rgwfuncs 0.0.21__py3-none-any.whl → 0.0.54__py3-none-any.whl

rgwfuncs/algebra_lib.py

@@ -0,0 +1,901 @@
+import re
+import math
+import ast
+import subprocess
+import tempfile
+from sympy import symbols, latex, simplify, solve, diff, Expr, factor, cancel, Eq
+from sympy.core.sympify import SympifyError
+from sympy.core import S
+from sympy.parsing.sympy_parser import parse_expr
+from sympy import __all__ as sympy_functions
+from sympy.parsing.sympy_parser import (standard_transformations, implicit_multiplication_application)
+from typing import Tuple, List, Dict, Optional, Any
+import numpy as np
+import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
+from io import BytesIO
+
+
+def compute_prime_factors(n: int) -> str:
+    """
+    Computes the prime factors of a number and returns the factorization as a LaTeX string.
+
+    Determines the prime factorization of the given integer. The result is formatted as a LaTeX
+    string, enabling easy integration into documents or presentations that require mathematical notation.
+
+    Parameters:
+    n (int): The number for which to compute prime factors.
+
+    Returns:
+    str: The LaTeX representation of the prime factorization.
+    """
+
+    factors = []
+    while n % 2 == 0:
+        factors.append(2)
+        n //= 2
+    for i in range(3, int(math.sqrt(n)) + 1, 2):
+        while n % i == 0:
+            factors.append(i)
+            n //= i
+    if n > 2:
+        factors.append(n)
+
+    factor_counts = {factor: factors.count(factor) for factor in set(factors)}
+    latex_factors = [f"{factor}^{{{count}}}" if count > 1 else str(
+        factor) for factor, count in factor_counts.items()]
+    return " \\cdot ".join(latex_factors)
+
+
+def compute_constant_expression(expression: str) -> float:
+    """
+    Computes the numerical result of a given expression, which can evaluate to a constant,
+    represented as a float.
+
+    Evaluates an constant expression provided as a string and returns the computed result.
+    Supports various arithmetic operations, including addition, subtraction, multiplication,
+    division, and modulo, as well as mathematical functions from the math module.
+
+    Parameters:
+    expression (str): The constant expression to compute. This should be a string consisting
+                      of arithmetic operations and Python's math module functions.
+
+    Returns:
+    float: The evaluated numerical result of the expression.
+
+    Raises:
+    ValueError: If the expression cannot be evaluated due to syntax errors or other issues.
+    """
+    try:
+        # Direct numerical evaluation
+        # Safely evaluate the expression using the math module
+        numeric_result = eval(expression, {"__builtins__": None, "math": math})
+
+        # Convert to float if possible
+        return float(numeric_result)
+    except Exception as e:
+        raise ValueError(f"Error computing expression: {e}")
+
+
+def compute_constant_expression_involving_matrices(expression: str) -> str:
+    """
+    Computes the result of a constant expression involving matrices and returns it as a LaTeX string.
+
+    Parameters:
+    expression (str): The constant expression involving matrices. Example format includes operations such as "+",
+    "-", "*", "/".
+
+    Returns:
+    str: The LaTeX-formatted string representation of the result or a message indicating an error in dimensions.
