scipy 1.16.1__cp314-cp314-macosx_14_0_arm64.whl

scipy/optimize/tests/test__differential_evolution.py

@@ -0,0 +1,1703 @@
+"""
+Unit tests for the differential global minimization algorithm.
+"""
+import multiprocessing
+from multiprocessing.dummy import Pool as ThreadPool
+import platform
+
+from scipy.optimize._differentialevolution import (DifferentialEvolutionSolver,
+                                                   _ConstraintWrapper)
+from scipy.optimize import differential_evolution, OptimizeResult
+from scipy.optimize._constraints import (Bounds, NonlinearConstraint,
+                                         LinearConstraint)
+from scipy.optimize import rosen, minimize
+from scipy.sparse import csr_array
+from scipy import stats
+
+import numpy as np
+from numpy.testing import (assert_equal, assert_allclose, assert_almost_equal,
+                           assert_string_equal, assert_, suppress_warnings)
+from pytest import raises as assert_raises, warns
+import pytest
+
+
+class TestDifferentialEvolutionSolver:
+
+    def setup_method(self):
+        self.old_seterr = np.seterr(invalid='raise')
+        self.limits = np.array([[0., 0.],
+                                [2., 2.]])
+        self.bounds = [(0., 2.), (0., 2.)]
+
+        self.dummy_solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(self.quadratic,
+                                                        [(0, 100)])
+
+        # dummy_solver2 will be used to test mutation strategies
+        self.dummy_solver2 = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(self.quadratic,
+                                                         [(0, 1)],
+                                                         popsize=7,
+                                                         mutation=0.5)
+        # create a population that's only 7 members long
+        # [0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7]
+        population = np.atleast_2d(np.arange(0.1, 0.8, 0.1)).T
+        self.dummy_solver2.population = population
+
+    def teardown_method(self):
+        np.seterr(**self.old_seterr)
+
+    def quadratic(self, x):
+        return x[0]**2
+
+    def test__strategy_resolves(self):
+        # test that the correct mutation function is resolved by
+        # different requested strategy arguments
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             strategy='best1exp')
+        assert_equal(solver.strategy, 'best1exp')
+        assert_equal(solver.mutation_func.__name__, '_best1')
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             strategy='best1bin')
+        assert_equal(solver.strategy, 'best1bin')
+        assert_equal(solver.mutation_func.__name__, '_best1')
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             strategy='rand1bin')
+        assert_equal(solver.strategy, 'rand1bin')
+        assert_equal(solver.mutation_func.__name__, '_rand1')
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             strategy='rand1exp')
+        assert_equal(solver.strategy, 'rand1exp')
+        assert_equal(solver.mutation_func.__name__, '_rand1')
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             strategy='rand2exp')
+        assert_equal(solver.strategy, 'rand2exp')
+        assert_equal(solver.mutation_func.__name__, '_rand2')
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             strategy='best2bin')
+        assert_equal(solver.strategy, 'best2bin')
+        assert_equal(solver.mutation_func.__name__, '_best2')
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             strategy='rand2bin')
+        assert_equal(solver.strategy, 'rand2bin')
+        assert_equal(solver.mutation_func.__name__, '_rand2')
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             strategy='rand2exp')
+        assert_equal(solver.strategy, 'rand2exp')
+        assert_equal(solver.mutation_func.__name__, '_rand2')
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             strategy='randtobest1bin')
+        assert_equal(solver.strategy, 'randtobest1bin')
+        assert_equal(solver.mutation_func.__name__, '_randtobest1')
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             strategy='randtobest1exp')
+        assert_equal(solver.strategy, 'randtobest1exp')
+        assert_equal(solver.mutation_func.__name__, '_randtobest1')
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             strategy='currenttobest1bin')
+        assert_equal(solver.strategy, 'currenttobest1bin')
+        assert_equal(solver.mutation_func.__name__, '_currenttobest1')
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             strategy='currenttobest1exp')
+        assert_equal(solver.strategy, 'currenttobest1exp')
+        assert_equal(solver.mutation_func.__name__, '_currenttobest1')
+
+    def test__mutate1(self):
+        # strategies */1/*, i.e. rand/1/bin, best/1/exp, etc.
+        result = np.array([0.05])
+        trial = self.dummy_solver2._best1(np.array([2, 3, 4, 5, 6]))
+        assert_allclose(trial, result)
+
+        result = np.array([0.25])
+        trial = self.dummy_solver2._rand1(np.array([2, 3, 4, 5, 6]))
+        assert_allclose(trial, result)
+
+    def test__mutate2(self):
+        # strategies */2/*, i.e. rand/2/bin, best/2/exp, etc.
+        # [0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7]
+
+        result = np.array([-0.1])
+        trial = self.dummy_solver2._best2(np.array([2, 3, 4, 5, 6]))
+        assert_allclose(trial, result)
+
+        result = np.array([0.1])
+        trial = self.dummy_solver2._rand2(np.array([2, 3, 4, 5, 6]))
+        assert_allclose(trial, result)
+
+    def test__randtobest1(self):
+        # strategies randtobest/1/*
+        result = np.array([0.15])
+        trial = self.dummy_solver2._randtobest1(np.array([2, 3, 4, 5, 6]))
+        assert_allclose(trial, result)
+
+    def test__currenttobest1(self):
+        # strategies currenttobest/1/*
+        result = np.array([0.1])
+        trial = self.dummy_solver2._currenttobest1(
+            1,
+            np.array([2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
+        )
+        assert_allclose(trial, result)
+
+    def test_can_init_with_dithering(self):
+        mutation = (0.5, 1)
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(self.quadratic,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             mutation=mutation)
+
+        assert_equal(solver.dither, list(mutation))
+
+    def test_invalid_mutation_values_arent_accepted(self):
+        func = rosen
+        mutation = (0.5, 3)
+        assert_raises(ValueError,
+                          DifferentialEvolutionSolver,
+                          func,
+                          self.bounds,
+                          mutation=mutation)
+
+        mutation = (-1, 1)
+        assert_raises(ValueError,
+                          DifferentialEvolutionSolver,
+                          func,
+                          self.bounds,
+                          mutation=mutation)
+
+        mutation = (0.1, np.nan)
+        assert_raises(ValueError,
+                          DifferentialEvolutionSolver,
+                          func,
+                          self.bounds,
+                          mutation=mutation)
+
+        mutation = 0.5
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(func,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             mutation=mutation)
+        assert_equal(0.5, solver.scale)
+        assert_equal(None, solver.dither)
+
+    def test_invalid_functional(self):
+        def func(x):
+            return np.array([np.sum(x ** 2), np.sum(x)])
+
+        with assert_raises(
+                RuntimeError,
+                match=r"func\(x, \*args\) must return a scalar value"):
+            differential_evolution(func, [(-2, 2), (-2, 2)])
+
+    def test__scale_parameters(self):
+        trial = np.array([0.3])
+        assert_equal(30, self.dummy_solver._scale_parameters(trial))
+
+        # it should also work with the limits reversed
+        self.dummy_solver.limits = np.array([[100], [0.]])
+        assert_equal(30, self.dummy_solver._scale_parameters(trial))
+
+    def test__unscale_parameters(self):
+        trial = np.array([30])
+        assert_equal(0.3, self.dummy_solver._unscale_parameters(trial))
+
+        # it should also work with the limits reversed
+        self.dummy_solver.limits = np.array([[100], [0.]])
+        assert_equal(0.3, self.dummy_solver._unscale_parameters(trial))
+
+    def test_equal_bounds(self):
+        with np.errstate(invalid='raise'):
+            solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(
+                self.quadratic,
+                bounds=[(2.0, 2.0), (1.0, 3.0)]
+            )
+            v = solver._unscale_parameters([2.0, 2.0])
+            assert_allclose(v, 0.5)
+
+        res = differential_evolution(self.quadratic, [(2.0, 2.0), (3.0, 3.0)])
+        assert_equal(res.x, [2.0, 3.0])
+
+    def test__ensure_constraint(self):
+        trial = np.array([1.1, -100, 0.9, 2., 300., -0.00001])
+        self.dummy_solver._ensure_constraint(trial)
+
+        assert_equal(trial[2], 0.9)
+        assert_(np.logical_and(trial >= 0, trial <= 1).all())
+
+    def test_differential_evolution(self):
+        # test that the Jmin of DifferentialEvolutionSolver
+        # is the same as the function evaluation
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(
+            self.quadratic, [(-2, 2)], maxiter=1, polish=False
+        )
+        result = solver.solve()
+        assert_equal(result.fun, self.quadratic(result.x))
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(
+            self.quadratic, [(-2, 2)], maxiter=1, polish=True
+        )
+        result = solver.solve()
+        assert_equal(result.fun, self.quadratic(result.x))
+
+    def test_best_solution_retrieval(self):
+        # test that the getter property method for the best solution works.
