qilisdk 0.1.8__cp312-cp312-manylinux_2_28_x86_64.whl

qilisdk/analog/hamiltonian.py

@@ -0,0 +1,1068 @@
+# Copyright 2025 Qilimanjaro Quantum Tech
+#
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import copy
+import re
+from abc import ABC
+from collections import defaultdict
+from itertools import product
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Callable, ClassVar
+
+import numpy as np
+from scipy.sparse import csr_matrix, kron, spmatrix
+
+from qilisdk.core.parameterizable import Parameterizable
+from qilisdk.core.qtensor import QTensor
+from qilisdk.core.types import Number
+from qilisdk.core.variables import BaseVariable, Parameter, Term
+from qilisdk.settings import get_settings
+from qilisdk.yaml import yaml
+
+from .exceptions import InvalidHamiltonianOperation
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from collections.abc import Iterator
+
+_DIVISION_BY_OPERATORS_MESSAGE = "Division by operators is not supported"
+_GENERIC_VARIABLE_IN_TERM_MESSAGE = "Term provided contains generic variables that are not Parameter."
+_GENERIC_VARIABLE_IN_HAMILTONIAN_MESSAGE = (
+    "Only Parameters are allowed to be used in hamiltonians. Generic Variables are not supported"
+)
+
+
+def _complex_dtype() -> np.dtype:
+    return np.dtype(get_settings().complex_precision.dtype)
+
+
+###############################################################################
+# Flyweight Cache
+###############################################################################
+_OPERATOR_CACHE: dict[tuple[str, int], PauliOperator] = {}
+
+
+def _get_pauli(name: str, qubit: int) -> PauliOperator:
+    key = (name, qubit)
+    if key in _OPERATOR_CACHE:
+        return _OPERATOR_CACHE[key]
+
+    if name == "Z":
+        op = PauliZ(qubit)
+    elif name == "X":
+        op = PauliX(qubit)
+    elif name == "Y":
+        op = PauliY(qubit)
+    elif name == "I":
+        op = PauliI(qubit)
+    else:
+        raise ValueError(f"Unknown Pauli operator name: {name}")
+
+    _OPERATOR_CACHE[key] = op
+    return op
+
+
+###############################################################################
+# Public Factory Functions
+###############################################################################
+def Z(qubit: int) -> Hamiltonian:
+    return _get_pauli("Z", qubit).to_hamiltonian()
+
+
+def X(qubit: int) -> Hamiltonian:
+    return _get_pauli("X", qubit).to_hamiltonian()
+
+
+def Y(qubit: int) -> Hamiltonian:
+    return _get_pauli("Y", qubit).to_hamiltonian()
+
+
+def I(qubit: int = 0) -> Hamiltonian:  # noqa: E743
+    return _get_pauli("I", qubit).to_hamiltonian()
+
+
+###############################################################################
+# Abstract Base PauliOperator
+###############################################################################
+class PauliOperator(ABC):
+    """
+    A generic abstract Pauli operator that acts on one qubit.
+
+    Example:
+        .. code-block:: python
+
+            from qilisdk.analog import PauliX
+
+            op = PauliX(0)
+
+    Flyweight usage: do NOT instantiate directly—use PauliX(q), PauliY(q), etc.
+
+    Note: You can also use the factory functions X(q), Y(q), Z(q), I(q) to get a Hamiltonian object.
+    """
+
+    _NAME: ClassVar[str]
+    _MATRIX: ClassVar[np.ndarray]
+    _MATRIX_CACHE: ClassVar[dict[np.dtype, np.ndarray]]
+
+    def __init_subclass__(cls) -> None:
+        super().__init_subclass__()
+        cls._MATRIX_CACHE = {}
+
+    def __init__(self, qubit: int) -> None:
+        self._qubit = qubit
+
+    @property
+    def qubit(self) -> int:
+        return self._qubit
+
+    @property
+    def name(self) -> str:
+        return self._NAME
+
+    @classmethod
+    def matrix_for_dtype(cls, dtype: np.dtype) -> np.ndarray:
+        cached = cls._MATRIX_CACHE.get(dtype)
+        if cached is None:
+            cached = cls._MATRIX.astype(dtype, copy=False)
+            cls._MATRIX_CACHE[dtype] = cached
+        return cached
+
+    @property
+    def matrix(self) -> np.ndarray:
+        return self.matrix_for_dtype(_complex_dtype())
+
+    def to_hamiltonian(self) -> Hamiltonian:
+        """Convert this single operator to a Hamiltonian with one term.
+
+        Returns:
+            Hamiltonian: The converted Hamiltonian.
