qilisdk 0.1.8__cp312-cp312-macosx_10_9_x86_64.whl

qilisdk/backends/cuda_backend.py

@@ -0,0 +1,752 @@
+# Copyright 2025 Qilimanjaro Quantum Tech
+#
+# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+# You may obtain a copy of the License at
+#
+#     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+#
+# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+# limitations under the License.
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+from enum import Enum
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Callable, Type, TypeVar
+
+import cudaq
+import numpy as np
+from cudaq import ElementaryOperator, OperatorSum, ScalarOperator, SpinOperatorTerm, State, evolve, operators, spin
+from cudaq import Schedule as CudaSchedule
+from loguru import logger
+
+from qilisdk.analog.hamiltonian import Hamiltonian, PauliI, PauliOperator, PauliX, PauliY, PauliZ
+from qilisdk.backends.backend import Backend
+from qilisdk.core.qtensor import QTensor
+from qilisdk.digital.circuit_transpiler_passes import DecomposeMultiControlledGatesPass
+from qilisdk.digital.exceptions import UnsupportedGateError
+from qilisdk.digital.gates import (
+    RX,
+    RY,
+    RZ,
+    SWAP,
+    U1,
+    U2,
+    U3,
+    Adjoint,
+    BasicGate,
+    Controlled,
+    Gate,
+    H,
+    I,
+    M,
+    S,
+    T,
+    X,
+    Y,
+    Z,
+)
+from qilisdk.functionals.sampling_result import SamplingResult
+from qilisdk.functionals.time_evolution_result import TimeEvolutionResult
+from qilisdk.noise import (
+    BitFlip,
+    Depolarizing,
+    LindbladGenerator,
+    Noise,
+    NoiseConfig,
+    PhaseFlip,
+    ReadoutAssignment,
+    SupportsStaticKraus,
+    SupportsStaticLindblad,
+    SupportsTimeDerivedKraus,
+    SupportsTimeDerivedLindblad,
+)
+from qilisdk.settings import Precision, get_settings
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from qilisdk.analog.schedule import Schedule
+    from qilisdk.digital.circuit import Circuit
+    from qilisdk.functionals.sampling import Sampling
+    from qilisdk.functionals.time_evolution import TimeEvolution
+    from qilisdk.noise import NoiseModel
+
+
+def _complex_dtype() -> np.dtype:
+    return get_settings().complex_precision.dtype
+
+
+TBasicGate = TypeVar("TBasicGate", bound=BasicGate)
+BasicGateHandlersMapping = dict[Type[TBasicGate], Callable[[cudaq.Kernel, TBasicGate, cudaq.QuakeValue], None]]
+
+TPauliOperator = TypeVar("TPauliOperator", bound=PauliOperator)
+PauliOperatorHandlersMapping = dict[Type[TPauliOperator], Callable[[TPauliOperator], ElementaryOperator]]
+
+
+def _to_cuda_noise(noise: Noise, gate_duration: float) -> cudaq.KrausChannel | None:
+    if isinstance(noise, BitFlip):
+        return cudaq.BitFlipChannel(noise.probability)
+    if isinstance(noise, PhaseFlip):
+        return cudaq.PhaseFlipChannel(noise.probability)
+    if isinstance(noise, Depolarizing):
+        return cudaq.DepolarizationChannel(noise.probability)
+    if isinstance(noise, SupportsTimeDerivedKraus):
+        kraus_channel = noise.as_kraus_from_duration(duration=gate_duration)
+        kraus_operators_np = [np.array(operator.dense(), dtype=np.complex128) for operator in kraus_channel.operators]
+        return cudaq.KrausChannel(kraus_operators_np)
+    if isinstance(noise, SupportsStaticKraus):
+        kraus_channel = noise.as_kraus()
+        kraus_operators_np = [np.array(operator.dense(), dtype=np.complex128) for operator in kraus_channel.operators]
+        return cudaq.KrausChannel(kraus_operators_np)
+    return None
+
+
+class CudaSamplingMethod(str, Enum):
+    """
+    Enumeration of available simulation methods for the CUDA backend.