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(self.quadratic, [(-2, 2)])
+        result = solver.solve()
+        assert_equal(result.x, solver.x)
+
+    def test_intermediate_result(self):
+        # Check that intermediate result object passed into the callback
+        # function contains the expected information and that raising
+        # `StopIteration` causes the expected behavior.
+        maxiter = 10
+
+        def func(x):
+            val = rosen(x)
+            if val < func.val:
+                func.x = x
+                func.val = val
+            return val
+        func.x = None
+        func.val = np.inf
+
+        def callback(intermediate_result):
+            callback.nit += 1
+            callback.intermediate_result = intermediate_result
+            assert intermediate_result.population.ndim == 2
+            assert intermediate_result.population.shape[1] == 2
+            assert intermediate_result.nit == callback.nit
+
+            # Check that `x` and `fun` attributes are the best found so far
+            assert_equal(intermediate_result.x, callback.func.x)
+            assert_equal(intermediate_result.fun, callback.func.val)
+
+            # Check for consistency between `fun`, `population_energies`,
+            # `x`, and `population`
+            assert_equal(intermediate_result.fun, rosen(intermediate_result.x))
+            for i in range(len(intermediate_result.population_energies)):
+                res = intermediate_result.population_energies[i]
+                ref = rosen(intermediate_result.population[i])
+                assert_equal(res, ref)
+            assert_equal(intermediate_result.x,
+                         intermediate_result.population[0])
+            assert_equal(intermediate_result.fun,
+                         intermediate_result.population_energies[0])
+
+            assert intermediate_result.message == 'in progress'
+            assert intermediate_result.success is True
+            assert isinstance(intermediate_result, OptimizeResult)
+            if callback.nit == maxiter:
+                raise StopIteration
+        callback.nit = 0
+        callback.intermediate_result = None
+        callback.func = func
+
+        bounds = [(0, 2), (0, 2)]
+        kwargs = dict(func=func, bounds=bounds, rng=838245, polish=False)
+        res = differential_evolution(**kwargs, callback=callback)
+        ref = differential_evolution(**kwargs, maxiter=maxiter)
+
+        # Check that final `intermediate_result` is equivalent to returned
+        # result object and that terminating with callback `StopIteration`
+        # after `maxiter` iterations is equivalent to terminating with
+        # `maxiter` parameter.
+        assert res.success is ref.success is False
+        assert callback.nit == res.nit == maxiter
+        assert res.message == 'callback function requested stop early'
+        assert ref.message == 'Maximum number of iterations has been exceeded.'
+        for field, val in ref.items():
+            if field in {'message', 'success'}:  # checked separately
+                continue
+            assert_equal(callback.intermediate_result[field], val)
+            assert_equal(res[field], val)
+
+        # Check that polish occurs after `StopIteration` as advertised
+        callback.nit = 0
+        func.val = np.inf
+        kwargs['polish'] = True
+        res = differential_evolution(**kwargs, callback=callback)
+        assert res.fun < ref.fun
+
+    def test_callback_terminates(self):
+        # test that if the callback returns true, then the minimization halts
+        bounds = [(0, 2), (0, 2)]
+        expected_msg = 'callback function requested stop early'
+        def callback_python_true(param, convergence=0.):
+            return True
+
+        result = differential_evolution(
+            rosen, bounds, callback=callback_python_true
+        )
+        assert_string_equal(result.message, expected_msg)
+
+        # if callback raises StopIteration then solve should be interrupted
+        def callback_stop(intermediate_result):
+            raise StopIteration
+
+        result = differential_evolution(rosen, bounds, callback=callback_stop)
+        assert not result.success
+
+        def callback_evaluates_true(param, convergence=0.):
+            # DE should stop if bool(self.callback) is True
+            return [10]
+
+        result = differential_evolution(rosen, bounds, callback=callback_evaluates_true)
+        assert_string_equal(result.message, expected_msg)
+        assert not result.success
+
+        def callback_evaluates_false(param, convergence=0.):
+            return []
+
+        result = differential_evolution(rosen, bounds,
+                                        callback=callback_evaluates_false)
+        assert result.success
+
+    def test_args_tuple_is_passed(self):
+        # test that the args tuple is passed to the cost function properly.
+        bounds = [(-10, 10)]
+        args = (1., 2., 3.)
+
+        def quadratic(x, *args):
+            if not isinstance(args, tuple):
+                raise ValueError('args should be a tuple')
+            return args[0] + args[1] * x + args[2] * x**2.
+
+        result = differential_evolution(quadratic,
+                                        bounds,
+                                        args=args,
+                                        polish=True)
+        assert_almost_equal(result.fun, 2 / 3.)
+
+    def test_init_with_invalid_strategy(self):
+        # test that passing an invalid strategy raises ValueError
+        func = rosen
+        bounds = [(-3, 3)]
+        assert_raises(ValueError,
+                          differential_evolution,
+                          func,
+                          bounds,
+                          strategy='abc')
+
+    def test_bounds_checking(self):
+        # test that the bounds checking works
+        func = rosen
+        bounds = [(-3)]
+        assert_raises(ValueError,
+                          differential_evolution,
+                          func,
+                          bounds)
+        bounds = [(-3, 3), (3, 4, 5)]
+        assert_raises(ValueError,
+                          differential_evolution,
+                          func,
+                          bounds)
+
+        # test that we can use a new-type Bounds object
+        result = differential_evolution(rosen, Bounds([0, 0], [2, 2]))
+        assert_almost_equal(result.x, (1., 1.))
+
+    def test_select_samples(self):
+        # select_samples should return 5 separate random numbers.
+        limits = np.arange(12., dtype='float64').reshape(2, 6)
+        bounds = list(zip(limits[0, :], limits[1, :]))
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(None, bounds, popsize=1)
+        candidate = 0
+        r1, r2, r3, r4, r5 = solver._select_samples(candidate, 5)
+        assert_equal(
+            len(np.unique(np.array([candidate, r1, r2, r3, r4, r5]))), 6)
+
+    def test_maxiter_stops_solve(self):
+        # test that if the maximum number of iterations is exceeded
+        # the solver stops.
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, self.bounds, maxiter=1)
+        result = solver.solve()
+        assert_equal(result.success, False)
+        assert_equal(result.message,
+                        'Maximum number of iterations has been exceeded.')
+
+    def test_maxfun_stops_solve(self):
+        # test that if the maximum number of function evaluations is exceeded
+        # during initialisation the solver stops
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, self.bounds, maxfun=1,
+                                             polish=False)
+        result = solver.solve()
+
+        assert_equal(result.nfev, 2)
+        assert_equal(result.success, False)
+        assert_equal(result.message,
+                     'Maximum number of function evaluations has '
+                     'been exceeded.')
+
+        # test that if the maximum number of function evaluations is exceeded
+        # during the actual minimisation, then the solver stops.
+        # Have to turn polishing off, as this will still occur even if maxfun
+        # is reached. For popsize=5 and len(bounds)=2, then there are only 10
+        # function evaluations during initialisation.
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             popsize=5,
+                                             polish=False,
+                                             maxfun=40)
+        result = solver.solve()
+
+        assert_equal(result.nfev, 41)
+        assert_equal(result.success, False)
+        assert_equal(result.message,
+                     'Maximum number of function evaluations has '
+                     'been exceeded.')
+
+        # now repeat for updating='deferred version
+        # 47 function evaluations is not a multiple of the population size,
+        # so maxfun is reached partway through a population evaluation.
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             popsize=5,
+                                             polish=False,
+                                             maxfun=47,
+                                             updating='deferred')
+        result = solver.solve()
+
+        assert_equal(result.nfev, 47)
+        assert_equal(result.success, False)
+        assert_equal(result.message,
+                     'Maximum number of function evaluations has '
+                     'been reached.')