+    """
+
+    def elementwise_operation(matrix1: List[List[float]], matrix2: List[List[float]], operation: str) -> List[List[float]]:
+        if len(matrix1) != len(matrix2) or any(len(row1) != len(row2) for row1, row2 in zip(matrix1, matrix2)):
+            return "Operations between matrices must involve matrices of the same dimension"
+
+        if operation == '+':
+            return [[a + b for a, b in zip(row1, row2)] for row1, row2 in zip(matrix1, matrix2)]
+        elif operation == '-':
+            return [[a - b for a, b in zip(row1, row2)] for row1, row2 in zip(matrix1, matrix2)]
+        elif operation == '*':
+            return [[a * b for a, b in zip(row1, row2)] for row1, row2 in zip(matrix1, matrix2)]
+        elif operation == '/':
+            return [[a / b for a, b in zip(row1, row2) if b != 0] for row1, row2 in zip(matrix1, matrix2)]
+        else:
+            return f"Unsupported operation {operation}"
+
+    try:
+        # Use a stack-based method to properly parse matrices
+        elements = []
+        buffer = ''
+        bracket_level = 0
+        operators = set('+-*/')
+
+        for char in expression:
+            if char == '[':
+                if bracket_level == 0 and buffer.strip():
+                    elements.append(buffer.strip())
+                    buffer = ''
+                bracket_level += 1
+            elif char == ']':
+                bracket_level -= 1
+                if bracket_level == 0:
+                    buffer += char
+                    elements.append(buffer.strip())
+                    buffer = ''
+                    continue
+            if bracket_level == 0 and char in operators:
+                if buffer.strip():
+                    elements.append(buffer.strip())
+                    buffer = ''
+                elements.append(char)
+            else:
+                buffer += char
+
+        if buffer.strip():
+            elements.append(buffer.strip())
+
+        result = ast.literal_eval(elements[0])
+
+        if not any(isinstance(row, list) for row in result):
+            result = [result]  # Convert 1D matrix to 2D
+
+        i = 1
+        while i < len(elements):
+            operation = elements[i]
+            matrix = ast.literal_eval(elements[i + 1])
+
+            if not any(isinstance(row, list) for row in matrix):
+                matrix = [matrix]
+
+            operation_result = elementwise_operation(result, matrix, operation)
+
+            # Check if the operation resulted in an error message
+            if isinstance(operation_result, str):
+                return operation_result
+
+            result = operation_result
+            i += 2
+
+        # Create a LaTeX-style matrix representation
+        matrix_entries = '\\\\'.join(' & '.join(str(x) for x in row) for row in result)
+        return r"\begin{bmatrix}" + f"{matrix_entries}" + r"\end{bmatrix}"
+
+    except Exception as e:
+        return f"Error computing matrix operation: {e}"
+
+
+def compute_constant_expression_involving_ordered_series(expression: str) -> str:
+    """
+    Computes the result of a constant expression involving ordered series, and returns it as a Latex string.
+    Supports operations lile "+", "-", "*", "/", as well as "dd()" (the discrete difference operator).
+
+    The function first applies the discrete difference operator to any series where applicable, then evaluates
+    arithmetic operations between series.
+
+    Parameters:
+    expression (str): The series operation expression to compute. Includes operations "+", "-", "*", "/", and "dd()".
+
+    Returns:
+    str: The string representation of the resultant series after performing operations, or an error message
+    if the series lengths do not match.
+
+    Raises:
+    ValueError: If the expression cannot be evaluated.
+    """
+
+    def elementwise_operation(series1: List[float], series2: List[float], operation: str) -> List[float]:
+        if len(series1) != len(series2):
+            return "Operations between ordered series must involve series of equal length"
+
+        if operation == '+':
+            return [a + b for a, b in zip(series1, series2)]
+        elif operation == '-':
+            return [a - b for a, b in zip(series1, series2)]
+        elif operation == '*':
+            return [a * b for a, b in zip(series1, series2)]
+        elif operation == '/':
+            return [a / b for a, b in zip(series1, series2) if b != 0]
+        else:
+            return f"Unsupported operation {operation}"
+
+    def discrete_difference(series: list) -> list:
+        """Computes the discrete difference of a series."""
+        return [series[i + 1] - series[i] for i in range(len(series) - 1)]
+
+    try:
+        # First, apply the discrete difference operator where applicable
+        pattern = r'dd\((\[[^\]]*\])\)'
+        matches = re.findall(pattern, expression)
+
+        for match in matches:
+            if match.strip() == '[]':
+                result_series = []  # Handle the empty list case
+            else:
+                series = ast.literal_eval(match)
+                result_series = discrete_difference(series)
+            expression = expression.replace(f'dd({match})', str(result_series))
+
+        # Now parse and evaluate the full expression with basic operations
+        elements = []
+        buffer = ''
+        bracket_level = 0
+        operators = set('+-*/')
+
+        for char in expression:
+            if char == '[':
+                if bracket_level == 0 and buffer.strip():
+                    elements.append(buffer.strip())
+                    buffer = ''
+                bracket_level += 1
+            elif char == ']':
+                bracket_level -= 1
+                if bracket_level == 0:
+                    buffer += char
+                    elements.append(buffer.strip())
+                    buffer = ''
+                    continue
+            if bracket_level == 0 and char in operators:
+                if buffer.strip():
+                    elements.append(buffer.strip())
+                    buffer = ''
+                elements.append(char)
+            else:
+                buffer += char
+
+        if buffer.strip():
+            elements.append(buffer.strip())
+
+        result = ast.literal_eval(elements[0])
+
+        i = 1
+        while i < len(elements):
+            operation = elements[i]
+            series = ast.literal_eval(elements[i + 1])
+            operation_result = elementwise_operation(result, series, operation)
+
+            # Check if the operation resulted in an error message
+            if isinstance(operation_result, str):
+                return operation_result
+
+            result = operation_result
+            i += 2
+
+        return str(result)
+
+    except Exception as e:
+        return f"Error computing ordered series operation: {e}"
+
+
+def python_polynomial_expression_to_latex(
+    expression: str,
+    subs: Optional[Dict[str, float]] = None
+) -> str:
+    """
+    Converts a polynomial expression written in Python syntax to LaTeX format.
