.graphical_lasso(emp, self.covariance_, self.precision_,
+                                           float(self.alpha), int(self.max_iter),
+                                           float(self.tol), float(self.enet_tol), p)
+        if not np.isfinite(self.precision_).all():
+            raise FloatingPointError("the system is too ill-conditioned for this solver")
+        return self
+
+
+class LinearRANSAC(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """RANSAC for a linear model, scikit-learn's algorithm translated.
+
+    ``examples/kernel-only/ransac.scm`` is RANSACRegressor.fit around
+    LinearRegression, written out whole: per trial, least squares with
+    an intercept on a subset of ``min_samples`` points, the inliers
+    within ``residual_threshold``, the fit kept by inlier count and then
+    R^2, the trial count lowered by scikit-learn's _dynamic_max_trials;
+    finally least squares on the best inliers.  The defaults are
+    RANSACRegressor's (min_samples p + 1, the threshold the MAD of y,
+    max_trials 100, stop_probability 0.99).
+
+    The subsets are drawn here, ``max_trials`` of them, before the
+    trials run.  With scikit-learn installed they are drawn exactly as
+    RANSACRegressor draws them (sample_without_replacement on a
+    RandomState of ``random_state``), so the result is scikit-learn's;
+    without it, numpy's choice draws different subsets.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, inlier_mask_, n_trials_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, *, min_samples=None, residual_threshold=None, max_trials=100,
+                 stop_probability=0.99, random_state=None):
+        self.min_samples, self.residual_threshold = min_samples, residual_threshold
+        self.max_trials, self.stop_probability = max_trials, stop_probability
+        self.random_state = random_state
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        max_trials = int(self.max_trials)
+        ms = p + 1 if self.min_samples is None else int(self.min_samples)
+        thr = (float(np.median(np.abs(y - np.median(y)))) if self.residual_threshold is None
+               else float(self.residual_threshold))
+        rs = np.random.RandomState(self.random_state)
+        try:
+            from sklearn.utils.random import sample_without_replacement
+            draw = lambda: sample_without_replacement(n, ms, random_state=rs)
+        except ImportError:
+            draw = lambda: rs.choice(n, ms, replace=False)
+        if ms > n:
+            raise ValueError(f"min_samples may not be larger than the number of samples: "
+                             f"n_samples = {n}")
+        subsets = np.array([draw() for _ in range(max_trials)], dtype=np.float64)
+        coef = np.zeros(p)
+        mask = np.zeros(n)
+        out = np.zeros(1)
+        self.n_trials_ = _classifier_kernels().ransac(
+            X, y, subsets, coef, mask, out, max_trials, ms, thr, float(self.stop_probability),
+            n, p)
+        self.coef_, self.intercept_ = coef, float(out[0])
+        self.inlier_mask_ = mask.astype(bool)
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+
+def _center(X, y, fit_intercept):
+    X = np.ascontiguousarray(X, dtype=np.float64)
+    y = np.ascontiguousarray(y, dtype=np.float64)
+    if fit_intercept:
+        xm, ym = X.mean(axis=0), float(y.mean())
+        return np.ascontiguousarray(X - xm), y - ym, xm, ym
+    return X, y, np.zeros(X.shape[1]), 0.0
+
+
+_SGD_LOSS = {"hinge": 0, "squared_error": 1, "perceptron": 2, "epsilon_insensitive": 3}
+_SGD_LR = {"optimal": 0, "invscaling": 1, "constant": 2, "pa1": 3, "pa2": 4}
+
+
+class _SGDLinear(BaseEstimator):
+    # the shared run; the subclasses' __init__ name the parameters
+    # (scikit-learn reads them off the signature), so this one has none
+    def _set(self, *, loss, penalty, alpha, max_iter, tol, n_iter_no_change, fit_intercept,
+             learning_rate, eta0, power_t, epsilon=0.1):
+        self.loss, self.penalty, self.alpha = loss, penalty, alpha
+        self.max_iter, self.tol = max_iter, tol
+        self.n_iter_no_change, self.fit_intercept = n_iter_no_change, fit_intercept
+        self.learning_rate, self.eta0, self.power_t = learning_rate, eta0, power_t
+        self.epsilon = epsilon
+
+    def _run(self, X, y):
+        loss = getattr(self, "loss", "perceptron")
+        lr = getattr(self, "learning_rate", "constant")
+        penalty = getattr(self, "penalty", None)
+        if loss not in _SGD_LOSS or lr not in _SGD_LR:
+            raise ValueError("loss is one of %s, learning_rate one of %s"
+                             % (sorted(_SGD_LOSS), sorted(_SGD_LR)))
+        if penalty not in ("l2", None):
+            raise ValueError("penalty is 'l2' or None")
+        n, p = X.shape
+        w = np.zeros(p)
+        out = np.zeros(1)
+        self.n_iter_ = _classifier_kernels().sgd(
+            X, np.ascontiguousarray(y, dtype=np.float64), w, out,
+            _SGD_LOSS[loss], _SGD_LR[lr],
+            1 if penalty == "l2" else 0, float(getattr(self, "alpha", 1e-4)),
+            float(self.eta0), float(getattr(self, "power_t", 0.5)),
+            float(getattr(self, "epsilon", 0.1)), int(self.max_iter), float(self.tol),
+            int(self.n_iter_no_change), 1 if self.fit_intercept else 0, n, p)
+        self.coef_, self.intercept_ = w, float(out[0])
+        return self
+
+    def _linear(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+
+class SGDLinearClassifier(Tagged, ClassifierMixin, _SGDLinear):
+    """scikit-learn's SGDClassifier by its own _plain_sgd translated
+    (``examples/kernel-only/sgd.scm``), with shuffle=False: the points
+    are visited in order.  scikit-learn's shuffling draws from its own
+    xorshift generator, which the kernel does not reproduce, so compare
+    against ``SGDClassifier(shuffle=False)``, which this matches to
+    rounding.  loss "hinge" or "perceptron", penalty "l2" or None,
+    learning_rate "optimal", "constant", "invscaling", "pa1" or "pa2"
+    (the passive-aggressive steps, eta0 their C: scikit-learn's
+    replacement for PassiveAggressiveClassifier).  Two classes, the
+    second of ``classes_`` positive.
+
+    Attributes after fit: classes_, coef_, intercept_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, *, loss="hinge", penalty="l2", alpha=1e-4, max_iter=1000, tol=1e-3,
+                 n_iter_no_change=5, fit_intercept=True, learning_rate="optimal",
+                 eta0=0.01, power_t=0.5):
+        self._set(loss=loss, penalty=penalty, alpha=alpha, max_iter=max_iter,
+                  tol=tol, n_iter_no_change=n_iter_no_change,
+                  fit_intercept=fit_intercept, learning_rate=learning_rate,
+                  eta0=eta0, power_t=power_t)
+        del self.epsilon
+
+    _binary_only = True
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y, classifier=True)
+        self.classes_, ys = _binary_labels(y)
+        return self._run(X, ys)
+
+    def decision_function(self, X):
+        return self._linear(X)
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        z = self.decision_function(X)
+        return self.classes_[(z > 0).astype(int)]
+
+
+class SGDLinearRegressor(Tagged, RegressorMixin, _SGDLinear):
+    """scikit-learn's SGDRegressor by its own _plain_sgd translated, with
+    shuffle=False (see SGDLinearClassifier).  loss "squared_error" or
+    "epsilon_insensitive" (``epsilon``), penalty "l2" or None,
+    learning_rate "invscaling" (the default), "constant", "optimal",
+    "pa1" or "pa2" (scikit-learn's replacement for
+    PassiveAggressiveRegressor).
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, *, loss="squared_error", penalty="l2", alpha=1e-4, max_iter=1000,
+                 tol=1e-3, n_iter_no_change=5, fit_intercept=True,
+                 learning_rate="invscaling", eta0=0.01, power_t=0.25, epsilon=0.1):
+        self._set(loss=loss, penalty=penalty, alpha=alpha, max_iter=max_iter,
+                  tol=tol, n_iter_no_change=n_iter_no_change,
+                  fit_intercept=fit_intercept, learning_rate=learning_rate,
+                  eta0=eta0, power_t=power_t, epsilon=epsilon)
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        return self._run(X, y)
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return self._linear(X)
+
+
+class SGDPerceptron(SGDLinearClassifier):
+    """scikit-learn's Perceptron: SGDClassifier with the perceptron's
+    hinge (threshold 0), no penalty and the constant step eta0 = 1, by
+    the same translated _plain_sgd, shuffle=False.
+
+    Attributes after fit: classes_, coef_, intercept_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    # the loss, penalty and step rule are fixed, not parameters: _run
+    # falls back to the perceptron's when the attributes are absent
+    def __init__(self, *, max_iter=1000, tol=1e-3, n_iter_no_change=5, fit_intercept=True,
+                 eta0=1.0):
+        self.max_iter, self.tol, self.n_iter_no_change = max_iter, tol, n_iter_no_change
+        self.fit_intercept, self.eta0 = fit_intercept, eta0
+
+
+class GramOMP(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """Orthogonal matching pursuit over the Gram matrix, scikit-learn's
+    own algorithm translated (``examples/kernel-only/omp.scm``:
+    orthogonal_mp_gram and _gram_omp, X'X and X'y by dsyrk and dgemv).
+    ``OrthogonalMatchingPursuit`` takes this route for n > p
+    (precompute="auto"); here it is taken always.  ``n_nonzero_coefs``
+    defaults, as there, to 10% of the features.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, *, n_nonzero_coefs=None, fit_intercept=True):
+        self.n_nonzero_coefs, self.fit_intercept = n_nonzero_coefs, fit_intercept
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        import importlib
+        from ._libfind import gramops_backend
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        Xc, yc, xm, ym = _center(X, y, self.fit_intercept)
+        n, p = Xc.shape
+        k = max(int(0.1 * p), 1) if self.n_nonzero_coefs is None else int(self.n_nonzero_coefs)
+        lib = importlib.import_module(f"{__name__}._generated._loader_gramops_{gramops_backend()}")
+        self.coef_ = np.zeros(p)
+        self.n_iter_ = lib.omp(Xc, yc, self.coef_, np.zeros(1), 0, k, n, p)
+        self.intercept_ = ym - float(xm @ self.coef_)
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+
+_GRAMOPS = []
+
+
+def _gramops_kernels():
+    # looked up once: several calls a fit, each a glob before
+    if not _GRAMOPS:
+        import importlib
+        from ._libfind import gramops_backend
+        _GRAMOPS.append(importlib.import_module(
+            f"{__name__}._generated._loader_gramops_{gramops_backend()}"))
+    return _GRAMOPS[0]
+
+
+class LBFGSLogisticRegression(Tagged, ClassifierMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """L2-penalised logistic regression, scikit-learn's
+    ``LogisticRegression(solver="lbfgs")`` translated whole
+    (``examples/kernel-only/logistic-lbfgs.scm`` over ``lbfgs.scm``):
+    the mean binomial loss for two classes, the multinomial for more,
+    plus |W|^2 / (2 C n), minimised by scipy's L-BFGS-B as written in
+    the subset (ten pairs, the More-Thuente search, gtol ``tol``, ftol
+    64 eps).  The products X W' and R' X are dgemm where a CBLAS links.
+    On the same data it takes the same iterations as scikit-learn and
+    lands on the same coefficients to rounding.
+
+    Attributes after fit: classes_, coef_, intercept_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, *, C=1.0, tol=1e-4, max_iter=100, fit_intercept=True):
+        self.C, self.tol, self.max_iter, self.fit_intercept = C, tol, max_iter, fit_intercept
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y, classifier=True)
+        self.classes_, yi = classes_of(y)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        nc = len(self.classes_)
+        if nc < 2:
+            raise ValueError("This solver needs samples of at least 2 classes in the data, "
+                             f"but the data contains only one class: {self.classes_[0]!r}")
+        multi = 1 if nc > 2 else 0
+        k = nc if multi else 1
+        coef = np.zeros(k * (p + 1))
+        out = np.zeros(2)
+        it = _gpu_or_cpu(n * p, getattr(self, "backend", None)).logistic_lbfgs(
+            X, yi.astype(np.float64), coef, out, float(self.C), int(self.max_iter),
+            float(self.tol), multi, 1 if self.fit_intercept else 0, n, p, k)
+        self.coef_ = coef[:k * p].reshape(k, p).copy()
+        self.intercept_ = coef[k * p:].copy()
+        self.n_iter_ = np.array([min(it, self.max_iter)])
+        return self
+
+    def decision_function(self, X):
+        z = pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_.T + self.intercept_
+        return z[:, 0] if z.shape[1] == 1 else z
+
+    def predict_proba(self, X):
+        z = self.decision_function(X)
+        if z.ndim == 1:
+            p1 = 1.0 / (1.0 + np.exp(-z))
+            return np.column_stack([1.0 - p1, p1])
+        e = np.exp(z - z.max(axis=1, keepdims=True))
+        return e / e.sum(axis=1, keepdims=True)
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        z = self.decision_function(X)
+        if z.ndim == 1:
+            return self.classes_[(z > 0).astype(int)]
+        return self.classes_[np.argmax(z, axis=1)]
+
+
+def _kfold(n, k):
+    """scikit-learn's KFold(k) without shuffling: contiguous test blocks,
+    the first n % k of them one longer."""