+
+    def test_quadratic(self):
+        # test the quadratic function from object
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(self.quadratic,
+                                             [(-100, 100)],
+                                             tol=0.02)
+        solver.solve()
+        assert_equal(np.argmin(solver.population_energies), 0)
+
+    def test_quadratic_from_diff_ev(self):
+        # test the quadratic function from differential_evolution function
+        differential_evolution(self.quadratic,
+                               [(-100, 100)],
+                               tol=0.02,
+                               seed=1)
+
+    def test_rng_gives_repeatability(self):
+        result = differential_evolution(self.quadratic,
+                                        [(-100, 100)],
+                                        polish=False,
+                                        rng=1,
+                                        tol=0.5)
+        result2 = differential_evolution(self.quadratic,
+                                        [(-100, 100)],
+                                        polish=False,
+                                        rng=1,
+                                        tol=0.5)
+        assert_equal(result.x, result2.x)
+        assert_equal(result.nfev, result2.nfev)
+
+    def test_random_generator(self):
+        # check that np.random.Generator can be used (numpy >= 1.17)
+        # obtain a np.random.Generator object
+        rng = np.random.default_rng()
+
+        inits = ['random', 'latinhypercube', 'sobol', 'halton']
+        for init in inits:
+            differential_evolution(self.quadratic,
+                                   [(-100, 100)],
+                                   polish=False,
+                                   rng=rng,
+                                   tol=0.5,
+                                   init=init)
+
+    def test_exp_runs(self):
+        # test whether exponential mutation loop runs
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen,
+                                             self.bounds,
+                                             strategy='best1exp',
+                                             maxiter=1)
+
+        solver.solve()
+
+    def test_gh_4511_regression(self):
+        # This modification of the differential evolution docstring example
+        # uses a custom popsize that had triggered an off-by-one error.
+        # Because we do not care about solving the optimization problem in
+        # this test, we use maxiter=1 to reduce the testing time.
+        bounds = [(-5, 5), (-5, 5)]
+        # result = differential_evolution(rosen, bounds, popsize=1815,
+        #                                 maxiter=1)
+
+        # the original issue arose because of rounding error in arange, with
+        # linspace being a much better solution. 1815 is quite a large popsize
+        # to use and results in a long test time (~13s). I used the original
+        # issue to figure out the lowest number of samples that would cause
+        # this rounding error to occur, 49.
+        differential_evolution(rosen, bounds, popsize=49, maxiter=1)
+
+    def test_calculate_population_energies(self):
+        # if popsize is 3, then the overall generation has size (6,)
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, self.bounds, popsize=3)
+        solver._calculate_population_energies(solver.population)
+        solver._promote_lowest_energy()
+        assert_equal(np.argmin(solver.population_energies), 0)
+
+        # initial calculation of the energies should require 6 nfev.
+        assert_equal(solver._nfev, 6)
+
+    def test_iteration(self):
+        # test that DifferentialEvolutionSolver is iterable
+        # if popsize is 3, then the overall generation has size (6,)
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, self.bounds, popsize=3,
+                                             maxfun=12)
+        x, fun = next(solver)
+        assert_equal(np.size(x, 0), 2)
+
+        # 6 nfev are required for initial calculation of energies, 6 nfev are
+        # required for the evolution of the 6 population members.
+        assert_equal(solver._nfev, 12)
+
+        # the next generation should halt because it exceeds maxfun
+        assert_raises(StopIteration, next, solver)
+
+        # check a proper minimisation can be done by an iterable solver
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, self.bounds)
+        _, fun_prev = next(solver)
+        for i, soln in enumerate(solver):
+            x_current, fun_current = soln
+            assert fun_prev >= fun_current
+            _, fun_prev = x_current, fun_current
+            # need to have this otherwise the solver would never stop.
+            if i == 50:
+                break
+
+    def test_convergence(self):
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, self.bounds, tol=0.2,
+                                             polish=False)
+        solver.solve()
+        assert_(solver.convergence < 0.2)
+
+    def test_maxiter_none_GH5731(self):
+        # Pre 0.17 the previous default for maxiter and maxfun was None.
+        # the numerical defaults are now 1000 and np.inf. However, some scripts
+        # will still supply None for both of those, this will raise a TypeError
+        # in the solve method.
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, self.bounds, maxiter=None,
+                                             maxfun=None)
+        solver.solve()
+
+    def test_population_initiation(self):
+        # test the different modes of population initiation
+
+        # init must be either 'latinhypercube' or 'random'
+        # raising ValueError is something else is passed in
+        assert_raises(ValueError,
+                      DifferentialEvolutionSolver,
+                      *(rosen, self.bounds),
+                      **{'init': 'rubbish'})
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, self.bounds)
+
+        # check that population initiation:
+        # 1) resets _nfev to 0
+        # 2) all population energies are np.inf
+        solver.init_population_random()
+        assert_equal(solver._nfev, 0)
+        assert_(np.all(np.isinf(solver.population_energies)))
+
+        solver.init_population_lhs()
+        assert_equal(solver._nfev, 0)
+        assert_(np.all(np.isinf(solver.population_energies)))
+
+        solver.init_population_qmc(qmc_engine='halton')
+        assert_equal(solver._nfev, 0)
+        assert_(np.all(np.isinf(solver.population_energies)))
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, self.bounds, init='sobol')
+        solver.init_population_qmc(qmc_engine='sobol')
+        assert_equal(solver._nfev, 0)
+        assert_(np.all(np.isinf(solver.population_energies)))
+
+        # we should be able to initialize with our own array
+        population = np.linspace(-1, 3, 10).reshape(5, 2)
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, self.bounds,
+                                             init=population,
+                                             strategy='best2bin',
+                                             atol=0.01, rng=1, popsize=5)
+
+        assert_equal(solver._nfev, 0)
+        assert_(np.all(np.isinf(solver.population_energies)))
+        assert_(solver.num_population_members == 5)
+        assert_(solver.population_shape == (5, 2))
+
+        # check that the population was initialized correctly
+        unscaled_population = np.clip(solver._unscale_parameters(population),
+                                      0, 1)
+        assert_almost_equal(solver.population[:5], unscaled_population)
+
+        # population values need to be clipped to bounds
+        assert_almost_equal(np.min(solver.population[:5]), 0)
+        assert_almost_equal(np.max(solver.population[:5]), 1)
+
+        # shouldn't be able to initialize with an array if it's the wrong shape
+        # this would have too many parameters
+        population = np.linspace(-1, 3, 15).reshape(5, 3)
+        assert_raises(ValueError,
+                      DifferentialEvolutionSolver,
+                      *(rosen, self.bounds),
+                      **{'init': population})
+
+        # provide an initial solution
+        # bounds are [(0, 2), (0, 2)]
+        x0 = np.random.uniform(low=0.0, high=2.0, size=2)
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(
+            rosen, self.bounds, x0=x0
+        )
+        # parameters are scaled to unit interval
+        assert_allclose(solver.population[0], x0 / 2.0)
+
+    def test_x0(self):
+        # smoke test that checks that x0 is usable.
+        res = differential_evolution(rosen, self.bounds, x0=[0.2, 0.8])
+        assert res.success
+
+        # check what happens if some of the x0 lay outside the bounds
+        with assert_raises(ValueError):
+            differential_evolution(rosen, self.bounds, x0=[0.2, 2.1])
+
+    def test_infinite_objective_function(self):
+        # Test that there are no problems if the objective function
+        # returns inf on some runs
+        def sometimes_inf(x):
+            if x[0] < .5:
+                return np.inf
+            return x[1]
+        bounds = [(0, 1), (0, 1)]
+        differential_evolution(sometimes_inf, bounds=bounds, disp=False)
+
+    def test_deferred_updating(self):
+        # check setting of deferred updating, with default workers
+        bounds = [(0., 2.), (0., 2.)]
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, bounds, updating='deferred')
+        assert_(solver._updating == 'deferred')
+        assert_(solver._mapwrapper._mapfunc is map)
+        res = solver.solve()
+        assert res.success
+
+        # check that deferred updating works with an exponential crossover
+        res = differential_evolution(
+            rosen, bounds, updating='deferred', strategy='best1exp'
+        )
+        assert res.success
+
+    @pytest.mark.thread_unsafe
+    def test_immediate_updating(self):
+        # check setting of immediate updating, with default workers
+        bounds = [(0., 2.), (0., 2.)]