+
+    This function takes an algebraic expression written in Python syntax and converts it
+    to a LaTeX formatted string. The expression is assumed to be in terms acceptable by
+    sympy, with named variables, and optionally includes substitutions for variables.
+
+    Parameters:
+    expression (str): The algebraic expression to convert to LaTeX. The expression should
+                      be written using Python syntax.
+    subs (Optional[Dict[str, float]]): An optional dictionary of substitutions for variables
+                                       in the expression.
+
+    Returns:
+    str: The expression represented as a LaTeX string.
+
+    Raises:
+    ValueError: If the expression cannot be parsed due to syntax errors.
+    """
+    transformations = standard_transformations + (implicit_multiplication_application,)
+
+    def parse_and_convert_expression(expr_str: str, sym_vars: Dict[str, Expr]) -> Expr:
+        try:
+            # Parse with transformations to handle implicit multiplication
+            expr = parse_expr(expr_str, local_dict=sym_vars, transformations=transformations)
+            if subs:
+                subs_symbols = {symbols(k): v for k, v in subs.items()}
+                expr = expr.subs(subs_symbols)
+            return expr
+        except (SyntaxError, ValueError, TypeError) as e:
+            raise ValueError(f"Error parsing expression: {expr_str}. Error: {e}")
+
+    # Extract variable names used in the expression
+    variable_names = set(re.findall(r'\b[a-zA-Z]\w*\b', expression))
+    sym_vars = {var: symbols(var) for var in variable_names}
+
+    # Import all general function names from SymPy into local scope
+
+    # Dynamically add SymPy functions to the symbol dictionary
+    for func_name in sympy_functions:
+        try:
+            candidate = globals().get(func_name) or locals().get(func_name)
+            if callable(candidate):  # Ensure it's actually a callable
+                sym_vars[func_name] = candidate
+        except KeyError:
+            continue  # Skip any non-callable or unavailable items
+
+    # Attempt to parse the expression
+    expr = parse_and_convert_expression(expression, sym_vars)
+
+    # Convert the expression to LaTeX format
+    latex_result = latex(expr)
+    return latex_result
+
+
+def expand_polynomial_expression(
+    expression: str,
+    subs: Optional[Dict[str, float]] = None
+) -> str:
+    """
+    Expands a polynomial expression written in Python syntax and converts it to LaTeX format.
+
+    This function takes an algebraic expression written in Python syntax,
+    applies polynomial expansion, and converts the expanded expression
+    to a LaTeX formatted string. The expression should be compatible with sympy.
+
+    Parameters:
+    expression (str): The algebraic expression to expand and convert to LaTeX.
+                      The expression should be written using Python syntax.
+    subs (Optional[Dict[str, float]]): An optional dictionary of substitutions
+                                       to apply to variables in the expression
+                                       before expansion.
+
+    Returns:
+    str: The expanded expression represented as a LaTeX string.
+
+    Raises:
+    ValueError: If the expression cannot be parsed due to syntax errors.