+    sizes = np.full(k, n // k)
+    sizes[: n % k] += 1
+    out, start = [], 0
+    for sz in sizes:
+        test = np.arange(start, start + sz)
+        out.append((np.r_[np.arange(0, start), np.arange(start + sz, n)], test))
+        start += sz
+    return out
+
+
+def _stratified_kfold(y, k):
+    """scikit-learn's StratifiedKFold(k) without shuffling: classes in
+    order of first appearance, each spread over the folds as the sorted
+    labels dealt k ways."""
+    y = np.asarray(y)
+    _, y_idx, y_inv = np.unique(y, return_index=True, return_inverse=True)
+    _, class_perm = np.unique(y_idx, return_inverse=True)
+    y_enc = class_perm[y_inv]
+    nc = len(y_idx)
+    y_order = np.sort(y_enc)
+    alloc = np.asarray([np.bincount(y_order[i::k], minlength=nc) for i in range(k)])
+    test_folds = np.empty(len(y), dtype=int)
+    for c in range(nc):
+        test_folds[y_enc == c] = np.arange(k).repeat(alloc[:, c])
+    return [(np.flatnonzero(test_folds != f), np.flatnonzero(test_folds == f))
+            for f in range(k)]
+
+
+class _LBFGSGLM(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    _family = None
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        fam, _ = self._family_power()
+        if fam in (0, 2) and (y < 0).any() or fam == 1 and (y <= 0).any():
+            raise ValueError(f"Some value(s) of y are out of the valid range of the loss "
+                             f"{type(self).__name__}")
+        coef = np.zeros(p + 1)
+        out = np.zeros(2)
+        fam, power = self._family_power()
+        it = _gpu_or_cpu(n * p, getattr(self, "backend", None)).glm(X, y, coef, out, fam, float(power), float(self.alpha),
+                                    int(self.max_iter), float(self.tol),
+                                    1 if self.fit_intercept else 0, n, p)
+        self.coef_, self.intercept_ = coef[:p].copy(), float(coef[p])
+        self.n_iter_ = min(it, self.max_iter)
+        return self
+
+    def _linear(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        z = self._linear(X)
+        return z if self._family_power() == (3, 0.0) else np.exp(z)
+
+
+class LBFGSPoissonRegressor(_LBFGSGLM):
+    _positive_y = True
+
+    """scikit-learn's ``PoissonRegressor`` (solver "lbfgs") translated
+    whole (``examples/kernel-only/glm.scm`` over ``lbfgs.scm``): the mean
+    half Poisson deviance with the log link plus alpha |w|^2 / 2, from
+    scikit-learn's start.  Same iterations and coefficients to rounding.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, *, alpha=1.0, fit_intercept=True, max_iter=100, tol=1e-4):
+        self.alpha, self.fit_intercept, self.max_iter, self.tol = alpha, fit_intercept, max_iter, tol
+
+    def _family_power(self):
+        return 0, 1.0
+
+
+class LBFGSGammaRegressor(LBFGSPoissonRegressor):
+    """scikit-learn's ``GammaRegressor`` (solver "lbfgs"), as
+    LBFGSPoissonRegressor with the half Gamma deviance.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def _family_power(self):
+        return 1, 2.0
+
+
+class LBFGSTweedieRegressor(_LBFGSGLM):
+    """scikit-learn's ``TweedieRegressor`` (solver "lbfgs"): ``power`` 0
+    with the identity link (the default), or a power of 1 or more with
+    the log link, as link="auto" chooses.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, *, power=0.0, alpha=1.0, fit_intercept=True, max_iter=100, tol=1e-4):
+        self.power, self.alpha, self.fit_intercept = power, alpha, fit_intercept
+        self.max_iter, self.tol = max_iter, tol
+
+    def _family_power(self):
+        if self.power == 0:
+            return 3, 0.0
+        if self.power < 1:
+            raise ValueError("power is 0 or at least 1 here")
+        return 2, float(self.power)
+
+
+class LBFGSLogisticRegressionCV(Tagged, ClassifierMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """scikit-learn's ``LogisticRegressionCV`` with its defaults (the L2
+    penalty, solver "lbfgs", Cs 10 values from 1e-4 to 1e4,
+    StratifiedKFold(5) without shuffling, accuracy, refit): each fold's
+    path over the Cs warm-started from the previous C by the translated
+    LogisticRegression (``logistic-lbfgs.scm``), the C of the best summed
+    score, and the refit from the folds' mean coefficients at that C, as
+    scikit-learn starts it.
+
+    Attributes after fit: classes_, Cs_, C_, coef_, intercept_, scores_,
+    n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, *, Cs=10, cv=5, tol=1e-4, max_iter=100, fit_intercept=True):
+        self.Cs, self.cv, self.tol, self.max_iter = Cs, cv, tol, max_iter
+        self.fit_intercept = fit_intercept
+
+    def _path(self, X, yi, Cs, coef, multi, k):
+        n, p = X.shape
+        lib = _gpu_or_cpu(n * p, getattr(self, "backend", None))
+        coefs, iters = [], []
+        out = np.zeros(2)
+        for C in Cs:
+            it = lib.logistic_lbfgs(X, yi, coef, out, float(C), int(self.max_iter),
+                                    float(self.tol), multi, 1 if self.fit_intercept else 0,
+                                    n, p, k)
+            coefs.append(coef.copy())
+            iters.append(min(it, self.max_iter))
+        return coefs, iters
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y, classifier=True)
+        self.classes_, yi = classes_of(y)
+        nc = len(self.classes_)
+        if nc < 2:
+            raise ValueError("This solver needs samples of at least 2 classes in the data, "
+                             f"but the data contains only one class: {self.classes_[0]!r}")
+        multi = 1 if nc > 2 else 0
+        k = nc if multi else 1
+        n, p = X.shape
+        Cs = (np.logspace(-4, 4, int(self.Cs)) if np.isscalar(self.Cs)
+              else np.asarray(self.Cs, float))
+        self.Cs_ = Cs
+        yf = yi.astype(np.float64)
+        folds = _stratified_kfold(y, int(self.cv))
+        paths, scores, iters = [], [], []
+        for train, test in folds:
+            coefs, it = self._path(np.ascontiguousarray(X[train]), yf[train], Cs,
+                                   np.zeros(k * (p + 1)), multi, k)
+            paths.append(coefs)
+            iters.append(it)
+            sc = []
+            for c in coefs:
+                z = X[test] @ c[:k * p].reshape(k, p).T + c[k * p:]
+                pred = (z[:, 0] > 0).astype(int) if k == 1 else np.argmax(z, axis=1)
+                sc.append(float(np.mean(pred == yi[test])))
+            scores.append(sc)
+        scores = np.asarray(scores)
+        best = int(np.argmax(scores.sum(axis=0)))
+        self.C_ = float(Cs[best])
+        start = np.mean([paths[f][best] for f in range(len(folds))], axis=0)
+        coefs, it = self._path(X, yf, [self.C_], start.copy(), multi, k)
+        c = coefs[0]
+        self.coef_ = c[:k * p].reshape(k, p).copy()
+        self.intercept_ = c[k * p:].copy()
+        self.scores_ = scores
+        self.n_iter_ = np.asarray(iters)
+        return self
+
+    def decision_function(self, X):
+        z = pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_.T + self.intercept_
+        return z[:, 0] if z.shape[1] == 1 else z
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        z = self.decision_function(X)
+        if z.ndim == 1:
+            return self.classes_[(z > 0).astype(int)]
+        return self.classes_[np.argmax(z, axis=1)]
+
+
+class LBFGSHuberRegressor(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """The Huber regressor, scikit-learn's ``HuberRegressor`` translated
+    whole (``examples/kernel-only/huber.scm`` over ``lbfgs.scm``): its
+    _huber_loss_and_gradient over the weights, the intercept and the
+    scale, minimised by L-BFGS-B with the scale bounded below by 10 eps
+    (the generalized Cauchy point and the subspace step for that one
+    bound, as L-BFGS-B takes them), scipy's defaults otherwise.  X w
+    and X'c are dgemv where a CBLAS links.  Same iterations and
+    coefficients as scikit-learn to rounding.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, scale_, n_iter_, outliers_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, *, epsilon=1.35, alpha=1e-4, max_iter=100, tol=1e-5,
+                 fit_intercept=True):
+        self.epsilon, self.alpha, self.max_iter, self.tol = epsilon, alpha, max_iter, tol
+        self.fit_intercept = fit_intercept
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        coef = np.zeros(p + 2)
+        coef[-1] = 1.0
+        out = np.zeros(2)
+        it = _gpu_or_cpu(n * p, getattr(self, "backend", None)).huber(
+            X, y, coef, out, float(self.epsilon), float(self.alpha), int(self.max_iter),
+            float(self.tol), 1 if self.fit_intercept else 0, n, p)
+        self.coef_ = coef[:p].copy()
+        self.intercept_ = float(coef[p])
+        self.scale_ = float(coef[p + 1])
+        self.n_iter_ = min(it, self.max_iter)
+        self.outliers_ = np.abs(y - X @ self.coef_ - self.intercept_) > self.scale_ * self.epsilon
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+
+class EMGaussianMixture(Tagged, DensityMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """The Gaussian mixture by EM with full covariances, scikit-learn's
+    ``GaussianMixture(covariance_type="full")`` translated whole
+    (``examples/kernel-only/gmm.scm``): its M step (means and
+    covariances by products, the Cholesky factor, the precision factor
+    L^-T), its E step (the log densities through X U - mu U, a product;
+    log-sum-exp; the lower bound) and its stop on the bound.  The start
+    is scikit-learn's: ``init_params="kmeans"`` takes the labels of
+    ``KMeans(n_init=1)`` (scikit-learn's, so it must be installed) drawn
+    from ``RandomState(random_state)``, ``"random"`` uniform draws
+    normalised; with the same ``random_state`` the fit is
+    scikit-learn's to rounding.  One initialisation (n_init=1).
+
+    Attributes after fit: weights_, means_, precisions_cholesky_,
+    precisions_, covariances_, converged_, n_iter_, lower_bound_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, n_components=1, *, tol=1e-3, reg_covar=1e-6, max_iter=100,
+                 init_params="kmeans", random_state=None):
+        self.n_components, self.tol, self.reg_covar = n_components, tol, reg_covar
+        self.max_iter, self.init_params, self.random_state = max_iter, init_params, random_state
+
+    def fit(self, X, y=None):
+        X = fit_x(self, X, ensure_min_samples=2)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        k = int(self.n_components)
+        if k > n:
+            raise ValueError(f"Expected n_samples >= n_components but got n_components = {k}, "
+                             f"n_samples = {n}")
+        rs = np.random.RandomState(self.random_state)
+        if self.init_params == "kmeans":
+            try:
+                from sklearn.cluster import KMeans
+            except ImportError as e:
+                raise ImportError("init_params='kmeans' runs scikit-learn's KMeans; "
+                                  "install scikit-learn or pass init_params='random'") from e
+            labels = KMeans(n_clusters=k, n_init=1, random_state=rs).fit(X).labels_
+            resp = np.zeros((n, k))
+            resp[np.arange(n), labels] = 1.0
+        elif self.init_params == "random":
+            resp = rs.uniform(size=(n, k))
+            resp /= resp.sum(axis=1)[:, None]
+        else:
+            raise ValueError("init_params is 'kmeans' or 'random'")
+        resp = np.ascontiguousarray(resp)
+        self.weights_ = np.zeros(k)
+        self.means_ = np.zeros((k, p))
+        self.precisions_cholesky_ = np.zeros((k, p, p))
+        labels = np.zeros(n)
+        out = np.zeros(2)
+        it = _gpu_or_cpu(n * p, getattr(self, "backend", None)).gmm(X, resp, self.weights_, self.means_,
+                                    self.precisions_cholesky_, labels, out,
+                                    int(self.max_iter), float(self.tol),
+                                    float(self.reg_covar), n, p, k)
+        self.n_iter_ = it
+        self.lower_bound_ = float(out[0])
+        self.converged_ = bool(out[1] == 1.0)
+        self.precisions_ = np.einsum("kij,klj->kil", self.precisions_cholesky_,
+                                     self.precisions_cholesky_)
+        self.covariances_ = np.linalg.inv(self.precisions_)
+        return self
+
+    def _weighted_log_prob(self, X):
+        X = pred_x(self, X)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        out = np.empty((n, len(self.weights_)))
+        for c, (mu, u) in enumerate(zip(self.means_, self.precisions_cholesky_)):
+            y = X @ u - mu @ u
+            out[:, c] = (-0.5 * (p * np.log(2 * np.pi) + (y * y).sum(axis=1))
+                         + np.log(np.diag(u)).sum() + np.log(self.weights_[c]))
+        return out
+
+    def predict_proba(self, X):
+        w = self._weighted_log_prob(X)
+        w -= w.max(axis=1, keepdims=True)
+        e = np.exp(w)
+        return e / e.sum(axis=1, keepdims=True)
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return np.argmax(self._weighted_log_prob(X), axis=1)
+
+    def fit_predict(self, X, y=None):
+        return self.fit(X).predict(X)
+
+    def score_samples(self, X):
+        """The log density of each row under the mixture."""
+        w = self._weighted_log_prob(X)
+        m = w.max(axis=1)
+        return m + np.log(np.exp(w - m[:, None]).sum(axis=1))
+
+    def score(self, X, y=None):
+        """The mean log-likelihood, as GaussianMixture.score."""