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, bounds)
+        assert_(solver._updating == 'immediate')
+
+        # Safely forking from a multithreaded process is
+        # problematic, and deprecated in Python 3.12, so
+        # we use a slower but portable alternative
+        # see gh-19848
+        ctx = multiprocessing.get_context("spawn")
+        with ctx.Pool(2) as p:
+            # should raise a UserWarning because the updating='immediate'
+            # is being overridden by the workers keyword
+            with warns(UserWarning):
+                with DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, bounds, workers=p.map) as s:
+                    solver.solve()
+            assert s._updating == 'deferred'
+
+    @pytest.mark.fail_slow(10)
+    def test_parallel(self):
+        # smoke test for parallelization with deferred updating
+        bounds = [(0., 2.), (0., 2.)]
+        # use threads instead of Process to speed things up for this simple example
+        with ThreadPool(2) as p, DifferentialEvolutionSolver(
+            rosen, bounds, updating='deferred', workers=p.map, tol=0.1, popsize=3
+        ) as solver:
+            assert solver._mapwrapper.pool is not None
+            assert solver._updating == 'deferred'
+            solver.solve()
+
+        with DifferentialEvolutionSolver(
+            rosen, bounds, updating='deferred', workers=2, popsize=3, tol=0.1
+        ) as solver:
+            assert solver._mapwrapper.pool is not None
+            assert solver._updating == 'deferred'
+            solver.solve()
+
+    def test_converged(self):
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, [(0, 2), (0, 2)])
+        solver.solve()
+        assert_(solver.converged())
+
+    def test_constraint_violation_fn(self):
+        def constr_f(x):
+            return [x[0] + x[1]]
+
+        def constr_f2(x):
+            return np.array([x[0]**2 + x[1], x[0] - x[1]])
+
+        nlc = NonlinearConstraint(constr_f, -np.inf, 1.9)
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, [(0, 2), (0, 2)],
+                                             constraints=(nlc,))
+
+        cv = solver._constraint_violation_fn(np.array([1.0, 1.0]))
+        assert_almost_equal(cv, 0.1)
+
+        nlc2 = NonlinearConstraint(constr_f2, -np.inf, 1.8)
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, [(0, 2), (0, 2)],
+                                             constraints=(nlc, nlc2))
+
+        # for multiple constraints the constraint violations should
+        # be concatenated.
+        xs = [(1.2, 1), (2.0, 2.0), (0.5, 0.5)]
+        vs = [(0.3, 0.64, 0.0), (2.1, 4.2, 0.0), (0, 0, 0)]
+
+        for x, v in zip(xs, vs):
+            cv = solver._constraint_violation_fn(np.array(x))
+            assert_allclose(cv, np.atleast_2d(v))
+
+        # vectorized calculation of a series of solutions
+        assert_allclose(
+            solver._constraint_violation_fn(np.array(xs)), np.array(vs)
+        )
+
+        # the following line is used in _calculate_population_feasibilities.
+        # _constraint_violation_fn returns an (1, M) array when
+        # x.shape == (N,), i.e. a single solution. Therefore this list
+        # comprehension should generate (S, 1, M) array.
+        constraint_violation = np.array([solver._constraint_violation_fn(x)
+                                         for x in np.array(xs)])
+        assert constraint_violation.shape == (3, 1, 3)
+
+        # we need reasonable error messages if the constraint function doesn't
+        # return the right thing
+        def constr_f3(x):
+            # returns (S, M), rather than (M, S)
+            return constr_f2(x).T
+
+        nlc2 = NonlinearConstraint(constr_f3, -np.inf, 1.8)
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, [(0, 2), (0, 2)],
+                                             constraints=(nlc, nlc2),
+                                             vectorized=False)
+        solver.vectorized = True
+        with pytest.raises(
+                RuntimeError, match="An array returned from a Constraint"
+        ):
+            solver._constraint_violation_fn(np.array(xs))
+
+    def test_constraint_population_feasibilities(self):
+        def constr_f(x):
+            return [x[0] + x[1]]
+
+        def constr_f2(x):
+            return [x[0]**2 + x[1], x[0] - x[1]]
+
+        nlc = NonlinearConstraint(constr_f, -np.inf, 1.9)
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, [(0, 2), (0, 2)],
+                                             constraints=(nlc,))
+
+        # are population feasibilities correct
+        # [0.5, 0.5] corresponds to scaled values of [1., 1.]
+        feas, cv = solver._calculate_population_feasibilities(
+            np.array([[0.5, 0.5], [1., 1.]]))
+        assert_equal(feas, [False, False])
+        assert_almost_equal(cv, np.array([[0.1], [2.1]]))
+        assert cv.shape == (2, 1)
+
+        nlc2 = NonlinearConstraint(constr_f2, -np.inf, 1.8)
+
+        for vectorize in [False, True]:
+            solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, [(0, 2), (0, 2)],
+                                                 constraints=(nlc, nlc2),
+                                                 vectorized=vectorize,
+                                                 updating='deferred')
+
+            feas, cv = solver._calculate_population_feasibilities(
+                np.array([[0.5, 0.5], [0.6, 0.5]]))
+            assert_equal(feas, [False, False])
+            assert_almost_equal(cv, np.array([[0.1, 0.2, 0], [0.3, 0.64, 0]]))
+
+            feas, cv = solver._calculate_population_feasibilities(
+                np.array([[0.5, 0.5], [1., 1.]]))
+            assert_equal(feas, [False, False])
+            assert_almost_equal(cv, np.array([[0.1, 0.2, 0], [2.1, 4.2, 0]]))
+            assert cv.shape == (2, 3)
+
+            feas, cv = solver._calculate_population_feasibilities(
+                np.array([[0.25, 0.25], [1., 1.]]))
+            assert_equal(feas, [True, False])
+            assert_almost_equal(cv, np.array([[0.0, 0.0, 0.], [2.1, 4.2, 0]]))
+            assert cv.shape == (2, 3)
+
+    @pytest.mark.thread_unsafe
+    def test_constraint_solve(self):
+        def constr_f(x):
+            return np.array([x[0] + x[1]])
+
+        nlc = NonlinearConstraint(constr_f, -np.inf, 1.9)
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, [(0, 2), (0, 2)],
+                                             constraints=(nlc,))
+
+        # trust-constr warns if the constraint function is linear
+        with warns(UserWarning):
+            res = solver.solve()
+
+        assert constr_f(res.x) <= 1.9
+        assert res.success
+
+    @pytest.mark.fail_slow(10)
+    @pytest.mark.thread_unsafe
+    def test_impossible_constraint(self):
+        def constr_f(x):
+            return np.array([x[0] + x[1]])
+
+        nlc = NonlinearConstraint(constr_f, -np.inf, -1)
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(
+            rosen, [(0, 2), (0, 2)], constraints=(nlc,), popsize=1, rng=1, maxiter=100
+        )
+
+        # a UserWarning is issued because the 'trust-constr' polishing is
+        # attempted on the least infeasible solution found.
+        with warns(UserWarning):
+            res = solver.solve()
+
+        assert res.maxcv > 0
+        assert not res.success
+
+        # test _promote_lowest_energy works when none of the population is
+        # feasible. In this case, the solution with the lowest constraint
+        # violation should be promoted.
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(
+            rosen, [(0, 2), (0, 2)], constraints=(nlc,), polish=False)
+        next(solver)
+        assert not solver.feasible.all()
+        assert not np.isfinite(solver.population_energies).all()
+
+        # now swap two of the entries in the population
+        l = 20
+        cv = solver.constraint_violation[0]
+
+        solver.population_energies[[0, l]] = solver.population_energies[[l, 0]]
+        solver.population[[0, l], :] = solver.population[[l, 0], :]
+        solver.constraint_violation[[0, l], :] = (
+            solver.constraint_violation[[l, 0], :])
+
+        solver._promote_lowest_energy()
+        assert_equal(solver.constraint_violation[0], cv)
+
+    def test_accept_trial(self):
+        # _accept_trial(self, energy_trial, feasible_trial, cv_trial,
+        #               energy_orig, feasible_orig, cv_orig)
+        def constr_f(x):
+            return [x[0] + x[1]]
+        nlc = NonlinearConstraint(constr_f, -np.inf, 1.9)
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(rosen, [(0, 2), (0, 2)],
+                                             constraints=(nlc,))
+        fn = solver._accept_trial
+        # both solutions are feasible, select lower energy
+        assert fn(0.1, True, np.array([0.]), 1.0, True, np.array([0.]))