+    """
+    transformations = standard_transformations + (implicit_multiplication_application,)
+
+    def parse_and_expand_expression(expr_str: str, sym_vars: Dict[str, symbols]) -> symbols:
+        try:
+            expr = parse_expr(expr_str, local_dict=sym_vars, transformations=transformations)
+            if subs:
+                # Ensure that subs is a dictionary
+                if not isinstance(subs, dict):
+                    raise ValueError(f"Substitutions must be a dictionary. Received: {subs}")
+                subs_symbols = {symbols(k): v for k, v in subs.items()}
+                expr = expr.subs(subs_symbols)
+            return expr.expand()
+        except (SyntaxError, ValueError, TypeError, AttributeError) as e:
+            raise ValueError(f"Error parsing expression: {expr_str}. Error: {e}")
+
+    variable_names = set(re.findall(r'\b[a-zA-Z]\w*\b', expression))
+    sym_vars = {var: symbols(var) for var in variable_names}
+
+    expr = parse_and_expand_expression(expression, sym_vars)
+    latex_result = latex(expr)
+    return latex_result
+
+
+def factor_polynomial_expression(
+    expression: str,
+    subs: Optional[Dict[str, float]] = None
+) -> str:
+    """
+    Factors a polynomial expression written in Python syntax and converts it to LaTeX format.
+
+    This function accepts an algebraic expression in Python syntax, performs polynomial factoring,
+    and translates the factored expression into a LaTeX formatted string.
+
+    Parameters:
+    expression (str): The algebraic expression to factor and convert to LaTeX.
+    subs (Optional[Dict[str, float]]): An optional dictionary of substitutions to apply before factoring.
+
+    Returns:
+    str: The LaTeX formatted string of the factored expression.
+
+    Raises:
+    ValueError: If the expression cannot be parsed due to syntax errors.
+    """
+    transformations = standard_transformations + (implicit_multiplication_application,)
+
+    def parse_and_factor_expression(expr_str: str, sym_vars: Dict[str, symbols]) -> symbols:
+        try:
+            expr = parse_expr(expr_str, local_dict=sym_vars, transformations=transformations)
+            if subs:
+                if not isinstance(subs, dict):
+                    raise ValueError(f"Substitutions must be a dictionary. Received: {subs}")
+                subs_symbols = {symbols(k): v for k, v in subs.items()}
+                expr = expr.subs(subs_symbols)
+            return factor(expr)
+        except (SyntaxError, ValueError, TypeError, AttributeError) as e:
+            raise ValueError(f"Error parsing expression: {expr_str}. Error: {e}")
+
+    variable_names = set(re.findall(r'\b[a-zA-Z]\w*\b', expression))
+    sym_vars = {var: symbols(var) for var in variable_names}
+
+    expr = parse_and_factor_expression(expression, sym_vars)
+    latex_result = latex(expr)
+    return latex_result
+
+
+def simplify_polynomial_expression(
+    expression: str,
+    subs: Optional[Dict[str, float]] = None
+) -> str:
+    """
+    Simplifies an algebraic expression in polynomial form and returns it in LaTeX format.
+
+    Takes an algebraic expression, in polynomial form, written in Python syntax and simplifies it.
+    The result is returned as a LaTeX formatted string, suitable for academic or professional
+    documentation.
+
+    Parameters:
+    expression (str): The algebraic expression, in polynomial form, to simplify. For instance,
+                      the expression `np.diff(8*x**30)` is a polynomial, whereas np.diff([2,5,9,11)
+                      is not a polynomial.
+    subs (Optional[Dict[str, float]]): An optional dictionary of substitutions for variables
+                                       in the expression.
+
+    Returns:
+    str: The simplified expression represented as a LaTeX string.
+
+    Raises:
+    ValueError: If the expression cannot be simplified due to errors in expression or parameters.