+        return float(self.score_samples(X).mean())
+
+
+class CovPCA(Tagged, TransformerMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """PCA through the covariance's eigenvectors, scikit-learn's
+    ``PCA(svd_solver="covariance_eigh")`` -- what its "auto" picks for a
+    tall design (p <= 1000, n >= 10 p) -- translated whole
+    (``examples/kernel-only/pca.scm``: X'X by dsyrk where a CBLAS links,
+    the eigenproblem by sym-eigen.scm -- which the BLAS build hands to
+    LAPACK's dsyevd, as numpy's eigh does, and the loop build runs as
+    Householder reduction and QL iteration in the subset -- and
+    svd_flip's signs).  The BLAS build is level with scikit-learn on one
+    core at 50,000 x 500 and with sklearnex on twenty; the loop build's
+    eigensolver falls behind LAPACK's from about a hundred features.
+
+    Attributes after fit: components_, explained_variance_,
+    explained_variance_ratio_, singular_values_, mean_, noise_variance_,
+    n_components_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, n_components=None, *, backend=None):
+        self.n_components, self.backend = n_components, backend
+
+    def fit(self, X, y=None):
+        X = fit_x(self, X)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        if self.n_components is not None and not 0 <= int(self.n_components) <= min(n, p):
+            raise ValueError(f"n_components={self.n_components!r} must be between 0 and "
+                             f"min(n_samples, n_features)={min(n, p)}")
+        comps = np.zeros((p, p)); ev = np.zeros(p); sv = np.zeros(p); mean = np.zeros(p)
+        # the device forms the covariance faster, but its build keeps
+        # sym-eigen.scm's eigensolver; where the CPU build has LAPACK's
+        # (gramops "blas") that is the faster whole, so the device is
+        # taken by default only without it
+        from ._libfind import gramops_backend
+        dev = self.backend == "cublas" or (self.backend is None and gramops_backend() != "blas")
+        lib = _accel(float(n) * p * p) if dev else None
+        (lib or _gramops_kernels()).pca(X, comps, ev, sv, mean, n, p)
+        k = min(n, p) if self.n_components is None else int(self.n_components)
+        self.n_components_ = k
+        self.mean_ = mean
+        self.components_ = comps[:k].copy()
+        self.explained_variance_ = ev[:k].copy()
+        tot = ev.sum()
+        self.explained_variance_ratio_ = ev[:k] / tot if tot > 0 else np.zeros(k)
+        self.singular_values_ = sv[:k].copy()
+        self.noise_variance_ = float(ev[k:].mean()) if k < min(n, p) else 0.0
+        return self
+
+    def transform(self, X):
+        return (pred_x(self, X) - self.mean_) @ self.components_.T
+
+    def fit_transform(self, X, y=None):
+        return self.fit(X).transform(X)
+
+
+_KPCA_KERNELS = {"linear": 0, "rbf": 1, "poly": 2, "sigmoid": 3, "cosine": 4}
+
+
+def _psd_eigenvalues(vals):
+    # scikit-learn's _check_psd_eigenvalues (double precision): refuse
+    # a matrix far from PSD, zero the small negative and positive noise
+    vals = np.array(vals, dtype=np.float64)
+    top = vals.max() if vals.size else 0.0
+    if top < 0:
+        raise ValueError(f"All eigenvalues are negative (maximum is {top:g}). Either the "
+                         "matrix is not PSD, or there was an issue while computing the "
+                         "eigendecomposition of the matrix.")
+    low = vals.min() if vals.size else 0.0
+    if low < -1e-5 * top and low < -1e-10:
+        raise ValueError(f"There are significant negative eigenvalues ({-low / top:g} of the "
+                         "maximum positive). Either the matrix is not PSD, or there was an "
+                         "issue while computing the eigendecomposition of the matrix.")
+    vals[vals < 0] = 0.0
+    vals[vals < 1e-12 * top] = 0.0
+    return vals
+
+
+class GramKernelPCA(Tagged, TransformerMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """scikit-learn's ``KernelPCA``: the kernel matrix (linear, rbf,
+    poly, sigmoid, cosine or precomputed), centred in feature space, its
+    largest eigenpairs with svd_flip's signs (``examples/kernel-only/
+    kernel-pca.scm``).  Three routes to the eigenpairs:
+
+    - the linear kernel with n_components <= p < n: through Xc'Xc
+      (p x p, X'X by dsyrk), O(n p^2) instead of the n x n matrix;
+    - a few pairs of a large matrix (``eigen_solver="auto"``, where
+      scikit-learn takes ARPACK, and ``"subspace"``): subspace iteration
+      whose product is a dgemm, stopped when every residual
+      |K u - lam u| is under ``tol`` (1e-12 for 0) of the largest value,
+      the dense route when it does not converge in ``max_iter`` steps;
+    - otherwise dense: LAPACK's dsyevr over the wanted index range, as
+      scipy's eigh(subset_by_index) that scikit-learn calls.
+
+    No inverse transform.  Attributes after fit: eigenvalues_,
+    eigenvectors_, X_fit_, gamma_, n_iter_ (the subspace steps, 1 for a
+    direct solve), n_features_in_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, n_components=None, *, kernel="linear", gamma=None, degree=3, coef0=1,
+                 eigen_solver="auto", tol=0, max_iter=None, remove_zero_eig=False,
+                 random_state=None):
+        self.n_components, self.kernel, self.gamma = n_components, kernel, gamma
+        self.degree, self.coef0, self.eigen_solver = degree, coef0, eigen_solver
+        self.tol, self.max_iter, self.remove_zero_eig = tol, max_iter, remove_zero_eig
+        self.random_state = random_state
+
+    def _kernel(self, A, B):
+        k = _gramops_kernels()
+        if B is None:
+            K = np.zeros((A.shape[0], A.shape[0]))
+            k.kpca_kernel_self(A, K, self._kind, self.gamma_, float(self.degree),
+                               float(self.coef0), A.shape[0], A.shape[1])
+        else:
+            K = np.zeros((A.shape[0], B.shape[0]))
+            k.kpca_kernel(A, B, K, self._kind, self.gamma_, float(self.degree),
+                          float(self.coef0), A.shape[0], B.shape[0], A.shape[1])
+        return K
+
+    def fit(self, X, y=None):
+        X = fit_x(self, X)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        if self.kernel != "precomputed" and self.kernel not in _KPCA_KERNELS:
+            raise ValueError(f"kernel={self.kernel!r}: expected one of "
+                             f"{sorted(_KPCA_KERNELS) + ['precomputed']}")
+        if self.eigen_solver not in ("auto", "dense", "subspace"):
+            raise ValueError(f"eigen_solver={self.eigen_solver!r}: expected 'auto', 'dense' "
+                             "or 'subspace'")
+        if self.n_components is not None and int(self.n_components) < 1:
+            raise ValueError(f"n_components={self.n_components!r} must be at least 1")
+        if self.kernel == "precomputed" and n != p:
+            raise ValueError(f"precomputed kernel is {n} x {p}; expected a square matrix")
+        self._kind = _KPCA_KERNELS.get(self.kernel, -1)
+        self.gamma_ = 1.0 / p if self.gamma is None else float(self.gamma)
+        c = n if self.n_components is None else min(n, int(self.n_components))
+        k = _gramops_kernels()
+        vecs, vals = np.zeros((n, c)), np.zeros(c)
+        m = np.zeros(n + 1)
+        self.n_iter_ = 1
+        if self.kernel == "linear" and c <= p < n:
+            xm = X.mean(axis=0)
+            G = _gram(X)
+            nm2 = n * xm * xm
+            if np.all(np.diagonal(G) - nm2 > 1e-4 * nm2):
+                G -= np.outer(xm, n * xm)
+                Xs, xs = X, xm
+            else:
+                Xs, xs = np.ascontiguousarray(X - xm), np.zeros(p)
+                G = _gram(Xs)
+            k.kpca_linear(Xs, xs, np.ascontiguousarray(G), vecs, vals, n, p, c)
+            # KernelCenterer's statistics of K = X X', for transform
+            m[:n] = X @ xm
+            m[n] = float(xm @ xm)
+        else:
+            K = np.array(X, dtype=np.float64, order="C") if self.kernel == "precomputed" \
+                else self._kernel(X, None)
+            k.kpca_centre(K, m, n)
+            # c + 25 columns: on an rbf kernel whose leading values fall
+            # slowly (0.92 of the first by the fifth), 13 took 235 steps
+            # to 1e-12 and 30 took 15
+            b = min(n, max(2 * c, c + 25))
+            # where scikit-learn's "auto" takes ARPACK; for 50 components
+            # of 3,000 the 100 columns lost to dsyevr (6.2 s to 3.6 s)
+            sub = self.eigen_solver == "subspace" or (
+                self.eigen_solver == "auto" and n > 200 and c < 10)
+            done = False
+            if sub and b < n:
+                rs = self.random_state
+                rng = rs if isinstance(rs, np.random.RandomState) else \
+                    np.random.RandomState(0 if rs is None else int(rs))
+                Q = rng.standard_normal((n, b))
+                tol = float(self.tol) if float(self.tol) > 0 else 1e-12
+                it = 1000 if self.max_iter is None else int(self.max_iter)
+                steps = k.kpca_top_subspace(K, Q, vecs, vals, n, b, c, tol, it)
+                done = steps >= 0
+                if done:
+                    self.n_iter_ = steps
+            if not done:
+                k.kpca_top_dense(K, vecs, vals, n, c)
+        vals = _psd_eigenvalues(vals)
+        if self.remove_zero_eig or self.n_components is None:
+            keep = vals > 0
+            vecs, vals = vecs[:, keep], vals[keep]
+        self.eigenvalues_ = vals
+        self.eigenvectors_ = np.ascontiguousarray(vecs)
+        self.X_fit_ = X
+        self._m = m
+        return self
+
+    def fit_transform(self, X, y=None):
+        self.fit(X)
+        return self.eigenvectors_ * np.sqrt(self.eigenvalues_)
+
+    def transform(self, X):
+        X = pred_x(self, X)
+        n = self.X_fit_.shape[0]
+        if self.kernel == "precomputed":
+            if X.shape[1] != n:
+                raise ValueError(f"precomputed kernel has {X.shape[1]} columns; expected {n}")
+            K = np.array(X, dtype=np.float64, order="C")
+        else:
+            K = self._kernel(X, self.X_fit_)
+        _gramops_kernels().kpca_centre_new(K, self._m, K.shape[0], n)
+        nz = self.eigenvalues_ > 0
+        scaled = np.zeros_like(self.eigenvectors_)
+        scaled[:, nz] = self.eigenvectors_[:, nz] / np.sqrt(self.eigenvalues_[nz])
+        return K @ scaled
+
+
+class GramLDA(Tagged, ClassifierMixin, TransformerMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """scikit-learn's ``LinearDiscriminantAnalysis`` over the Gram matrix
+    (``examples/kernel-only/lda.scm``): X'X by dsyrk and the class means
+    in one pass, then the three solvers' own steps on p x p matrices --
+    ``"svd"`` (the default) takes its first SVD, of the n x p
+    standardised within-class design, as the eigenproblem of
+    D^-1 Sw D^-1 (dsyevd); ``"lsqr"`` solves Sw W = M' by Cholesky;
+    ``"eigen"`` is Sb v = lam Sw v (dsygvd).  ``shrinkage`` takes None or a
+    float (not "auto"); no ``covariance_estimator``.
+
+    Attributes after fit: classes_, coef_, intercept_, means_, priors_,
+    covariance_ (lsqr, eigen, or store_covariance), scalings_ and
+    explained_variance_ratio_ (svd, eigen), xbar_ (svd), n_features_in_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, solver="svd", shrinkage=None, priors=None, n_components=None,
+                 store_covariance=False, tol=1e-4):
+        self.solver, self.shrinkage, self.priors = solver, shrinkage, priors
+        self.n_components, self.store_covariance, self.tol = n_components, store_covariance, tol
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _shrunk(C, s):
+        # shrunk_covariance: (1 - s) C + s tr(C) / p I
+        if s is None:
+            return C
+        p = C.shape[0]
+        out = (1.0 - s) * C
+        out.flat[::p + 1] += s * np.trace(C) / p
+        return out
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        if self.solver not in ("svd", "lsqr", "eigen"):
+            raise ValueError(f"solver={self.solver!r}: expected 'svd', 'lsqr' or 'eigen'")
+        s = self.shrinkage
+        if s is not None and (isinstance(s, str) or not 0.0 <= float(s) <= 1.0):
+            raise ValueError(f"shrinkage={s!r}: GramLDA takes None or a float in [0, 1]")
+        if self.solver == "svd" and s is not None:
+            raise NotImplementedError("shrinkage not supported with 'svd' solver.")
+        s = None if s is None else float(s)
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y, classifier=True)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        if n < 2:
+            raise ValueError(f"Found array with {n} sample(s) (shape={X.shape}) while a "
+                             "minimum of 2 is required.")
+        self.classes_, yi = classes_of(y)
+        K = len(self.classes_)
+        if n == K:
+            raise ValueError("The number of samples must be more than the number of classes.")
+        if K < 2:
+            raise ValueError("The number of classes has to be greater than one; got 1 class")
+        k = _gramops_kernels()
+        lab = np.ascontiguousarray(yi, dtype=np.int32)
+        G, means, counts = np.zeros((p, p)), np.zeros((K, p)), np.zeros(K)
+        k.lda_moments(X, lab, G, means, counts, n, p, K)
+        if self.priors is None:
+            priors = counts / n
+        else:
+            priors = np.asarray(self.priors, dtype=np.float64)
+            if np.any(priors < 0):
+                raise ValueError("priors must be non-negative")
+            if abs(priors.sum() - 1.0) > 1e-5:
+                warnings.warn("The priors do not sum to 1. Renormalizing", UserWarning)
+                priors = priors / priors.sum()
+        self.priors_, self.means_ = priors, means
+        top = min(K - 1, p)
+        if self.n_components is not None and int(self.n_components) > top:
+            raise ValueError("n_components cannot be larger than min(n_features, n_classes - 1).")