+        assert (fn(1.0, True, np.array([0.0]), 0.1, True, np.array([0.0])) is False)
+        assert fn(0.1, True, np.array([0.]), 0.1, True, np.array([0.]))
+
+        # trial is feasible, original is not
+        assert fn(9.9, True, np.array([0.]), 1.0, False, np.array([1.]))
+
+        # trial and original are infeasible
+        # cv_trial have to be <= cv_original to be better
+        assert (fn(0.1, False, np.array([0.5, 0.5]),
+                   1.0, False, np.array([1., 1.0])))
+        assert (fn(0.1, False, np.array([0.5, 0.5]),
+                   1.0, False, np.array([1., 0.50])))
+        assert not (fn(1.0, False, np.array([0.5, 0.5]),
+                       1.0, False, np.array([1.0, 0.4])))
+
+    def test_constraint_wrapper(self):
+        lb = np.array([0, 20, 30])
+        ub = np.array([0.5, np.inf, 70])
+        x0 = np.array([1, 2, 3])
+        pc = _ConstraintWrapper(Bounds(lb, ub), x0)
+        assert (pc.violation(x0) > 0).any()
+        assert (pc.violation([0.25, 21, 31]) == 0).all()
+
+        # check vectorized Bounds constraint
+        xs = np.arange(1, 16).reshape(5, 3)
+        violations = []
+        for x in xs:
+            violations.append(pc.violation(x))
+        np.testing.assert_allclose(pc.violation(xs.T), np.array(violations).T)
+
+        x0 = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
+        A = np.array([[1, 2, 3, 4], [5, 0, 0, 6], [7, 0, 8, 0]])
+        pc = _ConstraintWrapper(LinearConstraint(A, -np.inf, 0), x0)
+        assert (pc.violation(x0) > 0).any()
+        assert (pc.violation([-10, 2, -10, 4]) == 0).all()
+
+        # check vectorized LinearConstraint, for 7 lots of parameter vectors
+        # with each parameter vector being 4 long, with 3 constraints
+        # xs is the same shape as stored in the differential evolution
+        # population, but it's sent to the violation function as (len(x), M)
+        xs = np.arange(1, 29).reshape(7, 4)
+        violations = []
+        for x in xs:
+            violations.append(pc.violation(x))
+        np.testing.assert_allclose(pc.violation(xs.T), np.array(violations).T)
+
+        pc = _ConstraintWrapper(LinearConstraint(csr_array(A), -np.inf, 0),
+                                x0)
+        assert (pc.violation(x0) > 0).any()
+        assert (pc.violation([-10, 2, -10, 4]) == 0).all()
+
+        def fun(x):
+            return A.dot(x)
+
+        nonlinear = NonlinearConstraint(fun, -np.inf, 0)
+        pc = _ConstraintWrapper(nonlinear, [-10, 2, -10, 4])
+        assert (pc.violation(x0) > 0).any()
+        assert (pc.violation([-10, 2, -10, 4]) == 0).all()
+
+    def test_constraint_wrapper_violation(self):
+        def cons_f(x):
+            # written in vectorised form to accept an array of (N, S)
+            # returning (M, S)
+            # where N is the number of parameters,
+            # S is the number of solution vectors to be examined,
+            # and M is the number of constraint components
+            return np.array([x[0] ** 2 + x[1],
+                             x[0] ** 2 - x[1]])
+
+        nlc = NonlinearConstraint(cons_f, [-1, -0.8500], [2, 2])
+        pc = _ConstraintWrapper(nlc, [0.5, 1])
+        assert np.size(pc.bounds[0]) == 2
+
+        xs = [(0.5, 1), (0.5, 1.2), (1.2, 1.2), (0.1, -1.2), (0.1, 2.0)]
+        vs = [(0, 0), (0, 0.1), (0.64, 0), (0.19, 0), (0.01, 1.14)]
+
+        for x, v in zip(xs, vs):
+            assert_allclose(pc.violation(x), v)
+
+        # now check that we can vectorize the constraint wrapper
+        assert_allclose(pc.violation(np.array(xs).T),
+                        np.array(vs).T)
+        assert pc.fun(np.array(xs).T).shape == (2, len(xs))
+        assert pc.violation(np.array(xs).T).shape == (2, len(xs))
+        assert pc.num_constr == 2
+        assert pc.parameter_count == 2
+
+    def test_matrix_linear_constraint(self):
+        # gh20041 supplying an np.matrix to construct a LinearConstraint caused
+        # _ConstraintWrapper to start returning constraint violations of the
+        # wrong shape.
+        with suppress_warnings() as sup:
+            sup.filter(PendingDeprecationWarning)
+            matrix = np.matrix([[1, 1, 1, 1.],
+                                [2, 2, 2, 2.]])
+        lc = LinearConstraint(matrix, 0, 1)
+        x0 = np.ones(4)
+        cw = _ConstraintWrapper(lc, x0)
+        # the shape of the constraint violation should be the same as the number
+        # of constraints applied.
+        assert cw.violation(x0).shape == (2,)
+
+        # let's try a vectorised violation call.
+        xtrial = np.arange(4 * 5).reshape(4, 5)
+        assert cw.violation(xtrial).shape == (2, 5)
+
+    @pytest.mark.fail_slow(20)
+    def test_L1(self):
+        # Lampinen ([5]) test problem 1
+
+        def f(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+            fun = np.sum(5*x[1:5]) - 5*x[1:5]@x[1:5] - np.sum(x[5:])
+            return fun
+
+        A = np.zeros((10, 14))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+        A[1, [1, 2, 10, 11]] = 2, 2, 1, 1
+        A[2, [1, 10]] = -8, 1
+        A[3, [4, 5, 10]] = -2, -1, 1
+        A[4, [1, 3, 10, 11]] = 2, 2, 1, 1
+        A[5, [2, 11]] = -8, 1
+        A[6, [6, 7, 11]] = -2, -1, 1
+        A[7, [2, 3, 11, 12]] = 2, 2, 1, 1
+        A[8, [3, 12]] = -8, 1
+        A[9, [8, 9, 12]] = -2, -1, 1
+        A = A[1:, 1:]
+
+        b = np.array([10, 0, 0, 10, 0, 0, 10, 0, 0])
+
+        L = LinearConstraint(A, -np.inf, b)
+
+        bounds = [(0, 1)]*9 + [(0, 100)]*3 + [(0, 1)]
+
+        # using a lower popsize to speed the test up
+        res = differential_evolution(
+            f, bounds, strategy='best1bin', rng=12345, constraints=(L,),
+            popsize=5, tol=0.01
+        )
+
+        x_opt = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 3, 3, 3, 1)
+        f_opt = -15
+
+        assert_allclose(f(x_opt), f_opt, atol=6e-4)
+        assert res.success
+        assert_allclose(res.x, x_opt, atol=6e-4)
+        assert_allclose(res.fun, f_opt, atol=5e-3)
+        assert_(np.all(A@res.x <= b))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x >= np.array(bounds)[:, 0]))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x <= np.array(bounds)[:, 1]))
+
+        # now repeat the same solve, using the same overall constraints,
+        # but using a sparse array for the LinearConstraint instead of an
+        # array
+
+        L = LinearConstraint(csr_array(A), -np.inf, b)
+
+        # using a lower popsize to speed the test up
+        res = differential_evolution(
+            f, bounds, strategy='best1bin', rng=1211134, constraints=(L,),
+            popsize=2, tol=0.05
+        )
+
+        assert_allclose(f(x_opt), f_opt)
+        assert res.success
+        assert_allclose(res.x, x_opt, atol=5e-4)
+        assert_allclose(res.fun, f_opt, atol=5e-3)
+        assert_(np.all(A@res.x <= b))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x >= np.array(bounds)[:, 0]))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x <= np.array(bounds)[:, 1]))
+
+        # now repeat the same solve, using the same overall constraints,
+        # but specify half the constraints in terms of LinearConstraint,
+        # and the other half by NonlinearConstraint
+        def c1(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))
+            return [2*x[2] + 2*x[3] + x[11] + x[12],
+                    -8*x[3] + x[12]]
+
+        def c2(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))
+            return -2*x[8] - x[9] + x[12]
+
+        L = LinearConstraint(A[:5, :], -np.inf, b[:5])
+        L2 = LinearConstraint(A[5:6, :], -np.inf, b[5:6])
+        N = NonlinearConstraint(c1, -np.inf, b[6:8])
+        N2 = NonlinearConstraint(c2, -np.inf, b[8:9])