+    """
+
+    STATE_VECTOR = "state_vector"
+    TENSOR_NETWORK = "tensor_network"
+    MATRIX_PRODUCT_STATE = "matrix_product_state"
+
+
+class CudaBackend(Backend):
+    """
+    Backend implementation using CUDA-based simulation.
+
+    This backend translates a quantum circuit into a CUDA-compatible kernel and executes it
+    using the cudaq library. It supports different simulation methods including state vector,
+    tensor network, and matrix product state simulations. Gate operations in the circuit are
+    mapped to CUDA operations via dedicated handler functions.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        sampling_method: CudaSamplingMethod = CudaSamplingMethod.STATE_VECTOR,
+        noise_model: NoiseModel | None = None,
+    ) -> None:
+        """
+        Initialize the CudaBackend.
+
+        Args:
+            sampling_method (CudaSamplingMethod, optional): The simulation method to use for sampling circuits.
+                Options include STATE_VECTOR, TENSOR_NETWORK, or MATRIX_PRODUCT_STATE.
+                Defaults to STATE_VECTOR.
+        """
+        super().__init__()
+        cudaq.register_operation("i", np.array([1, 0, 0, 1], dtype=_complex_dtype()))
+        self._basic_gate_handlers: BasicGateHandlersMapping = {
+            I: CudaBackend._handle_I,
+            X: CudaBackend._handle_X,
+            Y: CudaBackend._handle_Y,
+            Z: CudaBackend._handle_Z,
+            H: CudaBackend._handle_H,
+            S: CudaBackend._handle_S,
+            T: CudaBackend._handle_T,
+            RX: CudaBackend._handle_RX,
+            RY: CudaBackend._handle_RY,
+            RZ: CudaBackend._handle_RZ,
+            U1: CudaBackend._handle_U1,
+            U2: CudaBackend._handle_U2,
+            U3: CudaBackend._handle_U3,
+            SWAP: CudaBackend._handle_SWAP,
+        }
+        self._pauli_operator_handlers: PauliOperatorHandlersMapping = {
+            PauliX: CudaBackend._handle_PauliX,
+            PauliY: CudaBackend._handle_PauliY,
+            PauliZ: CudaBackend._handle_PauliZ,
+            PauliI: CudaBackend._handle_PauliI,
+        }
+        self._sampling_method = sampling_method
+        self._noise_model = noise_model
+        logger.success("CudaBackend initialised (sampling_method={})", sampling_method.value)
+
+    @property
+    def sampling_method(self) -> CudaSamplingMethod:
+        """
+        Get the simulation method currently configured for the backend.
+
+        Returns:
+            SimulationMethod: The simulation method to be used for circuit execution.
+        """
+        return self._sampling_method
+
+    def _apply_digital_simulation_method(self) -> None:
+        """
+        Configure the cudaq simulation target based on the selected simulation method.
+
+        For the STATE_VECTOR method, it checks for GPU availability and selects an appropriate target.
+        For TENSOR_NETWORK and MATRIX_PRODUCT_STATE methods, it explicitly sets the target to use tensor network-based simulations.