+        self._max_components = top if self.n_components is None else int(self.n_components)
+        xx = np.diagonal(G).copy()
+        k.lda_within(G, means, counts, n, p, K)      # G is now Sw, empirical priors
+        if not np.all(np.diagonal(G) > 1e-8 * xx / n):
+            # a column whose class means dwarf its spread: the correction
+            # cancelled its digits, so take the centred rows instead
+            Xc = np.ascontiguousarray(X - means[yi])
+            G = _gram(Xc) / n
+        Sw_emp = G
+
+        def class_cov():
+            # scikit-learn's _class_cov: sum_k prior_k (shrunk) C_k; with
+            # the empirical priors that is the shrunk Sw, else per class
+            if self.priors is None or np.allclose(priors, counts / n):
+                return self._shrunk(Sw_emp, s)
+            C = np.zeros((p, p))
+            for c in range(K):
+                Xk = np.ascontiguousarray(X[yi == c] - means[c])
+                C += priors[c] * self._shrunk(_gram(Xk) / max(Xk.shape[0], 1), s)
+            return C
+
+        if self.solver == "svd":
+            if self.store_covariance:
+                self.covariance_ = class_cov()
+            self.xbar_ = priors @ means
+            std, V, S = np.zeros(p), np.zeros((p, p)), np.zeros(p)
+            k.lda_svd_first(np.ascontiguousarray(Sw_emp), std, V, S, p)
+            rank = int(np.sum(S > self.tol))
+            scal = (V[:, :rank] / std[:, None]) / S[:rank]
+            fac = 1.0 if K == 1 else 1.0 / (K - 1)
+            Z = (np.sqrt(n * priors * fac) * (means - self.xbar_).T).T @ scal
+            _, S2, Vt2 = np.linalg.svd(Z, full_matrices=False)
+            self.explained_variance_ratio_ = (S2 ** 2 / np.sum(S2 ** 2))[:self._max_components] \
+                if self._max_components else np.empty((0,))
+            rank2 = int(np.sum(S2 > self.tol * S2[0]))
+            self.scalings_ = scal @ Vt2.T[:, :rank2]
+            coef = (means - self.xbar_) @ self.scalings_
+            self.intercept_ = -0.5 * np.sum(coef ** 2, axis=1) + np.log(priors)
+            self.coef_ = coef @ self.scalings_.T
+            self.intercept_ -= self.xbar_ @ self.coef_.T
+        else:
+            Sw = class_cov()
+            self.covariance_ = Sw
+            if self.solver == "lsqr":
+                coef = _ridge_solve(Sw, np.ascontiguousarray(means.T), 0.0)
+                if coef is None:
+                    coef = np.linalg.lstsq(Sw, means.T, rcond=None)[0]
+                self.coef_ = coef.T
+                self.intercept_ = -0.5 * np.diag(means @ self.coef_.T) + np.log(priors)
+            else:
+                xbar = counts @ means / n
+                St = self._shrunk(Sw_emp + (means - xbar).T @ ((counts / n)[:, None] * (means - xbar)), s)
+                V, ev = np.zeros((p, p)), np.zeros(p)
+                k.lda_eigen(np.ascontiguousarray(St - Sw), np.ascontiguousarray(Sw.copy()), V, ev, p)
+                self.explained_variance_ratio_ = (ev / np.sum(ev))[:self._max_components]
+                self.scalings_ = V
+                self.coef_ = means @ V @ V.T
+                self.intercept_ = -0.5 * np.diag(means @ self.coef_.T) + np.log(priors)
+        if K == 2:
+            self.coef_ = (self.coef_[1, :] - self.coef_[0, :]).reshape(1, -1)
+            self.intercept_ = np.asarray(self.intercept_[1] - self.intercept_[0]).reshape(1)
+        return self
+
+    def decision_function(self, X):
+        check_is_fitted(self)
+        d = pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_.T + self.intercept_
+        return d.ravel() if d.shape[1] == 1 else d
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        d = self.decision_function(X)
+        idx = (d > 0).astype(int) if d.ndim == 1 else d.argmax(axis=1)
+        return self.classes_[idx]
+
+    def predict_proba(self, X):
+        d = self.decision_function(X)
+        if d.ndim == 1:
+            p1 = 1.0 / (1.0 + np.exp(-d))
+            return np.stack([1 - p1, p1], axis=1)
+        e = np.exp(d - d.max(axis=1, keepdims=True))
+        return e / e.sum(axis=1, keepdims=True)
+
+    def predict_log_proba(self, X):
+        P = self.predict_proba(X)
+        with np.errstate(divide="ignore"):
+            return np.log(P)
+
+    def transform(self, X):
+        if self.solver == "lsqr":
+            raise NotImplementedError(
+                "transform not implemented for 'lsqr' solver (use 'svd' or 'eigen').")
+        check_is_fitted(self)
+        X = pred_x(self, X)
+        Xn = (X - self.xbar_) @ self.scalings_ if self.solver == "svd" else X @ self.scalings_
+        return Xn[:, :self._max_components]
+
+
+class GramTruncatedSVD(Tagged, TransformerMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """scikit-learn's ``TruncatedSVD`` on a dense X, through the Gram
+    matrix (``examples/kernel-only/truncated-svd.scm``): the leading
+    ``n_components`` pairs of X'X (n >= p; X'X by dsyrk) or of X X'
+    (wide) by dsyevr over the wanted index range, the transformed data
+    by one dgemm, svd_flip's signs (u_based_decision=False).
+
+    The result is the exact truncated SVD, what ``algorithm="arpack"``
+    computes; scikit-learn's default randomized solver approximates it
+    (5 power iterations), so against that one the components agree to
+    its approximation error.  ``algorithm``, ``n_iter``,
+    ``n_oversamples``, ``power_iteration_normalizer``, ``random_state``
+    and ``tol`` are taken for the interface and do not change the
+    answer.
+
+    Attributes after fit: components_, explained_variance_,
+    explained_variance_ratio_, singular_values_, n_features_in_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, n_components=2, *, algorithm="randomized", n_iter=5, n_oversamples=10,
+                 power_iteration_normalizer="auto", random_state=None, tol=0.0):
+        self.n_components, self.algorithm, self.n_iter = n_components, algorithm, n_iter
+        self.n_oversamples = n_oversamples
+        self.power_iteration_normalizer = power_iteration_normalizer
+        self.random_state, self.tol = random_state, tol
+
+    def fit(self, X, y=None):
+        self.fit_transform(X)
+        return self
+
+    def fit_transform(self, X, y=None):
+        if self.algorithm not in ("randomized", "arpack"):
+            raise ValueError(f"algorithm={self.algorithm!r}: expected 'randomized' or 'arpack'")
+        X = fit_x(self, X, ensure_min_features=2)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        c = int(self.n_components)
+        if not 1 <= c <= min(n, p):
+            raise ValueError(f"n_components({c}) must be between 1 and min(n_samples, "
+                             f"n_features)={min(n, p)}.")
+        k = _gramops_kernels()
+        V, s, Z = np.zeros((p, c)), np.zeros(c), np.zeros((n, c))
+        (k.tsvd_tall if n >= p else k.tsvd_wide)(X, V, s, Z, n, p, c)
+        self.components_ = np.ascontiguousarray(V.T)
+        self.singular_values_ = s
+        self.explained_variance_ = np.var(Z, axis=0)
+        full = np.var(X, axis=0).sum()
+        self.explained_variance_ratio_ = self.explained_variance_ / full if full > 0 \
+            else np.zeros(c)
+        return Z
+
+    def transform(self, X):
+        check_is_fitted(self)
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.components_.T
+
+    def inverse_transform(self, X):
+        check_is_fitted(self)
+        return np.asarray(X) @ self.components_
+
+
+class ParallelFastICA(Tagged, TransformerMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """FastICA, scikit-learn's ``FastICA`` at its defaults translated
+    whole (``examples/kernel-only/fastica.scm``: algorithm="parallel",
+    fun="logcosh", whiten="unit-variance", whiten_solver="svd" -- the
+    singular vectors of X' taken from the eigenvectors of X'X, signed as
+    scikit-learn signs them).  The start is ``RandomState(random_state)
+    .normal(size=(k, k))``, scikit-learn's draw, unless ``w_init`` is
+    given; with the same start the fit is scikit-learn's to rounding.
+
+    Attributes after fit: components_, mixing_, mean_, whitening_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, n_components=None, *, max_iter=200, tol=1e-4, w_init=None,
+                 random_state=None):
+        self.n_components, self.max_iter, self.tol = n_components, max_iter, tol
+        self.w_init, self.random_state = w_init, random_state
+
+    def fit(self, X, y=None):
+        X = fit_x(self, X, ensure_min_samples=2)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        k = min(n, p) if self.n_components is None else min(int(self.n_components), n, p)
+        if self.w_init is None:
+            w0 = np.random.RandomState(self.random_state).normal(size=(k, k))
+        else:
+            w0 = np.asarray(self.w_init, dtype=np.float64)
+        w0 = np.ascontiguousarray(w0)
+        self.components_ = np.zeros((k, p)); self.whitening_ = np.zeros((k, p))
+        self._unmixing = np.zeros((k, k)); self.mean_ = np.zeros(p)
+        self.n_iter_ = _gpu_or_cpu(n * p, getattr(self, "backend", None)).fastica(
+            X, w0, self.components_, self.whitening_, self._unmixing, self.mean_,
+            int(self.max_iter), float(self.tol), n, p, k)
+        self.mixing_ = np.linalg.pinv(self.components_)
+        return self
+
+    def transform(self, X):
+        return (pred_x(self, X) - self.mean_) @ self.components_.T
+
+    def fit_transform(self, X, y=None):
+        return self.fit(X).transform(X)
+
+
+class CovARDRegression(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """Automatic relevance determination, scikit-learn's ``ARDRegression``
+    for n >= p translated whole (``examples/kernel-only/ard.scm``): each
+    iteration sigma = pinvh(diag(lambda) + alpha G) over the kept
+    features (the eigenproblem in the subset, scipy's cutoff), then
+    coef, gamma, lambda, alpha and the pruning at ``threshold_lambda``,
+    stopping on the coefficients' summed change.  ``hoist=True`` (the
+    default) takes the kept features' Gram from X'X formed once;
+    ``hoist=False`` forms it from X every iteration, as scikit-learn
+    does.  Same iterations and coefficients to rounding either way.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, alpha_, lambda_, sigma_,
+    n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, *, max_iter=300, tol=1e-3, alpha_1=1e-6, alpha_2=1e-6,
+                 lambda_1=1e-6, lambda_2=1e-6, threshold_lambda=1e4, fit_intercept=True,
+                 hoist=True):
+        self.max_iter, self.tol = max_iter, tol
+        self.alpha_1, self.alpha_2, self.lambda_1, self.lambda_2 = alpha_1, alpha_2, lambda_1, lambda_2
+        self.threshold_lambda, self.fit_intercept, self.hoist = threshold_lambda, fit_intercept, hoist
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        Xc, yc, xm, ym = _center(X, y, self.fit_intercept)
+        n, p = Xc.shape
+        if n < p:
+            raise ValueError(f"CovARDRegression is the n >= p route (_update_sigma); got "
+                             f"n_samples = {n} for {p} features")
+        self.coef_ = np.zeros(p)
+        self.lambda_ = np.zeros(p)
+        sigma = np.zeros(p * p)
+        out = np.zeros(2)
+        self.n_iter_ = _gramops_kernels().ard(
+            Xc, np.ascontiguousarray(yc), self.coef_, sigma, self.lambda_, out,
+            int(self.max_iter), float(self.tol), float(self.alpha_1), float(self.alpha_2),
+            float(self.lambda_1), float(self.lambda_2), float(self.threshold_lambda),
+            1 if self.hoist else 0, n, p)
+        k = int(out[1])
+        self.alpha_ = float(out[0])
+        self.sigma_ = sigma[:k * k].reshape(k, k).copy()
+        self.intercept_ = ym - float(xm @ self.coef_)
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+
+def _gpu_or_cpu(size, backend=None):
+    """The --cuda translation (kernels and device-resident cuBLAS) when it
+    was built, a device answers, the backend allows it and the problem has
+    at least a million entries; the CPU library otherwise."""
+    import os
+    from ._libfind import gpu_built
+    if (backend in (None, "cuda") and size >= 1e6 and not os.environ.get("SCM2CPP_NO_DEVICE")
+            and gpu_built() and cuda_available()):
+        import importlib
+        return importlib.import_module(f"{__name__}._generated._loader_gpu_cuda")
+    return _gramops_kernels()
+
+
+def _accel(work):
+    """The --cublas build of the selection and Gram products, when it was
+    built, a device answers, and WORK (flops) is large enough to pay for
+    the transfer; else None."""