+        constraints = (L, N, L2, N2)
+
+        with suppress_warnings() as sup:
+            sup.filter(UserWarning)
+            res = differential_evolution(
+                f, bounds, strategy='best1bin', rng=1211134,
+                constraints=constraints, popsize=2, tol=0.05
+            )
+
+        assert_allclose(res.x, x_opt, atol=6e-4)
+        assert_allclose(res.fun, f_opt, atol=5e-3)
+        assert_(np.all(A@res.x <= b))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x >= np.array(bounds)[:, 0]))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x <= np.array(bounds)[:, 1]))
+
+    @pytest.mark.fail_slow(10)
+    def test_L2(self):
+        # Lampinen ([5]) test problem 2
+
+        def f(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+            fun = ((x[1]-10)**2 + 5*(x[2]-12)**2 + x[3]**4 + 3*(x[4]-11)**2 +
+                   10*x[5]**6 + 7*x[6]**2 + x[7]**4 - 4*x[6]*x[7] - 10*x[6] -
+                   8*x[7])
+            return fun
+
+        def c1(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+            return [127 - 2*x[1]**2 - 3*x[2]**4 - x[3] - 4*x[4]**2 - 5*x[5],
+                    196 - 23*x[1] - x[2]**2 - 6*x[6]**2 + 8*x[7],
+                    282 - 7*x[1] - 3*x[2] - 10*x[3]**2 - x[4] + x[5],
+                    -4*x[1]**2 - x[2]**2 + 3*x[1]*x[2] - 2*x[3]**2 -
+                    5*x[6] + 11*x[7]]
+
+        N = NonlinearConstraint(c1, 0, np.inf)
+        bounds = [(-10, 10)]*7
+        constraints = (N)
+
+        with suppress_warnings() as sup:
+            sup.filter(UserWarning)
+            res = differential_evolution(f, bounds, strategy='best1bin',
+                                         rng=1234, constraints=constraints)
+
+        f_opt = 680.6300599487869
+        x_opt = (2.330499, 1.951372, -0.4775414, 4.365726,
+                 -0.6244870, 1.038131, 1.594227)
+
+        assert_allclose(f(x_opt), f_opt)
+        assert_allclose(res.fun, f_opt)
+        assert_allclose(res.x, x_opt, atol=1e-5)
+        assert res.success
+        assert_(np.all(np.array(c1(res.x)) >= 0))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x >= np.array(bounds)[:, 0]))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x <= np.array(bounds)[:, 1]))
+
+    @pytest.mark.fail_slow(10)
+    def test_L3(self):
+        # Lampinen ([5]) test problem 3
+
+        def f(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+            fun = (x[1]**2 + x[2]**2 + x[1]*x[2] - 14*x[1] - 16*x[2] +
+                   (x[3]-10)**2 + 4*(x[4]-5)**2 + (x[5]-3)**2 + 2*(x[6]-1)**2 +
+                   5*x[7]**2 + 7*(x[8]-11)**2 + 2*(x[9]-10)**2 +
+                   (x[10] - 7)**2 + 45
+                   )
+            return fun  # maximize
+
+        A = np.zeros((4, 11))
+        A[1, [1, 2, 7, 8]] = -4, -5, 3, -9
+        A[2, [1, 2, 7, 8]] = -10, 8, 17, -2
+        A[3, [1, 2, 9, 10]] = 8, -2, -5, 2
+        A = A[1:, 1:]
+        b = np.array([-105, 0, -12])
+
+        def c1(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+            return [3*x[1] - 6*x[2] - 12*(x[9]-8)**2 + 7*x[10],
+                    -3*(x[1]-2)**2 - 4*(x[2]-3)**2 - 2*x[3]**2 + 7*x[4] + 120,
+                    -x[1]**2 - 2*(x[2]-2)**2 + 2*x[1]*x[2] - 14*x[5] + 6*x[6],
+                    -5*x[1]**2 - 8*x[2] - (x[3]-6)**2 + 2*x[4] + 40,
+                    -0.5*(x[1]-8)**2 - 2*(x[2]-4)**2 - 3*x[5]**2 + x[6] + 30]
+
+        L = LinearConstraint(A, b, np.inf)
+        N = NonlinearConstraint(c1, 0, np.inf)
+        bounds = [(-10, 10)]*10
+        constraints = (L, N)
+
+        with suppress_warnings() as sup:
+            sup.filter(UserWarning)
+            res = differential_evolution(f, bounds, rng=1234,
+                                         constraints=constraints, popsize=3)
+
+        x_opt = (2.171996, 2.363683, 8.773926, 5.095984, 0.9906548,
+                 1.430574, 1.321644, 9.828726, 8.280092, 8.375927)
+        f_opt = 24.3062091
+
+        assert_allclose(f(x_opt), f_opt, atol=1e-5)
+        assert_allclose(res.x, x_opt, atol=1e-6)
+        assert_allclose(res.fun, f_opt, atol=1e-5)
+        assert res.success
+        assert_(np.all(A @ res.x >= b))
+        assert_(np.all(np.array(c1(res.x)) >= 0))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x >= np.array(bounds)[:, 0]))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x <= np.array(bounds)[:, 1]))
+
+    @pytest.mark.fail_slow(10)
+    def test_L4(self):
+        # Lampinen ([5]) test problem 4
+        def f(x):
+            return np.sum(x[:3])
+
+        A = np.zeros((4, 9))
+        A[1, [4, 6]] = 0.0025, 0.0025
+        A[2, [5, 7, 4]] = 0.0025, 0.0025, -0.0025
+        A[3, [8, 5]] = 0.01, -0.01
+        A = A[1:, 1:]
+        b = np.array([1, 1, 1])
+
+        def c1(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+            return [x[1]*x[6] - 833.33252*x[4] - 100*x[1] + 83333.333,
+                    x[2]*x[7] - 1250*x[5] - x[2]*x[4] + 1250*x[4],
+                    x[3]*x[8] - 1250000 - x[3]*x[5] + 2500*x[5]]
+
+        L = LinearConstraint(A, -np.inf, 1)
+        N = NonlinearConstraint(c1, 0, np.inf)
+
+        bounds = [(100, 10000)] + [(1000, 10000)]*2 + [(10, 1000)]*5
+        constraints = (L, N)
+
+        with suppress_warnings() as sup:
+            sup.filter(UserWarning)
+            res = differential_evolution(
+                f, bounds, strategy='best1bin', rng=1234,
+                constraints=constraints, popsize=3, tol=0.05
+            )
+
+        f_opt = 7049.248
+
+        x_opt = [579.306692, 1359.97063, 5109.9707, 182.0177, 295.601172,
+                217.9823, 286.416528, 395.601172]
+
+        assert_allclose(f(x_opt), f_opt, atol=0.001)
+        assert_allclose(res.fun, f_opt, atol=0.001)
+
+        # use higher tol here for 32-bit Windows, see gh-11693
+        if (platform.system() == 'Windows' and np.dtype(np.intp).itemsize < 8):
+            assert_allclose(res.x, x_opt, rtol=2.4e-6, atol=0.0035)
+        else:
+            # tolerance determined from macOS + MKL failure, see gh-12701
+            assert_allclose(res.x, x_opt, rtol=5e-6, atol=0.0024)
+
+        assert res.success
+        assert_(np.all(A @ res.x <= b))
+        assert_(np.all(np.array(c1(res.x)) >= 0))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x >= np.array(bounds)[:, 0]))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x <= np.array(bounds)[:, 1]))
+
+    @pytest.mark.fail_slow(10)
+    def test_L5(self):
+        # Lampinen ([5]) test problem 5
+
+        def f(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+            fun = (np.sin(2*np.pi*x[1])**3*np.sin(2*np.pi*x[2]) /
+                   (x[1]**3*(x[1]+x[2])))
+            return -fun  # maximize
+
+        def c1(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+            return [x[1]**2 - x[2] + 1,
+                    1 - x[1] + (x[2]-4)**2]
+
+        N = NonlinearConstraint(c1, -np.inf, 0)
+        bounds = [(0, 10)]*2
+        constraints = (N)
+
+        res = differential_evolution(f, bounds, strategy='rand1bin', rng=1234,
+                                     constraints=constraints)
+
+        x_opt = (1.22797135, 4.24537337)
+        f_opt = -0.095825
+        assert_allclose(f(x_opt), f_opt, atol=2e-5)
+        assert_allclose(res.fun, f_opt, atol=1e-4)
+        assert res.success
+        assert_(np.all(np.array(c1(res.x)) <= 0))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x >= np.array(bounds)[:, 0]))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x <= np.array(bounds)[:, 1]))
+
+    @pytest.mark.fail_slow(10)
+    def test_L6(self):
+        # Lampinen ([5]) test problem 6
+        def f(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+            fun = (x[1]-10)**3 + (x[2] - 20)**3
+            return fun
+