+        """
+        return Hamiltonian({(self,): 1})
+
+    def __hash__(self) -> int:
+        return hash((self._NAME, self._qubit))
+
+    def __eq__(self, other: object) -> bool:
+        if isinstance(other, Hamiltonian):
+            return other == self
+        if not isinstance(other, PauliOperator):
+            return False
+        return (self._NAME == other._NAME) and (self._qubit == other._qubit)
+
+    def __repr__(self) -> str:
+        return f"{self.name}({self.qubit})"
+
+    def __str__(self) -> str:
+        return f"{self.name}({self.qubit})"
+
+    # ----------- Arithmetic Operators ------------
+
+    def __add__(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian) -> Hamiltonian:
+        return self.to_hamiltonian() + other
+
+    __radd__ = __add__
+    __iadd__ = __add__
+
+    def __sub__(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian) -> Hamiltonian:
+        return self.to_hamiltonian() - other
+
+    def __rsub__(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian) -> Hamiltonian:
+        return other - self.to_hamiltonian()
+
+    __isub__ = __sub__
+
+    def __mul__(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian) -> Hamiltonian:
+        return self.to_hamiltonian() * other
+
+    def __rmul__(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian) -> Hamiltonian:
+        return other * self.to_hamiltonian()
+
+    __imul__ = __mul__
+
+    def __truediv__(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian) -> Hamiltonian:
+        return self.to_hamiltonian() / other
+
+    def __rtruediv__(self, _: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian) -> Hamiltonian:
+        raise InvalidHamiltonianOperation(_DIVISION_BY_OPERATORS_MESSAGE)
+
+    __itruediv__ = __truediv__
+
+
+###############################################################################
+# Concrete Flyweight Operator Classes
+###############################################################################
+@yaml.register_class
+class PauliZ(PauliOperator):
+    _NAME: ClassVar[str] = "Z"
+    _MATRIX: ClassVar[np.ndarray] = np.array([[1, 0], [0, -1]], dtype=_complex_dtype())
+
+
+@yaml.register_class
+class PauliX(PauliOperator):
+    _NAME: ClassVar[str] = "X"
+    _MATRIX: ClassVar[np.ndarray] = np.array([[0, 1], [1, 0]], dtype=_complex_dtype())
+
+
+@yaml.register_class
+class PauliY(PauliOperator):
+    _NAME: ClassVar[str] = "Y"
+    _MATRIX: ClassVar[np.ndarray] = np.array([[0, -1j], [1j, 0]], dtype=_complex_dtype())
+
+
+@yaml.register_class
+class PauliI(PauliOperator):
+    _NAME: ClassVar[str] = "I"
+    _MATRIX: ClassVar[np.ndarray] = np.array([[1, 0], [0, 1]], dtype=_complex_dtype())
+
+
+_PAULI_CLASS_BY_NAME: dict[str, type[PauliOperator]] = {cls._NAME: cls for cls in (PauliI, PauliX, PauliY, PauliZ)}
+
+# Cache sparse single-qubit matrices once per dtype to avoid rebuilding them for every term.
+_SINGLE_QUBIT_SPARSE: dict[tuple[str, np.dtype], csr_matrix] = {}
+
+
+def _get_single_qubit_sparse_matrix(name: str) -> csr_matrix:
+    dtype = _complex_dtype()
+    key = (name, dtype)
+    cached = _SINGLE_QUBIT_SPARSE.get(key)
+    if cached is None:
+        pauli_cls = _PAULI_CLASS_BY_NAME[name]
+        cached = csr_matrix(pauli_cls.matrix_for_dtype(dtype), dtype=dtype)
+        _SINGLE_QUBIT_SPARSE[key] = cached
+    return cached
+
+
+@yaml.register_class
+class Hamiltonian(Parameterizable):
+    """
+    Represent a Hamiltonian expressed as a linear combination of Pauli operators.
+
+    Example:
+        .. code-block:: python
+
+            from qilisdk.analog.hamiltonian import Hamiltonian, X, Z
+
+            H = X(0) * X(1) + Z(1)
+    """
+
+    _EPS: float = 1e-14
+    _PAULI_PRODUCT_TABLE: ClassVar[dict[tuple[str, str], tuple[complex, Callable[..., PauliOperator]]]] = {
+        ("X", "X"): (1, PauliI),
+        ("X", "Y"): (1j, PauliZ),
+        ("X", "Z"): (-1j, PauliY),
+        ("Y", "X"): (-1j, PauliZ),
+        ("Y", "Y"): (1, PauliI),
+        ("Y", "Z"): (1j, PauliX),
+        ("Z", "X"): (1j, PauliY),
+        ("Z", "Y"): (-1j, PauliX),
+        ("Z", "Z"): (1, PauliI),
+    }
+
+    ZERO: int = 0
+
+    def __init__(self, elements: dict[tuple[PauliOperator, ...], complex | Term | Parameter] | None = None) -> None:
+        """
+        Build a Hamiltonian from a mapping of Pauli operator products to coefficients.
+
+        Args:
+            elements (dict[tuple[PauliOperator, ...], complex | Term | Parameter], optional):
+                Mapping from operator tuples to numerical coefficients or symbolic parameters. For example:
+
+                .. code-block:: python
+
+                    {
+                        (Z(0), Y(1)): 1.0,
+                        (X(1),): 1j,
+                    }
+
+                Defaults to None, which creates an empty Hamiltonian.
+
+        Raises:
+            ValueError: If the provided coefficients include generic variables instead of parameters.
