scipy 1.15.2__cp312-cp312-musllinux_1_2_aarch64.whl → 1.16.0rc1__cp312-cp312-musllinux_1_2_aarch64.whl

scipy/spatial/transform/tests/test_rotation.py

@@ -1,15 +1,30 @@
+import math
+
 import pytest
 
 import numpy as np
-from numpy.testing import assert_equal, assert_array_almost_equal
-from numpy.testing import assert_allclose
+from numpy.testing import assert_equal
 from scipy.spatial.transform import Rotation, Slerp
 from scipy.stats import special_ortho_group
-from itertools import permutations
+from itertools import permutations, product
+from scipy._lib._array_api import (
+    xp_assert_equal,
+    is_numpy,
+    is_lazy_array,
+    xp_vector_norm,
+    xp_assert_close,
+    eager_warns,
+    xp_default_dtype
+)
+import scipy._lib.array_api_extra as xpx
 
 import pickle
 import copy
 
+
+pytestmark = pytest.mark.skip_xp_backends(np_only=True)
+
+
 def basis_vec(axis):
     if axis == 'x':
         return [1, 0, 0]
@@ -18,81 +33,114 @@ def basis_vec(axis):
     elif axis == 'z':
         return [0, 0, 1]
 
-def test_generic_quat_matrix():
-    x = np.array([[3, 4, 0, 0], [5, 12, 0, 0]])
+
+def rotation_to_xp(r: Rotation, xp):
+    return Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(r.as_quat()))
+
+
+def test_init_non_array():
+    Rotation((0, 0, 0, 1))
+    Rotation([0, 0, 0, 1])
+
+
+def test_generic_quat_matrix(xp):
+    x = xp.asarray([[3.0, 4, 0, 0], [5, 12, 0, 0]])
     r = Rotation.from_quat(x)
-    expected_quat = x / np.array([[5], [13]])
-    assert_array_almost_equal(r.as_quat(), expected_quat)
+    expected_quat = x / xp.asarray([[5.0], [13.0]])
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(), expected_quat)
 
 
-def test_from_single_1d_quaternion():
-    x = np.array([3, 4, 0, 0])
+def test_from_single_1d_quaternion(xp):
+    x = xp.asarray([3.0, 4, 0, 0])
     r = Rotation.from_quat(x)
     expected_quat = x / 5
-    assert_array_almost_equal(r.as_quat(), expected_quat)
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(), expected_quat)
 
 
-def test_from_single_2d_quaternion():
-    x = np.array([[3, 4, 0, 0]])
+def test_from_single_2d_quaternion(xp):
+    x = xp.asarray([[3.0, 4, 0, 0]])
     r = Rotation.from_quat(x)
     expected_quat = x / 5
-    assert_array_almost_equal(r.as_quat(), expected_quat)
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(), expected_quat)
 
 
-def test_from_quat_scalar_first():
+def test_from_quat_scalar_first(xp):
     rng = np.random.RandomState(0)
 
-    r = Rotation.from_quat([1, 0, 0, 0], scalar_first=True)
-    assert_allclose(r.as_matrix(), np.eye(3), rtol=1e-15, atol=1e-16)
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([1, 0, 0, 0]), scalar_first=True)
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_matrix(), xp.eye(3), rtol=1e-15, atol=1e-16)
 
-    r = Rotation.from_quat(np.tile([1, 0, 0, 0], (10, 1)), scalar_first=True)
-    assert_allclose(r.as_matrix(), np.tile(np.eye(3), (10, 1, 1)),
-                    rtol=1e-15, atol=1e-16)
+    q = xp.tile(xp.asarray([1, 0, 0, 0]), (10, 1))
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(q, scalar_first=True)
+    xp_assert_close(
+        r.as_matrix(), xp.tile(xp.eye(3), (10, 1, 1)), rtol=1e-15, atol=1e-16
+    )
 
-    q = rng.randn(100, 4)
-    q /= np.linalg.norm(q, axis=1)[:, None]
-    for qi in q:
+    q = xp.asarray(rng.randn(100, 4))
+    q /= xp_vector_norm(q, axis=1)[:, None]
+    for i in range(q.shape[0]):  # Array API conforming loop
+        qi = q[i, ...]
         r = Rotation.from_quat(qi, scalar_first=True)
-        assert_allclose(np.roll(r.as_quat(), 1), qi, rtol=1e-15)
+        xp_assert_close(xp.roll(r.as_quat(), 1), qi, rtol=1e-15)
 
     r = Rotation.from_quat(q, scalar_first=True)
-    assert_allclose(np.roll(r.as_quat(), 1, axis=1), q, rtol=1e-15)
+    xp_assert_close(xp.roll(r.as_quat(), 1, axis=1), q, rtol=1e-15)
 
 
-def test_as_quat_scalar_first():
+def test_from_quat_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    # Single rotation
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(r_expected.as_quat().tolist())
+    assert r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12)
+
+    # Multiple rotations
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(3, rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(r_expected.as_quat().tolist())
+    assert np.all(r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12))
+
+
+def test_from_quat_int_dtype(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([1, 0, 0, 0]))
+    assert r.as_quat().dtype == xp_default_dtype(xp)
+
+
+def test_as_quat_scalar_first(xp):
     rng = np.random.RandomState(0)
 
-    r = Rotation.from_euler('xyz', np.zeros(3))
-    assert_allclose(r.as_quat(scalar_first=True), [1, 0, 0, 0],
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('xyz', xp.zeros(3))
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(scalar_first=True), xp.asarray([1.0, 0, 0, 0]),
                     rtol=1e-15, atol=1e-16)
 
-    r = Rotation.from_euler('xyz', np.zeros((10, 3)))
-    assert_allclose(r.as_quat(scalar_first=True),
-                    np.tile([1, 0, 0, 0], (10, 1)), rtol=1e-15, atol=1e-16)
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('xyz', xp.zeros((10, 3)))
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(scalar_first=True),
+                    xp.tile(xp.asarray([1.0, 0, 0, 0]), (10, 1)),
+                    rtol=1e-15, atol=1e-16)
 
-    q = rng.randn(100, 4)
-    q /= np.linalg.norm(q, axis=1)[:, None]
-    for qi in q:
+    q = xp.asarray(rng.randn(100, 4))
+    q /= xp_vector_norm(q, axis=1)[:, None]
+    for i in range(q.shape[0]):  # Array API conforming loop
+        qi = q[i, ...]
         r = Rotation.from_quat(qi)
-        assert_allclose(r.as_quat(scalar_first=True), np.roll(qi, 1),
+        xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(scalar_first=True), xp.roll(qi, 1),
                         rtol=1e-15)
 
-        assert_allclose(r.as_quat(canonical=True, scalar_first=True),
-                        np.roll(r.as_quat(canonical=True), 1),
+        xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(canonical=True, scalar_first=True),
+                        xp.roll(r.as_quat(canonical=True), 1),
                         rtol=1e-15)
 
     r = Rotation.from_quat(q)
-    assert_allclose(r.as_quat(scalar_first=True), np.roll(q, 1, axis=1),
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(scalar_first=True), xp.roll(q, 1, axis=1),
                     rtol=1e-15)
 
-    assert_allclose(r.as_quat(canonical=True, scalar_first=True),
-                    np.roll(r.as_quat(canonical=True), 1, axis=1), rtol=1e-15)
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(canonical=True, scalar_first=True),
+                    xp.roll(r.as_quat(canonical=True), 1, axis=1), rtol=1e-15)
 
 
-def test_from_square_quat_matrix():
+def test_from_square_quat_matrix(xp):
     # Ensure proper norm array broadcasting
-    x = np.array([
-        [3, 0, 0, 4],
+    x = xp.asarray([
+        [3.0, 0, 0, 4],
         [5, 0, 12, 0],
         [0, 0, 0, 1],
         [-1, -1, -1, 1],
@@ -100,647 +148,724 @@ def test_from_square_quat_matrix():
         [-1, -1, -1, -1]  # Check double cover
         ])
     r = Rotation.from_quat(x)
-    expected_quat = x / np.array([[5], [13], [1], [2], [1], [2]])
-    assert_array_almost_equal(r.as_quat(), expected_quat)
+    expected_quat = x / xp.asarray([[5.0], [13], [1], [2], [1], [2]])
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(), expected_quat)
 
 
-def test_quat_double_to_canonical_single_cover():
-    x = np.array([
-        [-1, 0, 0, 0],
+def test_quat_double_to_canonical_single_cover(xp):
+    x = xp.asarray([
+        [-1.0, 0, 0, 0],
         [0, -1, 0, 0],
         [0, 0, -1, 0],
         [0, 0, 0, -1],
         [-1, -1, -1, -1]
         ])
     r = Rotation.from_quat(x)
-    expected_quat = np.abs(x) / np.linalg.norm(x, axis=1)[:, None]
-    assert_allclose(r.as_quat(canonical=True), expected_quat)
+    expected_quat = xp.abs(x) / xp_vector_norm(x, axis=1)[:, None]
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(canonical=True), expected_quat)
 
 
-def test_quat_double_cover():
+def test_quat_double_cover(xp):
     # See the Rotation.from_quat() docstring for scope of the quaternion
     # double cover property.
     # Check from_quat and as_quat(canonical=False)
-    q = np.array([0, 0, 0, -1])
+    q = xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, -1])
     r = Rotation.from_quat(q)
-    assert_equal(q, r.as_quat(canonical=False))
-
+    xp_assert_equal(q, r.as_quat(canonical=False))
     # Check composition and inverse
-    q = np.array([1, 0, 0, 1])/np.sqrt(2)  # 90 deg rotation about x
+    q = xp.asarray([1.0, 0, 0, 1])/math.sqrt(2)  # 90 deg rotation about x
     r = Rotation.from_quat(q)
     r3 = r*r*r
-    assert_allclose(r.as_quat(canonical=False)*np.sqrt(2),
-                    [1, 0, 0, 1])
-    assert_allclose(r.inv().as_quat(canonical=False)*np.sqrt(2),
-                    [-1, 0, 0, 1])
-    assert_allclose(r3.as_quat(canonical=False)*np.sqrt(2),
-                    [1, 0, 0, -1])
-    assert_allclose(r3.inv().as_quat(canonical=False)*np.sqrt(2),
-                    [-1, 0, 0, -1])
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_quat(canonical=False)*math.sqrt(2),
+                    xp.asarray([1.0, 0, 0, 1]))
+    xp_assert_close(r.inv().as_quat(canonical=False)*math.sqrt(2),
+                    xp.asarray([-1.0, 0, 0, 1]))
+    xp_assert_close(r3.as_quat(canonical=False)*math.sqrt(2),
+                    xp.asarray([1.0, 0, 0, -1]))
+    xp_assert_close(r3.inv().as_quat(canonical=False)*math.sqrt(2),
+                    xp.asarray([-1.0, 0, 0, -1]))
 
     # More sanity checks
-    assert_allclose((r*r.inv()).as_quat(canonical=False),
-                    [0, 0, 0, 1], atol=2e-16)
-    assert_allclose((r3*r3.inv()).as_quat(canonical=False),
-                    [0, 0, 0, 1], atol=2e-16)
-    assert_allclose((r*r3).as_quat(canonical=False),
-                    [0, 0, 0, -1], atol=2e-16)
-    assert_allclose((r.inv()*r3.inv()).as_quat(canonical=False),
-                    [0, 0, 0, -1], atol=2e-16)
+    xp_assert_close((r*r.inv()).as_quat(canonical=False),
+                    xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, 1]), atol=2e-16)
+    xp_assert_close((r3*r3.inv()).as_quat(canonical=False),
+                    xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, 1]), atol=2e-16)
+    xp_assert_close((r*r3).as_quat(canonical=False),
+                    xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, -1]), atol=2e-16)
+    xp_assert_close((r.inv() * r3.inv()).as_quat(canonical=False),
+                    xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, -1]), atol=2e-16)
 
 
-def test_from_quat_wrong_shape():
+def test_from_quat_wrong_shape(xp):
     # Wrong shape 1d array
     with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Expected `quat` to have shape'):
-        Rotation.from_quat(np.array([1, 2, 3]))
+        Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([1, 2, 3]))
 
     # Wrong shape 2d array
     with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Expected `quat` to have shape'):
-        Rotation.from_quat(np.array([
+        Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([
             [1, 2, 3, 4, 5],
             [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]
             ]))
 
     # 3d array
     with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Expected `quat` to have shape'):
-        Rotation.from_quat(np.array([
+        Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([
             [[1, 2, 3, 4]],
             [[4, 5, 6, 7]]
             ]))
 
-    # 0-length 2d array
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Expected `quat` to have shape'):
-        Rotation.from_quat(np.array([]).reshape((0, 4)))
-
 
-def test_zero_norms_from_quat():
-    x = np.array([
+def test_zero_norms_from_quat(xp):
+    x = xp.asarray([
             [3, 4, 0, 0],
             [0, 0, 0, 0],
             [5, 0, 12, 0]
             ])
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError):
-        Rotation.from_quat(x)
+    if is_lazy_array(x):
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(Rotation.from_quat(x).as_quat()[1, ...]))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+            Rotation.from_quat(x)
 
 
-def test_as_matrix_single_1d_quaternion():
-    quat = [0, 0, 0, 1]
+def test_as_matrix_single_1d_quaternion(xp):
+    quat = xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1])
     mat = Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_matrix()
     # mat.shape == (3,3) due to 1d input
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat, np.eye(3))
+    xp_assert_close(mat, xp.eye(3))
 
 
-def test_as_matrix_single_2d_quaternion():
-    quat = [[0, 0, 1, 1]]
+def test_as_matrix_single_2d_quaternion(xp):
+    quat = xp.asarray([[0, 0, 1, 1]])
     mat = Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_matrix()
     assert_equal(mat.shape, (1, 3, 3))
-    expected_mat = np.array([
-        [0, -1, 0],
+    expected_mat = xp.asarray([
+        [0.0, -1, 0],
         [1, 0, 0],
         [0, 0, 1]
         ])
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[0], expected_mat)
+    xp_assert_close(mat[0, ...], expected_mat)
 
 
-def test_as_matrix_from_square_input():
-    quats = [
+def test_as_matrix_from_square_input(xp):
+    quats = xp.asarray([
             [0, 0, 1, 1],
             [0, 1, 0, 1],
             [0, 0, 0, 1],
             [0, 0, 0, -1]
-            ]
+            ])
     mat = Rotation.from_quat(quats).as_matrix()
     assert_equal(mat.shape, (4, 3, 3))
 
-    expected0 = np.array([
-        [0, -1, 0],
+    expected0 = xp.asarray([
+        [0.0, -1, 0],
         [1, 0, 0],
         [0, 0, 1]
         ])
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[0], expected0)
+    xp_assert_close(mat[0, ...], expected0)
 
-    expected1 = np.array([
-        [0, 0, 1],
+    expected1 = xp.asarray([
+        [0.0, 0, 1],
         [0, 1, 0],
         [-1, 0, 0]
         ])
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[1], expected1)
+    xp_assert_close(mat[1, ...], expected1)
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[2], np.eye(3))
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[3], np.eye(3))
+    xp_assert_close(mat[2, ...], xp.eye(3))
+    xp_assert_close(mat[3, ...], xp.eye(3))
 
 
-def test_as_matrix_from_generic_input():
-    quats = [
+def test_as_matrix_from_generic_input(xp):
+    quats = xp.asarray([
             [0, 0, 1, 1],
             [0, 1, 0, 1],
             [1, 2, 3, 4]
-            ]
+            ])
     mat = Rotation.from_quat(quats).as_matrix()
     assert_equal(mat.shape, (3, 3, 3))
 
-    expected0 = np.array([
-        [0, -1, 0],
+    expected0 = xp.asarray([
+        [0.0, -1, 0],
         [1, 0, 0],
         [0, 0, 1]
         ])
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[0], expected0)
+    xp_assert_close(mat[0, ...], expected0)
 
-    expected1 = np.array([
-        [0, 0, 1],
+    expected1 = xp.asarray([
+        [0.0, 0, 1],
         [0, 1, 0],
         [-1, 0, 0]
         ])
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[1], expected1)
+    xp_assert_close(mat[1, ...], expected1)
 
-    expected2 = np.array([
+    expected2 = xp.asarray([
         [0.4, -2, 2.2],
         [2.8, 1, 0.4],
         [-1, 2, 2]
         ]) / 3
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[2], expected2)
+    xp_assert_close(mat[2, ...], expected2)
 