+    """
+
+    def recursive_parse_function_call(
+            func_call: str, prefix: str, sym_vars: Dict[str, Expr]) -> Tuple[str, List[Expr]]:
+        # print(f"Parsing function call: {func_call}")
+
+        # Match the function name and arguments
+        match = re.match(fr'{prefix}\.(\w+)\((.*)\)', func_call, re.DOTALL)
+        if not match:
+            raise ValueError(f"Invalid function call: {func_call}")
+
+        func_name = match.group(1)
+        args_str = match.group(2)
+
+        # Check if it's a list for np
+        if prefix == 'np' and args_str.startswith(
+                "[") and args_str.endswith("]"):
+            parsed_args = [ast.literal_eval(args_str.strip())]
+        else:
+            parsed_args = []
+            raw_args = re.split(r',(?![^{]*\})', args_str)
+            for arg in raw_args:
+                arg = arg.strip()
+                if re.match(r'\w+\.\w+\(', arg):
+                    # Recursively evaluate the argument if it's another
+                    # function call
+                    arg_val = recursive_eval_func(
+                        re.match(r'\w+\.\w+\(.*\)', arg), sym_vars)
+                    parsed_args.append(
+                        parse_expr(
+                            arg_val,
+                            local_dict=sym_vars))
+                else:
+                    parsed_args.append(parse_expr(arg, local_dict=sym_vars))
+
+        # print(f"Function name: {func_name}, Parsed arguments: {parsed_args}")
+        return func_name, parsed_args
+
+    def recursive_eval_func(match: re.Match, sym_vars: Dict[str, Expr]) -> str:
+        # print("152", match)
+        func_call = match.group(0)
+        # print(f"153 Evaluating function call: {func_call}")
+
+        if func_call.startswith("np."):
+            func_name, args = recursive_parse_function_call(
+                func_call, 'np', sym_vars)
+            if func_name == 'diff':
+                expr = args[0]
+                if isinstance(expr, list):
+                    # Calculate discrete difference
+                    diff_result = [expr[i] - expr[i - 1]
+                                   for i in range(1, len(expr))]
+                    return str(diff_result)
+                # Perform symbolic differentiation
+                diff_result = diff(expr)
+                return str(diff_result)
+
+        if func_call.startswith("math."):
+            func_name, args = recursive_parse_function_call(
+                func_call, 'math', sym_vars)
+            if hasattr(math, func_name):
+                result = getattr(math, func_name)(*args)
+                return str(result)
+
+        if func_call.startswith("sym."):
+            initial_method_match = re.match(
+                r'(sym\.\w+\([^()]*\))(\.(\w+)\((.*?)\))*', func_call, re.DOTALL)
+            if initial_method_match:
+                base_expr_str = initial_method_match.group(1)
+                base_func_name, base_args = recursive_parse_function_call(
+                    base_expr_str, 'sym', sym_vars)
+                if base_func_name == 'solve':
+                    solutions = solve(base_args[0], base_args[1])
+                    # print(f"Solutions found: {solutions}")
+
+                method_chain = re.findall(
+                    r'\.(\w+)\((.*?)\)', func_call, re.DOTALL)
+                final_solutions = [execute_chained_methods(sol, [(m, [method_args.strip(
+                )]) for m, method_args in method_chain], sym_vars) for sol in solutions]
+
+                return "[" + ",".join(latex(simplify(sol))
+                                      for sol in final_solutions) + "]"
+
+        raise ValueError(f"Unknown function call: {func_call}")
+
+    def execute_chained_methods(sym_expr: Expr,
+                                method_chain: List[Tuple[str,
+                                                         List[str]]],
+                                sym_vars: Dict[str,
+                                               Expr]) -> Expr:
+        for method_name, method_args in method_chain:
+            # print(f"Executing method: {method_name} with arguments: {method_args}")
+            method = getattr(sym_expr, method_name, None)
+            if method:
+                if method_name == 'subs' and isinstance(method_args[0], dict):
+                    kwargs = method_args[0]
+                    kwargs = {
+                        parse_expr(
+                            k,
+                            local_dict=sym_vars): parse_expr(
+                            v,
+                            local_dict=sym_vars) for k,
+                        v in kwargs.items()}
+                    sym_expr = method(kwargs)
+                else:
+                    args = [parse_expr(arg.strip(), local_dict=sym_vars)
+                            for arg in method_args]
+                    sym_expr = method(*args)
+            # print(f"Result after {method_name}: {sym_expr}")
+        return sym_expr
+
+    variable_names = set(re.findall(r'\b[a-zA-Z]\w*\b', expression))
+    sym_vars = {var: symbols(var) for var in variable_names}
+
+    patterns = {
+        # "numpy_diff_brackets": r"np\.diff\(\[.*?\]\)",
+        "numpy_diff_no_brackets": r"np\.diff\([^()]*\)",
+        "math_functions": r"math\.\w+\((?:[^()]*(?:\([^()]*\)[^()]*)*)\)",
+        # "sympy_functions": r"sym\.\w+\([^()]*\)(?:\.\w+\([^()]*\))?",
+    }
+
+    function_pattern = '|'.join(patterns.values())
+
+    # Use a lambda function to pass additional arguments
+    processed_expression = re.sub(
+        function_pattern, lambda match: recursive_eval_func(
+            match, sym_vars), expression)
+    # print("Level 2 processed_expression:", processed_expression)
+
+    try:
+        # Parse the expression
+        expr = parse_expr(processed_expression, local_dict=sym_vars)
+
+        # Apply substitutions if provided
+        if subs:
+            subs_symbols = {symbols(k): v for k, v in subs.items()}
+            expr = expr.subs(subs_symbols)
+
+        # Simplify the expression
+        final_result = simplify(expr)
+
+        # Convert the result to LaTeX format
+        if final_result.free_symbols:
+            latex_result = latex(final_result)
+            return latex_result
+        else:
+            return str(final_result)
+
+    except Exception as e:
+        raise ValueError(f"Error simplifying expression: {e}")
+
+
+def cancel_polynomial_expression(
+    expression: str,
+    subs: Optional[Dict[str, float]] = None
+) -> str:
+    """
+    Cancels common factors within a polynomial expression and converts it to LaTeX format.