+        """
+        logger.info("Applying sampling simulation method {}", self.sampling_method.value)
+        if self.sampling_method == CudaSamplingMethod.STATE_VECTOR:
+            if cudaq.num_available_gpus() == 0:
+                cudaq.set_target("qpp-cpu")
+                logger.debug("No GPU detected, using cudaq's 'qpp-cpu' backend")
+            else:
+                float_precision = "fp32" if get_settings().complex_precision == Precision.COMPLEX_64 else "fp64"
+                cudaq.set_target("nvidia", option=float_precision)
+                logger.debug("GPU detected, using cudaq's 'nvidia' backend")
+        elif self.sampling_method == CudaSamplingMethod.TENSOR_NETWORK:
+            cudaq.set_target("tensornet")
+            logger.debug("Using cudaq's 'tensornet' backend")
+        else:
+            cudaq.set_target("tensornet-mps")
+            logger.debug("Using cudaq's 'tensornet-mps' backend")
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_readout_errors(cudaq_result: dict[str, int], noise_model: NoiseModel, nqubits: int) -> dict[str, int]:
+        # Determine which qubits have readout assignment errors
+        readout_error_per_qubits = [(0.0, 0.0) for _ in range(nqubits)]
+        has_readout_error = False
+        for noise in noise_model.global_noise:
+            if isinstance(noise, ReadoutAssignment):
+                for qubit in range(nqubits):
+                    readout_error_per_qubits[qubit] = (noise.p01, noise.p10)
+                    has_readout_error = True
+        for qubit, noises in noise_model.per_qubit_noise.items():
+            for noise in noises:
+                if isinstance(noise, ReadoutAssignment):
+                    readout_error_per_qubits[qubit] = (noise.p01, noise.p10)
+                    has_readout_error = True
+
+        if not has_readout_error:
+            return cudaq_result
+
+        # numpy generator
+        gen = np.random.default_rng(42)
+
+        # First split into individual shots
+        shots = []
+        for bitstring, count in cudaq_result.items():
+            shots.extend([bitstring] * count)
+
+        # Convert each shot according to the readout error probabilities
+        adjusted_counts: dict[str, int] = {}
+        for shot in shots:
+            adjusted_shot = list(shot)
+            for qubit_index in range(nqubits):
+                p01, p10 = readout_error_per_qubits[qubit_index]
+                if shot[nqubits - 1 - qubit_index] == "0" and gen.random() < p01:
+                    adjusted_shot[nqubits - 1 - qubit_index] = "1"
+                elif gen.random() < p10:
+                    adjusted_shot[nqubits - 1 - qubit_index] = "0"
+            adjusted_bitstring = "".join(adjusted_shot)
+            adjusted_counts[adjusted_bitstring] = adjusted_counts.get(adjusted_bitstring, 0) + 1
+
+        # Set the new results
+        cudaq_result = adjusted_counts
+
+        return cudaq_result
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _add_global_noise(
+        noise: Noise,
+        cuda_noise_model: cudaq.NoiseModel,
+        all_cuda_gate_names: dict[Type[BasicGate] | Type[Gate], str],
+        nqubits: int,
+        noise_config: NoiseConfig,
+    ) -> None:
+        for gate, gate_name in all_cuda_gate_names.items():
+            if cuda_noise := _to_cuda_noise(noise, noise_config.get_gate_time(gate)):
+                # If it's a full size kraus channel, special treatment
+                if isinstance(noise, SupportsStaticKraus) and noise.as_kraus().operators:
+                    dim = noise.as_kraus().operators[0].dense().shape[0]
+                    if dim == 2**nqubits:
+                        cuda_noise_model.add_channel(gate_name, list(range(nqubits)), cuda_noise)
+                        continue
+
+                # Otherwise, add normally
+                cuda_noise_model.add_all_qubit_channel(gate_name, cuda_noise)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _add_per_gate_noise(
+        gate_type: Type[BasicGate] | Type[Gate],
+        noises: list[Noise],
+        cuda_noise_model: cudaq.NoiseModel,
+        all_cuda_gate_names: dict[Type[BasicGate] | Type[Gate], str],
+        noise_config: NoiseConfig,