 
-def test_from_single_2d_matrix():
-    mat = [
+def test_from_single_2d_matrix(xp):
+    mat = xp.asarray([
             [0, 0, 1],
             [1, 0, 0],
             [0, 1, 0]
-            ]
-    expected_quat = [0.5, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5]
-    assert_array_almost_equal(
-            Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_quat(),
-            expected_quat)
+            ])
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([0.5, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5])
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_quat(), expected_quat)
 
 
-def test_from_single_3d_matrix():
-    mat = np.array([
+def test_from_single_3d_matrix(xp):
+    mat = xp.asarray([[
         [0, 0, 1],
         [1, 0, 0],
-        [0, 1, 0]
-        ]).reshape((1, 3, 3))
-    expected_quat = np.array([0.5, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5]).reshape((1, 4))
-    assert_array_almost_equal(
-            Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_quat(),
-            expected_quat)
+        [0, 1, 0],
+        ]])
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([[0.5, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5]])
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_quat(), expected_quat)
 
 
-def test_from_matrix_calculation():
-    expected_quat = np.array([1, 1, 6, 1]) / np.sqrt(39)
-    mat = np.array([
+def test_from_matrix_calculation(xp):
+    atol = 1e-8
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([1.0, 1, 6, 1]) / math.sqrt(39)
+    mat = xp.asarray([
             [-0.8974359, -0.2564103, 0.3589744],
             [0.3589744, -0.8974359, 0.2564103],
             [0.2564103, 0.3589744, 0.8974359]
             ])
-    assert_array_almost_equal(
-            Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_quat(),
-            expected_quat)
-    assert_array_almost_equal(
-            Rotation.from_matrix(mat.reshape((1, 3, 3))).as_quat(),
-            expected_quat.reshape((1, 4)))
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_quat(), expected_quat, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_matrix(xp.reshape(mat, (1, 3, 3))).as_quat(),
+                    xp.reshape(expected_quat, (1, 4)),
+                    atol=atol)
 
 
-def test_matrix_calculation_pipeline():
-    mat = special_ortho_group.rvs(3, size=10, random_state=0)
-    assert_array_almost_equal(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_matrix(), mat)
+def test_matrix_calculation_pipeline(xp):
+    mat = xp.asarray(special_ortho_group.rvs(3, size=10, random_state=0))
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_matrix(), mat)
 
 
-def test_from_matrix_ortho_output():
+def test_from_matrix_ortho_output(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
     rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
-    mat = rnd.random_sample((100, 3, 3))
-    dets = np.linalg.det(mat)
-    for i in range(len(dets)):
+    mat = xp.asarray(rnd.random_sample((100, 3, 3)))
+    dets = xp.linalg.det(mat)
+    for i in range(dets.shape[0]):
         # Make sure we have a right-handed rotation matrix
         if dets[i] < 0:
-            mat[i] = -mat[i]
+            mat = xpx.at(mat)[i, ...].set(-mat[i, ...])
     ortho_mat = Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_matrix()
 
-    mult_result = np.einsum('...ij,...jk->...ik', ortho_mat,
-                            ortho_mat.transpose((0, 2, 1)))
+    mult_result = xp.matmul(ortho_mat, xp.matrix_transpose(ortho_mat))
 
-    eye3d = np.zeros((100, 3, 3))
-    for i in range(3):
-        eye3d[:, i, i] = 1.0
+    eye3d = xp.zeros((100, 3, 3)) + xp.eye(3)
+    xp_assert_close(mult_result, eye3d, atol=atol)
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mult_result, eye3d)
 
-
-def test_from_matrix_normalize():
-    mat = np.array([
+def test_from_matrix_normalize(xp):
+    mat = xp.asarray([
         [1, 1, 0],
         [0, 1, 0],
         [0, 0, 1]])
-    expected = np.array([[ 0.894427, 0.447214, 0.0],
-                         [-0.447214, 0.894427, 0.0],
-                         [ 0.0,      0.0,      1.0]])
-    assert_allclose(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_matrix(), expected, atol=1e-6)
+    expected = xp.asarray([[ 0.894427, 0.447214, 0.0],
+                           [-0.447214, 0.894427, 0.0],
+                           [ 0.0,      0.0,      1.0]])
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_matrix(), expected, atol=1e-6)
 
-    mat = np.array([
+    mat = xp.asarray([
         [0,  -0.5, 0  ],
         [0.5, 0  , 0  ],
         [0,   0  , 0.5]])
-    expected = np.array([[ 0, -1, 0],
-                         [ 1,  0, 0],
-                         [ 0,  0, 1]])
-    assert_allclose(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_matrix(), expected, atol=1e-6)
-
-
-def test_from_matrix_non_positive_determinant():
-    mat = np.eye(3)
-    mat[0, 0] = 0
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Non-positive determinant'):
-        Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
-
-    mat[0, 0] = -1
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Non-positive determinant'):
-        Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
+    expected = xp.asarray([[0.0, -1, 0],
+                           [  1,  0, 0],
+                           [  0,  0, 1]])
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_matrix(), expected, atol=1e-6)
+
+
+def test_from_matrix_non_positive_determinant(xp):
+    mat = xp.eye(3)
+    mat = xpx.at(mat)[0, 0].set(0)
+    if is_lazy_array(mat):
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_matrix()))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Non-positive determinant"):
+            Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
+
+    mat = xpx.at(mat)[0, 0].set(-1)
+    if is_lazy_array(mat):
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(Rotation.from_matrix(mat).as_matrix()))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Non-positive determinant"):
+            Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
+
+
+def test_from_matrix_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    # Single rotation
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_matrix(r_expected.as_matrix().tolist())
+    assert r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12)
+    
+    # Multiple rotations
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(3, rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_matrix(r_expected.as_matrix().tolist())
+    assert np.all(r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12))
+
+
+def test_from_matrix_int_dtype(xp):
+    mat = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1]])
+    r = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
+    assert r.as_quat().dtype == xp_default_dtype(xp)
 
 
-def test_from_1d_single_rotvec():
-    rotvec = [1, 0, 0]
-    expected_quat = np.array([0.4794255, 0, 0, 0.8775826])
+def test_from_1d_single_rotvec(xp):
+    atol = 1e-7
+    rotvec = xp.asarray([1, 0, 0])
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([0.4794255, 0, 0, 0.8775826])
     result = Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec)
-    assert_array_almost_equal(result.as_quat(), expected_quat)
+    xp_assert_close(result.as_quat(), expected_quat, atol=atol)
 
 
-def test_from_2d_single_rotvec():
-    rotvec = [[1, 0, 0]]
-    expected_quat = np.array([[0.4794255, 0, 0, 0.8775826]])
+def test_from_2d_single_rotvec(xp):
+    atol = 1e-7
+    rotvec = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0]])
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([[0.4794255, 0, 0, 0.8775826]])
     result = Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec)
-    assert_array_almost_equal(result.as_quat(), expected_quat)
+    xp_assert_close(result.as_quat(), expected_quat, atol=atol)
 
 
-def test_from_generic_rotvec():
-    rotvec = [
+def test_from_generic_rotvec(xp):
+    atol = 1e-7
+    rotvec = xp.asarray([
             [1, 2, 2],
             [1, -1, 0.5],
-            [0, 0, 0]
-            ]
-    expected_quat = np.array([
+            [0, 0, 0]])
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([
         [0.3324983, 0.6649967, 0.6649967, 0.0707372],
         [0.4544258, -0.4544258, 0.2272129, 0.7316889],
         [0, 0, 0, 1]
         ])
-    assert_array_almost_equal(
-            Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec).as_quat(),
-            expected_quat)
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec).as_quat(), expected_quat, atol=atol)
 
 
-def test_from_rotvec_small_angle():
-    rotvec = np.array([
-        [5e-4 / np.sqrt(3), -5e-4 / np.sqrt(3), 5e-4 / np.sqrt(3)],
+def test_from_rotvec_small_angle(xp):
+    rotvec = xp.asarray([
+        [5e-4 / math.sqrt(3), -5e-4 / math.sqrt(3), 5e-4 / math.sqrt(3)],
         [0.2, 0.3, 0.4],
         [0, 0, 0]
         ])
 
     quat = Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec).as_quat()
     # cos(theta/2) ~~ 1 for small theta
-    assert_allclose(quat[0, 3], 1)
+    xp_assert_close(quat[0, 3], xp.asarray(1.0)[()])
     # sin(theta/2) / theta ~~ 0.5 for small theta
-    assert_allclose(quat[0, :3], rotvec[0] * 0.5)
+    xp_assert_close(quat[0, :3], rotvec[0, ...] * 0.5)
 
-    assert_allclose(quat[1, 3], 0.9639685)
-    assert_allclose(
-            quat[1, :3],
-            np.array([
+    xp_assert_close(quat[1, 3], xp.asarray(0.9639685)[()])
+    xp_assert_close(quat[1, :3],
+            xp.asarray([
                 0.09879603932153465,
                 0.14819405898230198,
-                0.19759207864306931
-                ]))
+                0.19759207864306931]))
+
+    xp_assert_equal(quat[2, ...], xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, 1]))
+
+
+def test_from_rotvec_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    # Single rotation
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_rotvec(r_expected.as_rotvec().tolist())
+    assert r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12)
+
+    # Multiple rotations
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(3, rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_rotvec(r_expected.as_rotvec().tolist())
+    assert np.all(r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12))
 
-    assert_equal(quat[2], np.array([0, 0, 0, 1]))
 
+def test_from_rotvec_int_dtype(xp):
+    rotvec = xp.asarray([1, 0, 0])
+    r = Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec)
+    assert r.as_quat().dtype == xp_default_dtype(xp)
 
-def test_degrees_from_rotvec():
-    rotvec1 = [1.0 / np.cbrt(3), 1.0 / np.cbrt(3), 1.0 / np.cbrt(3)]
+
+def test_degrees_from_rotvec(xp):
+    rotvec1 = xp.asarray([1 / 3 ** (1/3)] * 3)
     rot1 = Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec1, degrees=True)
     quat1 = rot1.as_quat()
 
-    rotvec2 = np.deg2rad(rotvec1)
+    # deg2rad is not implemented in Array API -> / 180 * xp.pi
+    rotvec2 = xp.asarray(rotvec1 / 180 * xp.pi)
     rot2 = Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec2)
     quat2 = rot2.as_quat()
 
-    assert_allclose(quat1, quat2)
+    xp_assert_close(quat1, quat2)
 
 
-def test_malformed_1d_from_rotvec():
+def test_malformed_1d_from_rotvec(xp):
     with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Expected `rot_vec` to have shape'):
-        Rotation.from_rotvec([1, 2])
+        Rotation.from_rotvec(xp.asarray([1, 2]))
 
 
-def test_malformed_2d_from_rotvec():
+def test_malformed_2d_from_rotvec(xp):
     with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Expected `rot_vec` to have shape'):
-        Rotation.from_rotvec([
+        Rotation.from_rotvec(xp.asarray([
             [1, 2, 3, 4],
             [5, 6, 7, 8]
-            ])
+            ]))
 
 
-def test_as_generic_rotvec():
-    quat = np.array([
+def test_as_generic_rotvec(xp):
+    quat = xp.asarray([
             [1, 2, -1, 0.5],
             [1, -1, 1, 0.0003],
             [0, 0, 0, 1]
             ])
-    quat /= np.linalg.norm(quat, axis=1)[:, None]
+    quat /= xp_vector_norm(quat, axis=-1, keepdims=True)
 
     rotvec = Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_rotvec()
-    angle = np.linalg.norm(rotvec, axis=1)
+    angle = xp_vector_norm(rotvec, axis=-1)
 
-    assert_allclose(quat[:, 3], np.cos(angle/2))
-    assert_allclose(np.cross(rotvec, quat[:, :3]), np.zeros((3, 3)))
+    xp_assert_close(quat[:, 3], xp.cos(angle / 2))
+    xp_assert_close(xp.linalg.cross(rotvec, quat[:, :3]), xp.zeros((3, 3)), atol=1e-15)
 
 
-def test_as_rotvec_single_1d_input():
-    quat = np.array([1, 2, -3, 2])
-    expected_rotvec = np.array([0.5772381, 1.1544763, -1.7317144])
+def test_as_rotvec_single_1d_input(xp):
+    quat = xp.asarray([1, 2, -3, 2])
+    expected_rotvec = xp.asarray([0.5772381, 1.1544763, -1.7317144])
 
     actual_rotvec = Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_rotvec()
 
     assert_equal(actual_rotvec.shape, (3,))
-    assert_allclose(actual_rotvec, expected_rotvec)
+    xp_assert_close(actual_rotvec, expected_rotvec)
 
 
-def test_as_rotvec_single_2d_input():
-    quat = np.array([[1, 2, -3, 2]])
-    expected_rotvec = np.array([[0.5772381, 1.1544763, -1.7317144]])
+def test_as_rotvec_single_2d_input(xp):
+    quat = xp.asarray([[1, 2, -3, 2]])
+    expected_rotvec = xp.asarray([[0.5772381, 1.1544763, -1.7317144]])
 
     actual_rotvec = Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_rotvec()
 
     assert_equal(actual_rotvec.shape, (1, 3))
-    assert_allclose(actual_rotvec, expected_rotvec)
+    xp_assert_close(actual_rotvec, expected_rotvec)
 
 
-def test_as_rotvec_degrees():
+def test_as_rotvec_degrees(xp):
     # x->y, y->z, z->x
-    mat = [[0, 0, 1], [1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]]
+    mat = xp.asarray([[0, 0, 1], [1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]])
     rot = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
     rotvec = rot.as_rotvec(degrees=True)
-    angle = np.linalg.norm(rotvec)
-    assert_allclose(angle, 120.0)
-    assert_allclose(rotvec[0], rotvec[1])
-    assert_allclose(rotvec[1], rotvec[2])
+    angle = xp_vector_norm(rotvec, axis=-1)
+    xp_assert_close(angle, xp.asarray(120.0)[()])
+    xp_assert_close(rotvec[0], rotvec[1])
+    xp_assert_close(rotvec[1], rotvec[2])
 
 
-def test_rotvec_calc_pipeline():
+def test_rotvec_calc_pipeline(xp):
     # Include small angles
-    rotvec = np.array([
+    rotvec = xp.asarray([
         [0, 0, 0],
         [1, -1, 2],
         [-3e-4, 3.5e-4, 7.5e-5]
         ])
-    assert_allclose(Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec).as_rotvec(), rotvec)
-    assert_allclose(Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec, degrees=True).as_rotvec(degrees=True),
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec).as_rotvec(), rotvec)
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_rotvec(rotvec, degrees=True).as_rotvec(degrees=True),
                     rotvec)
 
 
-def test_from_1d_single_mrp():
-    mrp = [0, 0, 1.0]
-    expected_quat = np.array([0, 0, 1, 0])
+def test_from_1d_single_mrp(xp):
+    mrp = xp.asarray([0, 0, 1.0])
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 1, 0])
     result = Rotation.from_mrp(mrp)
-    assert_array_almost_equal(result.as_quat(), expected_quat)
+    xp_assert_close(result.as_quat(), expected_quat, atol=1e-12)
 
 
-def test_from_2d_single_mrp():
-    mrp = [[0, 0, 1.0]]
-    expected_quat = np.array([[0, 0, 1, 0]])
+def test_from_2d_single_mrp(xp):
+    mrp = xp.asarray([[0, 0, 1.0]])
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([[0.0, 0, 1, 0]])
     result = Rotation.from_mrp(mrp)
-    assert_array_almost_equal(result.as_quat(), expected_quat)
+    xp_assert_close(result.as_quat(), expected_quat)
+
+
+def test_from_mrp_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    # Single rotation
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_mrp(r_expected.as_mrp().tolist())
+    assert r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12)
 
+    # Multiple rotations
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(3, rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_mrp(r_expected.as_mrp().tolist())
+    assert np.all(r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12))
 
-def test_from_generic_mrp():
-    mrp = np.array([
+
+def test_from_mrp_int_dtype(xp):
+    mrp = xp.asarray([0, 0, 1])
+    r = Rotation.from_mrp(mrp)
+    assert r.as_quat().dtype == xp_default_dtype(xp)
+
+
+def test_from_generic_mrp(xp):
+    mrp = xp.asarray([
         [1, 2, 2],
         [1, -1, 0.5],
         [0, 0, 0]])
-    expected_quat = np.array([
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([
         [0.2, 0.4, 0.4, -0.8],
         [0.61538462, -0.61538462, 0.30769231, -0.38461538],
         [0, 0, 0, 1]])
-    assert_array_almost_equal(Rotation.from_mrp(mrp).as_quat(), expected_quat)
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_mrp(mrp).as_quat(), expected_quat)
 
 
-def test_malformed_1d_from_mrp():
+def test_malformed_1d_from_mrp(xp):
     with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Expected `mrp` to have shape'):
-        Rotation.from_mrp([1, 2])
+        Rotation.from_mrp(xp.asarray([1, 2]))
 