+        """
+        super(Hamiltonian, self).__init__()
+        self._elements: dict[tuple[PauliOperator, ...], complex | Term | Parameter] = defaultdict(complex)
+        self._parameters: dict[str, Parameter] = {}
+        if elements:
+            for key, val in elements.items():
+                if isinstance(val, Term):
+                    for v in val.variables():
+                        if isinstance(v, Parameter):
+                            self._parameters[v.label] = v
+                        else:
+                            raise ValueError(_GENERIC_VARIABLE_IN_HAMILTONIAN_MESSAGE)
+                elif isinstance(val, BaseVariable):
+                    if isinstance(val, Parameter):
+                        self._parameters[val.label] = val
+
+                    else:
+                        raise ValueError(_GENERIC_VARIABLE_IN_HAMILTONIAN_MESSAGE)
+                self._elements[key] += val
+            self.simplify()
+
+    @property
+    def nqubits(self) -> int:
+        """Number of qubits on which the Hamiltonian acts."""
+        qubits = {op.qubit for key in self._elements for op in key}
+
+        return max(qubits) + 1 if qubits else 0
+
+    @property
+    def elements(self) -> dict[tuple[PauliOperator, ...], complex]:
+        """Return the stored operator-coefficient mapping with symbolic terms evaluated."""
+        return {
+            k: (
+                v if isinstance(v, complex) else (v.evaluate({}) if isinstance(v, Term) else v.evaluate())  # ty:ignore[possibly-missing-attribute]
+            )
+            for k, v in self._elements.items()
+        }
+
+    @property
+    def parameters(self) -> dict[str, Parameter]:
+        """Return a mapping from parameter labels to their corresponding parameter objects."""
+        return self._parameters
+
+    def simplify(self) -> Hamiltonian:
+        """Simplify the Hamiltonian expression by removing near-zero terms and accumulating constant terms.
+
+        Returns:
+            Hamiltonian: Simplified Hamiltonian
+        """
+        # 1) Remove near-zero
+        keys_to_remove = [
+            key for key, value in self._elements.items() if isinstance(value, complex) and abs(value) < Hamiltonian._EPS
+        ]
+        for key in keys_to_remove:
+            del self._elements[key]
+
+        # 2) Accumulate identities that do NOT act on qubit=0 => I(0)
+        to_accumulate = [
+            (key, value)
+            for key, value in self._elements.items()
+            if len(key) == 1 and key[0].name == "I" and key[0].qubit != 0
+        ]
+        for key, value in to_accumulate:
+            del self._elements[key]
+            self._elements[PauliI(0),] += value
+
+        return self
+
+    def _apply_operator_on_qubit(self, terms: list[PauliOperator], padding: int = 0) -> spmatrix:
+        """Get the matrix representation of a single term by taking the tensor product
+        of operators acting on each qubit. For qubits with no operator in `terms`,
+        the identity is used.
+
+        Args:
+            terms (list[PauliOperator]): A list of Pauli operators in the term.
+
+        Returns:
+            spmatrix: The full matrix representation of the term.
+
+        Raises:
+            ValueError: If multiple operators act on the same qubit.
+        """
+
+        total_qubits = self.nqubits + padding
+        if total_qubits == 0:
+            return csr_matrix((1, 1), dtype=_complex_dtype())
+
+        ordered_terms = sorted(terms, key=lambda op: op.qubit)
+
+        # Check we don't have multiple operators on the same qubit
+        qubit_indices = [op.qubit for op in ordered_terms]
+        if len(qubit_indices) != len(set(qubit_indices)):
+            raise ValueError("The list should not contain multiple operators acting on the same qubit.")
+
+        identity_single = _get_single_qubit_sparse_matrix("I")
+        idx = 0
+        next_op = ordered_terms[0] if ordered_terms else None
+        result: spmatrix | None = None
+
+        for qubit in range(total_qubits):
+            if next_op is not None and next_op.qubit == qubit:
+                single = _get_single_qubit_sparse_matrix(next_op.name)
+                idx += 1
+                next_op = ordered_terms[idx] if idx < len(ordered_terms) else None
+            else:
+                single = identity_single
+
+            result = single if result is None else kron(result, single, format="csr")
+
+        # Added for type safety, but should never occur
+        return result if result is not None else csr_matrix((2**total_qubits, 2**total_qubits), dtype=_complex_dtype())
+
+    def to_matrix(self) -> spmatrix:
+        """Return the full matrix representation of the Hamiltonian by summing over all terms.
+
+        Returns:
+            spmatrix: The sparse matrix representation of the Hamiltonian.
+        """
+        dim = 2**self.nqubits
+        # Initialize a zero matrix of the appropriate dimension.
+        result = csr_matrix((dim, dim), dtype=_complex_dtype())
+        for coeff, term in self:
+            result += coeff * self._apply_operator_on_qubit(term)
+        return result
+
+    def to_qtensor(self, total_nqubits: int | None = None) -> QTensor:
+        """Return the Hamiltonian as a ``QTensor`` built from the sparse matrix representation.
+
+        Args:
+            total_nqubits (int, optional): Specify the total number of qubits that this hamiltonian acts on. Defaults to None.