+    ) -> None:
+        for gate, gate_name in all_cuda_gate_names.items():
+            if gate_name == gate_type.__name__.lower():
+                for noise in noises:
+                    if cuda_noise := _to_cuda_noise(noise, noise_config.get_gate_time(gate)):
+                        cuda_noise_model.add_all_qubit_channel(gate_name, cuda_noise)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _add_per_qubit_noise(
+        qubit: int,
+        noises: list[Noise],
+        cuda_noise_model: cudaq.NoiseModel,
+        all_cuda_gate_names: dict[Type[BasicGate] | Type[Gate], str],
+        noise_config: NoiseConfig,
+    ) -> None:
+        for noise in noises:
+            for gate, gate_name in all_cuda_gate_names.items():
+                if cuda_noise := _to_cuda_noise(noise, noise_config.get_gate_time(gate)):
+                    cuda_noise_model.add_channel(gate_name, [qubit], cuda_noise)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _add_per_gate_per_qubit_noise(
+        gate_type: Type[BasicGate] | Type[Gate],
+        qubit: int,
+        noises: list[Noise],
+        cuda_noise_model: cudaq.NoiseModel,
+        all_cuda_gate_names: dict[Type[BasicGate] | Type[Gate], str],
+        noise_config: NoiseConfig,
+    ) -> None:
+        for gate, gate_name in all_cuda_gate_names.items():
+            if gate_name == gate_type.__name__.lower():
+                for noise in noises:
+                    if cuda_noise := _to_cuda_noise(noise, noise_config.get_gate_time(gate)):
+                        cuda_noise_model.add_channel(gate_name, [qubit], cuda_noise)
+
+    def _noise_model_to_cudaq(self, noise_model: NoiseModel, nqubits: int) -> cudaq.NoiseModel:
+        all_cuda_gate_names = {
+            gate: gate.__name__.lower()
+            for gate in self._basic_gate_handlers
+            if gate.__name__.lower() not in {"u1", "u2", "swap"}
+        }
+        cuda_noise_model = cudaq.NoiseModel()
+
+        # Global noise
+        for noise in noise_model.global_noise:
+            self._add_global_noise(noise, cuda_noise_model, all_cuda_gate_names, nqubits, noise_model.noise_config)
+
+        # Per gate noise
+        for gate_type, noises in noise_model.per_gate_noise.items():
+            self._add_per_gate_noise(gate_type, noises, cuda_noise_model, all_cuda_gate_names, noise_model.noise_config)
+
+        # Per qubit noise
+        for qubit, noises in noise_model.per_qubit_noise.items():
+            self._add_per_qubit_noise(qubit, noises, cuda_noise_model, all_cuda_gate_names, noise_model.noise_config)
+
+        # Per gate per qubit noise
+        for (gate_type, qubit), noises in noise_model.per_gate_per_qubit_noise.items():
+            self._add_per_gate_per_qubit_noise(
+                gate_type, qubit, noises, cuda_noise_model, all_cuda_gate_names, noise_model.noise_config
+            )
+
+        return cuda_noise_model
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_gate_parameter_perturbations(circuit: Circuit, noise_model: NoiseModel) -> None:
+        circuit_parameters = circuit.get_parameters()
+        for parameter, perturbations in noise_model.global_perturbations.items():
+            parameter_name = parameter.label if not isinstance(parameter, str) else parameter
+            if parameter_name in circuit_parameters:
+                for perturbation in perturbations:
+                    circuit.set_parameters({parameter_name: perturbation.perturb(circuit_parameters[parameter_name])})
+        for (gate_type, parameter), perturbations in noise_model.per_gate_perturbations.items():
+            for gate in circuit.gates:
+                true_name_to_gate_param_name = {param: param_name for param_name, param in gate.parameters.items()}
+                if isinstance(gate, gate_type) and parameter in true_name_to_gate_param_name:
+                    gate_parameters = gate.get_parameters()
+                    gate_param_name = true_name_to_gate_param_name[parameter]
+                    for perturbation in perturbations:
+                        gate.set_parameters({gate_param_name: perturbation.perturb(gate_parameters[gate_param_name])})
+