 
-def test_malformed_2d_from_mrp():
+def test_malformed_2d_from_mrp(xp):
     with pytest.raises(ValueError, match='Expected `mrp` to have shape'):
-        Rotation.from_mrp([
+        Rotation.from_mrp(xp.asarray([
             [1, 2, 3, 4],
             [5, 6, 7, 8]
-            ])
+            ]))
 
 
-def test_as_generic_mrp():
-    quat = np.array([
+def test_as_generic_mrp(xp):
+    quat = xp.asarray([
         [1, 2, -1, 0.5],
         [1, -1, 1, 0.0003],
         [0, 0, 0, 1]])
-    quat /= np.linalg.norm(quat, axis=1)[:, None]
+    quat /= xp_vector_norm(quat, axis=1)[:, None]
 
-    expected_mrp = np.array([
+    expected_mrp = xp.asarray([
         [0.33333333, 0.66666667, -0.33333333],
         [0.57725028, -0.57725028, 0.57725028],
         [0, 0, 0]])
-    assert_array_almost_equal(Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_mrp(), expected_mrp)
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_mrp(), expected_mrp)
+
 
-def test_past_180_degree_rotation():
+def test_past_180_degree_rotation(xp):
     # ensure that a > 180 degree rotation is returned as a <180 rotation in MRPs
     # in this case 270 should be returned as -90
-    expected_mrp = np.array([-np.tan(np.pi/2/4), 0.0, 0])
-    assert_array_almost_equal(
-        Rotation.from_euler('xyz', [270, 0, 0], degrees=True).as_mrp(),
-        expected_mrp
+    expected_mrp = xp.asarray([-math.tan(xp.pi / 2 / 4), 0.0, 0])
+    xp_assert_close(
+        Rotation.from_euler('xyz', xp.asarray([270, 0, 0]), degrees=True).as_mrp(),
+        expected_mrp,
     )
 
 
-def test_as_mrp_single_1d_input():
-    quat = np.array([1, 2, -3, 2])
-    expected_mrp = np.array([0.16018862, 0.32037724, -0.48056586])
+def test_as_mrp_single_1d_input(xp):
+    quat = xp.asarray([1, 2, -3, 2])
+    expected_mrp = xp.asarray([0.16018862, 0.32037724, -0.48056586])
 
     actual_mrp = Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_mrp()
 
     assert_equal(actual_mrp.shape, (3,))
-    assert_allclose(actual_mrp, expected_mrp)
+    xp_assert_close(actual_mrp, expected_mrp)
 
 
-def test_as_mrp_single_2d_input():
-    quat = np.array([[1, 2, -3, 2]])
-    expected_mrp = np.array([[0.16018862, 0.32037724, -0.48056586]])
+def test_as_mrp_single_2d_input(xp):
+    quat = xp.asarray([[1, 2, -3, 2]])
+    expected_mrp = xp.asarray([[0.16018862, 0.32037724, -0.48056586]])
 
     actual_mrp = Rotation.from_quat(quat).as_mrp()
 
     assert_equal(actual_mrp.shape, (1, 3))
-    assert_allclose(actual_mrp, expected_mrp)
+    xp_assert_close(actual_mrp, expected_mrp)
 
 
-def test_mrp_calc_pipeline():
-    actual_mrp = np.array([
+def test_mrp_calc_pipeline(xp):
+    actual_mrp = xp.asarray([
         [0, 0, 0],
         [1, -1, 2],
         [0.41421356, 0, 0],
         [0.1, 0.2, 0.1]])
-    expected_mrp = np.array([
+    expected_mrp = xp.asarray([
         [0, 0, 0],
         [-0.16666667, 0.16666667, -0.33333333],
         [0.41421356, 0, 0],
         [0.1, 0.2, 0.1]])
-    assert_allclose(Rotation.from_mrp(actual_mrp).as_mrp(), expected_mrp)
+    xp_assert_close(Rotation.from_mrp(actual_mrp).as_mrp(), expected_mrp)
 
 
-def test_from_euler_single_rotation():
-    quat = Rotation.from_euler('z', 90, degrees=True).as_quat()
-    expected_quat = np.array([0, 0, 1, 1]) / np.sqrt(2)
-    assert_allclose(quat, expected_quat)
+def test_from_euler_single_rotation(xp):
+    quat = Rotation.from_euler("z", xp.asarray(90), degrees=True).as_quat()
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 1, 1]) / math.sqrt(2)
+    xp_assert_close(quat, expected_quat)
 
 
-def test_single_intrinsic_extrinsic_rotation():
-    extrinsic = Rotation.from_euler('z', 90, degrees=True).as_matrix()
-    intrinsic = Rotation.from_euler('Z', 90, degrees=True).as_matrix()
-    assert_allclose(extrinsic, intrinsic)
+def test_single_intrinsic_extrinsic_rotation(xp):
+    extrinsic = Rotation.from_euler('z', xp.asarray(90), degrees=True).as_matrix()
+    intrinsic = Rotation.from_euler('Z', xp.asarray(90), degrees=True).as_matrix()
+    xp_assert_close(extrinsic, intrinsic)
 
 
-def test_from_euler_rotation_order():
+def test_from_euler_rotation_order(xp):
     # Intrinsic rotation is same as extrinsic with order reversed
     rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
-    a = rnd.randint(low=0, high=180, size=(6, 3))
-    b = a[:, ::-1]
+    a = xp.asarray(rnd.randint(low=0, high=180, size=(6, 3)))
+    b = xp.flip(a, axis=-1)
     x = Rotation.from_euler('xyz', a, degrees=True).as_quat()
     y = Rotation.from_euler('ZYX', b, degrees=True).as_quat()
-    assert_allclose(x, y)
+    xp_assert_close(x, y)
 
 
-def test_from_euler_elementary_extrinsic_rotation():
+def test_from_euler_elementary_extrinsic_rotation(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
     # Simple test to check if extrinsic rotations are implemented correctly
-    mat = Rotation.from_euler('zx', [90, 90], degrees=True).as_matrix()
-    expected_mat = np.array([
-        [0, -1, 0],
+    mat = Rotation.from_euler('zx', xp.asarray([90, 90]), degrees=True).as_matrix()
+    expected_mat = xp.asarray([
+        [0.0, -1, 0],
         [0, 0, -1],
         [1, 0, 0]
     ])
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat, expected_mat)
+    xp_assert_close(mat, expected_mat, atol=atol)
 
 
-def test_from_euler_intrinsic_rotation_312():
-    angles = [
+def test_from_euler_intrinsic_rotation_312(xp):
+    atol = 1e-7
+    angles = xp.asarray([
         [30, 60, 45],
         [30, 60, 30],
         [45, 30, 60]
-        ]
+        ])
     mat = Rotation.from_euler('ZXY', angles, degrees=True).as_matrix()
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[0], np.array([
+    xp_assert_close(mat[0, ...], xp.asarray([
         [0.3061862, -0.2500000, 0.9185587],
         [0.8838835, 0.4330127, -0.1767767],
         [-0.3535534, 0.8660254, 0.3535534]
-    ]))
+    ]), atol=atol)
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[1], np.array([
+    xp_assert_close(mat[1, ...], xp.asarray([
         [0.5334936, -0.2500000, 0.8080127],
         [0.8080127, 0.4330127, -0.3995191],
         [-0.2500000, 0.8660254, 0.4330127]
-    ]))
+    ]), atol=atol)
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[2], np.array([
+    xp_assert_close(mat[2, ...], xp.asarray([
         [0.0473672, -0.6123725, 0.7891491],
         [0.6597396, 0.6123725, 0.4355958],
         [-0.7500000, 0.5000000, 0.4330127]
-    ]))
+    ]), atol=atol)
 
 
-def test_from_euler_intrinsic_rotation_313():
-    angles = [
+def test_from_euler_intrinsic_rotation_313(xp):
+    angles = xp.asarray([
         [30, 60, 45],
         [30, 60, 30],
         [45, 30, 60]
-        ]
+        ])
     mat = Rotation.from_euler('ZXZ', angles, degrees=True).as_matrix()
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[0], np.array([
+    xp_assert_close(mat[0, ...], xp.asarray([
         [0.43559574, -0.78914913, 0.4330127],
         [0.65973961, -0.04736717, -0.750000],
         [0.61237244, 0.61237244, 0.500000]
     ]))
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[1], np.array([
+    xp_assert_close(mat[1, ...], xp.asarray([
         [0.6250000, -0.64951905, 0.4330127],
         [0.64951905, 0.1250000, -0.750000],
         [0.4330127, 0.750000, 0.500000]
     ]))
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[2], np.array([
+    xp_assert_close(mat[2, ...], xp.asarray([
         [-0.1767767, -0.91855865, 0.35355339],
         [0.88388348, -0.30618622, -0.35355339],
         [0.4330127, 0.25000000, 0.8660254]
     ]))
 
 
-def test_from_euler_extrinsic_rotation_312():
-    angles = [
+def test_from_euler_extrinsic_rotation_312(xp):
+    angles = xp.asarray([
         [30, 60, 45],
         [30, 60, 30],
         [45, 30, 60]
-        ]
+        ])
     mat = Rotation.from_euler('zxy', angles, degrees=True).as_matrix()
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[0], np.array([
+    xp_assert_close(mat[0, ...], xp.asarray([
         [0.91855865, 0.1767767, 0.35355339],
         [0.25000000, 0.4330127, -0.8660254],
         [-0.30618622, 0.88388348, 0.35355339]
     ]))
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[1], np.array([
+    xp_assert_close(mat[1, ...], xp.asarray([
         [0.96650635, -0.0580127, 0.2500000],
         [0.25000000, 0.4330127, -0.8660254],
         [-0.0580127, 0.89951905, 0.4330127]
     ]))
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[2], np.array([
+    xp_assert_close(mat[2, ...], xp.asarray([
         [0.65973961, -0.04736717, 0.7500000],
         [0.61237244, 0.61237244, -0.5000000],
         [-0.43559574, 0.78914913, 0.4330127]
     ]))
 
 
-def test_from_euler_extrinsic_rotation_313():
-    angles = [
+def test_from_euler_extrinsic_rotation_313(xp):
+    angles = xp.asarray([
         [30, 60, 45],
         [30, 60, 30],
         [45, 30, 60]
-        ]
+        ])
     mat = Rotation.from_euler('zxz', angles, degrees=True).as_matrix()
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[0], np.array([
+    xp_assert_close(mat[0, ...], xp.asarray([
         [0.43559574, -0.65973961, 0.61237244],
         [0.78914913, -0.04736717, -0.61237244],
         [0.4330127, 0.75000000, 0.500000]
     ]))
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[1], np.array([
+    xp_assert_close(mat[1, ...], xp.asarray([
         [0.62500000, -0.64951905, 0.4330127],
         [0.64951905, 0.12500000, -0.750000],
         [0.4330127, 0.75000000, 0.500000]
     ]))
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat[2], np.array([
+    xp_assert_close(mat[2, ...], xp.asarray([
         [-0.1767767, -0.88388348, 0.4330127],
         [0.91855865, -0.30618622, -0.250000],
         [0.35355339, 0.35355339, 0.8660254]
     ]))
 
 
+def test_from_euler_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    order = "xyz"
+    # Single rotation
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_euler(order, r_expected.as_euler(order).tolist())
+    assert r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12)
+
+    # Multiple rotations
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(3, rng=rng)
+    r = Rotation.from_euler(order, r_expected.as_euler(order).tolist())
+    assert np.all(r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12))
+
+
+def test_from_euler_scalar():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    deg = rng.uniform(low=-180, high=180)
+    r_expected = Rotation.from_euler("x", deg, degrees=True)
+    r = Rotation.from_euler("x", float(deg), degrees=True)
+    assert r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12)
+
+
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("seq_tuple", permutations("xyz"))
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("intrinsic", (False, True))
-def test_as_euler_asymmetric_axes(seq_tuple, intrinsic):
+def test_as_euler_asymmetric_axes(xp, seq_tuple, intrinsic):
     # helper function for mean error tests
     def test_stats(error, mean_max, rms_max):
-        mean = np.mean(error, axis=0)
-        std = np.std(error, axis=0)
-        rms = np.hypot(mean, std)
-        assert np.all(np.abs(mean) < mean_max)
-        assert np.all(rms < rms_max)
+        mean = xp.mean(error, axis=0)
+        std = xp.std(error, axis=0)
+        rms = xp.hypot(mean, std)
+        assert xp.all(xp.abs(mean) < mean_max)
+        assert xp.all(rms < rms_max)
 
     rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
     n = 1000
@@ -748,6 +873,7 @@ def test_as_euler_asymmetric_axes(seq_tuple, intrinsic):
     angles[:, 0] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
     angles[:, 1] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi / 2, high=np.pi / 2, size=(n,))
     angles[:, 2] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    angles = xp.asarray(angles)
 
     seq = "".join(seq_tuple)
     if intrinsic:
@@ -756,9 +882,11 @@ def test_as_euler_asymmetric_axes(seq_tuple, intrinsic):
         seq = seq.upper()
     rotation = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angles)
     angles_quat = rotation.as_euler(seq)
+    # TODO: Why are we using _as_euler_from_matrix here? As a sanity check? It is not
+    # part of the public API and should not be used anywhere else
     angles_mat = rotation._as_euler_from_matrix(seq)
-    assert_allclose(angles, angles_quat, atol=0, rtol=1e-12)
-    assert_allclose(angles, angles_mat, atol=0, rtol=1e-12)
+    xp_assert_close(angles, angles_quat, atol=0, rtol=1e-12)
+    xp_assert_close(angles, angles_mat, atol=0, rtol=1e-12)
     test_stats(angles_quat - angles, 1e-15, 1e-14)
     test_stats(angles_mat - angles, 1e-15, 1e-14)
 
@@ -766,14 +894,14 @@ def test_as_euler_asymmetric_axes(seq_tuple, intrinsic):
 
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("seq_tuple", permutations("xyz"))
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("intrinsic", (False, True))
-def test_as_euler_symmetric_axes(seq_tuple, intrinsic):
+def test_as_euler_symmetric_axes(xp, seq_tuple, intrinsic):
     # helper function for mean error tests
     def test_stats(error, mean_max, rms_max):
-        mean = np.mean(error, axis=0)
-        std = np.std(error, axis=0)
-        rms = np.hypot(mean, std)
-        assert np.all(np.abs(mean) < mean_max)
-        assert np.all(rms < rms_max)
+        mean = xp.mean(error, axis=0)
+        std = xp.std(error, axis=0)
+        rms = xp.hypot(mean, std)
+        assert xp.all(xp.abs(mean) < mean_max)
+        assert xp.all(rms < rms_max)
 
     rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
     n = 1000
@@ -781,6 +909,7 @@ def test_as_euler_symmetric_axes(seq_tuple, intrinsic):
     angles[:, 0] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
     angles[:, 1] = rnd.uniform(low=0, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
     angles[:, 2] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
+    angles = xp.asarray(angles)
 
     # Rotation of the form A/B/A are rotation around symmetric axes
     seq = "".join([seq_tuple[0], seq_tuple[1], seq_tuple[0]])
@@ -788,9 +917,10 @@ def test_as_euler_symmetric_axes(seq_tuple, intrinsic):
         seq = seq.upper()
     rotation = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angles)
     angles_quat = rotation.as_euler(seq)
+    # TODO: Same as before: Remove _as_euler_from_matrix?
     angles_mat = rotation._as_euler_from_matrix(seq)
-    assert_allclose(angles, angles_quat, atol=0, rtol=1e-13)
-    assert_allclose(angles, angles_mat, atol=0, rtol=1e-9)
+    xp_assert_close(angles, angles_quat, atol=0, rtol=1e-13)
+    xp_assert_close(angles, angles_mat, atol=0, rtol=1e-9)
     test_stats(angles_quat - angles, 1e-16, 1e-14)
     test_stats(angles_mat - angles, 1e-15, 1e-13)
 
@@ -798,10 +928,11 @@ def test_as_euler_symmetric_axes(seq_tuple, intrinsic):
 @pytest.mark.thread_unsafe
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("seq_tuple", permutations("xyz"))
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("intrinsic", (False, True))
-def test_as_euler_degenerate_asymmetric_axes(seq_tuple, intrinsic):
+def test_as_euler_degenerate_asymmetric_axes(xp, seq_tuple, intrinsic):
+    atol = 1e-12
     # Since we cannot check for angle equality, we check for rotation matrix
     # equality
-    angles = np.array([
+    angles = xp.asarray([
         [45, 90, 35],
         [35, -90, 20],
         [35, 90, 25],
@@ -815,20 +946,23 @@ def test_as_euler_degenerate_asymmetric_axes(seq_tuple, intrinsic):
     rotation = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angles, degrees=True)
     mat_expected = rotation.as_matrix()
 