+
+        Returns:
+            QTensor: The QTensor object representation of the Hamiltonian.
+
+        Raises:
+            ValueError: If the total_nqubits provided is lower than the number of qubits effected by the hamiltonian.
+        """
+
+        nqubits = total_nqubits or self.nqubits
+        padding = nqubits - self.nqubits
+        if nqubits < self.nqubits:
+            raise ValueError(
+                f"The total number of qubits can't be less than the number of the qubits effected by this hamiltonian ({self.nqubits})"
+            )
+
+        dim = 2 ** (nqubits)
+
+        # Initialize a zero matrix of the appropriate dimension.
+        result = csr_matrix((dim, dim), dtype=_complex_dtype())
+        for coeff, term in self:
+            result += coeff * self._apply_operator_on_qubit(term, padding=padding)
+        return QTensor(result)
+
+    def get_static_hamiltonian(self) -> Hamiltonian:
+        """Return a Hamiltonian containing only constant coefficients."""
+        out = Hamiltonian()
+        for pauli, value in self.elements.items():
+            aux: Hamiltonian | PauliOperator = pauli[0]
+            for p in list(pauli)[1:]:
+                aux *= p
+            out += aux * value
+        return out
+
+    def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[tuple[complex, list[PauliOperator]]]:
+        for key, value in self.elements.items():
+            yield value, list(key)
+
+    # ------- Equality & hashing --------
+
+    def __eq__(self, other: object) -> bool:
+        if other == Hamiltonian.ZERO:
+            return bool(
+                len(self._elements) == 0
+                or (len(self._elements) == 1 and (PauliI(0),) in self._elements and self._elements[PauliI(0),] == 0)
+            )
+        if isinstance(other, Number):
+            return bool(
+                len(self._elements) == 1 and (PauliI(0),) in self._elements and self._elements[PauliI(0),] == other
+            )
+        if isinstance(other, PauliOperator):
+            other = other.to_hamiltonian()
+        if isinstance(other, QTensor):
+            other = Hamiltonian.from_qtensor(other)
+        if not isinstance(other, Hamiltonian):
+            return False
+        return dict(self._elements) == dict(other._elements)
+
+    def __ne__(self, other: object) -> bool:
+        return not self.__eq__(other)
+
+    def __hash__(self) -> int:
+        items_frozen = frozenset(self._elements.items())
+        return hash(items_frozen)
+
+    def __copy__(self) -> Hamiltonian:
+        return Hamiltonian(elements=self._elements.copy())
+
+    # ------- String representation --------
+
+    def __repr__(self) -> str:
+        return str(self)
+
+    def __str__(self) -> str:
+        # Return "0" if there are no terms
+        if not self._elements:
+            return "0"
+
+        def _format_coeff(c: complex) -> str:
+            re, im = c.real, c.imag
+
+            # 1) Purely real?
+            if abs(im) < Hamiltonian._EPS:
+                re_int = np.round(re)
+                if abs(re - re_int) < Hamiltonian._EPS:
+                    return str(int(re_int))  # e.g. '2' instead of '2.0'
+                return str(re)  # e.g. '2.5'
+
+            # 2) Purely imaginary?
+            if abs(re) < Hamiltonian._EPS:
+                im_int = np.round(im)
+                if abs(im - im_int) < Hamiltonian._EPS:
+                    return f"{int(im_int)}j"  # e.g. 2 => '2j', -3 => '-3j'
+                return f"{im}j"  # e.g. '2.5j'
+
+            # 3) General complex with nonzero real & imag
+            s = str(c)  # e.g. '(3+2j)'
+            return s
+
+        # We want to place the single identity term (I(0),) at the front if it exists
+        items = list(self.elements.items())
+        try:
+            i = next(idx for idx, (key, _) in enumerate(items) if len(key) == 1 and key[0] == (PauliI(0)))
+            item = items.pop(i)
+            items.insert(0, item)
+        except StopIteration:
+            pass
+
+        parts = []
+        for idx, (operator, coeff) in enumerate(items):
+            base_str = _format_coeff(coeff)
+
+            if idx == 0:
+                # first term
+                if len(operator) == 1 and operator[0].name == "I":
+                    coeff_str = base_str
+                elif base_str == "1":
+                    coeff_str = ""
+                elif base_str == "-1":
+                    coeff_str = "-"
+                else:
+                    coeff_str = base_str
+            elif base_str == "1":
+                coeff_str = "+"
+            elif base_str == "-1":
+                coeff_str = "-"
+            elif base_str.startswith("-"):
+                coeff_str = f"- {base_str[1:]}"
+            else:
+                coeff_str = f"+ {base_str}"
+
+            # Operators string
+            ops_str = " ".join(str(op) for op in operator if op.name != "I")
+            if coeff_str and ops_str:
+                parts.append(f"{coeff_str} {ops_str}")
+            else:
+                parts.append(coeff_str + ops_str)
+
+        return " ".join(parts)
+
+    def get_commuting_partitions(self) -> list[dict[tuple[PauliOperator, ...], complex | Term | Parameter]]:
+        """
+        Split the Hamiltonian into a list of partitions, each containing commuting terms.