+    def _execute_sampling(self, functional: Sampling) -> SamplingResult:
+        logger.info("Executing Sampling (shots={})", functional.nshots)
+        self._apply_digital_simulation_method()
+        kernel = cudaq.make_kernel()
+        qubits = kernel.qalloc(functional.circuit.nqubits)
+
+        # Apply parameter perturbations
+        if self._noise_model:
+            self._handle_gate_parameter_perturbations(functional.circuit, self._noise_model)
+
+        # Transpile the circuit into CUDAQ format
+        transpiled_circuit = DecomposeMultiControlledGatesPass().run(functional.circuit)
+        for gate in transpiled_circuit.gates:
+            if isinstance(gate, Controlled):
+                self._handle_controlled(kernel, gate, qubits[gate.control_qubits[0]], qubits[gate.target_qubits[0]])
+            elif isinstance(gate, Adjoint):
+                self._handle_adjoint(kernel, gate, qubits[gate.target_qubits[0]])
+            elif isinstance(gate, M):
+                self._handle_M(kernel, gate, transpiled_circuit, qubits)
+            else:
+                handler = self._basic_gate_handlers.get(type(gate), None)
+                if handler is None:
+                    raise UnsupportedGateError(f"Unsupported gate {type(gate).__name__}")
+                handler(kernel, gate, *(qubits[gate.target_qubits[i]] for i in range(len(gate.target_qubits))))
+
+        if self._noise_model:
+            cuda_noise_model = self._noise_model_to_cudaq(self._noise_model, functional.circuit.nqubits)
+            cudaq_result = cudaq.sample(kernel, shots_count=functional.nshots, noise_model=cuda_noise_model)
+            cudaq_result = self._handle_readout_errors(cudaq_result, self._noise_model, functional.circuit.nqubits)
+        else:
+            cudaq_result = cudaq.sample(kernel, shots_count=functional.nshots)
+
+        logger.success("Sampling finished; {} distinct bitstrings", len(cudaq_result))
+        return SamplingResult(nshots=functional.nshots, samples=dict(cudaq_result.items()))
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_schedule_parameter_perturbations(schedule: Schedule, noise_model: NoiseModel) -> None:
+        if noise_model.global_perturbations:
+            schedule_parameters = schedule.get_parameters()
+            for parameter, perturbations in noise_model.global_perturbations.items():
+                parameter_name = parameter.label if not isinstance(parameter, str) else parameter
+                if parameter_name in schedule_parameters:
+                    for perturbation in perturbations:
+                        schedule.set_parameters(
+                            {parameter_name: perturbation.perturb(schedule_parameters[parameter_name])}
+                        )
+
+    def _add_global_noise_dynamics(
+        self,
+        ops_numpy: list,
+        jump_operators: list[OperatorSum],
+        hamiltonian_deltas: list[OperatorSum],
+        lindblad_generator: LindbladGenerator,
+        nqubits: int,
+    ) -> None:
+        for i, operator in enumerate(lindblad_generator.jump_operators_with_rates):
+            op_id = f"jump_op_{i}"
+            ops_numpy.append(np.array(operator.dense(), dtype=np.complex128))
+            operators.define(
+                id=op_id,
+                expected_dimensions=[2 for _ in range(nqubits)],
+                create=lambda op_np=ops_numpy[-1]: op_np,
+                override=True,
+            )
+            dim = ops_numpy[-1].shape[0]
+            if dim == 2**nqubits:
+                jump_operators.append(operators.instantiate(op_id, degrees=list(range(nqubits))))
+            else:
+                for qubit in range(nqubits):
+                    jump_operators.append(operators.instantiate(op_id, degrees=qubit))
+        if lindblad_generator.hamiltonian is not None:
+            hamiltonian_deltas.append(self._hamiltonian_to_cuda(lindblad_generator.hamiltonian))
+
+    def _add_per_qubit_noise_dynamics(
+        self,
+        ops_numpy: list,
+        jump_operators: list[OperatorSum],
+        hamiltonian_deltas: list[OperatorSum],
+        lindblad_generator: LindbladGenerator,
+        qubit: int,
+    ) -> None:
+        for i, operator in enumerate(lindblad_generator.jump_operators_with_rates):
+            op_id = f"jump_op_q{qubit}_{i}"
+            ops_numpy.append(np.array(operator.dense(), dtype=np.complex128))
+            operators.define(
+                id=op_id,
+                expected_dimensions=[ops_numpy[-1].shape[0]],
+                create=lambda op_np=ops_numpy[-1]: op_np,
+                override=True,
+            )
+            jump_operators.append(operators.instantiate(op_id, degrees=qubit))
+        if lindblad_generator.hamiltonian is not None:
+            hamiltonian_deltas.append(self._hamiltonian_to_cuda(lindblad_generator.hamiltonian))
+
+    def _noise_model_to_cudaq_dynamics(
+        self, noise_model: NoiseModel, nqubits: int, dt: float
+    ) -> tuple[list[OperatorSum], list]:
+        ops_numpy: list[np.ndarray] = []
+        jump_operators: list[OperatorSum] = []
+        hamiltonian_deltas: list[OperatorSum] = []
+
+        # Global noise
+        for noise in noise_model.global_noise:
+            if isinstance(noise, SupportsStaticLindblad):
+                lindblad_generator = noise.as_lindblad()
+                self._add_global_noise_dynamics(
+                    ops_numpy, jump_operators, hamiltonian_deltas, lindblad_generator, nqubits
+                )
+            elif isinstance(noise, SupportsTimeDerivedLindblad):
+                lindblad_generator = noise.as_lindblad_from_duration(duration=dt)
+                self._add_global_noise_dynamics(
+                    ops_numpy, jump_operators, hamiltonian_deltas, lindblad_generator, nqubits
+                )
+
+        # Per qubit noise
+        for qubit, noises in noise_model.per_qubit_noise.items():
+            for noise in noises:
+                if isinstance(noise, SupportsStaticLindblad):
+                    lindblad_generator = noise.as_lindblad()
+                    self._add_per_qubit_noise_dynamics(
+                        ops_numpy, jump_operators, hamiltonian_deltas, lindblad_generator, qubit
+                    )
+                elif isinstance(noise, SupportsTimeDerivedLindblad):
+                    lindblad_generator = noise.as_lindblad_from_duration(duration=dt)
+                    self._add_per_qubit_noise_dynamics(
+                        ops_numpy, jump_operators, hamiltonian_deltas, lindblad_generator, qubit
+                    )
+
+        # Remove any constant terms from the deltas
+        hamiltonian_deltas = [CudaBackend._remove_constant_terms(delta) for delta in hamiltonian_deltas]
+
+        return jump_operators, hamiltonian_deltas
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _remove_constant_terms(operator_sum: OperatorSum) -> OperatorSum:
+        new_operator_sum = None
+        for term in operator_sum:
+            if isinstance(term, SpinOperatorTerm) and not term.is_identity():
+                if new_operator_sum is None:
+                    new_operator_sum = term
+                else:
+                    new_operator_sum += term
+        if new_operator_sum is None:
+            new_operator_sum = ScalarOperator(0.0)
+        return new_operator_sum
+
+    def _execute_time_evolution(self, functional: TimeEvolution) -> TimeEvolutionResult:
+        logger.info("Executing TimeEvolution (T={}, dt={})", functional.schedule.T, functional.schedule.dt)
+        cudaq.set_target("dynamics")
+
+        # Apply parameter perturbations
+        if self._noise_model and self._noise_model.global_perturbations:
+            self._handle_schedule_parameter_perturbations(functional.schedule, self._noise_model)
+
+        steps = functional.schedule.tlist
+
+        cuda_schedule = CudaSchedule(steps, ["t"])
+
+        def get_schedule(key: str) -> Callable[[complex], float]:
+            return lambda t: (functional.schedule.coefficients[key][t.real])
+
+        cuda_hamiltonian = sum(
+            ScalarOperator(get_schedule(key)) * self._hamiltonian_to_cuda(ham)
+            for key, ham in functional.schedule.hamiltonians.items()
+        )
+
+        logger.trace("Hamiltonian compiled for evolution")
+
+        cuda_observables = []
+        for observable in functional.observables:
+            if isinstance(observable, PauliOperator):