-    with pytest.warns(UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
+    # We can only warn on non-lazy backends because we'd need to condition on traced
+    # booleans
+    with eager_warns(mat_expected, UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
         angle_estimates = rotation.as_euler(seq, degrees=True)
     mat_estimated = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angle_estimates, degrees=True).as_matrix()
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat_expected, mat_estimated)
+    xp_assert_close(mat_expected, mat_estimated, atol=atol)
 
 
 @pytest.mark.thread_unsafe
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("seq_tuple", permutations("xyz"))
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("intrinsic", (False, True))
-def test_as_euler_degenerate_symmetric_axes(seq_tuple, intrinsic):
+def test_as_euler_degenerate_symmetric_axes(xp, seq_tuple, intrinsic):
+    atol = 1e-12
     # Since we cannot check for angle equality, we check for rotation matrix
     # equality
-    angles = np.array([
+    angles = xp.asarray([
         [15, 0, 60],
         [35, 0, 75],
         [60, 180, 35],
@@ -843,22 +977,23 @@ def test_as_euler_degenerate_symmetric_axes(seq_tuple, intrinsic):
     rotation = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angles, degrees=True)
     mat_expected = rotation.as_matrix()
 
-    with pytest.warns(UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
+    # We can only warn on non-lazy backends
+    with eager_warns(mat_expected, UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
         angle_estimates = rotation.as_euler(seq, degrees=True)
     mat_estimated = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angle_estimates, degrees=True).as_matrix()
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mat_expected, mat_estimated)
+    xp_assert_close(mat_expected, mat_estimated, atol=atol)
 
 
 @pytest.mark.thread_unsafe
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("seq_tuple", permutations("xyz"))
 @pytest.mark.parametrize("intrinsic", (False, True))
-def test_as_euler_degenerate_compare_algorithms(seq_tuple, intrinsic):
+def test_as_euler_degenerate_compare_algorithms(xp, seq_tuple, intrinsic):
     # this test makes sure that both algorithms are doing the same choices
     # in degenerate cases
 
     # asymmetric axes
-    angles = np.array([
+    angles = xp.asarray([
         [45, 90, 35],
         [35, -90, 20],
         [35, 90, 25],
@@ -871,21 +1006,20 @@ def test_as_euler_degenerate_compare_algorithms(seq_tuple, intrinsic):
         seq = seq.upper()
 
     rot = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angles, degrees=True)
-    with pytest.warns(UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
+    with eager_warns(rot, UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
         estimates_matrix = rot._as_euler_from_matrix(seq, degrees=True)
-    with pytest.warns(UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
         estimates_quat = rot.as_euler(seq, degrees=True)
-    assert_allclose(
+    xp_assert_close(
         estimates_matrix[:, [0, 2]], estimates_quat[:, [0, 2]], atol=0, rtol=1e-12
     )
-    assert_allclose(estimates_matrix[:, 1], estimates_quat[:, 1], atol=0, rtol=1e-7)
+    xp_assert_close(estimates_matrix[:, 1], estimates_quat[:, 1], atol=0, rtol=1e-7)
 
     # symmetric axes
     # Absolute error tolerance must be looser to directly compare the results
     # from both algorithms, because of numerical loss of precision for the
     # method _as_euler_from_matrix near a zero angle value
 
-    angles = np.array([
+    angles = xp.asarray([
         [15, 0, 60],
         [35, 0, 75],
         [60, 180, 35],
@@ -901,45 +1035,49 @@ def test_as_euler_degenerate_compare_algorithms(seq_tuple, intrinsic):
         seq = seq.upper()
 
     rot = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angles, degrees=True)
-    with pytest.warns(UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
+    with eager_warns(rot, UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
         estimates_matrix = rot._as_euler_from_matrix(seq, degrees=True)
-    with pytest.warns(UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
+    with eager_warns(rot, UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
         estimates_quat = rot.as_euler(seq, degrees=True)
-    assert_allclose(
+    xp_assert_close(
         estimates_matrix[:, [0, 2]], estimates_quat[:, [0, 2]], atol=0, rtol=1e-12
     )
 
-    assert_allclose(
+    xp_assert_close(
         estimates_matrix[~idx, 1], estimates_quat[~idx, 1], atol=0, rtol=1e-7
     )
 
-    assert_allclose(
+    xp_assert_close(
         estimates_matrix[idx, 1], estimates_quat[idx, 1], atol=1e-6
     )  # problematic, angles[1] = 0
 
 
-def test_inv():
+def test_inv(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
     rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
     n = 10
     # preserve use of old random_state during SPEC 7 transition
     p = Rotation.random(num=n, random_state=rnd)
+    p = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(p.as_quat()))
     q = p.inv()
 
     p_mat = p.as_matrix()
     q_mat = q.as_matrix()
-    result1 = np.einsum('...ij,...jk->...ik', p_mat, q_mat)
-    result2 = np.einsum('...ij,...jk->...ik', q_mat, p_mat)
+    result1 = xp.asarray(np.einsum("...ij,...jk->...ik", p_mat, q_mat))
+    result2 = xp.asarray(np.einsum("...ij,...jk->...ik", q_mat, p_mat))
 
-    eye3d = np.empty((n, 3, 3))
-    eye3d[:] = np.eye(3)
+    eye3d = xp.empty((n, 3, 3))
+    eye3d = xpx.at(eye3d)[..., :3, :3].set(xp.eye(3))
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(result1, eye3d)
-    assert_array_almost_equal(result2, eye3d)
+    xp_assert_close(result1, eye3d, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(result2, eye3d, atol=atol)
 
 
-def test_inv_single_rotation():
+def test_inv_single_rotation(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
     rng = np.random.default_rng(146972845698875399755764481408308808739)
     p = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    p = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(p.as_quat()))
     q = p.inv()
 
     p_mat = p.as_matrix()
@@ -947,93 +1085,105 @@ def test_inv_single_rotation():
     res1 = np.dot(p_mat, q_mat)
     res2 = np.dot(q_mat, p_mat)
 
-    eye = np.eye(3)
+    eye = xp.eye(3)
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(res1, eye)
-    assert_array_almost_equal(res2, eye)
+    xp_assert_close(res1, eye, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(res2, eye, atol=atol)
 
     x = Rotation.random(num=1, rng=rng)
+    x = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(x.as_quat()))
     y = x.inv()
 
     x_matrix = x.as_matrix()
     y_matrix = y.as_matrix()
-    result1 = np.einsum('...ij,...jk->...ik', x_matrix, y_matrix)
-    result2 = np.einsum('...ij,...jk->...ik', y_matrix, x_matrix)
+    result1 = xp.linalg.matmul(x_matrix, y_matrix)
+    result2 = xp.linalg.matmul(y_matrix, x_matrix)
 
-    eye3d = np.empty((1, 3, 3))
-    eye3d[:] = np.eye(3)
+    eye3d = xp.empty((1, 3, 3))
+    eye3d = xpx.at(eye3d)[..., :3, :3].set(xp.eye(3))
 
-    assert_array_almost_equal(result1, eye3d)
-    assert_array_almost_equal(result2, eye3d)
+    xp_assert_close(result1, eye3d, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(result2, eye3d, atol=atol)
 
 
-def test_identity_magnitude():
+def test_identity_magnitude(xp):
     n = 10
-    assert_allclose(Rotation.identity(n).magnitude(), 0)
-    assert_allclose(Rotation.identity(n).inv().magnitude(), 0)
+    r = Rotation.identity(n)
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(r.as_quat()))
+    expected = xp.zeros(n)
+    xp_assert_close(r.magnitude(), expected)
+    xp_assert_close(r.inv().magnitude(), expected)
 
 
-def test_single_identity_magnitude():
-    assert Rotation.identity().magnitude() == 0
-    assert Rotation.identity().inv().magnitude() == 0
+def test_single_identity_magnitude(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.identity().as_quat()))
+    assert r.magnitude() == 0
+    assert r.inv().magnitude() == 0
 
 
-def test_identity_invariance():
+def test_identity_invariance(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
     n = 10
     p = Rotation.random(n, rng=0)
-
-    result = p * Rotation.identity(n)
-    assert_array_almost_equal(p.as_quat(), result.as_quat())
+    p = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(p.as_quat()))
+    q = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.identity(n).as_quat()))
+    result = p * q
+    xp_assert_close(p.as_quat(), result.as_quat())
 
     result = result * p.inv()
-    assert_array_almost_equal(result.magnitude(), np.zeros(n))
+    xp_assert_close(result.magnitude(), xp.zeros(n), atol=atol)
 
 
-def test_single_identity_invariance():
+def test_single_identity_invariance(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
     n = 10
     p = Rotation.random(n, rng=0)
+    p = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(p.as_quat()))
 
-    result = p * Rotation.identity()
-    assert_array_almost_equal(p.as_quat(), result.as_quat())
+    q = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.identity().as_quat()))
+    result = p * q
+    xp_assert_close(p.as_quat(), result.as_quat())
 
     result = result * p.inv()
-    assert_array_almost_equal(result.magnitude(), np.zeros(n))
+    xp_assert_close(result.magnitude(), xp.zeros(n), atol=atol)
 
 
-def test_magnitude():
-    r = Rotation.from_quat(np.eye(4))
+def test_magnitude(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.eye(4))
     result = r.magnitude()
-    assert_array_almost_equal(result, [np.pi, np.pi, np.pi, 0])
+    xp_assert_close(result, xp.asarray([xp.pi, xp.pi, xp.pi, 0]))
 
-    r = Rotation.from_quat(-np.eye(4))
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(-xp.eye(4))
     result = r.magnitude()
-    assert_array_almost_equal(result, [np.pi, np.pi, np.pi, 0])
+    xp_assert_close(result, xp.asarray([xp.pi, xp.pi, xp.pi, 0]))
 
 
-def test_magnitude_single_rotation():
-    r = Rotation.from_quat(np.eye(4))
+def test_magnitude_single_rotation(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.eye(4))
     result1 = r[0].magnitude()
-    assert_allclose(result1, np.pi)
+    xp_assert_close(result1, xp.pi)
 
     result2 = r[3].magnitude()
-    assert_allclose(result2, 0)
+    xp_assert_close(result2, 0.0)
 
 
-def test_approx_equal():
+def test_approx_equal(xp):
     rng = np.random.default_rng(146972845698875399755764481408308808739)
     p = Rotation.random(10, rng=rng)
     q = Rotation.random(10, rng=rng)
+    p = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(p.as_quat()))
+    q = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(q.as_quat()))
     r = p * q.inv()
     r_mag = r.magnitude()
-    atol = np.median(r_mag)  # ensure we get mix of Trues and Falses
-    assert_equal(p.approx_equal(q, atol), (r_mag < atol))
+    atol = xp.asarray(np.median(r_mag))  # ensure we get mix of Trues and Falses
+    xp_assert_equal(p.approx_equal(q, atol), (r_mag < atol))
 
 
 @pytest.mark.thread_unsafe
-def test_approx_equal_single_rotation():
+def test_approx_equal_single_rotation(xp):
     # also tests passing single argument to approx_equal
-    p = Rotation.from_rotvec([0, 0, 1e-9])  # less than default atol of 1e-8
-    q = Rotation.from_quat(np.eye(4))
+    p = Rotation.from_rotvec(xp.asarray([0, 0, 1e-9]))  # less than default atol of 1e-8
+    q = Rotation.from_quat(xp.eye(4))
     assert p.approx_equal(q[3])
     assert not p.approx_equal(q[0])
 
@@ -1044,40 +1194,47 @@ def test_approx_equal_single_rotation():
         assert p.approx_equal(q[3], degrees=True)
 
 
-def test_mean():
+def test_mean(xp):
+    axes = xp.concat((-xp.eye(3), xp.eye(3)))
     axes = np.concatenate((-np.eye(3), np.eye(3)))
-    thetas = np.linspace(0, np.pi / 2, 100)
+    thetas = xp.linspace(0, xp.pi / 2, 100)
     for t in thetas:
         r = Rotation.from_rotvec(t * axes)
-        assert_allclose(r.mean().magnitude(), 0, atol=1E-10)
+        xp_assert_close(r.mean().magnitude(), 0.0, atol=1e-10)
 
 
-def test_weighted_mean():
+def test_weighted_mean(xp):
     # test that doubling a weight is equivalent to including a rotation twice.
-    axes = np.array([[0, 0, 0], [1, 0, 0], [1, 0, 0]])
-    thetas = np.linspace(0, np.pi / 2, 100)
+    axes = xp.asarray([[0.0, 0, 0], [1, 0, 0], [1, 0, 0]])
+    thetas = xp.linspace(0, xp.pi / 2, 100)
     for t in thetas:
-        rw = Rotation.from_rotvec(t * axes[:2])
+        rw = Rotation.from_rotvec(t * axes[:2, ...])
         mw = rw.mean(weights=[1, 2])
 
         r = Rotation.from_rotvec(t * axes)
         m = r.mean()
-        assert_allclose((m * mw.inv()).magnitude(), 0, atol=1E-10)
+        xp_assert_close((m * mw.inv()).magnitude(), 0.0, atol=1e-10)
 
 
-def test_mean_invalid_weights():
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="non-negative"):
-        r = Rotation.from_quat(np.eye(4))
-        r.mean(weights=-np.ones(4))
+def test_mean_invalid_weights(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.eye(4))
+    if is_lazy_array(r.as_quat()):
+        m = r.mean(weights=-xp.ones(4))
+        assert all(xp.isnan(m._quat))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="non-negative"):
+            r.mean(weights=-xp.ones(4))
 
 
-def test_reduction_no_indices():
-    result = Rotation.identity().reduce(return_indices=False)
+def test_reduction_no_indices(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]))
+    result = r.reduce(return_indices=False)
     assert isinstance(result, Rotation)
 
 
-def test_reduction_none_indices():
-    result = Rotation.identity().reduce(return_indices=True)
+def test_reduction_none_indices(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0]))
+    result = r.reduce(return_indices=True)
     assert type(result) is tuple
     assert len(result) == 3
 
@@ -1086,11 +1243,12 @@ def test_reduction_none_indices():
     assert right_best is None
 
 
-def test_reduction_scalar_calculation():
+def test_reduction_scalar_calculation(xp):
+    atol = 1e-12
     rng = np.random.default_rng(146972845698875399755764481408308808739)
-    l = Rotation.random(5, rng=rng)
-    r = Rotation.random(10, rng=rng)
-    p = Rotation.random(7, rng=rng)
+    l = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(5, rng=rng).as_quat()))
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(10, rng=rng).as_quat()))
+    p = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(7, rng=rng).as_quat()))
     reduced, left_best, right_best = p.reduce(l, r, return_indices=True)
 
     # Loop implementation of the vectorized calculation in Rotation.reduce
@@ -1102,66 +1260,66 @@ def test_reduction_scalar_calculation():
     scalars = np.reshape(np.moveaxis(scalars, 1, 0), (scalars.shape[1], -1))
 
     max_ind = np.argmax(np.reshape(scalars, (len(p), -1)), axis=1)
-    left_best_check = max_ind // len(r)
-    right_best_check = max_ind % len(r)
-    assert (left_best == left_best_check).all()
-    assert (right_best == right_best_check).all()
+    left_best_check = xp.asarray(max_ind // len(r))
+    right_best_check = xp.asarray(max_ind % len(r))
+    assert xp.all(left_best == left_best_check)
+    assert xp.all(right_best == right_best_check)
 
     reduced_check = l[left_best_check] * p * r[right_best_check]
     mag = (reduced.inv() * reduced_check).magnitude()
-    assert_array_almost_equal(mag, np.zeros(len(p)))
+    xp_assert_close(mag, xp.zeros(len(p)), atol=atol)
 
 
-def test_apply_single_rotation_single_point():
-    mat = np.array([
+def test_apply_single_rotation_single_point(xp):
+    mat = xp.asarray([
         [0, -1, 0],
         [1, 0, 0],
         [0, 0, 1]
     ])
     r_1d = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
-    r_2d = Rotation.from_matrix(np.expand_dims(mat, axis=0))
+    r_2d = Rotation.from_matrix(xp.expand_dims(mat, axis=0))
 
-    v_1d = np.array([1, 2, 3])
-    v_2d = np.expand_dims(v_1d, axis=0)
-    v1d_rotated = np.array([-2, 1, 3])
-    v2d_rotated = np.expand_dims(v1d_rotated, axis=0)
+    v_1d = xp.asarray([1.0, 2, 3])
+    v_2d = xp.expand_dims(v_1d, axis=0)
+    v1d_rotated = xp.asarray([-2.0, 1, 3])
+    v2d_rotated = xp.expand_dims(v1d_rotated, axis=0)
 