+
+        For now this is a greedy algorithm, but a smarter graph-coloring approach could be used later.
+
+        Returns:
+            list[dict[tuple[PauliOperator, ...], complex | Term | Parameter]]:
+                A list of dictionaries, each representing a partition of the Hamiltonian containing commuting terms.
+        """
+        partitions: list[dict[tuple[PauliOperator, ...], complex | Term | Parameter]] = []
+
+        # Check each term with each partition
+        for term, coeff in self.elements.items():
+            placed = False
+            for partition in partitions:
+                # Check if the term commutes with all terms in the current partition
+                if all(
+                    Hamiltonian({term: 1}).commutator(Hamiltonian({other_term: 1})) == 0 for other_term in partition
+                ):
+                    # If so, add it to this partition
+                    partition[term] = coeff
+                    placed = True
+                    break
+
+            # Otherwise create a new partition for this term
+            if not placed:
+                partitions.append({term: coeff})
+
+        return partitions
+
+    @classmethod
+    def from_qtensor(cls, tensor: QTensor, tol: float | None = None, prune: float | None = None) -> Hamiltonian:
+        """
+        Expand a qtensor (dense operator) on n qubits into a sum of Pauli strings,
+        returning a qilisdk.analog.Hamiltonian.
+
+        Args:
+            tol (float): Hermiticity check tolerance. Defaults to global zero tolerance setting.
+            prune (float): Drop coefficients whose absolute value satisfies ``abs(c) < prune`` to reduce numerical noise. Defaults to global zero tolerance setting.
+
+        Returns:
+            Hamiltonian: Sum_{P in {I,X,Y,Z}^{⊗ n}} c_P * P  with c_P = Tr(qt * P) / 2^n
+
+        Raises
+            ValueError: If the input is not square, not a power-of-two dimension, or not Hermitian w.r.t. `tol`.
+        """
+        if tol is None:
+            tol = get_settings().atol
+        if prune is None:
+            prune = get_settings().atol
+
+        A = np.asarray(tensor.dense())
+
+        dim = tensor.shape[0]
+        n = round(np.log2(dim))
+        if 2**n != dim:
+            raise ValueError(f"Matrix dimension {dim} is not a power of two.")
+        if not tensor.is_hermitian():
+            raise ValueError("Matrix is not Hermitian within tolerance; cannot form a Hamiltonian.")
+
+        # QiliSDK Pauli constructors indexed by qubit id
+        pauli_for: dict[int, Callable[[int], Hamiltonian]] = {0: I, 1: X, 2: Y, 3: Z}
+
+        # Normalization from orthonormality: Tr(P_a P_b) = 2^n δ_ab
+        norm = 1.0 / (2**n)
+
+        # Prebuild per-qubit operator “letters” so we can construct full strings quickly
+
+        H = Hamiltonian()  # start additive Hamiltonian expression
+        # Full Pauli basis (includes identity on any subset automatically)
+        for word in product((0, 1, 2, 3), repeat=n):
+            # Compose the word into a QiliSDK operator acting on the proper qubits
+            # Example word=(3,1,0) for n=3 -> Z(0)*X(1)*I(2)
+            op = Hamiltonian()
+            for q, letter in enumerate(word):
+                # multiply by the operator on qubit q
+                op = op * pauli_for[letter](q) if op != 0 else pauli_for[letter](q)
+
+            # Convert to dense once; no padding needed because it spans all n qubits
+            P_dense = op.to_qtensor(n).dense()
+
+            # Coefficient c_P = Tr(A P) / 2^n  (P is Hermitian)
+            c = norm * np.trace(A @ P_dense)
+
+            # Numerical safety: coefficients should be real for Hermitian A and P
+            if abs(c.imag) < tol:
+                c = c.real
+
+            if abs(c) > prune:
+                H += c * op
+
+        # Optional: verify round-trip (use a slightly looser atol to tolerate pruning)
+        if not np.allclose(H.to_qtensor(n).dense(), A, atol=max(10 * prune, 1e-9)):
+            # If this triggers, consider lowering `prune` or raising `tol`.
+            raise ValueError("Pauli expansion failed round-trip check; try adjusting tolerances.")
+
+        return H
+
+    @classmethod
+    def parse(cls, hamiltonian_str: str) -> Hamiltonian:
+        hamiltonian_str = hamiltonian_str.strip()
+
+        # 1) remove *all* spaces inside any ( … ) group (coefficients or indices)
+        hamiltonian_str = re.sub(
+            r"\(\s*([0-9A-Za-z.+\-j\s]+?)\s*\)",
+            lambda m: "(" + re.sub(r"\s+", "", str(m.group(1))) + ")",
+            hamiltonian_str,
+        )
+
+        # 2) collapse multiple spaces down to one (outside the parens now)
+        hamiltonian_str = re.sub(r"\s+", " ", hamiltonian_str)
+
+        # 3) ensure a single space between a closing “)” and the next operator token like X(0)/Y(1)/etc.