+                cuda_observables.append(self._pauli_operator_handlers[type(observable)](observable))
+            elif isinstance(observable, Hamiltonian):
+                cuda_observables.append(self._hamiltonian_to_cuda(observable))
+            else:
+                logger.error("Unsupported observable type {}", observable.__class__.__name__)
+                raise ValueError(f"unsupported observable type of {observable.__class__}")
+        logger.trace("Observables compiled for evolution")
+
+        # Add noise
+        jump_operators: list[OperatorSum] = []
+        hamiltonian_deltas: list[OperatorSum] = []
+        if self._noise_model:
+            jump_operators, hamiltonian_deltas = self._noise_model_to_cudaq_dynamics(
+                self._noise_model, functional.schedule.nqubits, functional.schedule.dt
+            )
+
+        # Remove any constant terms from the Hamiltonian, also add the deltas
+        cuda_hamiltonian = self._remove_constant_terms(cuda_hamiltonian)
+        for delta in hamiltonian_deltas:
+            cuda_hamiltonian += delta
+
+        evolution_result = evolve(
+            hamiltonian=cuda_hamiltonian,
+            dimensions=dict.fromkeys(range(functional.schedule.nqubits), 2),
+            schedule=cuda_schedule,
+            initial_state=State.from_data(np.array(functional.initial_state.unit().dense(), dtype=np.complex128)),
+            observables=cuda_observables,
+            collapse_operators=jump_operators,
+            store_intermediate_results=functional.store_intermediate_results,
+        )
+
+        logger.success("TimeEvolution finished")
+
+        final_expected_values = np.array(
+            [exp_val.expectation() for exp_val in evolution_result.final_expectation_values()],  # ty:ignore[possibly-missing-attribute]
+            dtype=_complex_dtype(),
+        )
+        expected_values = (
+            np.array(
+                [[val.expectation() for val in exp_vals] for exp_vals in evolution_result.expectation_values()],  # ty:ignore[possibly-missing-attribute]
+                dtype=_complex_dtype(),
+            )
+            if evolution_result.expectation_values() is not None and functional.store_intermediate_results  # ty:ignore[possibly-missing-attribute]
+            else None
+        )
+        final_state = (
+            QTensor(np.array(evolution_result.final_state(), dtype=_complex_dtype()).reshape(-1, 1))  # ty:ignore[possibly-missing-attribute]
+            if evolution_result.final_state() is not None  # ty:ignore[possibly-missing-attribute]
+            else None
+        )
+        intermediate_states = (
+            [
+                QTensor(np.array(state, dtype=_complex_dtype()).reshape(-1, 1))
+                for state in evolution_result.intermediate_states()  # ty:ignore[possibly-missing-attribute]
+            ]
+            if evolution_result.intermediate_states() is not None and functional.store_intermediate_results  # ty:ignore[possibly-missing-attribute]
+            else None
+        )
+
+        return TimeEvolutionResult(
+            final_expected_values=final_expected_values,
+            expected_values=expected_values,
+            final_state=final_state,
+            intermediate_states=intermediate_states,
+        )
+
+    def _handle_controlled(
+        self, kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: Controlled, control_qubit: cudaq.QuakeValue, target_qubit: cudaq.QuakeValue
+    ) -> None:
+        """
+        Handle a controlled gate operation.
+
+        This method processes a controlled gate by creating a temporary kernel for the basic gate,
+        applying its handler, and then integrating it into the main kernel as a controlled operation.
+
+        Args:
+            kernel (cudaq.Kernel): The main CUDA kernel being constructed.
+            gate (Controlled): The controlled gate to be handled.
+            control_qubit (cudaq.QuakeValue): The control qubit for the gate.
+            target_qubit (cudaq.QuakeValue): The target qubit for the gate.
+
+        Raises:
+            UnsupportedGateError: If the number of control qubits is not equal to one or if the basic gate is unsupported.