+    import os
+    from ._libfind import accel_built
+    if (work < 2e9 or os.environ.get("SCM2CPP_NO_DEVICE") or not accel_built()
+            or not cuda_available()):
+        return None
+    import importlib
+    return importlib.import_module(f"{__name__}._generated._loader_accel_cublas")
+
+
+# Products under this many multiply-adds go to numpy: no BLAS threads
+# them, and a ctypes call to the package's library costs 10 us more than
+# numpy's (a 200 x 10 GramRidge took twice as long through it)
+_SMALL = 1e6
+
+
+def _gram(Xc, backend=None):
+    """X'X: gram.scm's gram-xx where the BLAS build is here (one dsyrk on
+    every core, half the flops of numpy's X.T @ X, which is a dgemm), on
+    the device for a large product when one answers, else numpy.  With
+    the BLAS build the device is taken by default only from p = 4000:
+    the product reads X once, so its copy to the device is most of the
+    device's time, and twenty cores' dsyrk was faster up to p = 2000
+    (200,000 x 200: 0.044 s against 0.096 s)."""
+    from ._libfind import gramops_backend
+    n, p = Xc.shape
+    if backend is None and float(n) * p * p < _SMALL:
+        return np.ascontiguousarray(Xc.T @ Xc)
+    blas = gramops_backend() == "blas"
+    dev = backend == "cublas" or (backend is None and (not blas or p >= 4000))
+    lib = _accel(float(n) * p * p) if dev else None
+    if lib is None:
+        if not blas:
+            return np.ascontiguousarray(Xc.T @ Xc)
+        lib = _gramops_kernels()
+    G = np.zeros((p, p))
+    lib.gram_xx(np.ascontiguousarray(Xc), G, n, p)
+    return G
+
+
+def _gram_xy(Xc, y):
+    """X'y (y one target or several) by gram.scm's gram-xy where the BLAS
+    build is here, so that the Gram-route fits run on one BLAS: numpy's
+    OpenBLAS keeps its threads spinning after a call, and the next dsyrk
+    of the other library then shared the cores with them (CovRidge at
+    200,000 x 200 took 0.14 s for a 0.044 s product)."""
+    from ._libfind import gramops_backend
+    n, p = Xc.shape
+    q = 1 if y.ndim == 1 else y.shape[1]
+    if gramops_backend() != "blas" or float(n) * p * q < _SMALL:
+        return Xc.T @ y
+    c = np.zeros((p, q))
+    _gramops_kernels().gram_xy(np.ascontiguousarray(Xc), np.ascontiguousarray(y), c, n, p, q)
+    return c.ravel() if y.ndim == 1 else c
+
+
+def _ridge_solve(G, c, alpha):
+    """(G + alpha I) b = c by gram.scm's gram-ridge-solve (LAPACK's dposv in the
+    BLAS build), c one column or several; None when the factor breaks
+    down (alpha 0 on a singular G), for the caller's least squares.  In
+    the package's library rather than numpy's for the reason _gram_xy
+    gives: numpy's solve between two dsyrk calls cost the next one half
+    its speed.  (Until 0.17 this was rfe.scm's Cholesky in loops, 3.7x
+    numpy's solve at p = 200.)"""
+    p = G.shape[0]
+    cols = np.array(c.reshape(p, -1), dtype=np.float64, order="C")
+    if _gramops_kernels().gram_ridge_solve(np.ascontiguousarray(G, dtype=np.float64), cols,
+                                           float(alpha), p, cols.shape[1]) != 0:
+        return None
+    return cols.ravel() if c.ndim == 1 else cols
+
+
+def _cpu_select_lib():
+    return _gramops_kernels()
+
+
+def f_regression(X, y, *, center=True, backend=None):
+    """scikit-learn's ``f_regression`` translated (``fscore.scm``): F and
+    p-values of each feature against y.  ``y`` may also be n x q, the q
+    targets in one call (one product X'Y, on the device when one answers
+    and the product is large) -- what a loop of scikit-learn's calls
+    gives, column by column.  Infinite F (perfect correlation) becomes
+    the largest double and NaN F zero with p-value 1, as
+    force_finite=True has it.  p-values need scipy (else None)."""
+    X = np.ascontiguousarray(X, dtype=np.float64)
+    Y = np.asarray(y, dtype=np.float64)
+    one = Y.ndim == 1
+    Y = np.ascontiguousarray(Y.reshape(len(Y), -1))
+    n, p = X.shape
+    q = Y.shape[1]
+    lib = _accel(float(n) * p * q) if backend in (None, "cublas") else None
+    if lib is None:
+        lib = _cpu_select_lib()
+    r = np.zeros((p, q))
+    F = np.zeros((p, q))
+    with np.errstate(divide="ignore", invalid="ignore"):
+        lib.f_regression(X, Y, r, F, 1 if center else 0, n, p, q)
+    dof = n - (2 if center else 1)
+    try:
+        from scipy import stats
+        pv = stats.f.sf(F, 1, dof)
+    except ImportError:
+        pv = None
+    inf = np.isinf(F)
+    F[inf] = np.finfo(np.float64).max
+    nan = np.isnan(F)
+    F[nan] = 0.0
+    if pv is not None:
+        pv[nan] = 1.0
+    if one:
+        return F[:, 0], (None if pv is None else pv[:, 0])
+    return F, pv
+
+
+def f_classif(X, y):
+    """scikit-learn's ``f_classif`` translated (``fscore.scm``: f_oneway's
+    sums of squares, the class sums one product).  p-values need scipy."""
+    X = np.ascontiguousarray(X, dtype=np.float64)
+    classes, lab = np.unique(np.asarray(y), return_inverse=True)
+    n, p = X.shape
+    k = len(classes)
+    F = np.zeros(p)
+    with np.errstate(divide="ignore", invalid="ignore"):
+        _cpu_select_lib().f_classif(X, lab.astype(np.int32), F, n, p, k)
+    try:
+        from scipy import special
+        pv = special.fdtrc(k - 1, n - k, F)
+    except ImportError:
+        pv = None
+    return F, pv
+
+
+def _clean_nans(scores):
+    scores = np.array(scores, dtype=np.float64, copy=True)
+    scores[np.isnan(scores)] = np.finfo(np.float64).min
+    return scores
+
+
+class _SelectBase(Tagged, TransformerMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y, y_numeric=False)
+        sf = self.score_func
+        fn = {"f_classif": f_classif, "f_regression": f_regression}.get(sf, sf)
+        self.scores_, self.pvalues_ = fn(X, y)
+        return self
+
+    def transform(self, X):
+        X = pred_x(self, X)
+        return X[:, self.get_support()]
+
+    def fit_transform(self, X, y):
+        return self.fit(X, y).transform(X)
+
+
+class SelectKBest(_SelectBase):
+    """scikit-learn's ``SelectKBest`` over the translated F statistics
+    (``score_func`` "f_classif", "f_regression", or one of this module's
+    functions): the k best scores by a stable sort, NaN scores last.
+
+    Attributes after fit: scores_, pvalues_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, score_func="f_classif", *, k=10):
+        self.score_func, self.k = score_func, k
+
+    def get_support(self):
+        check_is_fitted(self)
+        if self.k == "all":
+            return np.ones(len(self.scores_), dtype=bool)
+        mask = np.zeros(len(self.scores_), dtype=bool)
+        if self.k == 0:
+            return mask
+        mask[np.argsort(_clean_nans(self.scores_), kind="mergesort")[-self.k:]] = True
+        return mask
+
+
+class SelectPercentile(_SelectBase):
+    """scikit-learn's ``SelectPercentile`` over the translated F
+    statistics: scores above the (100 - percentile)th percentile, ties
+    at it kept in order up to the percentile's count.
+
+    Attributes after fit: scores_, pvalues_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, score_func="f_classif", *, percentile=10):
+        self.score_func, self.percentile = score_func, percentile
+
+    def get_support(self):
+        check_is_fitted(self)
+        if self.percentile == 100:
+            return np.ones(len(self.scores_), dtype=bool)
+        if self.percentile == 0:
+            return np.zeros(len(self.scores_), dtype=bool)
+        scores = _clean_nans(self.scores_)
+        threshold = np.percentile(scores, 100 - self.percentile)
+        mask = scores > threshold
+        ties = np.where(scores == threshold)[0]
+        if len(ties):
+            max_feats = int(len(scores) * self.percentile / 100)
+            mask[ties[: max_feats - mask.sum()]] = True
+        return mask
+
+
+class GramRFE(Tagged, RegressorMixin, TransformerMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """scikit-learn's ``RFE`` around ``Ridge(alpha)`` (``alpha=0``:
+    ``LinearRegression()``) translated whole (``rfe.scm``): the centred
+    Gram formed once (on the device for a large one when one answers),
+    each round's fit from its Cholesky factor with the dropped features
+    taken out by plane rotations, the features ranked by coef^2 in a
+    stable order.  scikit-learn refits from X every round; the ranking
+    and the final coefficients are the same to rounding.
+
+    Attributes after fit: support_, ranking_, n_features_, coef_,
+    intercept_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, alpha=1.0, *, n_features_to_select=None, step=1, backend=None):
+        self.alpha, self.n_features_to_select, self.step = alpha, n_features_to_select, step
+        self.backend = backend
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        k = self.n_features_to_select
+        nsel = p // 2 if k is None else (int(k) if isinstance(k, (int, np.integer)) else int(p * k))
+        step = int(max(1, self.step * p)) if 0.0 < self.step < 1.0 else int(self.step)
+        lib = _accel(float(n) * p * p) if self.backend in (None, "cublas") else None
+        if lib is None:
+            lib = _cpu_select_lib()
+        coef = np.zeros(p)
+        support = np.zeros(p, dtype=np.int32)
+        ranking = np.zeros(p, dtype=np.int32)
+        lib.rfe(X, y, coef, support, ranking, float(self.alpha), nsel, step, n, p)
+        self.support_ = support.astype(bool)
+        self.ranking_ = ranking.astype(int)
+        self.n_features_ = int(self.support_.sum())
+        self.coef_ = coef[self.support_].copy()
+        self.intercept_ = float(y.mean() - X.mean(axis=0)[self.support_] @ self.coef_)
+        return self
+
+    def transform(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X)[:, self.support_]
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return self.transform(X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+    def fit_transform(self, X, y):
+        return self.fit(X, y).transform(X)
+
+
+class _GramLarsBase(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    def _fit_lars(self, X, y, method, alpha, max_iter):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        Xc, yc, xm, ym = _center(X, y, self.fit_intercept)
+        n, p = Xc.shape
+        G = _gram(Xc)
+        cov = Xc.T @ yc
+        self.coef_ = np.zeros(p)
+        self.n_iter_ = _classifier_kernels().lars(
+            G, cov, self.coef_, np.zeros(1), np.zeros(1), 0, float(n), float(alpha), method,
+            int(max_iter), float(np.finfo(np.float64).eps), p)
+        self.intercept_ = ym - float(xm @ self.coef_)
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+
+class GramLars(_GramLarsBase):
+    """Least angle regression, scikit-learn's _lars_path_solver with a
+    Gram translated (``examples/kernel-only/lars.scm``, method "lar").
+    ``Lars`` takes the Gram route for n > p (precompute="auto"); here it
+    is taken always, the Gram X'X formed in numpy.  ``n_nonzero_coefs``
+    defaults to 500, as there.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, *, n_nonzero_coefs=500, fit_intercept=True):
+        self.n_nonzero_coefs, self.fit_intercept = n_nonzero_coefs, fit_intercept
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        return self._fit_lars(X, y, 0, 0.0, int(self.n_nonzero_coefs))
+
+
+class GramLassoLars(_GramLarsBase):
+    """The lasso by least angle regression, scikit-learn's
+    _lars_path_solver with a Gram translated (method "lasso": variables
+    leave the active set when their coefficient crosses zero, the
+    Cholesky factor downdated by Givens rotations).  ``LassoLars`` takes
+    the Gram route for n > p; here it is taken always.  ``alpha``
+    defaults to 1.0 and ``max_iter`` to 500, as there.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, alpha=1.0, *, max_iter=500, fit_intercept=True):
+        self.alpha, self.max_iter, self.fit_intercept = alpha, max_iter, fit_intercept
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        return self._fit_lars(X, y, 1, float(self.alpha), int(self.max_iter))
+
+
+class _GramLarsCVBase(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """LarsCV / LassoLarsCV: KFold(cv) without shuffling; on each fold
+    the whole path by the translated LARS over the training fold's Gram
+    (centred on the training means), the test residuals interpolated
+    onto the union of the folds' alphas as scikit-learn interpolates
+    them (the path's coefficients interpolated, the residuals being
+    affine in them, the mean square from the test fold's Gram); the
+    alpha of the least mean square error, refitted on all the data."""
+
+    def __init__(self, *, fit_intercept=True, max_iter=500, cv=5, max_n_alphas=1000):
+        self.fit_intercept, self.max_iter, self.cv = fit_intercept, max_iter, cv
+        self.max_n_alphas = max_n_alphas
+
+    def _lars(self, Xc, yc, alpha_min, rec):
+        n, p = Xc.shape
+        G = _gram(Xc)
+        cov = Xc.T @ yc
+        coef = np.zeros(p)
+        mi = int(self.max_iter)
+        path = np.zeros((mi + 1, p)) if rec else np.zeros(1)
+        alphas = np.zeros(mi + 1) if rec else np.zeros(1)
+        it = _classifier_kernels().lars(G, cov, coef, path, alphas, 1 if rec else 0, float(n),
+                                        float(alpha_min), self._method, mi,
+                                        float(np.finfo(np.float64).eps), p)
+        return it, coef, (path[:it + 1] if rec else None), (alphas[:it + 1] if rec else None)
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        if n < int(self.cv):
+            raise ValueError(f"Cannot have number of splits n_splits={self.cv} greater than "
+                             f"the number of samples: n_samples={n}.")