+        hamiltonian_str = re.sub(r"\)\s*(?=[XYZI]\()", ") ", hamiltonian_str)
+
+        # Special case: "0" => empty Hamiltonian
+        if hamiltonian_str == "0":
+            return cls({})
+
+        elements: dict[tuple[PauliOperator, ...], complex | Term | Parameter] = defaultdict(
+            complex
+        )  # TODO (ameer): the parsing doesn't support Term and Parameters
+
+        # If there's no initial +/- sign, prepend '+ ' for easier splitting
+        if not hamiltonian_str.startswith("+") and not hamiltonian_str.startswith("-"):
+            hamiltonian_str = "+ " + hamiltonian_str
+
+        # Replace " - " with " + - " so each term is split on " + "
+        hamiltonian_str = hamiltonian_str.replace(" - ", " + - ")
+
+        # Split on " + "
+        tokens = hamiltonian_str.split(" + ")
+        # Remove any empty tokens (can happen if the string started "+ ")
+        tokens = [t.strip() for t in tokens if t.strip()]
+
+        # Regex to match operator tokens like "Z(0)", "X(1)", "I(0)"
+        operator_pattern = re.compile(r"([XYZI])\((\d+)\)")
+
+        def parse_token(token: str) -> tuple[complex, list[PauliOperator]]:
+            def looks_like_number(text: str) -> bool:
+                # Make sure it's not empty
+                if text:
+                    # If the first char is digit, '(', '.', '+', '-', or '0',
+                    # or if 'j' is present, assume it's numeric
+                    first = text[0]
+                    if first.isdigit() or first in {"(", ".", "+", "-"}:
+                        return True
+                return "j" in text
+
+            sign = 1
+            # Check leading sign
+            if token.startswith("-"):
+                sign = -1
+                token = token[1:].strip()
+            elif token.startswith("+"):
+                # optional leading '+'
+                token = token[1:].strip()
+
+            words = token.split()
+            if not words:
+                # e.g. just "-" or "+"
+                # means coefficient = ±1, no operators
+                return complex(sign), []
+
+            # Attempt to parse the first word as a numeric coefficient
+            maybe_coeff = words[0]
+            # Decide if 'maybe_coeff' is numeric or an operator
+            if looks_like_number(maybe_coeff):
+                # parse as a complex number
+                coeff_str = maybe_coeff
+                # If it's e.g. '(2.5+3j)', remove parentheses
+                if coeff_str.startswith("(") and coeff_str.endswith(")"):
+                    coeff_str = coeff_str[1:-1]
+                coeff_val = complex(coeff_str) * sign
+                words = words[1:]  # consume this word
+            else:
+                # No explicit coefficient => ±1
+                coeff_val = complex(sign)
+
+            # Now parse the remaining words as operators
+            ops = []
+            for w in words:
+                match = operator_pattern.fullmatch(w)
+                if not match:
+                    raise ValueError(f"Unrecognized operator format: '{w}'")
+                name, qubit_str = match.groups()
+                qubit = int(qubit_str)
+                op = _get_pauli(name, qubit)
+                ops.append(op)
+
+            return coeff_val, ops
+
+        for token in tokens:
+            coeff, op_list = parse_token(token)
+            if not op_list:
+                # purely scalar => store as (I(0),)
+                elements[PauliI(0),] += coeff
+            else:
+                # Sort operators by qubit for canonical ordering
+                op_list.sort(key=lambda op: op.qubit)
+                elements[tuple(op_list)] += coeff
+
+        hamiltonian = cls(elements)
+        hamiltonian.simplify()
+        return hamiltonian
+
+    def commutator(self, h: Hamiltonian) -> Hamiltonian:
+        """compute the commutator of the current hamiltonian with another hamiltonian (h)
+
+        Args:
+            h (Hamiltonian): the second hamiltonian.
+
+        Returns:
+            Hamiltonian: the commutator.
+        """
+        return self * h - h * self
+
+    def anticommutator(self, h: Hamiltonian) -> Hamiltonian:
+        """compute the anticommutator of the current hamiltonian with another hamiltonian (h)
+
+        Args:
+            h (Hamiltonian): the second hamiltonian.
+
+        Returns:
+            Hamiltonian: the anticommutator.
+        """
+        return self * h + h * self
+
+    def vector_norm(self) -> float:
+        """
+        Returns:
+            float: the vector norm of the hamiltonian.
+        """
+        s = 0
+        for coeff, _ in self:
+            s += np.conj(coeff) * coeff
+        return np.real(np.sqrt(s))
+
+    def frobenius_norm(self) -> float:
+        """
+        Returns:
+            float: the forbenius norm of the hamiltonian.
+        """
+        n = self.nqubits
+        s = 0
+        for coeff, _ in self:
+            s += np.conj(coeff) * coeff
+        return np.real(np.sqrt(s) * np.sqrt(2**n))
+
+    def trace(self) -> Number:
+        """
+        Returns:
+            float: the trace of the hamiltonian.
+        """
+        n = self.nqubits
+        d = 2**n
+        t = self._elements.get((PauliI(0),), 0)
+        if isinstance(t, Parameter):
+            return t.evaluate() * d
+        if isinstance(t, Term):
+            return t.evaluate({}) * d
+        return t * d
+
+    # ------- Internal multiplication helpers --------
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _multiply_sets(
+        set1: tuple[PauliOperator, ...], set2: tuple[PauliOperator, ...]