-    assert_allclose(r_1d.apply(v_1d), v1d_rotated)
-    assert_allclose(r_1d.apply(v_2d), v2d_rotated)
-    assert_allclose(r_2d.apply(v_1d), v2d_rotated)
-    assert_allclose(r_2d.apply(v_2d), v2d_rotated)
+    xp_assert_close(r_1d.apply(v_1d), v1d_rotated)
+    xp_assert_close(r_1d.apply(v_2d), v2d_rotated)
+    xp_assert_close(r_2d.apply(v_1d), v2d_rotated)
+    xp_assert_close(r_2d.apply(v_2d), v2d_rotated)
 
-    v1d_inverse = np.array([2, -1, 3])
-    v2d_inverse = np.expand_dims(v1d_inverse, axis=0)
+    v1d_inverse = xp.asarray([2.0, -1, 3])
+    v2d_inverse = xp.expand_dims(v1d_inverse, axis=0)
 
-    assert_allclose(r_1d.apply(v_1d, inverse=True), v1d_inverse)
-    assert_allclose(r_1d.apply(v_2d, inverse=True), v2d_inverse)
-    assert_allclose(r_2d.apply(v_1d, inverse=True), v2d_inverse)
-    assert_allclose(r_2d.apply(v_2d, inverse=True), v2d_inverse)
+    xp_assert_close(r_1d.apply(v_1d, inverse=True), v1d_inverse)
+    xp_assert_close(r_1d.apply(v_2d, inverse=True), v2d_inverse)
+    xp_assert_close(r_2d.apply(v_1d, inverse=True), v2d_inverse)
+    xp_assert_close(r_2d.apply(v_2d, inverse=True), v2d_inverse)
 
 
-def test_apply_single_rotation_multiple_points():
-    mat = np.array([
+def test_apply_single_rotation_multiple_points(xp):
+    mat = xp.asarray([
         [0, -1, 0],
         [1, 0, 0],
         [0, 0, 1]
     ])
     r1 = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
-    r2 = Rotation.from_matrix(np.expand_dims(mat, axis=0))
+    r2 = Rotation.from_matrix(xp.expand_dims(mat, axis=0))
 
-    v = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
-    v_rotated = np.array([[-2, 1, 3], [-5, 4, 6]])
+    v = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    v_rotated = xp.asarray([[-2.0, 1, 3], [-5, 4, 6]])
 
-    assert_allclose(r1.apply(v), v_rotated)
-    assert_allclose(r2.apply(v), v_rotated)
+    xp_assert_close(r1.apply(v), v_rotated)
+    xp_assert_close(r2.apply(v), v_rotated)
 
-    v_inverse = np.array([[2, -1, 3], [5, -4, 6]])
+    v_inverse = xp.asarray([[2.0, -1, 3], [5, -4, 6]])
 
-    assert_allclose(r1.apply(v, inverse=True), v_inverse)
-    assert_allclose(r2.apply(v, inverse=True), v_inverse)
+    xp_assert_close(r1.apply(v, inverse=True), v_inverse)
+    xp_assert_close(r2.apply(v, inverse=True), v_inverse)
 
 
-def test_apply_multiple_rotations_single_point():
+def test_apply_multiple_rotations_single_point(xp):
     mat = np.empty((2, 3, 3))
     mat[0] = np.array([
         [0, -1, 0],
@@ -1173,23 +1331,24 @@ def test_apply_multiple_rotations_single_point():
         [0, 0, -1],
         [0, 1, 0]
     ])
+    mat = xp.asarray(mat)
     r = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
 
-    v1 = np.array([1, 2, 3])
-    v2 = np.expand_dims(v1, axis=0)
+    v1 = xp.asarray([1, 2, 3])
+    v2 = xp.expand_dims(v1, axis=0)
 
-    v_rotated = np.array([[-2, 1, 3], [1, -3, 2]])
+    v_rotated = xp.asarray([[-2.0, 1, 3], [1, -3, 2]])
 
-    assert_allclose(r.apply(v1), v_rotated)
-    assert_allclose(r.apply(v2), v_rotated)
+    xp_assert_close(r.apply(v1), v_rotated)
+    xp_assert_close(r.apply(v2), v_rotated)
 
-    v_inverse = np.array([[2, -1, 3], [1, 3, -2]])
+    v_inverse = xp.asarray([[2.0, -1, 3], [1, 3, -2]])
 
-    assert_allclose(r.apply(v1, inverse=True), v_inverse)
-    assert_allclose(r.apply(v2, inverse=True), v_inverse)
+    xp_assert_close(r.apply(v1, inverse=True), v_inverse)
+    xp_assert_close(r.apply(v2, inverse=True), v_inverse)
 
 
-def test_apply_multiple_rotations_multiple_points():
+def test_apply_multiple_rotations_multiple_points(xp):
     mat = np.empty((2, 3, 3))
     mat[0] = np.array([
         [0, -1, 0],
@@ -1201,17 +1360,52 @@ def test_apply_multiple_rotations_multiple_points():
         [0, 0, -1],
         [0, 1, 0]
     ])
+    mat = xp.asarray(mat)
     r = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
 
-    v = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
-    v_rotated = np.array([[-2, 1, 3], [4, -6, 5]])
-    assert_allclose(r.apply(v), v_rotated)
-
-    v_inverse = np.array([[2, -1, 3], [4, 6, -5]])
-    assert_allclose(r.apply(v, inverse=True), v_inverse)
-
-
-def test_getitem():
+    v = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    v_rotated = xp.asarray([[-2.0, 1, 3], [4, -6, 5]])
+    xp_assert_close(r.apply(v), v_rotated)
+
+    v_inverse = xp.asarray([[2.0, -1, 3], [4, 6, -5]])
+    xp_assert_close(r.apply(v, inverse=True), v_inverse)
+
+
+def test_apply_shapes(xp):
+    vector0 = xp.asarray([1.0, 2.0, 3.0])
+    vector1 = xp.asarray([vector0])
+    vector2 = xp.asarray([vector0, vector0])
+    matrix0 = xp.eye(3)
+    matrix1 = xp.asarray([matrix0])
+    matrix2 = xp.asarray([matrix0, matrix0])
+
+    for m, v in product([matrix0, matrix1, matrix2], [vector0, vector1, vector2]):
+        r = Rotation.from_matrix(m)
+        shape = v.shape
+        if not r.single and (v.shape == (3,) or v.shape == (1, 3)):
+            shape = (len(r), 3)
+        x = r.apply(v)
+        assert x.shape == shape
+        x = r.apply(v, inverse=True)
+        assert x.shape == shape
+
+
+def test_apply_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    # Single vector
+    r = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    t = rng.uniform(-100, 100, size=(3,))
+    v = r.apply(t.tolist())
+    v_expected = r.apply(t)
+    xp_assert_close(v, v_expected, atol=1e-12)
+    # Multiple vectors
+    t = rng.uniform(-100, 100, size=(2, 3))
+    v = r.apply(t.tolist())
+    v_expected = r.apply(t)
+    xp_assert_close(v, v_expected, atol=1e-12)
+
+
+def test_getitem(xp):
     mat = np.empty((2, 3, 3))
     mat[0] = np.array([
         [0, -1, 0],
@@ -1223,47 +1417,60 @@ def test_getitem():
         [0, 0, -1],
         [0, 1, 0]
     ])
+    mat = xp.asarray(mat)
     r = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
 
-    assert_allclose(r[0].as_matrix(), mat[0], atol=1e-15)
-    assert_allclose(r[1].as_matrix(), mat[1], atol=1e-15)
-    assert_allclose(r[:-1].as_matrix(), np.expand_dims(mat[0], axis=0), atol=1e-15)
+    xp_assert_close(r[0].as_matrix(), mat[0], atol=1e-15)
+    xp_assert_close(r[1].as_matrix(), mat[1, ...], atol=1e-15)
+    xp_assert_close(r[:-1].as_matrix(), xp.expand_dims(mat[0, ...], axis=0), atol=1e-15)
 
 
-def test_getitem_single():
+def test_getitem_single(xp):
     with pytest.raises(TypeError, match='not subscriptable'):
-        Rotation.identity()[0]
+        Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1]))[0]
+
+
+def test_getitem_array_like():
+    mat = np.array([[[0.0, -1, 0],
+                     [1, 0, 0],
+                     [0, 0, 1]],
+                    [[1, 0, 0],
+                     [0, 0, -1],
+                     [0, 1, 0]]])
+    r = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
+    xp_assert_close(r[[0]].as_matrix(), mat[[0]], atol=1e-15)
+    xp_assert_close(r[[0, 1]].as_matrix(), mat[[0, 1]], atol=1e-15)
 
 
-def test_setitem_single():
-    r = Rotation.identity()
+def test_setitem_single(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1]))
     with pytest.raises(TypeError, match='not subscriptable'):
-        r[0] = Rotation.identity()
+        r[0] = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1]))
 
 
-def test_setitem_slice():
+def test_setitem_slice(xp):
     rng = np.random.default_rng(146972845698875399755764481408308808739)
-    r1 = Rotation.random(10, rng=rng)
-    r2 = Rotation.random(5, rng=rng)
+    r1 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(10, rng=rng).as_quat()))
+    r2 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(5, rng=rng).as_quat()))
     r1[1:6] = r2
-    assert_equal(r1[1:6].as_quat(), r2.as_quat())
+    xp_assert_equal(r1[1:6].as_quat(), r2.as_quat())
 
 
-def test_setitem_integer():
+def test_setitem_integer(xp):
     rng = np.random.default_rng(146972845698875399755764481408308808739)
-    r1 = Rotation.random(10, rng=rng)
-    r2 = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    r1 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(10, rng=rng).as_quat()))
+    r2 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(rng=rng).as_quat()))
     r1[1] = r2
-    assert_equal(r1[1].as_quat(), r2.as_quat())
+    xp_assert_equal(r1[1].as_quat(), r2.as_quat())
 
 
-def test_setitem_wrong_type():
-    r = Rotation.random(10, rng=0)
+def test_setitem_wrong_type(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(10, rng=0).as_quat()))
     with pytest.raises(TypeError, match='Rotation object'):
         r[0] = 1
 
 
-def test_n_rotations():
+def test_n_rotations(xp):
     mat = np.empty((2, 3, 3))
     mat[0] = np.array([
         [0, -1, 0],
@@ -1275,6 +1482,7 @@ def test_n_rotations():
         [0, 0, -1],
         [0, 1, 0]
     ])
+    mat = xp.asarray(mat)
     r = Rotation.from_matrix(mat)
 
     assert_equal(len(r), 2)
@@ -1282,6 +1490,7 @@ def test_n_rotations():
 
 
 def test_random_rotation_shape():
+    # No xp testing since random rotations are always using NumPy
     rng = np.random.default_rng(146972845698875399755764481408308808739)
     assert_equal(Rotation.random(rng=rng).as_quat().shape, (4,))
     assert_equal(Rotation.random(None, rng=rng).as_quat().shape, (4,))
@@ -1290,80 +1499,80 @@ def test_random_rotation_shape():
     assert_equal(Rotation.random(5, rng=rng).as_quat().shape, (5, 4))
 
 
-def test_align_vectors_no_rotation():
-    x = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
-    y = x.copy()
+def test_align_vectors_no_rotation(xp):
+    x = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    y = xp.asarray(x, copy=True)
 
     r, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(x, y)
-    assert_array_almost_equal(r.as_matrix(), np.eye(3))
-    assert_allclose(rssd, 0, atol=1e-6)
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_matrix(), xp.eye(3), atol=1e-12)
+    xp_assert_close(rssd, xp.asarray(0.0)[()], check_shape=False, atol=1e-6)
 
 
-def test_align_vectors_no_noise():
+def test_align_vectors_no_noise(xp):
     rng = np.random.default_rng(14697284569885399755764481408308808739)
-    c = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
-    b = rng.normal(size=(5, 3))
+    c = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(rng=rng).as_quat()))
+    b = xp.asarray(rng.normal(size=(5, 3)))
     a = c.apply(b)
 
     est, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b)
-    assert_allclose(c.as_quat(), est.as_quat())
-    assert_allclose(rssd, 0, atol=1e-7)
+    xp_assert_close(c.as_quat(), est.as_quat())
+    xp_assert_close(rssd, xp.asarray(0.0)[()], check_shape=False, atol=1e-7)
 
 
-def test_align_vectors_improper_rotation():
+def test_align_vectors_improper_rotation(xp):
     # Tests correct logic for issue #10444
-    x = np.array([[0.89299824, -0.44372674, 0.0752378],
-                  [0.60221789, -0.47564102, -0.6411702]])
-    y = np.array([[0.02386536, -0.82176463, 0.5693271],
-                  [-0.27654929, -0.95191427, -0.1318321]])
+    x = xp.asarray([[0.89299824, -0.44372674, 0.0752378],
+                    [0.60221789, -0.47564102, -0.6411702]])
+    y = xp.asarray([[0.02386536, -0.82176463, 0.5693271],
+                    [-0.27654929, -0.95191427, -0.1318321]])
 
     est, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(x, y)
-    assert_allclose(x, est.apply(y), atol=1e-6)
-    assert_allclose(rssd, 0, atol=1e-7)
+    xp_assert_close(x, est.apply(y), atol=1e-6)
+    xp_assert_close(rssd, xp.asarray(0.0)[()], check_shape=False, atol=1e-7)
 
 
-def test_align_vectors_rssd_sensitivity():
-    rssd_expected = 0.141421356237308
-    sens_expected = np.array([[0.2, 0. , 0.],
-                              [0. , 1.5, 1.],
-                              [0. , 1. , 1.]])
+def test_align_vectors_rssd_sensitivity(xp):
+    rssd_expected = xp.asarray(0.141421356237308)[()]
+    sens_expected = xp.asarray([[0.2, 0. , 0.],
+                                [0. , 1.5, 1.],
+                                [0. , 1. , 1.]])
     atol = 1e-6
-    a = [[0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 1]]
-    b = [[1, 0, 0], [1, 1.1, 0], [1, 0.9, 0]]
+    a = xp.asarray([[0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 1]])
+    b = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0], [1, 1.1, 0], [1, 0.9, 0]])
     rot, rssd, sens = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, return_sensitivity=True)
-    assert np.isclose(rssd, rssd_expected, atol=atol)
-    assert np.allclose(sens, sens_expected, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(rssd, rssd_expected, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(sens, sens_expected, atol=atol)
 
 
-def test_align_vectors_scaled_weights():
+def test_align_vectors_scaled_weights(xp):
     n = 10
-    a = Rotation.random(n, rng=0).apply([1, 0, 0])
-    b = Rotation.random(n, rng=1).apply([1, 0, 0])
+    a = xp.asarray(Rotation.random(n, rng=0).apply([1, 0, 0]))
+    b = xp.asarray(Rotation.random(n, rng=1).apply([1, 0, 0]))
     scale = 2
 
-    est1, rssd1, cov1 = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, np.ones(n), True)
-    est2, rssd2, cov2 = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, scale * np.ones(n), True)
+    est1, rssd1, cov1 = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, xp.ones(n), True)
+    est2, rssd2, cov2 = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, scale * xp.ones(n), True)
 
-    assert_allclose(est1.as_matrix(), est2.as_matrix())
-    assert_allclose(np.sqrt(scale) * rssd1, rssd2, atol=1e-6)
-    assert_allclose(cov1, cov2)
+    xp_assert_close(est1.as_matrix(), est2.as_matrix())
+    xp_assert_close(math.sqrt(scale) * rssd1, rssd2, atol=1e-6)
+    xp_assert_close(cov1, cov2)
 
 
-def test_align_vectors_noise():
+def test_align_vectors_noise(xp):
     rng = np.random.default_rng(146972845698875399755764481408308808739)
     n_vectors = 100
-    rot = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
-    vectors = rng.normal(size=(n_vectors, 3))
+    rot = rotation_to_xp(Rotation.random(rng=rng), xp)
+    vectors = xp.asarray(rng.normal(size=(n_vectors, 3)))
     result = rot.apply(vectors)
 
     # The paper adds noise as independently distributed angular errors
     sigma = np.deg2rad(1)
     tolerance = 1.5 * sigma
     noise = Rotation.from_rotvec(
-        rng.normal(
+        xp.asarray(rng.normal(
             size=(n_vectors, 3),
             scale=sigma
-        )
+        ))
     )
 
     # Attitude errors must preserve norm. Hence apply individual random
@@ -1375,99 +1584,134 @@ def test_align_vectors_noise():
 