+        folds = []
+        for train, test in _kfold(n, int(self.cv)):
+            Xtr, ytr, Xte, yte = X[train], y[train], X[test], y[test]
+            if self.fit_intercept:
+                xm, ym = Xtr.mean(axis=0), ytr.mean()
+                Xtr, Xte, ytr, yte = Xtr - xm, Xte - xm, ytr - ym, yte - ym
+            _, _, path, alphas = self._lars(np.ascontiguousarray(Xtr), ytr, 0.0, True)
+            folds.append((alphas, path, _gram(Xte), Xte.T @ yte, float(yte @ yte), len(test)))
+        all_alphas = np.unique(np.concatenate([f[0] for f in folds]))
+        stride = int(max(1, int(len(all_alphas) / float(self.max_n_alphas))))
+        all_alphas = all_alphas[::stride]
+        mse = np.empty((len(all_alphas), len(folds)))
+        for j, (alphas, path, Gt, cyt, yy, nt) in enumerate(folds):
+            a, c = alphas[::-1], path[::-1]
+            if a[0] != 0:
+                a, c = np.r_[0, a], np.r_[c[:1], c]
+            if a[-1] != all_alphas[-1]:
+                a, c = np.r_[a, all_alphas[-1]], np.r_[c, c[-1:]]
+            ci = np.column_stack([np.interp(all_alphas, a, c[:, q]) for q in range(p)])
+            mse[:, j] = (((ci @ Gt) * ci).sum(axis=1) - 2.0 * ci @ cyt + yy) / nt
+        mask = np.all(np.isfinite(mse), axis=-1)
+        all_alphas, mse = all_alphas[mask], mse[mask]
+        self.alpha_ = float(all_alphas[int(np.argmin(mse.mean(axis=-1)))])
+        self.cv_alphas_, self.mse_path_ = all_alphas, mse
+        Xc, yc, xm, ym = _center(X, y, self.fit_intercept)
+        self.n_iter_, self.coef_, _, _ = self._lars(Xc, yc, self.alpha_, False)
+        self.intercept_ = ym - float(xm @ self.coef_)
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+
+class GramLarsCV(_GramLarsCVBase):
+    """scikit-learn's ``LarsCV`` (method "lar") over the translated LARS;
+    see _GramLarsCVBase.  Attributes after fit: alpha_, coef_, intercept_,
+    cv_alphas_, mse_path_, n_iter_."""
+    _method = 0
+
+
+class GramLassoLarsCV(_GramLarsCVBase):
+    """scikit-learn's ``LassoLarsCV`` (method "lasso") over the translated
+    LARS; see _GramLarsCVBase.  Attributes after fit: alpha_, coef_,
+    intercept_, cv_alphas_, mse_path_, n_iter_."""
+    _method = 1
+
+
+class GramOMPCV(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """scikit-learn's ``OrthogonalMatchingPursuitCV``: KFold(cv) without
+    shuffling; on each fold the path of the translated OMP (``omp.scm``,
+    the path recorded) up to ``max_iter`` columns on the centred training
+    fold, the test fold's mean square error after each column, the number
+    of columns that minimises the folds' mean (over the shortest path),
+    refitted as GramOMP.  ``max_iter`` defaults, as there, to
+    min(max(10% of p, 5), p).
+
+    Attributes after fit: n_nonzero_coefs_, coef_, intercept_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, *, fit_intercept=True, max_iter=None, cv=5):
+        self.fit_intercept, self.max_iter, self.cv = fit_intercept, max_iter, cv
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        if n < int(self.cv):
+            raise ValueError(f"Cannot have number of splits n_splits={self.cv} greater than "
+                             f"the number of samples: n_samples={n}.")
+        kmax = min(max(int(0.1 * p), 5), p) if self.max_iter is None else int(self.max_iter)
+        lib = _gramops_kernels()
+        mses = []
+        for train, test in _kfold(n, int(self.cv)):
+            Xtr, ytr, Xte, yte = X[train], y[train], X[test], y[test]
+            if self.fit_intercept:
+                xm, ym = Xtr.mean(axis=0), ytr.mean()
+                Xtr, Xte, ytr, yte = Xtr - xm, Xte - xm, ytr - ym, yte - ym
+            path = np.zeros((kmax, p))
+            k = lib.omp(np.ascontiguousarray(Xtr), np.ascontiguousarray(ytr), np.zeros(p),
+                        path, 1, kmax, len(train), p)
+            res = Xte @ path[:k].T - yte[:, None]
+            mses.append((res ** 2).mean(axis=0))
+        m = min(len(f) for f in mses)
+        best = int(np.argmin(np.mean([f[:m] for f in mses], axis=0))) + 1
+        self.n_nonzero_coefs_ = best
+        Xc, yc, xm, ym = _center(X, y, self.fit_intercept)
+        self.coef_ = np.zeros(p)
+        self.n_iter_ = lib.omp(Xc, yc, self.coef_, np.zeros(1), 0, best, n, p)
+        self.intercept_ = ym - float(xm @ self.coef_)
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+
+class GramLassoLarsIC(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """LassoLars with the penalty chosen by AIC or BIC, scikit-learn's
+    ``LassoLarsIC``: the whole "lasso" path by the translated
+    _lars_path_solver (``examples/kernel-only/lars.scm``, the path
+    recorded as lars_path(return_path=True) returns it), then
+    scikit-learn's criterion n log(2 pi s^2) + RSS / s^2 + K df at
+    each knot, s^2 the OLS noise variance RSS_ols / (n - p - 1).  The
+    residual sums are taken from the Gram (|y - X c|^2 = y'y - 2 c'X'y
+    + c'X'Xc, the OLS fit by its Cholesky factor) rather than from X
+    at every knot as scikit-learn takes them -- the same numbers to
+    rounding, without the n x knots product.  n > p + 1, as there.
+
+    Attributes after fit: alpha_, coef_, intercept_, alphas_, criterion_,
+    noise_variance_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, criterion="aic", *, fit_intercept=True, max_iter=500,
+                 noise_variance=None):
+        self.criterion, self.fit_intercept, self.max_iter = criterion, fit_intercept, max_iter
+        self.noise_variance = noise_variance
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        Xc, yc, xm, ym = _center(X, y, self.fit_intercept)
+        n, p = Xc.shape
+        mi = int(self.max_iter)
+        G0 = _gram(Xc)
+        cov0 = Xc.T @ yc
+        yy = float(yc @ yc)
+        path = np.zeros((mi + 1, p))
+        alphas = np.zeros(mi + 1)
+        coef = np.zeros(p)
+        it = _classifier_kernels().lars(
+            G0.copy(), cov0.copy(), coef, path, alphas, 1, float(n), 0.0, 1, mi,
+            float(np.finfo(np.float64).eps), p)
+        cp, al = path[:it + 1], alphas[:it + 1]
+        rss = yy - 2.0 * (cp @ cov0) + ((cp @ G0) * cp).sum(axis=1)
+        df = (np.abs(cp) > np.finfo(np.float64).eps).sum(axis=1)
+        if self.noise_variance is None:
+            if n <= p + int(self.fit_intercept):
+                raise ValueError(f"n must exceed p (+1 with an intercept) to estimate the "
+                                 f"noise variance; got n_samples = {n} for {p} features; "
+                                 "pass noise_variance")
+            L = np.linalg.cholesky(G0)
+            beta = np.linalg.solve(L.T, np.linalg.solve(L, cov0))
+            self.noise_variance_ = (yy - 2.0 * beta @ cov0 + beta @ G0 @ beta) / (
+                n - p - int(self.fit_intercept))
+        else:
+            self.noise_variance_ = float(self.noise_variance)
+        factor = {"aic": 2.0, "bic": np.log(n)}[self.criterion]
+        self.criterion_ = (n * np.log(2 * np.pi * self.noise_variance_)
+                           + rss / self.noise_variance_ + factor * df)
+        best = int(np.argmin(self.criterion_))
+        self.alphas_, self.n_iter_ = al, it
+        self.alpha_ = float(al[best])
+        self.coef_ = cp[best].copy()
+        self.intercept_ = ym - float(xm @ self.coef_)
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+
+class WeiszfeldTheilSen(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """scikit-learn's ``TheilSenRegressor`` translated whole
+    (``examples/kernel-only/theilsen.scm``): the least squares fit of
+    every subset of n_subsamples rows (p + 1 by default: each an exact
+    solve, the minimum-norm fit for a singular one, as gelss gives it)
+    and the spatial median of the fits by the modified Weiszfeld
+    iteration.  The subsets are scikit-learn's: all the combinations
+    when there are at most ``max_subpopulation``, else
+    ``RandomState(random_state).choice`` draws, made here the same way
+    (and on large problems that drawing is most of the time, on both
+    sides).
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, n_iter_, n_subpopulation_,
+    breakdown_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, *, fit_intercept=True, max_subpopulation=1e4, n_subsamples=None,
+                 max_iter=300, tol=1e-3, random_state=None):
+        self.fit_intercept, self.max_subpopulation = fit_intercept, max_subpopulation
+        self.n_subsamples, self.max_iter, self.tol = n_subsamples, max_iter, tol
+        self.random_state = random_state
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        from itertools import combinations
+        from math import comb
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        fi = 1 if self.fit_intercept else 0
+        ns = min(p + fi, n) if self.n_subsamples is None else int(self.n_subsamples)
+        total = max(1, comb(n, ns))
+        self.n_subpopulation_ = int(min(self.max_subpopulation, total))
+        self.breakdown_ = 1 - (0.5 ** (1 / ns) * (n - ns + 1) + ns - 1) / n
+        if total <= self.max_subpopulation:
+            idx = np.array(list(combinations(range(n), ns)), dtype=np.int32)
+        else:
+            rs = np.random.RandomState(self.random_state)
+            idx = np.array([rs.choice(n, size=ns, replace=False)
+                            for _ in range(self.n_subpopulation_)], dtype=np.int32)
+        nsub = len(idx)
+        w = np.zeros((nsub, p + fi))
+        c = np.zeros(p + fi)
+        self.n_iter_ = _classifier_kernels().theilsen(X, y, idx, w, c, nsub, ns, fi,
+                                                      int(self.max_iter), float(self.tol), p)
+        self.intercept_ = float(c[0]) if fi else 0.0
+        self.coef_ = c[fi:].copy()
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+
+class L1LinearSVM(Tagged, ClassifierMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """The L1-regularized L2-loss linear SVM by liblinear's own
+    algorithm: ``examples/kernel-only/svm-l1.scm`` translated plainly,
+    liblinear's solve_l1r_l2_svc (coordinate descent with a Newton step,
+    a line search and shrinking) -- what scikit-learn's
+    ``LinearSVC(penalty="l1", dual=False)`` runs, on
+
+        min_w  sum_j |w_j| + C sum_i max(0, 1 - y_i w.x_i)^2,
+
+    the intercept a ones column (``intercept_scaling``) penalised with
+    the rest, as liblinear has it.  The coordinate order is random from
+    a different generator than liblinear's, so the fit agrees with
+    scikit-learn's to its tolerance.  Two classes.
+
+    Attributes after fit: classes_, coef_, intercept_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, C=1.0, tol=1e-4, max_iter=1000, fit_intercept=True,
+                 intercept_scaling=1.0, random_state=0):
+        self.C, self.tol, self.max_iter = C, tol, max_iter
+        self.fit_intercept, self.intercept_scaling = fit_intercept, intercept_scaling
+        self.random_state = random_state
+
+    _binary_only = True
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y, classifier=True)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        self.classes_, ys = _binary_labels(y)
+        scaling = float(self.intercept_scaling)
+        if self.fit_intercept:
+            X = np.hstack([X, np.full((n, 1), scaling)])
+        q = X.shape[1]
+        w = np.zeros(q)
+        # liblinear walks the design by columns
+        self.n_iter_ = _classifier_kernels().svm_l1(
+            np.ascontiguousarray(X.T), ys, w, float(self.C), float(self.tol), int(self.max_iter),
+            _seed(self.random_state), n, q)
+        self.coef_ = w[:p].copy()
+        self.intercept_ = float(w[p] * scaling) if self.fit_intercept else 0.0
+        return self
+
+    def decision_function(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        z = self.decision_function(X)
+        return self.classes_[(z > 0).astype(int)]
+
+
+class L1LogisticRegression(Tagged, ClassifierMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """L1-regularized logistic regression by liblinear's own algorithm.
+
+    ``examples/kernel-only/logistic-l1.scm`` translated plainly:
+    liblinear's solve_l1r_lr (newGLMNET: Newton iterations over a
+    coordinate-descent subproblem with random order and shrinking, and
+    a line search) -- what scikit-learn's
+    ``LogisticRegression(l1_ratio=1, solver="liblinear",
+    fit_intercept=False)`` runs, on the same problem
+
+        min_w  sum_j |w_j| + C sum_i log(1 + exp(-y_i w.x_i)).
+
+    ``tol`` and ``max_iter`` are LogisticRegression's (the tolerance is
+    scaled as liblinear scales it; the cap counts Newton iterations).
+    No intercept; two classes.  ``CovLogistic`` solves the same problem
+    by majorization over the Gram matrix instead.