+    ) -> tuple[complex, tuple[PauliOperator, ...]]:
+        # Combine all operators into a single list
+        combined = list(set1) + list(set2)
+
+        # Group by qubit
+        combined.sort(key=lambda op: op.qubit)
+        sum_dict: dict[int, list[PauliOperator]] = defaultdict(list)
+        for op in combined:
+            sum_dict[op.qubit].append(op)
+
+        accumulated_phase = complex(1)
+        final_ops: list[PauliOperator] = []
+
+        for qubit_ops in sum_dict.values():
+            op1 = qubit_ops[0]
+            phase = complex(1)
+            # Multiply together all operators on the same qubit
+            for op2 in qubit_ops[1:]:
+                aux_phase, op1 = Hamiltonian._multiply_pauli(op1, op2)
+                phase *= aux_phase
+            if op1.name != "I":
+                final_ops.append(op1)
+            accumulated_phase *= phase
+
+        # If everything simplified to identity, we store I(0)
+        if not final_ops:
+            final_ops = [PauliI(0)]
+
+        # Sort again by qubit (to keep canonical form)
+        final_ops.sort(key=lambda op: op.qubit)
+        return accumulated_phase, tuple(final_ops)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _multiply_pauli(op1: PauliOperator, op2: PauliOperator) -> tuple[complex, PauliOperator]:
+        if op1.qubit != op2.qubit:
+            raise ValueError("Operators must act on the same qubit for multiplication.")
+
+        # If either is identity, no phase
+        if op1.name == "I":
+            return (1, op2)
+        if op2.name == "I":
+            return (1, op1)
+
+        # Look up the product in the table
+        key = (op1.name, op2.name)
+        result = Hamiltonian._PAULI_PRODUCT_TABLE.get(key)
+        if result is None:
+            raise InvalidHamiltonianOperation(f"Multiplying {op1} and {op2} not supported.")
+        phase, op_cls = result
+
+        # By convention, an I operator is always I(0) in this code
+        if op_cls is PauliI:
+            return phase, PauliI(0)
+        # Otherwise, keep the same qubit
+        return phase, op_cls(op1.qubit)
+
+    # ------- Public arithmetic operators --------
+
+    def __add__(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian | Term | Parameter) -> Hamiltonian:
+        out = copy.copy(self)
+        if isinstance(other, Term) and not other.is_parameterized_term():
+            raise ValueError(_GENERIC_VARIABLE_IN_TERM_MESSAGE)
+        out._add_inplace(other)
+        return out.simplify()
+
+    def __radd__(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian | Term | Parameter) -> Hamiltonian:
+        if isinstance(other, Term) and not other.is_parameterized_term():
+            raise ValueError(_GENERIC_VARIABLE_IN_TERM_MESSAGE)
+        return self.__add__(other)
+
+    def __sub__(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian | Term | Parameter) -> Hamiltonian:
+        if isinstance(other, Term) and not other.is_parameterized_term():
+            raise ValueError(_GENERIC_VARIABLE_IN_TERM_MESSAGE)
+        out = copy.copy(self)
+        out._sub_inplace(other)
+        return out.simplify()
+
+    def __rsub__(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian | Term | Parameter) -> Hamiltonian:
+        # (other - self)
+        if isinstance(other, Term) and not other.is_parameterized_term():
+            raise ValueError(_GENERIC_VARIABLE_IN_TERM_MESSAGE)
+        out = copy.copy(other if isinstance(other, Hamiltonian) else Hamiltonian() + other)
+        out._sub_inplace(self)
+        return out.simplify()
+
+    def __neg__(self) -> Hamiltonian:
+        return -1 * self
+
+    def __mul__(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian | Term | Parameter) -> Hamiltonian:
+        if isinstance(other, Term) and not other.is_parameterized_term():
+            raise ValueError(_GENERIC_VARIABLE_IN_TERM_MESSAGE)
+        out = copy.copy(self)
+        out._mul_inplace(other)
+        return out.simplify()
+
+    def __rmul__(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian | Term | Parameter) -> Hamiltonian:
+        if isinstance(other, Term) and not other.is_parameterized_term():
+            raise ValueError(_GENERIC_VARIABLE_IN_TERM_MESSAGE)
+        if isinstance(other, Hamiltonian):
+            out = copy.copy(other)
+            out._mul_inplace(self)
+            return out.simplify()
+        return self.__mul__(other)
+
+    def __truediv__(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian) -> Hamiltonian:
+        out = copy.copy(self)
+        out._div_inplace(other)
+        return out.simplify()
+
+    def __rtruediv__(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian) -> Hamiltonian:
+        # (other / self)
+        raise InvalidHamiltonianOperation(_DIVISION_BY_OPERATORS_MESSAGE)
+
+    __iadd__ = __add__
+    __isub__ = __sub__
+    __imul__ = __mul__
+    __itruediv__ = __truediv__
+
+    def _add_inplace(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian | Term | Parameter) -> None:
+        if isinstance(other, Hamiltonian):
+            # If it's empty, do nothing
+            if not other.elements:
+                return
+            # Otherwise, add each term
+            for key, val in other._elements.items():  # noqa: SLF001
+                self._elements[key] += val
+
+            self._parameters.update(other.parameters)
+        elif isinstance(other, PauliOperator):
+            # Just add 1 to that single operator key
+            self._elements[other,] += 1
+        elif isinstance(other, (int, float, complex)):
+            if abs(other) < get_settings().atol:
+                return
+            # Add the scalar to (I(0),)
+            self._elements[PauliI(0),] += other
+        elif isinstance(other, (Term, Parameter)):
+            if isinstance(other, Term):
+                if not other.is_parameterized_term():
+                    raise ValueError(_GENERIC_VARIABLE_IN_HAMILTONIAN_MESSAGE)
+                self._parameters.update({v.label: v for v in other if isinstance(v, Parameter)})
+            else:
+                self._parameters[other.label] = other
+            self._elements[PauliI(0),] += other
+        else:
+            raise InvalidHamiltonianOperation(f"Invalid addition between Hamiltonian and {other.__class__.__name__}.")