+
+    This function parses an algebraic expression given in Python syntax, cancels any common factors,
+    and converts the resulting simplified expression into a LaTeX formatted string. The function can
+    also handle optional substitutions of variables before performing the cancellation.
+
+    Parameters:
+    expression (str): The algebraic expression to simplify and convert to LaTeX.
+                      It should be a valid expression formatted using Python syntax.
+    subs (Optional[Dict[str, float]]): An optional dictionary where the keys are variable names in the
+                                       expression, and the values are the corresponding numbers to substitute
+                                       into the expression before simplification.
+
+    Returns:
+    str: The LaTeX formatted string of the simplified expression. If the expression involves
+         indeterminate forms due to operations like division by zero, a descriptive error message is returned instead.
+
+    Raises:
+    ValueError: If the expression cannot be parsed due to syntax errors or if operations result in
+                undefined behavior, such as division by zero.
+
+    """
+    transformations = standard_transformations + (implicit_multiplication_application,)
+
+    def parse_and_cancel_expression(expr_str: str, sym_vars: Dict[str, symbols]) -> symbols:
+        try:
+            expr = parse_expr(expr_str, local_dict=sym_vars, transformations=transformations)
+            if subs:
+                if not isinstance(subs, dict):
+                    raise ValueError(f"Substitutions must be a dictionary. Received: {subs}")
+                subs_symbols = {symbols(k): v for k, v in subs.items()}
+                expr = expr.subs(subs_symbols)
+
+            canceled_expr = cancel(expr)
+
+            # Check for NaN or indeterminate forms
+            if canceled_expr.has(S.NaN) or canceled_expr.has(S.Infinity) or canceled_expr.has(S.ComplexInfinity):
+                return "Undefined result. This could be a division by zero error."
+
+            return canceled_expr
+
+        except (SyntaxError, ValueError, TypeError, AttributeError, ZeroDivisionError, SympifyError) as e:
+            return f"Error: {str(e)}"
+
+    variable_names = set(re.findall(r'\b[a-zA-Z]\w*\b', expression))
+    sym_vars = {var: symbols(var) for var in variable_names}
+
+    expr = parse_and_cancel_expression(expression, sym_vars)
+
+    # If the expression is already a string (i.e., "Undefined" or error message), return it directly
+    if isinstance(expr, str):
+        return expr
+
+    # Otherwise, convert to LaTeX as usual
+    latex_result = latex(expr)
+    return latex_result
+
+
+def solve_homogeneous_polynomial_expression(
+    expression: str,
+    variable: str,
+    subs: Optional[Dict[str, float]] = None
+) -> str:
+    """
+    Solves a homogeneous polynomial expression for a specified variable and returns solutions
+    in LaTeX format.
+
+    Assumes that the expression is homoegeneous (i.e. equal to zero), and solves for a
+    designated variable. May optionally include substitutions for other variables in the
+    equation. The solutions are provided as a LaTeX formatted string.
+
+    Parameters:
+    expression (str): The homogeneous polynomial expression to solve.
+    variable (str): The variable to solve the equation for.
+    subs (Optional[Dict[str, float]]): An optional dictionary of substitutions for variables
+                                       in the equation.
+
+    Returns:
+    str: The solutions of the equation, formatted as a LaTeX string.
+
+    Raises:
+    ValueError: If the equation cannot be solved due to errors in expression or parameters.