+
+    Attributes after fit: classes_, coef_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    _binary_only = True
+
+    def __init__(self, C=1.0, tol=1e-4, max_iter=100, random_state=0):
+        self.C, self.tol, self.max_iter = C, tol, max_iter
+        self.random_state = random_state
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y, classifier=True)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        self.classes_, ys = _binary_labels(y)
+        w = np.zeros(p)
+        # liblinear walks the design by columns
+        self.n_iter_ = _classifier_kernels().logistic_l1(
+            np.ascontiguousarray(X.T), ys, w, float(self.C), float(self.tol), int(self.max_iter),
+            _seed(self.random_state), n, p)
+        self.coef_ = w
+        self.intercept_ = 0.0
+        return self
+
+    def decision_function(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_
+
+    def predict_proba(self, X):
+        p1 = 1.0 / (1.0 + np.exp(-self.decision_function(X)))
+        return np.column_stack([1.0 - p1, p1])
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        z = self.decision_function(X)
+        return self.classes_[(z > 0).astype(int)]
+
+
+class CovLogistic:
+    """L1-penalized logistic regression, by majorization over the Gram.
+
+    The objective is
+
+        (1/n) sum_i [log(1 + exp(eta_i)) - y_i eta_i] + lam ||b||_1
+
+    with eta = X b and y in {0,1} -- scikit-learn's ``LogisticRegression``
+    with ``penalty="l1"``, ``fit_intercept=False`` and ``C = 1/(n lam)``.
+
+    The logistic Hessian is bounded by X'X / 4 (Bohning's bound), so
+    instead of reweighting the Gram matrix every round -- which would
+    cost O(n p^2) each time and break the design-free construction --
+    the quadratic term is fixed at G/4 once and only the gradient
+    moves.  Each outer round costs one pass for eta and one for
+    X'(y - mu), then hands the majorizer to the same coordinate
+    descent the lasso uses: warm-started, exactly resumable, and with
+    the pleasant identity that the working correlations are exactly
+    X'(y - mu).  Majorization descends monotonically to the optimum
+    of this convex problem.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, X, y):
+        X = np.ascontiguousarray(X, dtype=np.float64)
+        y = np.ascontiguousarray(y, dtype=np.float64)
+        if X.ndim != 2 or y.ndim != 1 or X.shape[0] != y.size:
+            raise ValueError(
+                f"X is {X.shape} and y is {y.shape}; expected (n, p) "
+                "and (n,)")
+        if not np.all((y == 0.0) | (y == 1.0)):
+            raise ValueError("y must be 0/1")
+        self.X, self.y = X, y
+        self.nobs, self.p = X.shape
+        self.g4 = np.ascontiguousarray((X.T @ X).ravel() / 4.0)
+
+    def _grad_corr(self, beta):
+        mu = 1.0 / (1.0 + np.exp(-(self.X @ beta)))
+        return self.X.T @ (self.y - mu)
+
+    def lambda_max(self):
+        """The smallest penalty keeping every coefficient at zero.
+
+        At beta = 0 the gradient is X'(y - 1/2); the penalty must beat
+        its largest entry, scaled as the objective is.
+        """
+        return float(np.max(np.abs(self.X.T @ (self.y - 0.5)))) / self.nobs
+
+    def lambda_grid(self, num=50, eps=1e-2):
+        """A log-spaced descending path from lambda_max."""
+        return self.lambda_max() * np.logspace(0, np.log10(eps), int(num))
+
+    def fit_path(self, lambdas, tol=1e-7, inner_sweeps=200,
+                 max_rounds=500):
+        """Coefficients per lambda, warm-started down the path."""
+        lambdas = np.asarray(lambdas, dtype=np.float64)
+        beta = np.zeros(self.p)
+        out = np.empty((lambdas.size, self.p))
+        for i, lam in enumerate(lambdas):
+            beta = self._fit_one(beta, float(lam), tol, inner_sweeps,
+                                 max_rounds)
+            out[i] = beta
+        return out
+
+    def fit(self, lam, **kw):
+        """Coefficients at one lambda, from zero."""
+        return self._fit_one(np.zeros(self.p), float(lam),
+                             kw.get("tol", 1e-7),
+                             kw.get("inner_sweeps", 200),
+                             kw.get("max_rounds", 500))
+
+    def _fit_one(self, beta, lam, tol, inner_sweeps, max_rounds):
+        beta = beta.copy()
+        self._rounds = 0
+        for _ in range(max_rounds):
+            self._rounds += 1
+            prev = beta.copy()
+            # the majorizer at beta: quadratic G/4, working
+            # correlations exactly X'(y - mu)
+            c = np.ascontiguousarray(self._grad_corr(beta))
+            kernel.cov_descend(self.g4, c, beta, lam, inner_sweeps,
+                               float(self.nobs), self.p)
+            if np.max(np.abs(beta - prev)) < tol * max(
+                    1.0, float(np.max(np.abs(beta)))):
+                break
+        return beta
+
+
+class GramLogisticRegression(Tagged, ClassifierMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """scikit-learn's ``LogisticRegression(l1_ratio=1, solver="liblinear")``
+    interface over CovLogistic: the same problem,
+
+        min_w  ||w||_1 + C sum_i log(1 + exp(-y_i (w.x_i + b))),
+
+    solved by majorization over the Gram matrix instead of liblinear's
+    Newton steps.  As in liblinear the intercept is the weight of a
+    constant column of value ``intercept_scaling`` and is penalized
+    with the rest.  ``tol`` is CovLogistic's (the largest coefficient
+    move in a round, relative to their size) and ``max_iter`` caps the
+    rounds.  Two classes.
+
+    Attributes after fit: classes_, coef_, intercept_, n_iter_.
+    """
+
+    _binary_only = True
+
+    def __init__(self, C=1.0, *, fit_intercept=True, intercept_scaling=1.0, tol=1e-7,
+                 max_iter=500):
+        self.C, self.fit_intercept, self.intercept_scaling = C, fit_intercept, intercept_scaling
+        self.tol, self.max_iter = tol, max_iter
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y, classifier=True)
+        n = X.shape[0]
+        self.classes_, ys = _binary_labels(y)
+        s = float(self.intercept_scaling)
+        if self.fit_intercept:
+            X = np.column_stack([X, np.full(n, s)])
+        m = CovLogistic(X, (ys > 0).astype(np.float64))
+        lam = 1.0 / (n * float(self.C))
+        beta = m._fit_one(np.zeros(m.p), lam, float(self.tol), 200, int(self.max_iter))
+        self.n_iter_ = m._rounds
+        if self.fit_intercept:
+            self.coef_, self.intercept_ = beta[:-1].copy(), float(beta[-1]) * s
+        else:
+            self.coef_, self.intercept_ = beta, 0.0
+        return self
+
+    def decision_function(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+    def predict_proba(self, X):
+        p1 = 1.0 / (1.0 + np.exp(-self.decision_function(X)))
+        return np.column_stack([1.0 - p1, p1])
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        z = self.decision_function(X)
+        return self.classes_[(z > 0).astype(int)]
+
+
+class CovGroupLasso:
+    """Group lasso over a design given by its Gram matrix.
+
+    The objective groups the penalty:
+
+        (1/2n) ||y - X b||^2 + lam * sum_g w_g ||b_g||_2
+
+    with the usual weights w_g = sqrt(|g|), so whole groups enter or
+    leave together.  Block coordinate descent runs on the Gram matrix
+    exactly as the lasso's coordinate descent does -- the working
+    correlations c = X'y - G b are maintained across visits -- and
+    each block visit is one majorized proximal step: the group's Gram
+    block is dominated by its top eigenvalue L_g (found once), and the
+    resulting subproblem has the group soft-threshold in closed form.
+    Majorization descends monotonically; a group of size one reduces
+    exactly to the lasso's coordinate update.
+
+    ``groups`` is a list of index arrays, a partition of 0..p-1.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, X=None, y=None, *, gram=None, corr=None,
+                 nobs=None, groups=None):
+        if gram is not None:
+            if corr is None or nobs is None:
+                raise ValueError("gram needs corr and nobs alongside it")
+            g = np.ascontiguousarray(gram, dtype=np.float64)
+            c = np.ascontiguousarray(corr, dtype=np.float64)
+            self.p = c.size
+            self.G = g.reshape(self.p, self.p)
+            self.c0, self.nobs = c, int(nobs)
+        else:
+            if X is None or y is None:
+                raise ValueError("pass X and y, or gram, corr and nobs")
+            X = np.ascontiguousarray(X, dtype=np.float64)
+            y = np.ascontiguousarray(y, dtype=np.float64)
+            self.nobs, self.p = X.shape
+            self.G = X.T @ X
+            self.c0 = X.T @ y
+        if groups is None:
+            raise ValueError("groups is required")
+        self.groups = [np.asarray(g, dtype=np.intp) for g in groups]
+        seen = np.concatenate(self.groups)
+        if sorted(seen.tolist()) != list(range(self.p)):
+            raise ValueError("groups must partition 0..p-1")
+        self.wg = np.array([np.sqrt(len(g)) for g in self.groups])
+        # the majorizer per group: its Gram block's top eigenvalue
+        self.Lg = np.array(
+            [float(np.linalg.eigvalsh(self.G[np.ix_(g, g)])[-1])
+             for g in self.groups])
+
+    def lambda_max(self):
+        """The smallest penalty at which every group stays zero."""
+        return max(float(np.linalg.norm(self.c0[g])) / (self.nobs * w)
+                   for g, w in zip(self.groups, self.wg))
+
+    def lambda_grid(self, num=50, eps=1e-2):
+        """A log-spaced descending path from lambda_max."""
+        return self.lambda_max() * np.logspace(0, np.log10(eps), int(num))
+
+    def fit_path(self, lambdas, tol=1e-8, max_sweeps=10000):
+        """Coefficients per lambda, warm-started down the path."""
+        lambdas = np.asarray(lambdas, dtype=np.float64)
+        beta = np.zeros(self.p)
+        c = self.c0.copy()
+        out = np.empty((lambdas.size, self.p))
+        for i, lam in enumerate(lambdas):
+            beta, c = self._fit_one(beta, c, float(lam), tol, max_sweeps)
+            out[i] = beta
+        return out
+
+    def fit(self, lam, **kw):
+        """Coefficients at one lambda, from zero."""
+        b, _ = self._fit_one(np.zeros(self.p), self.c0.copy(), float(lam),
+                             kw.get("tol", 1e-8),
+                             kw.get("max_sweeps", 10000))
+        return b
+
+    def _fit_one(self, beta, c, lam, tol, max_sweeps):
+        thr = lam * self.nobs
+        self._sweeps = 0
+        for _ in range(max_sweeps):
+            self._sweeps += 1
+            moved = 0.0
+            for g, w, L in zip(self.groups, self.wg, self.Lg):
+                if L <= 0.0:    # all-zero columns: the group stays at zero
+                    continue
+                bg = beta[g]
+                z = bg + c[g] / L
+                nz = float(np.linalg.norm(z))
+                scale = max(0.0, 1.0 - thr * w / (L * nz)) if nz > 0 else 0.0
+                nb = scale * z
+                d = nb - bg
+                dmax = float(np.max(np.abs(d))) if d.size else 0.0
+                if dmax > 0.0:
+                    c -= self.G[:, g] @ d
+                    beta[g] = nb
+                    moved = max(moved, dmax)
+            if moved < tol * max(1.0, float(np.max(np.abs(beta)))):
+                break
+        return beta, c
+
+    def objective(self, y_or_none, beta, lam):
+        """The penalized objective, up to the constant ||y||^2/(2n).
+
+        Computable from the Gram alone: (1/2n)(b'Gb - 2 c0'b) plus the
+        penalty; add ||y||^2/(2n) yourself if you want the absolute
+        value.
+        """
+        quad = 0.5 * (beta @ self.G @ beta) - self.c0 @ beta
+        pen = sum(w * float(np.linalg.norm(beta[g]))
+                  for g, w in zip(self.groups, self.wg))
+        return quad / self.nobs + lam * pen
+
+
+class GramGroupLasso(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """A ``Lasso``-style interface over CovGroupLasso: fit(X, y) centres
+    the data when ``fit_intercept`` and runs the block descent at
+    ``alpha``,
+
+        (1 / 2 n) ||y - X b - b0||^2 + alpha sum_g sqrt(|g|) ||b_g||_2.
+
+    ``groups`` is a list of index arrays partitioning the columns, or
+    None for one group per column (the lasso).  ``tol`` is
+    CovGroupLasso's and ``max_iter`` its sweep cap.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, n_iter_, n_features_in_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, alpha=1.0, *, groups=None, fit_intercept=True, tol=1e-8,
+                 max_iter=10000):
+        self.alpha, self.groups, self.fit_intercept = alpha, groups, fit_intercept
+        self.tol, self.max_iter = tol, max_iter
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y)
+        n, p = X.shape
+        G, c, xm, ym = _centered_gram(X, y, self.fit_intercept)
+        groups = [[j] for j in range(p)] if self.groups is None else self.groups
+        m = CovGroupLasso(gram=G, corr=c, nobs=n, groups=groups)
+        beta, _ = m._fit_one(np.zeros(p), m.c0.copy(), float(self.alpha), float(self.tol),
+                             int(self.max_iter))
+        self.coef_, self.n_iter_ = beta, m._sweeps
+        self.intercept_ = float(ym - xm @ self.coef_)
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_ + self.intercept_
+
+
+class CovMultiTaskLasso:
+    """Multi-task lasso and elastic net over a design's Gram matrix.