+
+    def _sub_inplace(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian | Term | Parameter) -> None:
+        if isinstance(other, Hamiltonian):
+            for key, val in other._elements.items():  # noqa: SLF001
+                self._elements[key] -= val
+            self._parameters.update(other._parameters)  # noqa: SLF001
+        elif isinstance(other, PauliOperator):
+            self._elements[other,] -= 1
+        elif isinstance(other, (int, float, complex)):
+            if abs(other) < get_settings().atol:
+                return
+            self._elements[PauliI(0),] -= other
+        elif isinstance(other, (Term, Parameter)):
+            if isinstance(other, Term):
+                if not other.is_parameterized_term():
+                    raise ValueError(_GENERIC_VARIABLE_IN_HAMILTONIAN_MESSAGE)
+                self._parameters.update({v.label: v for v in other if isinstance(v, Parameter)})
+            else:
+                self._parameters[other.label] = other
+            self._elements[PauliI(0),] -= other
+        else:
+            raise InvalidHamiltonianOperation(
+                f"Invalid subtraction between Hamiltonian and {other.__class__.__name__}."
+            )
+
+    def _mul_inplace(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian | Term | Parameter) -> None:
+        if isinstance(other, (int, float, complex)):
+            # 0 short-circuit
+            if abs(other) < get_settings().atol:
+                # everything becomes 0
+                self._elements.clear()
+                return None
+            # 1 short-circuit
+            if other == 1:
+                return None
+            # scale all coefficients
+            for k in self._elements:
+                self._elements[k] *= other
+            return None
+
+        if isinstance(other, (Term, Parameter)):
+            if isinstance(other, Term):
+                if not other.is_parameterized_term():
+                    raise ValueError(_GENERIC_VARIABLE_IN_HAMILTONIAN_MESSAGE)
+                self._parameters.update({v.label: v for v in other if isinstance(v, Parameter)})
+            else:
+                self._parameters[other.label] = other
+            for k in self._elements:
+                self._elements[k] *= other
+            return None
+
+        if isinstance(other, PauliOperator):
+            # Convert single PauliOperator -> Hamiltonian with 1 key
+            # Then do the single-key Hamiltonian path below
+            other = other.to_hamiltonian()
+
+        if isinstance(other, Hamiltonian):
+            if not other.elements:
+                # Multiply by "0" Hamiltonian => 0
+                self._elements.clear()
+                return None
+
+            # Check if 'other' is purely scalar identity => short-circuit
+            if len(other.elements) == 1:
+                ((ops2, c2),) = other._elements.items()  # single item  # noqa: SLF001
+                if len(ops2) == 1:
+                    op2 = ops2[0]
+                    if op2.name == "I" and op2.qubit == 0:
+                        # effectively scalar c2
+                        return self._mul_inplace(c2)
+
+            # Otherwise, we do the general multiply
+            new_dict: dict[tuple[PauliOperator, ...], complex | Term | Parameter] = defaultdict(complex)
+            for ops1, c1 in self._elements.items():
+                for ops2, c2 in other._elements.items():  # noqa: SLF001
+                    phase, new_ops = self._multiply_sets(ops1, ops2)
+                    new_dict[new_ops] += phase * c1 * c2
+            self._elements = new_dict
+            self._parameters.update(other._parameters)  # noqa: SLF001
+
+        else:
+            raise InvalidHamiltonianOperation(
+                f"Invalid multiplication between Hamiltonian and {other.__class__.__name__}."
+            )
+        return None
+
+    def _div_inplace(self, other: Number | PauliOperator | Hamiltonian) -> None:
+        # Only valid for scalars
+        if not isinstance(other, (int, float, complex)):
+            raise InvalidHamiltonianOperation(_DIVISION_BY_OPERATORS_MESSAGE)
+        if abs(other) < get_settings().atol:
+            raise ZeroDivisionError("Cannot divide by zero.")
+        self._mul_inplace(1 / other)