+    """
+
+    try:
+        # Handle symbols
+        variable_symbols = set(re.findall(r'\b[a-zA-Z]\w*\b', expression))
+        sym_vars = {var: symbols(var) for var in variable_symbols}
+
+        # Parse the expression
+        expr = parse_expr(expression, local_dict=sym_vars)
+
+        # Apply substitutions
+        if subs:
+            expr = expr.subs({symbols(k): v for k, v in subs.items()})
+
+        # Solve the equation
+        var_symbol = symbols(variable)
+        eq = Eq(expr, 0)
+        solutions = solve(eq, var_symbol)
+
+        # Convert solutions to LaTeX strings with handling for exact representations
+        latex_solutions = [latex(sol) for sol in solutions]
+
+        result = r"\left[" + ", ".join(latex_solutions) + r"\right]"
+        print("693", result)
+        return result
+
+    except Exception as e:
+        raise ValueError(f"Error solving the expression: {e}")
+
+
+def plot_polynomial_functions(
+    functions: List[Dict[str, Dict[str, Any]]],
+    zoom: float = 10.0,
+    show_legend: bool = True,
+    open_file: bool = False,
+    save_path: Optional[str] = None,
+) -> str:
+    """
+    Plots expressions described by a list of dictionaries of the form:
+        [
+          { "expression_string": { "x": "*", "a":..., "b":... } },
+          { "expression_string": { "x": np.linspace(...), "a":..., ... } },
+          ...
+        ]
+
+    In each top-level dictionary, there is exactly one key (a string
+    representing a Python/NumPy expression) and one value (a dictionary of
+    substitutions). This substitutions dictionary must have an "x" key:
+      • "x": "*"  -> Use a default domain from -zoom..+zoom.
+      • "x": np.array(...)  -> Use that array as the domain.
+    Other variables (like "a", "b", etc.) may also appear in the same dict.
+
+    Additionally, we use latexify_expression(...) to transform the expression
+    into a nice LaTeX form for the legend, including a special Δ notation for np.diff(...).
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    functions : List[Dict[str, Dict[str, Any]]]
+        A list of items. Each item is a dictionary:
+          key   = expression string (e.g., "x**2", "np.diff(x,2)", etc.)
+          value = a dictionary of substitutions. Must contain "x",
+                  either as "*" or a NumPy array. May contain additional
+                  parameters like "a", "b", etc.
+    zoom : float
+        Sets the numeric axis range from -zoom..+zoom in both x and y.
+    show_legend : bool
+        Whether to add a legend to the plot (defaults to True).
+    open_file : bool
+        If saving to path is not desirable, opens the SVG as a temp file;  
+        otherwise opens the file from the actual location using the system's  
+        default viewer (defaults to False).
+    save_path : Optional[str]
+        If specified, saves the output string as a .svg at the indicated path  
+        (defaults to None).
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    str
+        The raw SVG markup of the resulting plot.
+    """
+
+    def latexify_expression(expr_str: str) -> str:
+        # Regex to locate np.diff(...) with an optional second argument
+        DIFF_PATTERN = r"np\.diff\s*\(\s*([^,\)]+)(?:,\s*(\d+))?\)"
+
+        def diff_replacer(match: re.Match) -> str:
+            inside = match.group(1).strip()
+            exponent = match.group(2)
+            inside_no_np = inside.replace("np.", "")
+            if exponent:
+                return rf"\Delta^{exponent}\left({inside_no_np}\right)"
+            else:
+                return rf"\Delta\left({inside_no_np}\right)"
+
+        expr_tmp = re.sub(DIFF_PATTERN, diff_replacer, expr_str)
+        expr_tmp = expr_tmp.replace("np.", "")
+
+        # Attempt to convert basic Pythonic polynomial expressions to LaTeX
+        try:
+            # Suppose you have a helper function python_polynomial_expression_to_latex
+            # If not, you can do a naive replacement or skip
+            from python_latex_helpers import python_polynomial_expression_to_latex
+            latex_expr = python_polynomial_expression_to_latex(expr_tmp)
+            return latex_expr
+        except Exception:
+            # Fallback: naive ** -> ^
+            return expr_tmp.replace("**", "^")
+
+    def handle_open_and_save(svg_string: str, open_it: bool, path: Optional[str]) -> None:
+        # Save the SVG to a file if a path is provided
+        if path:
+            try:
+                with open(path, 'w', encoding='utf-8') as file:
+                    file.write(svg_string)
+                print(f"[INFO] SVG saved to: {path}")
+            except IOError as e:
+                print(f"[ERROR] Failed to save SVG to {path}. IOError: {e}")
+
+        # Handle opening the file if requested
+        if open_it and path:
+            result = subprocess.run(["xdg-open", path], stderr=subprocess.DEVNULL)
+            if result.returncode != 0:
+                print("[ERROR] Failed to open the SVG file with the default viewer.")