     # Use rotation compositions to find out closeness
     error_vector = (rot * est.inv()).as_rotvec()
-    assert_allclose(error_vector[0], 0, atol=tolerance)
-    assert_allclose(error_vector[1], 0, atol=tolerance)
-    assert_allclose(error_vector[2], 0, atol=tolerance)
+    xp_assert_close(error_vector[0], xp.asarray(0.0)[()], atol=tolerance)
+    xp_assert_close(error_vector[1], xp.asarray(0.0)[()], atol=tolerance)
+    xp_assert_close(error_vector[2], xp.asarray(0.0)[()], atol=tolerance)
 
     # Check error bounds using covariance matrix
     cov *= sigma
-    assert_allclose(cov[0, 0], 0, atol=tolerance)
-    assert_allclose(cov[1, 1], 0, atol=tolerance)
-    assert_allclose(cov[2, 2], 0, atol=tolerance)
+    xp_assert_close(cov[0, 0], xp.asarray(0.0)[()], atol=tolerance)
+    xp_assert_close(cov[1, 1], xp.asarray(0.0)[()], atol=tolerance)
+    xp_assert_close(cov[2, 2], xp.asarray(0.0)[()], atol=tolerance)
 
-    assert_allclose(rssd, np.sum((noisy_result - est.apply(vectors))**2)**0.5)
+    rssd_check = xp.sum((noisy_result - est.apply(vectors)) ** 2) ** 0.5
+    xp_assert_close(rssd, rssd_check, check_shape=False)
 
 
-def test_align_vectors_invalid_input():
+def test_align_vectors_invalid_input(xp):
     with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected input `a` to have shape"):
-        Rotation.align_vectors([1, 2, 3, 4], [1, 2, 3])
+        a, b = xp.asarray([1, 2, 3, 4]), xp.asarray([1, 2, 3])
+        Rotation.align_vectors(a, b)
 
     with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected input `b` to have shape"):
-        Rotation.align_vectors([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3, 4])
+        a, b = xp.asarray([1, 2, 3]), xp.asarray([1, 2, 3, 4])
+        Rotation.align_vectors(a, b)
 
     with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected inputs `a` and `b` "
                                          "to have same shapes"):
-        Rotation.align_vectors([[1, 2, 3],[4, 5, 6]], [[1, 2, 3]])
+        a, b = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]), xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3]])
+        Rotation.align_vectors(a, b)
 
     with pytest.raises(ValueError,
                        match="Expected `weights` to be 1 dimensional"):
-        Rotation.align_vectors([[1, 2, 3]], [[1, 2, 3]], weights=[[1]])
+        a, b = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3]]), xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3]])
+        weights = xp.asarray([[1]])
+        Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights)
 
     with pytest.raises(ValueError,
                        match="Expected `weights` to have number of values"):
-        Rotation.align_vectors([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]],
-                               weights=[1, 2, 3])
-
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError,
-                       match="`weights` may not contain negative values"):
-        Rotation.align_vectors([[1, 2, 3]], [[1, 2, 3]], weights=[-1])
-
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError,
-                       match="Only one infinite weight is allowed"):
-        Rotation.align_vectors([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]],
-                               weights=[np.inf, np.inf])
-
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError,
-                       match="Cannot align zero length primary vectors"):
-        Rotation.align_vectors([[0, 0, 0]], [[1, 2, 3]])
-
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError,
-                       match="Cannot return sensitivity matrix"):
-        Rotation.align_vectors([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]],
-                               return_sensitivity=True, weights=[np.inf, 1])
-
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError,
-                       match="Cannot return sensitivity matrix"):
-        Rotation.align_vectors([[1, 2, 3]], [[1, 2, 3]],
-                               return_sensitivity=True)
-
-
-def test_align_vectors_align_constrain():
+        a, b = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]), xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+        weights = xp.asarray([1, 2, 3])
+        Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights)
+
+    a, b = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3]]), xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3]])
+    weights = xp.asarray([-1])
+    if is_lazy_array(weights):
+        r, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights)
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(r.as_quat())), "Quaternion should be nan"
+        assert xp.isnan(rssd), "RSSD should be nan"
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError,
+                           match="`weights` may not contain negative values"):
+            Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights)
+
+    a, b = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]), xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    weights = xp.asarray([xp.inf, xp.inf])
+    if is_lazy_array(weights):
+        r, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights)
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(r.as_quat())), "Quaternion should be nan"
+        assert xp.isnan(rssd), "RSSD should be nan"
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError,
+                           match="Only one infinite weight is allowed"):
+            Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights)
+
+    a, b = xp.asarray([[0, 0, 0]]), xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3]])
+    if is_lazy_array(a):
+        r, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b)
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(r.as_quat())), "Quaternion should be nan"
+        assert xp.isnan(rssd), "RSSD should be nan"
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError,
+                           match="Cannot align zero length primary vectors"):
+            Rotation.align_vectors(a, b)
+
+    a, b = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]), xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
+    weights = xp.asarray([xp.inf, 1])
+    if is_lazy_array(a):
+        r, rssd, sens = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights, return_sensitivity=True)
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(sens)), "Sensitivity matrix should be nan"
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError,
+                           match="Cannot return sensitivity matrix"):
+            Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights, return_sensitivity=True)
+
+    a, b = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3]]), xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3]])
+    if is_lazy_array(a):
+        r, rssd, sens = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, return_sensitivity=True)
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(sens)), "Sensitivity matrix should be nan"
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError,
+                        match="Cannot return sensitivity matrix"):
+                        Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, return_sensitivity=True)
+
+
+def test_align_vectors_align_constrain(xp):
     # Align the primary +X B axis with the primary +Y A axis, and rotate about
     # it such that the +Y B axis (residual of the [1, 1, 0] secondary b vector)
     # is aligned with the +Z A axis (residual of the [0, 1, 1] secondary a
     # vector)
     atol = 1e-12
-    b = [[1, 0, 0], [1, 1, 0]]
-    a = [[0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 1]]
-    m_expected = np.array([[0, 0, 1],
-                           [1, 0, 0],
-                           [0, 1, 0]])
-    R, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[np.inf, 1])
-    assert_allclose(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
-    assert_allclose(R.apply(b), a, atol=atol)  # Pri and sec align exactly
-    assert np.isclose(rssd, 0, atol=atol)
+    b = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0], [1, 1, 0]])
+    a = xp.asarray([[0.0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 1]])
+    m_expected = xp.asarray([[0.0, 0, 1],
+                             [1, 0, 0],
+                             [0, 1, 0]])
+    R, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=xp.asarray([xp.inf, 1]))
+    xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(R.apply(b), a, atol=atol)  # Pri and sec align exactly
+    assert xpx.isclose(rssd, 0.0, atol=atol, xp=xp)
 
     # Do the same but with an inexact secondary rotation
-    b = [[1, 0, 0], [1, 2, 0]]
+    b = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0], [1, 2, 0]])
     rssd_expected = 1.0
-    R, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[np.inf, 1])
-    assert_allclose(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
-    assert_allclose(R.apply(b)[0], a[0], atol=atol)  # Only pri aligns exactly
-    assert np.isclose(rssd, rssd_expected, atol=atol)
-    a_expected = [[0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 2]]
-    assert_allclose(R.apply(b), a_expected, atol=atol)
+    R, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=xp.asarray([xp.inf, 1]))
+    xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(R.apply(b)[0, ...], a[0, ...], atol=atol)  # Only pri aligns exactly
+    assert xpx.isclose(rssd, rssd_expected, atol=atol, xp=xp)
+    a_expected = xp.asarray([[0.0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 2]])
+    xp_assert_close(R.apply(b), a_expected, atol=atol)
 
     # Check random vectors
-    b = [[1, 2, 3], [-2, 3, -1]]
-    a = [[-1, 3, 2], [1, -1, 2]]
+    b = xp.asarray([[1, 2, 3], [-2, 3, -1]])
+    a = xp.asarray([[-1.0, 3, 2], [1, -1, 2]])
     rssd_expected = 1.3101595297515016
-    R, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[np.inf, 1])
-    assert_allclose(R.apply(b)[0], a[0], atol=atol)  # Only pri aligns exactly
-    assert np.isclose(rssd, rssd_expected, atol=atol)
+    R, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=xp.asarray([xp.inf, 1]))
+    xp_assert_close(R.apply(b)[0, ...], a[0, ...], atol=atol)  # Only pri aligns exactly
+    assert xpx.isclose(rssd, rssd_expected, atol=atol, xp=xp)
 
 
-def test_align_vectors_near_inf():
+def test_align_vectors_near_inf(xp):
     # align_vectors should return near the same result for high weights as for
     # infinite weights. rssd will be different with floating point error on the
     # exactly aligned vector being multiplied by a large non-infinite weight
@@ -1478,58 +1722,60 @@ def test_align_vectors_near_inf():
 
     for i in range(n):
         # Get random pairs of 3-element vectors
-        a = [1*mats[0][i][0], 2*mats[1][i][0]]
-        b = [3*mats[2][i][0], 4*mats[3][i][0]]
+        a = xp.asarray([1 * mats[0][i][0], 2 * mats[1][i][0]])
+        b = xp.asarray([3 * mats[2][i][0], 4 * mats[3][i][0]])
 
         R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[1e10, 1])
-        R2, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[np.inf, 1])
-        assert_allclose(R.as_matrix(), R2.as_matrix(), atol=1e-4)
+        R2, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[xp.inf, 1])
+        xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), R2.as_matrix(), atol=1e-4)
 
     for i in range(n):
         # Get random triplets of 3-element vectors
-        a = [1*mats[0][i][0], 2*mats[1][i][0], 3*mats[2][i][0]]
-        b = [4*mats[3][i][0], 5*mats[4][i][0], 6*mats[5][i][0]]
+        a = xp.asarray([1*mats[0][i][0], 2*mats[1][i][0], 3*mats[2][i][0]])
+        b = xp.asarray([4*mats[3][i][0], 5*mats[4][i][0], 6*mats[5][i][0]])
 
         R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[1e10, 2, 1])
-        R2, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[np.inf, 2, 1])
-        assert_allclose(R.as_matrix(), R2.as_matrix(), atol=1e-4)
+        R2, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[xp.inf, 2, 1])
+        xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), R2.as_matrix(), atol=1e-4)
 
 
-def test_align_vectors_parallel():
+def test_align_vectors_parallel(xp):
     atol = 1e-12
-    a = [[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]]
-    b = [[0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 0]]
-    m_expected = np.array([[0, 1, 0],
-                           [-1, 0, 0],
-                           [0, 0, 1]])
-    R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[np.inf, 1])
-    assert_allclose(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
-    R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a[0], b[0])
-    assert_allclose(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
-    assert_allclose(R.apply(b[0]), a[0], atol=atol)
-
-    b = [[1, 0, 0], [1, 0, 0]]
-    m_expected = np.array([[1, 0, 0],
-                           [0, 1, 0],
-                           [0, 0, 1]])
-    R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[np.inf, 1])
-    assert_allclose(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
-    R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a[0], b[0])
-    assert_allclose(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
-    assert_allclose(R.apply(b[0]), a[0], atol=atol)
-
-
-def test_align_vectors_antiparallel():
+    a = xp.asarray([[1.0, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]])
+    b = xp.asarray([[0.0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 0]])
+    m_expected = xp.asarray([[0.0, 1, 0],
+                             [-1, 0, 0],
+                             [0, 0, 1]])
+    R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[xp.inf, 1])
+    xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
+    R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a[0, ...], b[0, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(R.apply(b[0, ...]), a[0, ...], atol=atol)
+
+    b = xp.asarray([[1, 0, 0], [1, 0, 0]])
+    m_expected = xp.asarray([[1.0, 0, 0],
+                             [0, 1, 0],
+                             [0, 0, 1]])
+    R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[xp.inf, 1])
+    xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
+    R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a[0, ...], b[0, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), m_expected, atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(R.apply(b[0, ...]), a[0, ...], atol=atol)
+
+
+def test_align_vectors_antiparallel(xp):
     # Test exact 180 deg rotation
     atol = 1e-12
-    as_to_test = np.array([[[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]],
+    as_to_test = np.array([[[1.0, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]],
                            [[0, 1, 0], [1, 0, 0]],
                            [[0, 0, 1], [0, 1, 0]]])
+
     bs_to_test = [[-a[0], a[1]] for a in as_to_test]
     for a, b in zip(as_to_test, bs_to_test):
-        R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[np.inf, 1])
-        assert_allclose(R.magnitude(), np.pi, atol=atol)
-        assert_allclose(R.apply(b[0]), a[0], atol=atol)
+        a, b = xp.asarray(a), xp.asarray(b)
+        R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[xp.inf, 1])
+        xp_assert_close(R.magnitude(), xp.pi, atol=atol)
+        xp_assert_close(R.apply(b[0, ...]), a[0, ...], atol=atol)
 
     # Test exact rotations near 180 deg
     Rs = Rotation.random(100, rng=0)
@@ -1538,218 +1784,303 @@ def test_align_vectors_antiparallel():
     b = [[-1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0]]
     as_to_test = []
     for dR in dRs:
-        as_to_test.append([dR.apply(a[0]), a[1]])
+        as_to_test.append(np.array([dR.apply(a[0]), a[1]]))
     for a in as_to_test:
-        R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[np.inf, 1])
+        a, b = xp.asarray(a), xp.asarray(b)
+        R, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[xp.inf, 1])
         R2, _ = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b, weights=[1e10, 1])
-        assert_allclose(R.as_matrix(), R2.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
+        xp_assert_close(R.as_matrix(), R2.as_matrix(), atol=atol)
 
 
-def test_align_vectors_primary_only():
+def test_align_vectors_primary_only(xp):
     atol = 1e-12
     mats_a = Rotation.random(100, rng=0).as_matrix()
     mats_b = Rotation.random(100, rng=1).as_matrix()
+
     for mat_a, mat_b in zip(mats_a, mats_b):
         # Get random 3-element unit vectors
-        a = mat_a[0]
-        b = mat_b[0]
+        a = xp.asarray(mat_a[0])
+        b = xp.asarray(mat_b[0])
 
         # Compare to align_vectors with primary only
         R, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b)
-        assert_allclose(R.apply(b), a, atol=atol)
+        xp_assert_close(R.apply(b), a, atol=atol)
         assert np.isclose(rssd, 0, atol=atol)
 
 
-def test_slerp():
+def test_align_vectors_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    c = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    b = rng.normal(size=(5, 3))
+    a = c.apply(b)
+
+    est_expected, rssd_expected = Rotation.align_vectors(a, b)
+    est, rssd = Rotation.align_vectors(a.tolist(), b.tolist())
+    xp_assert_close(est_expected.as_quat(), est.as_quat())
+    xp_assert_close(rssd, rssd_expected)
+
+
+def test_repr_single_rotation(xp):
+    q = xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1])
+    actual = repr(Rotation.from_quat(q))
+    if is_numpy(xp):
+        expected = """\
+Rotation.from_matrix(array([[1., 0., 0.],
+                            [0., 1., 0.],
+                            [0., 0., 1.]]))"""
+        assert actual == expected
+    else:
+        assert actual.startswith("Rotation.from_matrix(")
+
+
+def test_repr_rotation_sequence(xp):
+    q = xp.asarray([[0.0, 1, 0, 1], [0, 0, 1, 1]]) / math.sqrt(2)
+    actual = f"{Rotation.from_quat(q)!r}"
+    if is_numpy(xp):
+        expected = """\
+Rotation.from_matrix(array([[[ 0.,  0.,  1.],
+                             [ 0.,  1.,  0.],
+                             [-1.,  0.,  0.]],
+                     
+                            [[ 0., -1.,  0.],
+                             [ 1.,  0.,  0.],
+                             [ 0.,  0.,  1.]]]))"""
+        assert actual == expected
+    else:
+        assert actual.startswith("Rotation.from_matrix(")
+
+
+def test_slerp(xp):
     rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
 
-    key_rots = Rotation.from_quat(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4)))
+    key_rots = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4))))
     key_quats = key_rots.as_quat()
 
     key_times = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
     interpolator = Slerp(key_times, key_rots)
+    assert isinstance(interpolator.times, type(xp.asarray(0)))
 
     times = [0, 0.5, 0.25, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.75, 3, 3.25, 3.60, 4]
     interp_rots = interpolator(times)
     interp_quats = interp_rots.as_quat()
 
     # Dot products are affected by sign of quaternions
-    interp_quats[interp_quats[:, -1] < 0] *= -1
+    mask = (interp_quats[:, -1] < 0)[:, None]
+    interp_quats = xp.where(mask, -interp_quats, interp_quats)
     # Checking for quaternion equality, perform same operation
-    key_quats[key_quats[:, -1] < 0] *= -1
+    mask = (key_quats[:, -1] < 0)[:, None]
+    key_quats = xp.where(mask, -key_quats, key_quats)
 
     # Equality at keyframes, including both endpoints
-    assert_allclose(interp_quats[0], key_quats[0])
-    assert_allclose(interp_quats[3], key_quats[1])
-    assert_allclose(interp_quats[5], key_quats[2])
-    assert_allclose(interp_quats[7], key_quats[3])
-    assert_allclose(interp_quats[10], key_quats[4])
+    xp_assert_close(interp_quats[0, ...], key_quats[0, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(interp_quats[3, ...], key_quats[1, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(interp_quats[5, ...], key_quats[2, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(interp_quats[7, ...], key_quats[3, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(interp_quats[10, ...], key_quats[4, ...])
 