+        def c1(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+            return [(x[1]-5)**2 + (x[2] - 5)**2 - 100,
+                    -(x[1]-6)**2 - (x[2] - 5)**2 + 82.81]
+
+        N = NonlinearConstraint(c1, 0, np.inf)
+        bounds = [(13, 100), (0, 100)]
+        constraints = (N)
+        res = differential_evolution(f, bounds, strategy='rand1bin', rng=1234,
+                                     constraints=constraints, tol=1e-7)
+        x_opt = (14.095, 0.84296)
+        f_opt = -6961.814744
+
+        assert_allclose(f(x_opt), f_opt, atol=1e-6)
+        assert_allclose(res.fun, f_opt, atol=0.001)
+        assert_allclose(res.x, x_opt, atol=1e-4)
+        assert res.success
+        assert_(np.all(np.array(c1(res.x)) >= 0))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x >= np.array(bounds)[:, 0]))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x <= np.array(bounds)[:, 1]))
+
+    def test_L7(self):
+        # Lampinen ([5]) test problem 7
+        def f(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+            fun = (5.3578547*x[3]**2 + 0.8356891*x[1]*x[5] +
+                   37.293239*x[1] - 40792.141)
+            return fun
+
+        def c1(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+            return [
+                    85.334407 + 0.0056858*x[2]*x[5] + 0.0006262*x[1]*x[4] -
+                    0.0022053*x[3]*x[5],
+
+                    80.51249 + 0.0071317*x[2]*x[5] + 0.0029955*x[1]*x[2] +
+                    0.0021813*x[3]**2,
+
+                    9.300961 + 0.0047026*x[3]*x[5] + 0.0012547*x[1]*x[3] +
+                    0.0019085*x[3]*x[4]
+                    ]
+
+        N = NonlinearConstraint(c1, [0, 90, 20], [92, 110, 25])
+
+        bounds = [(78, 102), (33, 45)] + [(27, 45)]*3
+        constraints = (N)
+
+        res = differential_evolution(f, bounds, strategy='rand1bin', rng=1234,
+                                     constraints=constraints)
+
+        # using our best solution, rather than Lampinen/Koziel. Koziel solution
+        # doesn't satisfy constraints, Lampinen f_opt just plain wrong.
+        x_opt = [78.00000686, 33.00000362, 29.99526064, 44.99999971,
+                 36.77579979]
+
+        f_opt = -30665.537578
+
+        assert_allclose(f(x_opt), f_opt)
+        assert_allclose(res.x, x_opt, atol=1e-3)
+        assert_allclose(res.fun, f_opt, atol=1e-3)
+
+        assert res.success
+        assert_(np.all(np.array(c1(res.x)) >= np.array([0, 90, 20])))
+        assert_(np.all(np.array(c1(res.x)) <= np.array([92, 110, 25])))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x >= np.array(bounds)[:, 0]))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x <= np.array(bounds)[:, 1]))
+
+    @pytest.mark.xslow
+    @pytest.mark.xfail(platform.machine() == 'ppc64le',
+                       reason="fails on ppc64le")
+    def test_L8(self):
+        def f(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+            fun = 3*x[1] + 0.000001*x[1]**3 + 2*x[2] + 0.000002/3*x[2]**3
+            return fun
+
+        A = np.zeros((3, 5))
+        A[1, [4, 3]] = 1, -1
+        A[2, [3, 4]] = 1, -1
+        A = A[1:, 1:]
+        b = np.array([-.55, -.55])
+
+        def c1(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+            return [
+                    1000*np.sin(-x[3]-0.25) + 1000*np.sin(-x[4]-0.25) +
+                    894.8 - x[1],
+                    1000*np.sin(x[3]-0.25) + 1000*np.sin(x[3]-x[4]-0.25) +
+                    894.8 - x[2],
+                    1000*np.sin(x[4]-0.25) + 1000*np.sin(x[4]-x[3]-0.25) +
+                    1294.8
+                    ]
+        L = LinearConstraint(A, b, np.inf)
+        N = NonlinearConstraint(c1, np.full(3, -0.001), np.full(3, 0.001))
+
+        bounds = [(0, 1200)]*2+[(-.55, .55)]*2
+        constraints = (L, N)
+
+        with suppress_warnings() as sup:
+            sup.filter(UserWarning)
+            # original Lampinen test was with rand1bin, but that takes a
+            # huge amount of CPU time. Changing strategy to best1bin speeds
+            # things up a lot
+            res = differential_evolution(f, bounds, strategy='best1bin',
+                                         rng=1234, constraints=constraints,
+                                         maxiter=5000)
+
+        x_opt = (679.9453, 1026.067, 0.1188764, -0.3962336)
+        f_opt = 5126.4981
+
+        assert_allclose(f(x_opt), f_opt, atol=1e-3)
+        assert_allclose(res.x[:2], x_opt[:2], atol=2e-3)
+        assert_allclose(res.x[2:], x_opt[2:], atol=2e-3)
+        assert_allclose(res.fun, f_opt, atol=2e-2)
+        assert res.success
+        assert_(np.all(A@res.x >= b))
+        assert_(np.all(np.array(c1(res.x)) >= -0.001))
+        assert_(np.all(np.array(c1(res.x)) <= 0.001))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x >= np.array(bounds)[:, 0]))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x <= np.array(bounds)[:, 1]))
+
+    @pytest.mark.fail_slow(5)
+    def test_L9(self):
+        # Lampinen ([5]) test problem 9
+
+        def f(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+            return x[1]**2 + (x[2]-1)**2
+
+        def c1(x):
+            x = np.hstack(([0], x))  # 1-indexed to match reference
+            return [x[2] - x[1]**2]
+
+        N = NonlinearConstraint(c1, [-.001], [0.001])
+
+        bounds = [(-1, 1)]*2
+        constraints = (N)
+        res = differential_evolution(f, bounds, strategy='rand1bin', rng=1234,
+                                     constraints=constraints)
+
+        x_opt = [np.sqrt(2)/2, 0.5]
+        f_opt = 0.75
+
+        assert_allclose(f(x_opt), f_opt)
+        assert_allclose(np.abs(res.x), x_opt, atol=1e-3)
+        assert_allclose(res.fun, f_opt, atol=1e-3)
+        assert res.success
+        assert_(np.all(np.array(c1(res.x)) >= -0.001))
+        assert_(np.all(np.array(c1(res.x)) <= 0.001))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x >= np.array(bounds)[:, 0]))
+        assert_(np.all(res.x <= np.array(bounds)[:, 1]))
+
+    @pytest.mark.fail_slow(10)
+    def test_integrality(self):
+        # test fitting discrete distribution to data
+        rng = np.random.default_rng(6519843218105)
+        dist = stats.nbinom
+        shapes = (5, 0.5)
+        x = dist.rvs(*shapes, size=10000, random_state=rng)
+
+        def func(p, *args):
+            dist, x = args
+            # negative log-likelihood function
+            ll = -np.log(dist.pmf(x, *p)).sum(axis=-1)
+            if np.isnan(ll):  # occurs when x is outside of support
+                ll = np.inf  # we don't want that
+            return ll
+
+        integrality = [True, False]
+        bounds = [(1, 18), (0, 0.95)]
+
+        res = differential_evolution(func, bounds, args=(dist, x),
+                                     integrality=integrality, polish=False,
+                                     rng=rng)
+        # tolerance has to be fairly relaxed for the second parameter
+        # because we're fitting a distribution to random variates.
+        assert res.x[0] == 5
+        assert_allclose(res.x, shapes, rtol=0.025)
+
+        # check that we can still use integrality constraints with polishing
+        res2 = differential_evolution(func, bounds, args=(dist, x),
+                                      integrality=integrality, polish=True,
+                                      rng=rng)
+
+        def func2(p, *args):
+            n, dist, x = args
+            return func(np.array([n, p[0]]), dist, x)
+
+        # compare the DE derived solution to an LBFGSB solution (that doesn't
+        # have to find the integral values). Note we're setting x0 to be the
+        # output from the first DE result, thereby making the polishing step
+        # and this minimisation pretty much equivalent.