+        elif open_it:
+            with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False, suffix=".svg") as tmpfile:
+                temp_svg_path = tmpfile.name
+                tmpfile.write(svg_string.encode('utf-8'))
+            result = subprocess.run(["xdg-open", temp_svg_path], stderr=subprocess.DEVNULL)
+            if result.returncode != 0:
+                print("[ERROR] Failed to open the SVG file with the default viewer.")
+
+    buffer = BytesIO()
+    fig, ax = plt.subplots()
+
+    for entry in functions:
+        # Each entry is something like {"x**2": {"x": "*", "a": ...}}
+        if len(entry) != 1:
+            print("[WARNING] Skipping invalid item. Must have exactly 1 expression->substitutions pair.")
+            continue
+
+        # Extract the expression string and substitutions
+        expression, sub_dict = next(iter(entry.items()))
+
+        # Check presence of "x"
+        if "x" not in sub_dict:
+            print(f"[WARNING] Skipping '{expression}' because there is no 'x' key.")
+            continue
+
+        x_val = sub_dict["x"]
+
+        # 1) If x == "*", generate from -zoom..+zoom
+        if isinstance(x_val, str) and x_val == "*":
+            x_values = np.linspace(-zoom, zoom, 1201)
+            sub_dict["x"] = x_values  # might as well update it in place
+        # 2) If x is already a NumPy array, use as-is
+        elif isinstance(x_val, np.ndarray):
+            x_values = x_val
+        else:
+            print(f"[WARNING] Skipping '{expression}' because 'x' is neither '*' nor a NumPy array.")
+            continue
+
+        # Evaluate the expression with the variables from sub_dict
+        # We'll inject them into an eval() context, including 'np'
+        try:
+            eval_context = {"np": np}
+            # Put all user-provided variables (like a=1.23) in:
+            eval_context.update(sub_dict)
+            y_values = eval(expression, {"np": np}, eval_context)
+        except Exception as e:
+            print(f"[ERROR] Could not evaluate '{expression}' -> {e}")
+            continue
+
+        # Check we got a NumPy array
+        if not isinstance(y_values, np.ndarray):
+            print(f"[WARNING] Skipping '{expression}' because it did not produce a NumPy array.")
+            continue
+
+        # If y is shorter (like np.diff), truncate x
+        if len(y_values) < len(x_values):
+            x_values = x_values[:len(y_values)]
+
+        # Convert the expression to a LaTeX label
+        label_expr = latexify_expression(expression)
+        ax.plot(x_values, y_values, label=rf"${label_expr}$")
+
+    # Configure axes
+    ax.set_xlim(-zoom, zoom)
+    ax.set_ylim(-zoom, zoom)
+
+    # Place spines at center
+    ax.spines['left'].set_position('zero')
+    ax.spines['bottom'].set_position('zero')
+    # Hide the right and top spines
+    ax.spines['right'].set_color('none')
+    ax.spines['top'].set_color('none')
+    ax.xaxis.set_ticks_position('bottom')
+    ax.yaxis.set_ticks_position('left')
+
+    # Ensure equal aspect ratio
+    ax.set_aspect('equal', 'box')
+    ax.grid(True)
+
+    # If requested, show the legend
+    if show_legend:
+        leg = ax.legend(
+            loc='upper center',
+            bbox_to_anchor=(0.5, -0.03),
+            fancybox=True,
+            shadow=True,
+            ncol=1
+        )
+        plt.savefig(buffer, format='svg', bbox_inches='tight', bbox_extra_artists=[leg])
+    else:
+        plt.savefig(buffer, format='svg', bbox_inches='tight')
+
+    plt.close(fig)
+    svg_string = buffer.getvalue().decode('utf-8')
+
+    # Optionally open/save the file
+    handle_open_and_save(svg_string, open_file, save_path)
+
+    return svg_string
+