     # Constant angular velocity between keyframes. Check by equating
     # cos(theta) between quaternion pairs with equal time difference.
-    cos_theta1 = np.sum(interp_quats[0] * interp_quats[2])
-    cos_theta2 = np.sum(interp_quats[2] * interp_quats[1])
-    assert_allclose(cos_theta1, cos_theta2)
+    cos_theta1 = xp.sum(interp_quats[0, ...] * interp_quats[2, ...])
+    cos_theta2 = xp.sum(interp_quats[2, ...] * interp_quats[1, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(cos_theta1, cos_theta2)
 
-    cos_theta4 = np.sum(interp_quats[3] * interp_quats[4])
-    cos_theta5 = np.sum(interp_quats[4] * interp_quats[5])
-    assert_allclose(cos_theta4, cos_theta5)
+    cos_theta4 = xp.sum(interp_quats[3, ...] * interp_quats[4, ...])
+    cos_theta5 = xp.sum(interp_quats[4, ...] * interp_quats[5, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(cos_theta4, cos_theta5)
 
     # theta1: 0 -> 0.25, theta3 : 0.5 -> 1
     # Use double angle formula for double the time difference
-    cos_theta3 = np.sum(interp_quats[1] * interp_quats[3])
-    assert_allclose(cos_theta3, 2 * (cos_theta1**2) - 1)
+    cos_theta3 = xp.sum(interp_quats[1, ...] * interp_quats[3, ...])
+    xp_assert_close(cos_theta3, 2 * (cos_theta1**2) - 1)
 
     # Miscellaneous checks
     assert_equal(len(interp_rots), len(times))
 
 
-def test_slerp_rot_is_rotation():
+def test_slerp_rot_is_rotation(xp):
     with pytest.raises(TypeError, match="must be a `Rotation` instance"):
-        r = np.array([[1,2,3,4],
-                      [0,0,0,1]])
-        t = np.array([0, 1])
+        r = xp.asarray([[1,2,3,4],
+                        [0,0,0,1]])
+        t = xp.asarray([0, 1])
         Slerp(t, r)
 
 
-def test_slerp_single_rot():
-    msg = "must be a sequence of at least 2 rotations"
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=msg):
-        r = Rotation.from_quat([1, 2, 3, 4])
+SLERP_EXCEPTION_MESSAGE = "must be a sequence of at least 2 rotations"
+
+
+def test_slerp_single_rot(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([[1.0, 2, 3, 4]]))
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=SLERP_EXCEPTION_MESSAGE):
         Slerp([1], r)
 
 
-def test_slerp_rot_len1():
-    msg = "must be a sequence of at least 2 rotations"
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=msg):
-        r = Rotation.from_quat([[1, 2, 3, 4]])
+def test_slerp_rot_len0(xp):
+    r = Rotation.random()
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(r.as_quat()))
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=SLERP_EXCEPTION_MESSAGE):
+        Slerp([], r)
+
+
+def test_slerp_rot_len1(xp):
+    r = Rotation.random(1)
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(r.as_quat()))
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=SLERP_EXCEPTION_MESSAGE):
         Slerp([1], r)
 
 
-def test_slerp_time_dim_mismatch():
+def test_slerp_time_dim_mismatch(xp):
     with pytest.raises(ValueError,
                        match="times to be specified in a 1 dimensional array"):
         rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
-        r = Rotation.from_quat(rnd.uniform(size=(2, 4)))
-        t = np.array([[1],
-                      [2]])
+        r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(rnd.uniform(size=(2, 4))))
+        t = xp.asarray([[1],
+                        [2]])
         Slerp(t, r)
 
 
-def test_slerp_num_rotations_mismatch():
+def test_slerp_num_rotations_mismatch(xp):
     with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="number of rotations to be equal to "
                                          "number of timestamps"):
         rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
-        r = Rotation.from_quat(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4)))
-        t = np.arange(7)
+        r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4))))
+        t = xp.arange(7)
         Slerp(t, r)
 
 
-def test_slerp_equal_times():
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="strictly increasing order"):
-        rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
-        r = Rotation.from_quat(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4)))
-        t = [0, 1, 2, 2, 4]
-        Slerp(t, r)
+def test_slerp_equal_times(xp):
+    rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    q = xp.asarray(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4)))
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(q)
+    t = [0, 1, 2, 2, 4]
+    if is_lazy_array(q):
+        s = Slerp(t, r)
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(s.times))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="strictly increasing order"):
+            Slerp(t, r)
 
 
-def test_slerp_decreasing_times():
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="strictly increasing order"):
-        rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
-        r = Rotation.from_quat(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4)))
-        t = [0, 1, 3, 2, 4]
-        Slerp(t, r)
+def test_slerp_decreasing_times(xp):
+    rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
+    q = xp.asarray(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4)))
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(q)
+    t = [0, 1, 3, 2, 4]
+    if is_lazy_array(q):
+        s = Slerp(t, r)
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(s.times))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="strictly increasing order"):
+            Slerp(t, r)
 
 
-def test_slerp_call_time_dim_mismatch():
+def test_slerp_call_time_dim_mismatch(xp):
     rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
-    r = Rotation.from_quat(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4)))
-    t = np.arange(5)
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4))))
+    t = xp.arange(5)
     s = Slerp(t, r)
 
     with pytest.raises(ValueError,
                        match="`times` must be at most 1-dimensional."):
-        interp_times = np.array([[3.5],
-                                 [4.2]])
+        interp_times = xp.asarray([[3.5],
+                                   [4.2]])
         s(interp_times)
 
 
-def test_slerp_call_time_out_of_range():
+def test_slerp_call_time_out_of_range(xp):
     rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
-    r = Rotation.from_quat(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4)))
-    t = np.arange(5) + 1
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(rnd.uniform(size=(5, 4))))
+    t = xp.arange(5) + 1
     s = Slerp(t, r)
 
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="times must be within the range"):
-        s([0, 1, 2])
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="times must be within the range"):
-        s([1, 2, 6])
-
-
-def test_slerp_call_scalar_time():
-    r = Rotation.from_euler('X', [0, 80], degrees=True)
+    times_low = xp.asarray([0, 1, 2])
+    times_high = xp.asarray([1, 2, 6])
+    if is_lazy_array(times_low):
+        q = s(times_low).as_quat()
+        in_range = xp.logical_and(times_low >= xp.min(t), times_low <= xp.max(t))
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(q[~in_range, ...]))
+        assert xp.all(~xp.isnan(q[in_range, ...]))
+        q = s(times_high).as_quat()
+        in_range = xp.logical_and(times_high >= xp.min(t), times_high <= xp.max(t))
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(q[~in_range, ...]))
+        assert xp.all(~xp.isnan(q[in_range, ...]))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="times must be within the range"):
+            s(times_low)
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="times must be within the range"):
+            s(times_high)
+
+
+def test_slerp_call_scalar_time(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_euler('X', xp.asarray([0, 80]), degrees=True)
     s = Slerp([0, 1], r)
 
     r_interpolated = s(0.25)
-    r_interpolated_expected = Rotation.from_euler('X', 20, degrees=True)
+    r_interpolated_expected = Rotation.from_euler('X', xp.asarray(20), degrees=True)
 
     delta = r_interpolated * r_interpolated_expected.inv()
 
-    assert_allclose(delta.magnitude(), 0, atol=1e-16)
+    assert xp.allclose(delta.magnitude(), 0, atol=1e-16)
 
 
-def test_multiplication_stability():
+def test_multiplication_stability(xp):
     qs = Rotation.random(50, rng=0)
+    qs = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(qs.as_quat()))
     rs = Rotation.random(1000, rng=1)
+    rs = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(rs.as_quat()))
+    expected = xp.ones(len(rs))
     for q in qs:
         rs *= q * rs
-        assert_allclose(np.linalg.norm(rs.as_quat(), axis=1), 1)
+        xp_assert_close(xp_vector_norm(rs.as_quat(), axis=1), expected)
 
 
-def test_pow():
+def test_pow(xp):
     atol = 1e-14
     p = Rotation.random(10, rng=0)
+    p = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(p.as_quat()))
     p_inv = p.inv()
     # Test the short-cuts and other integers
     for n in [-5, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 5]:
         # Test accuracy
         q = p ** n
         r = Rotation.identity(10)
+        r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(r.as_quat()))
         for _ in range(abs(n)):
             if n > 0:
                 r = r * p
             else:
                 r = r * p_inv
         ang = (q * r.inv()).magnitude()
-        assert np.all(ang < atol)
+        assert xp.all(ang < atol)
 
         # Test shape preservation
-        r = Rotation.from_quat([0, 0, 0, 1])
+        r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1]))
         assert (r**n).as_quat().shape == (4,)
-        r = Rotation.from_quat([[0, 0, 0, 1]])
+        r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([[0, 0, 0, 1]]))
         assert (r**n).as_quat().shape == (1, 4)
 
     # Large angle fractional
     for n in [-1.5, -0.5, -0.0, 0.0, 0.5, 1.5]:
         q = p ** n
         r = Rotation.from_rotvec(n * p.as_rotvec())
-        assert_allclose(q.as_quat(), r.as_quat(), atol=atol)
+        xp_assert_close(q.as_quat(), r.as_quat(), atol=atol)
 
     # Small angle
-    p = Rotation.from_rotvec([1e-12, 0, 0])
+    p = Rotation.from_rotvec(xp.asarray([1e-12, 0, 0]))
     n = 3
     q = p ** n
     r = Rotation.from_rotvec(n * p.as_rotvec())
-    assert_allclose(q.as_quat(), r.as_quat(), atol=atol)
+    xp_assert_close(q.as_quat(), r.as_quat(), atol=atol)
 
 
-def test_pow_errors():
+def test_pow_errors(xp):
     p = Rotation.random(rng=0)
+    p = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(p.as_quat()))
     with pytest.raises(NotImplementedError, match='modulus not supported'):
         pow(p, 1, 1)
 
 
 def test_rotation_within_numpy_array():
+    # TODO: Do we want to support this for all Array API frameworks?
     single = Rotation.random(rng=0)
     multiple = Rotation.random(2, rng=1)
 
@@ -1758,8 +2089,8 @@ def test_rotation_within_numpy_array():
 
     array = np.array(multiple)
     assert_equal(array.shape, (2,))
-    assert_allclose(array[0].as_matrix(), multiple[0].as_matrix())
-    assert_allclose(array[1].as_matrix(), multiple[1].as_matrix())
+    xp_assert_close(array[0].as_matrix(), multiple[0].as_matrix())
+    xp_assert_close(array[1].as_matrix(), multiple[1].as_matrix())
 
     array = np.array([single])
     assert_equal(array.shape, (1,))
@@ -1767,8 +2098,8 @@ def test_rotation_within_numpy_array():
 
     array = np.array([multiple])
     assert_equal(array.shape, (1, 2))
-    assert_allclose(array[0, 0].as_matrix(), multiple[0].as_matrix())
-    assert_allclose(array[0, 1].as_matrix(), multiple[1].as_matrix())
+    xp_assert_close(array[0, 0].as_matrix(), multiple[0].as_matrix())
+    xp_assert_close(array[0, 1].as_matrix(), multiple[1].as_matrix())
 
     array = np.array([single, multiple], dtype=object)
     assert_equal(array.shape, (2,))
@@ -1779,20 +2110,25 @@ def test_rotation_within_numpy_array():
     assert_equal(array.shape, (3, 2))
 
 
-def test_pickling():
-    r = Rotation.from_quat([0, 0, np.sin(np.pi/4), np.cos(np.pi/4)])
+def test_pickling(xp):
+    # Note: Array API makes no provision for arrays to be pickleable, so
+    # it's OK to skip this test for the backends that don't support it
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0, 0, math.sin(np.pi/4), math.cos(np.pi/4)]))
     pkl = pickle.dumps(r)
     unpickled = pickle.loads(pkl)
-    assert_allclose(r.as_matrix(), unpickled.as_matrix(), atol=1e-15)
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_matrix(), unpickled.as_matrix(), atol=1e-15)
 
 
-def test_deepcopy():
-    r = Rotation.from_quat([0, 0, np.sin(np.pi/4), np.cos(np.pi/4)])
+def test_deepcopy(xp):
+    # Note: Array API makes no provision for arrays to support the `__copy__`
+    # protocol, so it's OK to skip this test for the backends that don't
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0, 0, math.sin(np.pi/4), math.cos(np.pi/4)]))
     r1 = copy.deepcopy(r)
-    assert_allclose(r.as_matrix(), r1.as_matrix(), atol=1e-15)
+    xp_assert_close(r.as_matrix(), r1.as_matrix(), atol=1e-15)
 
 
 def test_as_euler_contiguous():
+    # The Array API does not specify contiguous arrays, so we can only check for NumPy
     r = Rotation.from_quat([0, 0, 0, 1])
     e1 = r.as_euler('xyz')  # extrinsic euler rotation
     e2 = r.as_euler('XYZ')  # intrinsic
@@ -1802,36 +2138,39 @@ def test_as_euler_contiguous():
     assert all(i >= 0 for i in e2.strides)
 
 
-def test_concatenate():
+def test_concatenate(xp):
     rotation = Rotation.random(10, rng=0)
+    rotation = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(rotation.as_quat()))
     sizes = [1, 2, 3, 1, 3]
     starts = [0] + list(np.cumsum(sizes))
     split = [rotation[i:i + n] for i, n in zip(starts, sizes)]
     result = Rotation.concatenate(split)
-    assert_equal(rotation.as_quat(), result.as_quat())
+    xp_assert_equal(rotation.as_quat(), result.as_quat())
 
     # Test Rotation input for multiple rotations
     result = Rotation.concatenate(rotation)
-    assert_equal(rotation.as_quat(), result.as_quat())
+    xp_assert_equal(rotation.as_quat(), result.as_quat())
 
     # Test that a copy is returned
     assert rotation is not result
 
     # Test Rotation input for single rotations
-    result = Rotation.concatenate(Rotation.identity())
-    assert_equal(Rotation.identity().as_quat(), result.as_quat())
+    rot = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.identity().as_quat()))
+    result = Rotation.concatenate(rot)
+    xp_assert_equal(rot.as_quat(), result.as_quat())
 
 
-def test_concatenate_wrong_type():
+def test_concatenate_wrong_type(xp):
     with pytest.raises(TypeError, match='Rotation objects only'):
-        Rotation.concatenate([Rotation.identity(), 1, None])
+        rot = Rotation(xp.asarray(Rotation.identity().as_quat()))
+        Rotation.concatenate([rot, 1, None])
 
 
 # Regression test for gh-16663
-def test_len_and_bool():
-    rotation_multi_one = Rotation([[0, 0, 0, 1]])
-    rotation_multi = Rotation([[0, 0, 0, 1], [0, 0, 0, 1]])
-    rotation_single = Rotation([0, 0, 0, 1])
+def test_len_and_bool(xp):
+    rotation_multi_one = Rotation(xp.asarray([[0, 0, 0, 1]]))
+    rotation_multi = Rotation(xp.asarray([[0, 0, 0, 1], [0, 0, 0, 1]]))
+    rotation_single = Rotation(xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1]))
 
     assert len(rotation_multi_one) == 1
     assert len(rotation_multi) == 2
@@ -1844,61 +2183,93 @@ def test_len_and_bool():
     assert rotation_single
 
 
-def test_from_davenport_single_rotation():
-    axis = [0, 0, 1]
+def test_from_davenport_single_rotation(xp):
+    axis = xp.asarray([0, 0, 1])
     quat = Rotation.from_davenport(axis, 'extrinsic', 90,
                                    degrees=True).as_quat()
-    expected_quat = np.array([0, 0, 1, 1]) / np.sqrt(2)
-    assert_allclose(quat, expected_quat)
+    expected_quat = xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 1, 1]) / math.sqrt(2)
+    xp_assert_close(quat, expected_quat)
 