+
+    The penalty ties each feature's row of W together across tasks --
+    the row enters or leaves for every task at once -- matching
+    scikit-learn's ``MultiTaskLasso`` / ``MultiTaskElasticNet`` with
+    ``fit_intercept=False``:
+
+        (1/2n)||Y - XW||^2_F + alpha l1_ratio sum_j ||W_j||_2
+                             + (alpha/2)(1 - l1_ratio) ||W||^2_F
+
+    The covariance route carries over unchanged: the solver keeps
+    C = X'Y - G W per task, so a row's block update is O(p T) and never
+    touches the n rows.  Coefficients are (p, n_tasks) -- the transpose
+    of scikit-learn's ``coef_``.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, X=None, Y=None, *, gram=None, corr=None, nobs=None):
+        if gram is not None:
+            if corr is None or nobs is None:
+                raise ValueError("gram needs corr and nobs alongside it")
+            c = np.ascontiguousarray(corr, dtype=np.float64)
+            if c.ndim != 2:
+                raise ValueError("corr must be (p, n_tasks)")
+            self.p, self.n_tasks = c.shape
+            g = np.ascontiguousarray(gram, dtype=np.float64).ravel()
+            if g.size != self.p * self.p:
+                raise ValueError(f"gram is {g.size} entries; expected p*p")
+            self.nobs, self.g, self.c0 = int(nobs), g, c.ravel()
+        else:
+            if X is None or Y is None:
+                raise ValueError("pass X and Y, or gram, corr and nobs")
+            X = np.ascontiguousarray(X, dtype=np.float64)
+            Y = np.ascontiguousarray(Y, dtype=np.float64)
+            if Y.ndim != 2 or X.shape[0] != Y.shape[0]:
+                raise ValueError(
+                    f"X is {X.shape} and Y is {Y.shape}; expected (n, p) "
+                    "and (n, n_tasks)")
+            self.nobs, self.p = X.shape
+            self.n_tasks = Y.shape[1]
+            self.g = np.ascontiguousarray((X.T @ X).ravel())
+            self.c0 = np.ascontiguousarray((X.T @ Y).ravel())
+            self.X, self.Y = X, Y
+
+    def lambda_max(self, l1_ratio=1.0):
+        """The smallest penalty that zeroes every row of W.
+
+        The single-task |X_j'y| becomes the L2 norm of the row X_j'Y:
+        below it the block soft threshold leaves the row at zero.
+        """
+        C = self.c0.reshape(self.p, self.n_tasks)
+        return (float(np.max(np.linalg.norm(C, axis=1)))
+                / (self.nobs * l1_ratio))
+
+    def lambda_grid(self, num=100, eps=1e-3, l1_ratio=1.0):
+        """Log-spaced from lambda_max down, as the single-task grid is."""
+        hi = self.lambda_max(l1_ratio)
+        return hi * np.logspace(0, np.log10(eps), int(num))
+
+    def fit(self, lam, **kw):
+        """Coefficients (p, n_tasks) at one penalty."""
+        return self.fit_path([lam], **kw)[0]
+
+    def fit_path(self, lambdas, tol=1e-8, chunk=20, max_sweeps=100000,
+                 l1_ratio=1.0):
+        """Coefficients per lambda, warm-started; (len(lambdas), p, n_tasks).
+
+        Give lambdas in descending order, as with the single-task path.
+        """
+        lambdas = np.asarray(lambdas, dtype=np.float64)
+        pt = self.p * self.n_tasks
+        W, c = np.zeros(pt), self.c0.copy()
+        prev = np.empty(pt)
+        out = np.empty((lambdas.size, self.p, self.n_tasks))
+        for i, lam in enumerate(lambdas):
+            swept = 0
+            while swept < max_sweeps:
+                prev[:] = W
+                kernel.mt_descend(self.g, c, W,
+                                  float(lam) * l1_ratio,
+                                  float(lam) * (1.0 - l1_ratio), chunk,
+                                  float(self.nobs), self.p, self.n_tasks)
+                swept += chunk
+                if np.max(np.abs(W - prev)) < tol * _scale(W):
+                    break
+            out[i] = W.reshape(self.p, self.n_tasks)
+        return out
+
+    def fit_path_batch(self, lambdas, tol=1e-8, chunk=20,
+                       max_sweeps=100000, force_cpu=False, l1_ratio=1.0):
+        """Coefficients per lambda, every lambda solved from zero.
+
+        (len(lambdas), p, n_tasks).  On the GPU one block per lambda,
+        all sharing this Gram; the CPU fallback is the cold loop.
+        """
+        lambdas = np.ascontiguousarray(lambdas, dtype=np.float64)
+        pt = self.p * self.n_tasks
+        if not force_cpu:
+            W = _grid_descend(self.g[None, :], self.c0[None, :], lambdas,
+                              self.p, self.n_tasks, tol=tol, chunk=chunk,
+                              max_sweeps=max_sweeps, l1_ratio=l1_ratio,
+                              nobs=float(self.nobs))
+            if W is not None:
+                return W.reshape(lambdas.size, self.p, self.n_tasks)
+        out = np.empty((lambdas.size, pt))
+        prev = np.empty(pt)
+        for i, lam in enumerate(lambdas):
+            W, c, swept = np.zeros(pt), self.c0.copy(), 0
+            while swept < max_sweeps:
+                prev[:] = W
+                kernel.mt_descend(self.g, c, W, float(lam) * l1_ratio,
+                                  float(lam) * (1.0 - l1_ratio), chunk,
+                                  float(self.nobs), self.p, self.n_tasks)
+                swept += chunk
+                if np.max(np.abs(W - prev)) < tol * _scale(W):
+                    break
+            out[i] = W
+        return out.reshape(lambdas.size, self.p, self.n_tasks)
+
+
+class GramMultiTaskElasticNet(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """scikit-learn's ``MultiTaskElasticNet`` interface over
+    CovMultiTaskLasso: fit(X, Y) centres the data when
+    ``fit_intercept``, forms the Gram matrix once and runs the row-block
+    sweep at ``alpha``.  Y is (n, n_tasks); coef_ is (n_tasks, p) as
+    scikit-learn has it.  ``tol`` is CovMultiTaskLasso's and
+    ``max_iter`` its sweep cap.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, n_iter_, n_features_in_.
+    """
+
+    _multi_output = "only"
+
+    def __init__(self, alpha=1.0, *, l1_ratio=0.5, fit_intercept=True, tol=1e-8,
+                 max_iter=100000):
+        self.alpha, self.l1_ratio, self.fit_intercept = alpha, l1_ratio, fit_intercept
+        self.tol, self.max_iter = tol, max_iter
+
+    def fit(self, X, y):
+        X, y = fit_xy(self, X, y, multi_output=True)
+        if y.ndim != 2:
+            raise ValueError("For mono-task outputs, use GramElasticNet or GramLasso; "
+                             "y must be (n_samples, n_tasks)")
+        n, p = X.shape
+        t = y.shape[1]
+        G, c, xm, ym = _centered_gram(X, y, self.fit_intercept)
+        g = np.ascontiguousarray(G.ravel())
+        c = np.ascontiguousarray(c.ravel())
+        lam, r = float(self.alpha), float(self.l1_ratio)
+        tol, cap = float(self.tol), int(self.max_iter)
+        W, prev = np.zeros(p * t), np.empty(p * t)
+        swept = 0
+        while swept < cap:
+            chunk = min(20, cap - swept)
+            prev[:] = W
+            kernel.mt_descend(g, c, W, lam * r, lam * (1.0 - r), chunk, float(n), p, t)
+            swept += chunk
+            if np.max(np.abs(W - prev)) < tol * _scale(W):
+                break
+        W = W.reshape(p, t)
+        self.coef_, self.n_iter_ = np.ascontiguousarray(W.T), swept
+        self.intercept_ = ym - xm @ W
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_.T + self.intercept_
+
+
+class GramMultiTaskLasso(GramMultiTaskElasticNet):
+    """scikit-learn's ``MultiTaskLasso`` interface over CovMultiTaskLasso:
+    GramMultiTaskElasticNet with l1_ratio 1.
+
+    Attributes after fit: coef_, intercept_, n_iter_, n_features_in_.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, alpha=1.0, *, fit_intercept=True, tol=1e-8, max_iter=100000):
+        self.alpha, self.fit_intercept, self.tol, self.max_iter = alpha, fit_intercept, tol, max_iter
+
+    @property
+    def l1_ratio(self):
+        return 1.0
+
+
+class CovMultiTaskLassoCV(Tagged, RegressorMixin, BaseEstimator):
+    """scikit-learn's ``MultiTaskLassoCV`` (``MultiTaskElasticNetCV``
+    with ``l1_ratio``) over the covariance machinery.
+
+    Same construction as ``CovLassoCV``: the grid from the full data,
+    contiguous folds, each fold's training Gram a subtraction from the
+    full one, the whole path walked warm per fold, alpha_ by minimum
+    mean validation MSE (over samples and tasks) with ties to the
+    larger penalty, refit on all rows.  With a GPU the grid is one
+    launch, one block per (fold, penalty) problem, as in CovLassoCV.
+
+    Attributes after fit: alphas_, mse_path_ (num, cv), alpha_, coef_
+    (p, n_tasks).
+    """
+
+    _multi_output = "only"
+
+    def __init__(self, cv=5, num=100, eps=1e-3, tol=1e-8, l1_ratio=1.0,
+                 force_cpu=False, force_gpu=False, n_jobs=1):
+        # Same fold-thread parallelism as CovLassoCV; default sequential.
+        self.cv, self.num, self.eps, self.tol = cv, num, eps, tol
+        self.l1_ratio, self.force_cpu, self.force_gpu = l1_ratio, force_cpu, force_gpu
+        self.n_jobs = n_jobs
+
+    def fit(self, X, Y):
+        X, Y = fit_xy(self, X, Y, multi_output=True)
+        if Y.ndim != 2:
+            raise ValueError("For mono-task outputs, use CovLassoCV; Y must be (n, n_tasks)")
+        n = X.shape[0]
+        cv, num = int(self.cv), int(self.num)
+        tol, l1_ratio = float(self.tol), float(self.l1_ratio)
+        full = CovMultiTaskLasso(X, Y)
+        self.alphas_ = full.lambda_grid(num=num, eps=float(self.eps),
+                                        l1_ratio=l1_ratio)
+        bounds = np.linspace(0, n, cv + 1).astype(int)
+        self.mse_path_ = np.empty((num, cv))
+        G = full.g.reshape(full.p, full.p)
+        C = full.c0.reshape(full.p, full.n_tasks)
+        if cuda_available() and not self.force_cpu:
+            done = self._fit_gpu(X, Y, full, G, C, bounds, n)
+            if done is not None:
+                return done
+
+        def one_fold(k):
+            lo, hi = bounds[k], bounds[k + 1]
+            Xf, Yf = X[lo:hi], Y[lo:hi]
+            m = CovMultiTaskLasso(gram=(G - Xf.T @ Xf).ravel(),
+                                  corr=C - Xf.T @ Yf,
+                                  nobs=n - (hi - lo))
+            path = m.fit_path(self.alphas_, tol=tol, l1_ratio=l1_ratio)
+            # all validation residuals in one product: (nf, num, T)
+            resid = np.tensordot(Xf, path, axes=([1], [1])) - Yf[:, None, :]
+            self.mse_path_[:, k] = np.mean(resid * resid, axis=(0, 2))
+
+        if int(self.n_jobs) > 1:
+            from concurrent.futures import ThreadPoolExecutor
+            with ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=int(self.n_jobs)) as ex:
+                list(ex.map(one_fold, range(cv)))
+        else:
+            for k in range(cv):
+                one_fold(k)
+        return self._finish(full)
+
+    def _fit_gpu(self, X, Y, full, G, C, bounds, n):
+        # The grid as one launch, the fold's Gram shared by its
+        # problems and nobs absorbed into each problem's lambda as in
+        # CovLassoCV; None when the device declined.
+        p_, T = full.p, full.n_tasks
+        num, cv = int(self.num), int(self.cv)
+        grams = np.empty((cv, p_ * p_))
+        corrs = np.empty((cv, p_ * T))
+        nobs_k = np.empty(cv)
+        for k in range(cv):
+            lo, hi = bounds[k], bounds[k + 1]
+            Xf, Yf = X[lo:hi], Y[lo:hi]
+            grams[k] = (G - Xf.T @ Xf).ravel()
+            corrs[k] = (C - Xf.T @ Yf).ravel()
+            nobs_k[k] = n - (hi - lo)
+        lams = np.tile(self.alphas_, cv) * np.repeat(nobs_k, num)
+        W = _grid_descend(grams, corrs, lams, p_, T, tol=float(self.tol),
+                          l1_ratio=float(self.l1_ratio))
+        if W is None:
+            return None
+        W = W.reshape(cv, num, p_, T)
+        for k in range(cv):
+            lo, hi = bounds[k], bounds[k + 1]
+            resid = (np.tensordot(X[lo:hi], W[k], axes=([1], [1]))
+                     - Y[lo:hi, None, :])
+            self.mse_path_[:, k] = np.mean(resid * resid, axis=(0, 2))
+        return self._finish(full)
+
+    def _finish(self, full):
+        mean = self.mse_path_.mean(axis=1)
+        self.alpha_ = float(self.alphas_[int(np.argmin(mean))])
+        self.coef_ = full.fit(self.alpha_, tol=float(self.tol),
+                              l1_ratio=float(self.l1_ratio))
+        self.intercept_ = 0.0 if self.coef_.ndim == 1 else np.zeros(self.coef_.shape[1])
+        return self
+
+    def predict(self, X):
+        return pred_x(self, X) @ self.coef_