+        LBFGSB = minimize(func2, res2.x[1], args=(5, dist, x),
+                          bounds=[(0, 0.95)])
+        assert_allclose(res2.x[1], LBFGSB.x)
+        assert res2.fun <= res.fun
+
+    def test_integrality_limits(self):
+        def f(x):
+            return x
+
+        integrality = [True, False, True]
+        bounds = [(0.2, 1.1), (0.9, 2.2), (3.3, 4.9)]
+
+        # no integrality constraints
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(f, bounds=bounds, polish=False,
+                                             integrality=False)
+        assert_allclose(solver.limits[0], [0.2, 0.9, 3.3])
+        assert_allclose(solver.limits[1], [1.1, 2.2, 4.9])
+
+        # with integrality constraints
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(f, bounds=bounds, polish=False,
+                                             integrality=integrality)
+        assert_allclose(solver.limits[0], [0.5, 0.9, 3.5])
+        assert_allclose(solver.limits[1], [1.5, 2.2, 4.5])
+        assert_equal(solver.integrality, [True, False, True])
+        assert solver.polish is False
+
+        bounds = [(-1.2, -0.9), (0.9, 2.2), (-10.3, 4.1)]
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(f, bounds=bounds, polish=False,
+                                             integrality=integrality)
+        assert_allclose(solver.limits[0], [-1.5, 0.9, -10.5])
+        assert_allclose(solver.limits[1], [-0.5, 2.2, 4.5])
+
+        # A lower bound of -1.2 is converted to
+        # np.nextafter(np.ceil(-1.2) - 0.5, np.inf)
+        # with a similar process to the upper bound. Check that the
+        # conversions work
+        assert_allclose(np.round(solver.limits[0]), [-1.0, 1.0, -10.0])
+        assert_allclose(np.round(solver.limits[1]), [-1.0, 2.0, 4.0])
+
+        bounds = [(-10.2, -8.1), (0.9, 2.2), (-10.9, -9.9999)]
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(f, bounds=bounds, polish=False,
+                                             integrality=integrality)
+        assert_allclose(solver.limits[0], [-10.5, 0.9, -10.5])
+        assert_allclose(solver.limits[1], [-8.5, 2.2, -9.5])
+
+        bounds = [(-10.2, -10.1), (0.9, 2.2), (-10.9, -9.9999)]
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='One of the integrality'):
+            DifferentialEvolutionSolver(f, bounds=bounds, polish=False,
+                                        integrality=integrality)
+
+    @pytest.mark.thread_unsafe
+    @pytest.mark.fail_slow(10)
+    def test_vectorized(self):
+        def quadratic(x):
+            return np.sum(x**2)
+
+        def quadratic_vec(x):
+            return np.sum(x**2, axis=0)
+
+        # A vectorized function needs to accept (len(x), S) and return (S,)
+        with pytest.raises(RuntimeError, match='The vectorized function'):
+            differential_evolution(quadratic, self.bounds,
+                                   vectorized=True, updating='deferred')
+
+        # vectorized overrides the updating keyword, check for warning
+        with warns(UserWarning, match="differential_evolution: the 'vector"):
+            differential_evolution(quadratic_vec, self.bounds,
+                                   vectorized=True)
+
+        # vectorized defers to the workers keyword, check for warning
+        with warns(UserWarning, match="differential_evolution: the 'workers"):
+            differential_evolution(quadratic_vec, self.bounds,
+                                   vectorized=True, workers=map,
+                                   updating='deferred')
+
+        ncalls = [0]
+
+        def rosen_vec(x):
+            ncalls[0] += 1
+            return rosen(x)
+
+        bounds = [(0, 10), (0, 10)]
+        res1 = differential_evolution(rosen, bounds, updating='deferred',
+                                      rng=1)
+        res2 = differential_evolution(rosen_vec, bounds, vectorized=True,
+                                      updating='deferred', rng=1)
+
+        # the two minimisation runs should be functionally equivalent
+        assert_allclose(res1.x, res2.x)
+        assert ncalls[0] == res2.nfev
+        assert res1.nit == res2.nit
+
+    def test_vectorized_constraints(self):
+        def constr_f(x):
+            return np.array([x[0] + x[1]])
+
+        def constr_f2(x):
+            return np.array([x[0]**2 + x[1], x[0] - x[1]])
+
+        nlc1 = NonlinearConstraint(constr_f, -np.inf, 1.9)
+        nlc2 = NonlinearConstraint(constr_f2, (0.9, 0.5), (2.0, 2.0))
+
+        def rosen_vec(x):
+            # accept an (len(x0), S) array, returning a (S,) array
+            v = 100 * (x[1:] - x[:-1]**2.0)**2.0
+            v += (1 - x[:-1])**2.0
+            return np.squeeze(v)
+
+        bounds = [(0, 10), (0, 10)]
+
+        res1 = differential_evolution(rosen, bounds, updating='deferred',
+                                      rng=1, constraints=[nlc1, nlc2],
+                                      polish=False)
+        res2 = differential_evolution(rosen_vec, bounds, vectorized=True,
+                                      updating='deferred', rng=1,
+                                      constraints=[nlc1, nlc2],
+                                      polish=False)
+        # the two minimisation runs should be functionally equivalent
+        assert_allclose(res1.x, res2.x)
+
+    def test_constraint_violation_error_message(self):
+
+        def func(x):
+            return np.cos(x[0]) + np.sin(x[1])
+
+        # Intentionally infeasible constraints.
+        c0 = NonlinearConstraint(lambda x: x[1] - (x[0]-1)**2, 0, np.inf)
+        c1 = NonlinearConstraint(lambda x: x[1] + x[0]**2, -np.inf, 0)
+
+        result = differential_evolution(func,
+                                        bounds=[(-1, 2), (-1, 1)],
+                                        constraints=[c0, c1],
+                                        maxiter=10,
+                                        polish=False,
+                                        rng=864197532)
+        assert result.success is False
+        # The numerical value in the error message might be sensitive to
+        # changes in the implementation.  It can be updated if the code is
+        # changed.  The essential part of the test is that there is a number
+        # after the '=', so if necessary, the text could be reduced to, say,
+        # "MAXCV = 0.".
+        assert "MAXCV = 0." in result.message
+
+    @pytest.mark.fail_slow(20)  # fail-slow exception by request - see gh-20806
+    def test_strategy_fn(self):
+        # examines ability to customize strategy by mimicking one of the
+        # in-built strategies
+        parameter_count = 4
+        popsize = 10
+        bounds = [(0, 10.)] * parameter_count
+        total_popsize = parameter_count * popsize
+        mutation = 0.8
+        recombination = 0.7
+
+        calls = [0]
+        def custom_strategy_fn(candidate, population, rng=None):
+            calls[0] += 1
+            trial = np.copy(population[candidate])
+            fill_point = rng.choice(parameter_count)
+
+            pool = np.arange(total_popsize)
+            rng.shuffle(pool)
+            idxs = pool[:2 + 1]
+            idxs = idxs[idxs != candidate][:2]
+
+            r0, r1 = idxs[:2]
+
+            bprime = (population[0] + mutation *
+                    (population[r0] - population[r1]))
+
+            crossovers = rng.uniform(size=parameter_count)
+            crossovers = crossovers < recombination
+            crossovers[fill_point] = True
+            trial = np.where(crossovers, bprime, trial)
+            return trial
+
+        solver = DifferentialEvolutionSolver(
+            rosen,
+            bounds,
+            popsize=popsize,
+            recombination=recombination,
+            mutation=mutation,
+            maxiter=2,
+            strategy=custom_strategy_fn,
+            rng=10,
+            polish=False
+        )
+        assert solver.strategy is custom_strategy_fn
+        solver.solve()
+        assert calls[0] > 0
+
+        # check custom strategy works with updating='deferred'
+        res = differential_evolution(
+            rosen, bounds, strategy=custom_strategy_fn, updating='deferred'
+        )
+        assert res.success
+
+        def custom_strategy_fn(candidate, population, rng=None):
+            return np.array([1.0, 2.0])
+
+        with pytest.raises(RuntimeError, match="strategy*"):
+            differential_evolution(
+                rosen,
+                bounds,
+                strategy=custom_strategy_fn
+            )