 
-def test_from_davenport_one_or_two_axes():
-    ez = [0, 0, 1]
-    ey = [0, 1, 0]
+def test_from_davenport_one_or_two_axes(xp):
+    ez = xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 1])
+    ey = xp.asarray([0.0, 1, 0])
 
     # Single rotation, single axis, axes.shape == (3, )
-    rot = Rotation.from_rotvec(np.array(ez) * np.pi/4)
-    rot_dav = Rotation.from_davenport(ez, 'e', np.pi/4)
-    assert_allclose(rot.as_quat(canonical=True),
+    rot = Rotation.from_rotvec(ez * xp.pi/4)
+    rot_dav = Rotation.from_davenport(ez, 'e', xp.pi/4)
+    xp_assert_close(rot.as_quat(canonical=True),
                     rot_dav.as_quat(canonical=True))
 
     # Single rotation, single axis, axes.shape == (1, 3)
-    rot = Rotation.from_rotvec([np.array(ez) * np.pi/4])
-    rot_dav = Rotation.from_davenport([ez], 'e', [np.pi/4])
-    assert_allclose(rot.as_quat(canonical=True),
+    axes = xp.reshape(ez, (1, 3))  # Torch can't create tensors from xp.asarray([ez])
+    rot = Rotation.from_rotvec(axes * xp.pi/4)
+    rot_dav = Rotation.from_davenport(axes, 'e', [xp.pi/4])
+    xp_assert_close(rot.as_quat(canonical=True),
                     rot_dav.as_quat(canonical=True))
 
     # Single rotation, two axes, axes.shape == (2, 3)
-    rot = Rotation.from_rotvec([np.array(ez) * np.pi/4,
-                                np.array(ey) * np.pi/6])
+    axes = xp.stack([ez, ey], axis=0)
+    rot = Rotation.from_rotvec(axes * xp.asarray([[xp.pi/4], [xp.pi/6]]))
     rot = rot[0] * rot[1]
-    rot_dav = Rotation.from_davenport([ey, ez], 'e', [np.pi/6, np.pi/4])
-    assert_allclose(rot.as_quat(canonical=True),
+    axes_dav = xp.stack([ey, ez], axis=0)
+    rot_dav = Rotation.from_davenport(axes_dav, 'e', [xp.pi/6, xp.pi/4])
+    xp_assert_close(rot.as_quat(canonical=True),
                     rot_dav.as_quat(canonical=True))
 
     # Two rotations, single axis, axes.shape == (3, )
-    rot = Rotation.from_rotvec([np.array(ez) * np.pi/6,
-                                np.array(ez) * np.pi/4])
-    rot_dav = Rotation.from_davenport([ez], 'e', [np.pi/6, np.pi/4])
-    assert_allclose(rot.as_quat(canonical=True),
+    axes = xp.stack([ez, ez], axis=0)
+    rot = Rotation.from_rotvec(axes * xp.asarray([[xp.pi/6], [xp.pi/4]]))
+    axes_dav = xp.reshape(ez, (1, 3))
+    rot_dav = Rotation.from_davenport(axes_dav, 'e', [xp.pi/6, xp.pi/4])
+    xp_assert_close(rot.as_quat(canonical=True),
                     rot_dav.as_quat(canonical=True))
 
 
-def test_from_davenport_invalid_input():
+def test_from_davenport_invalid_input(xp):
     ez = [0, 0, 1]
     ey = [0, 1, 0]
     ezy = [0, 1, 1]
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="must be orthogonal"):
-        Rotation.from_davenport([ez, ezy], 'e', [0, 0])
-    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="must be orthogonal"):
-        Rotation.from_davenport([ez, ey, ezy], 'e', [0, 0, 0])
+    # We can only raise in non-lazy frameworks.
+    axes = xp.asarray([ez, ezy])
+    if is_lazy_array(axes):
+        q = Rotation.from_davenport(axes, 'e', [0, 0]).as_quat()
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(q))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="must be orthogonal"):
+            Rotation.from_davenport(axes, 'e', [0, 0])
+    axes = xp.asarray([ez, ey, ezy])
+    if is_lazy_array(axes):
+        q = Rotation.from_davenport(axes, 'e', [0, 0, 0]).as_quat()
+        assert xp.all(xp.isnan(q))
+    else:
+        with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="must be orthogonal"):
+            Rotation.from_davenport(axes, 'e', [0, 0, 0])
     with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="order should be"):
-        Rotation.from_davenport([ez], 'xyz', [0])
+        Rotation.from_davenport(xp.asarray([ez]), 'xyz', [0])
     with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Expected `angles`"):
-        Rotation.from_davenport([ez, ey, ez], 'e', [0, 1, 2, 3])
+        Rotation.from_davenport(xp.asarray([ez, ey, ez]), 'e', [0, 1, 2, 3])
+
+
+def test_from_davenport_array_like():
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(123)
+    # Single rotation
+    e1 = np.array([1, 0, 0])
+    e2 = np.array([0, 1, 0])
+    e3 = np.array([0, 0, 1])
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(rng=rng)
+    angles = r_expected.as_davenport([e1, e2, e3], 'e')
+    r = Rotation.from_davenport([e1, e2, e3], 'e', angles.tolist())
+    assert r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12)
 
+    # Multiple rotations
+    r_expected = Rotation.random(2, rng=rng)
+    angles = r_expected.as_davenport([e1, e2, e3], 'e')
+    r = Rotation.from_davenport([e1, e2, e3], 'e', angles.tolist())
+    assert np.all(r_expected.approx_equal(r, atol=1e-12))
 
-def test_as_davenport():
+
+def test_as_davenport(xp):
     rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
     n = 100
     angles = np.empty((n, 3))
@@ -1907,21 +2278,22 @@ def test_as_davenport():
     angles[:, 2] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
     lambdas = rnd.uniform(low=0, high=np.pi, size=(20,))
 
-    e1 = np.array([1, 0, 0])
-    e2 = np.array([0, 1, 0])
+    e1 = xp.asarray([1.0, 0, 0])
+    e2 = xp.asarray([0.0, 1, 0])
 
     for lamb in lambdas:
-        ax_lamb = [e1, e2, Rotation.from_rotvec(lamb*e2).apply(e1)]
+        e3 = xp.asarray(Rotation.from_rotvec(lamb*e2).apply(e1))
+        ax_lamb = xp.stack([e1, e2, e3], axis=0)
         angles[:, 1] = angles_middle - lamb
         for order in ['extrinsic', 'intrinsic']:
-            ax = ax_lamb if order == 'intrinsic' else ax_lamb[::-1]
-            rot = Rotation.from_davenport(ax, order, angles)
-            angles_dav = rot.as_davenport(ax, order)
-            assert_allclose(angles_dav, angles)
+            ax = ax_lamb if order == "intrinsic" else xp.flip(ax_lamb, axis=0)
+            rot = Rotation.from_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order, angles)
+            angles_dav = rot.as_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order)
+            xp_assert_close(angles_dav, xp.asarray(angles))
 
 
 @pytest.mark.thread_unsafe
-def test_as_davenport_degenerate():
+def test_as_davenport_degenerate(xp):
     # Since we cannot check for angle equality, we check for rotation matrix
     # equality
     rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
@@ -1934,23 +2306,25 @@ def test_as_davenport_degenerate():
     angles[:, 2] = rnd.uniform(low=-np.pi, high=np.pi, size=(n,))
     lambdas = rnd.uniform(low=0, high=np.pi, size=(5,))
 
-    e1 = np.array([1, 0, 0])
-    e2 = np.array([0, 1, 0])
+    e1 = xp.asarray([1.0, 0, 0])
+    e2 = xp.asarray([0.0, 1, 0])
 
     for lamb in lambdas:
-        ax_lamb = [e1, e2, Rotation.from_rotvec(lamb*e2).apply(e1)]
+        e3 = xp.asarray(Rotation.from_rotvec(lamb*e2).apply(e1))
+        ax_lamb = xp.stack([e1, e2, e3], axis=0)
         angles[:, 1] = angles_middle - lamb
         for order in ['extrinsic', 'intrinsic']:
             ax = ax_lamb if order == 'intrinsic' else ax_lamb[::-1]
-            rot = Rotation.from_davenport(ax, order, angles)
-            with pytest.warns(UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
-                angles_dav = rot.as_davenport(ax, order)
+            rot = Rotation.from_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order, angles)
+            with eager_warns(rot, UserWarning, match="Gimbal lock"):
+                angles_dav = rot.as_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order)
             mat_expected = rot.as_matrix()
-            mat_estimated = Rotation.from_davenport(ax, order, angles_dav).as_matrix()
-            assert_array_almost_equal(mat_expected, mat_estimated)
+            rot_estimated = Rotation.from_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order, angles_dav)
+            mat_estimated = rot_estimated.as_matrix()
+            xp_assert_close(mat_expected, mat_estimated, atol=1e-12)
 
 
-def test_compare_from_davenport_from_euler():
+def test_compare_from_davenport_from_euler(xp):
     rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
     n = 100
     angles = np.empty((n, 3))
@@ -1965,9 +2339,9 @@ def test_compare_from_davenport_from_euler():
             ax = [basis_vec(i) for i in seq]
             if order == 'intrinsic':
                 seq = seq.upper()
-            eul = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angles)
-            dav = Rotation.from_davenport(ax, order, angles)
-            assert_allclose(eul.as_quat(canonical=True), dav.as_quat(canonical=True),
+            eul = Rotation.from_euler(seq, xp.asarray(angles))
+            dav = Rotation.from_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order, xp.asarray(angles))
+            xp_assert_close(eul.as_quat(canonical=True), dav.as_quat(canonical=True),
                             rtol=1e-12)
 
     # asymmetric sequences
@@ -1978,12 +2352,12 @@ def test_compare_from_davenport_from_euler():
             ax = [basis_vec(i) for i in seq]
             if order == 'intrinsic':
                 seq = seq.upper()
-            eul = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angles)
-            dav = Rotation.from_davenport(ax, order, angles)
-            assert_allclose(eul.as_quat(), dav.as_quat(), rtol=1e-12)
+            eul = Rotation.from_euler(seq, xp.asarray(angles))
+            dav = Rotation.from_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order, xp.asarray(angles))
+            xp_assert_close(eul.as_quat(), dav.as_quat(), rtol=1e-12)
 
 
-def test_compare_as_davenport_as_euler():
+def test_compare_as_davenport_as_euler(xp):
     rnd = np.random.RandomState(0)
     n = 100
     angles = np.empty((n, 3))
@@ -1998,10 +2372,10 @@ def test_compare_as_davenport_as_euler():
             ax = [basis_vec(i) for i in seq]
             if order == 'intrinsic':
                 seq = seq.upper()
-            rot = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angles)
+            rot = Rotation.from_euler(seq, xp.asarray(angles))
             eul = rot.as_euler(seq)
-            dav = rot.as_davenport(ax, order)
-            assert_allclose(eul, dav, rtol=1e-12)
+            dav = rot.as_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order)
+            xp_assert_close(eul, dav, rtol=1e-12)
 
     # asymmetric sequences
     angles[:, 1] -= np.pi / 2
@@ -2011,7 +2385,185 @@ def test_compare_as_davenport_as_euler():
             ax = [basis_vec(i) for i in seq]
             if order == 'intrinsic':
                 seq = seq.upper()
-            rot = Rotation.from_euler(seq, angles)
+            rot = Rotation.from_euler(seq, xp.asarray(angles))
             eul = rot.as_euler(seq)
-            dav = rot.as_davenport(ax, order)
-            assert_allclose(eul, dav, rtol=1e-12)
+            dav = rot.as_davenport(xp.asarray(ax), order)
+            xp_assert_close(eul, dav, rtol=1e-12)
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_construction(xp):
+    r = Rotation.random(num=0)
+    assert len(r) == 0
+
+    r_ide = Rotation.identity(num=0)
+    assert len(r_ide) == 0
+
+    r_get = Rotation.random(num=3)[[]]
+    assert len(r_get) == 0
+
+    r_quat = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    assert len(r_quat) == 0
+
+    r_matrix = Rotation.from_matrix(xp.zeros((0, 3, 3)))
+    assert len(r_matrix) == 0
+
+    r_euler = Rotation.from_euler("xyz", xp.zeros((0, 3)))
+    assert len(r_euler) == 0
+
+    r_vec = Rotation.from_rotvec(xp.zeros((0, 3)))
+    assert len(r_vec) == 0
+
+    r_dav = Rotation.from_davenport(xp.eye(3), "extrinsic", xp.zeros((0, 3)))
+    assert len(r_dav) == 0
+
+    r_mrp = Rotation.from_mrp(xp.zeros((0, 3)))
+    assert len(r_mrp) == 0
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_representation(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    assert r.as_quat().shape == (0, 4)
+    assert r.as_matrix().shape == (0, 3, 3)
+    assert r.as_euler("xyz").shape == (0, 3)
+    assert r.as_rotvec().shape == (0, 3)
+    assert r.as_mrp().shape == (0, 3)
+    assert r.as_davenport(xp.eye(3), "extrinsic").shape == (0, 3)
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_array_rotation(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+
+    v = xp.asarray([1, 2, 3])
+    v_rotated = r.apply(v)
+    assert v_rotated.shape == (0, 3)
+
+    v0 = xp.zeros((0, 3))
+    v0_rot = r.apply(v0)
+    assert v0_rot.shape == (0, 3)
+
+    v2 = xp.ones((2, 3))
+    with pytest.raises(
+        ValueError, match="Expected equal numbers of rotations and vectors"):
+        r.apply(v2)
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_multiplication(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+
+    r_single = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, 1]))
+    r_mult_left = r * r_single
+    assert len(r_mult_left) == 0
+
+    r_mult_right = r_single * r
+    assert len(r_mult_right) == 0
+
+    r0 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    r_mult = r * r0
+    assert len(r_mult) == 0
+
+    msg_rotation_error = "Expected equal number of rotations"
+    r2 = Rotation.random(2)
+    r2 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(r2.as_quat()))
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=msg_rotation_error):
+        r0 * r2
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=msg_rotation_error):
+        r2 * r0
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_concatentation(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+
+    r0 = Rotation.concatenate([r, r])
+    assert len(r0) == 0
+
+    r1 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, 1]))
+    r1 = r.concatenate([r1, r])
+    assert len(r1) == 1
+
+    r3 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(3).as_quat()))
+    r3 = r.concatenate([r3, r])
+    assert len(r3) == 3
+
+    r4 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(4).as_quat()))
+    r4 = r.concatenate([r, r4])
+    r4 = r.concatenate([r, r4])
+    assert len(r4) == 4
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_power(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    for pp in [-1.5, -1, 0, 1, 1.5]:
+        pow0 = r**pp
+        assert len(pow0) == 0
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_inverse(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    r_inv = r.inv()
+    assert len(r_inv) == 0
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_magnitude(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    magnitude = r.magnitude()
+    assert magnitude.shape == (0,)
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_mean(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="Mean of an empty rotation set is undefined."):
+        r.mean()
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_approx_equal(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    r0 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+    assert r.approx_equal(r0).shape == (0,)
+    r1 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0.0, 0, 0, 1]))
+    assert r.approx_equal(r1).shape == (0,)
+    r2 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random().as_quat()))
+    assert r2.approx_equal(r).shape == (0,)
+
+    approx_msg = "Expected equal number of rotations"
+    r3 = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(2).as_quat()))
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=approx_msg):
+        r.approx_equal(r3)
+
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match=approx_msg):
+        r3.approx_equal(r)
+
+
+def test_zero_rotation_get_set(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.zeros((0, 4)))
+
+    r_get = r[xp.asarray([], dtype=xp.bool)]
+    assert len(r_get) == 0
+
+    r_slice = r[:0]
+    assert len(r_slice) == 0
+
+    with pytest.raises(IndexError):
+        r[xp.asarray([0])]
+
+    with pytest.raises(IndexError):
+        r[xp.asarray([True])]
+
+    with pytest.raises(IndexError):
+        r[0] = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray([0, 0, 0, 1]))
+
+
+def test_boolean_indexes(xp):
+    r = Rotation.from_quat(xp.asarray(Rotation.random(3).as_quat()))
+
+    r0 = r[xp.asarray([False, False, False])]
+    assert len(r0) == 0
+
+    r1 = r[xp.asarray([False, True, False])]
+    assert len(r1) == 1
+
+    r3 = r[xp.asarray([True, True, True])]
+    assert len(r3) == 3
+
+    with pytest.raises(IndexError):
+        r[xp.asarray([True, True])]