+        """
+        if len(gate.control_qubits) != 1:
+            logger.error("Controlled gate with {} control qubits not supported", len(gate.control_qubits))
+            raise UnsupportedGateError
+        target_kernel, qubit = cudaq.make_kernel(cudaq.qubit)
+        handler = self._basic_gate_handlers.get(type(gate.basic_gate), None)
+        if handler is None:
+            logger.error("Unsupported gate inside Controlled: {}", type(gate.basic_gate).__name__)
+            raise UnsupportedGateError
+        handler(target_kernel, gate.basic_gate, qubit)
+        kernel.control(target_kernel, control_qubit, target_qubit)
+
+    def _handle_adjoint(self, kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: Adjoint, target_qubit: cudaq.QuakeValue) -> None:
+        """
+        Handle an adjoint (inverse) gate operation.
+
+        This method creates a temporary kernel for the basic gate wrapped by the adjoint,
+        applies the corresponding handler, and then integrates it into the main kernel as an adjoint operation.
+
+        Args:
+            kernel (cudaq.Kernel): The main CUDA kernel being constructed.
+            gate (Adjoint): The adjoint gate to be handled.
+            target_qubit (cudaq.QuakeValue): The target qubit for the gate.
+
+        Raises:
+            UnsupportedGateError: If the basic gate inside the adjoint is unsupported.
+        """
+        target_kernel, qubit = cudaq.make_kernel(cudaq.qubit)
+        handler = self._basic_gate_handlers.get(type(gate.basic_gate), None)
+        if handler is None:
+            logger.error("Unsupported gate inside Adjoint: {}", type(gate.basic_gate).__name__)
+            raise UnsupportedGateError
+        handler(target_kernel, gate.basic_gate, qubit)
+        kernel.adjoint(target_kernel, target_qubit)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_M(kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: M, circuit: Circuit, qubits: cudaq.QuakeValue) -> None:
+        """
+        Handle a measurement gate.
+
+        Depending on whether the measurement targets all qubits or a subset,
+        this method applies measurement operations accordingly.
+
+        Args:
+            kernel (cudaq.Kernel): The CUDA kernel being constructed.
+            gate (M): The measurement gate.
+            circuit (Circuit): The circuit containing the measurement gate.
+            qubits (cudaq.QuakeValue): The allocated qubits for the circuit.
+        """
+        if gate.nqubits == circuit.nqubits:
+            kernel.mz(qubits)
+        else:
+            for idx in gate.target_qubits:
+                kernel.mz(qubits[idx])
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_I(kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: I, qubit: cudaq.QuakeValue) -> None:
+        """Handle an X gate operation."""
+        kernel.i(qubit)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_X(kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: X, qubit: cudaq.QuakeValue) -> None:
+        """Handle an X gate operation."""
+        kernel.x(qubit)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_Y(kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: Y, qubit: cudaq.QuakeValue) -> None:
+        """Handle an Y gate operation."""
+        kernel.y(qubit)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_Z(kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: Z, qubit: cudaq.QuakeValue) -> None:
+        """Handle an Z gate operation."""
+        kernel.z(qubit)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_H(kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: H, qubit: cudaq.QuakeValue) -> None:
+        """Handle an H gate operation."""
+        kernel.h(qubit)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_S(kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: S, qubit: cudaq.QuakeValue) -> None:
+        """Handle an S gate operation."""
+        kernel.s(qubit)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_T(kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: T, qubit: cudaq.QuakeValue) -> None:
+        """Handle an T gate operation."""
+        kernel.t(qubit)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_RX(kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: RX, qubit: cudaq.QuakeValue) -> None:
+        """Handle an RX gate operation."""
+        kernel.rx(*[float(param) for param in gate.get_parameter_values()], qubit)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_RY(kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: RY, qubit: cudaq.QuakeValue) -> None:
+        """Handle an RY gate operation."""
+        kernel.ry(*[float(param) for param in gate.get_parameter_values()], qubit)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_RZ(kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: RZ, qubit: cudaq.QuakeValue) -> None:
+        """Handle an RZ gate operation."""
+        kernel.rz(*[float(param) for param in gate.get_parameter_values()], qubit)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_U1(kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: U1, qubit: cudaq.QuakeValue) -> None:
+        """Handle an U1 gate operation."""
+        kernel.u3(theta=0.0, phi=float(gate.phi), delta=0.0, target=qubit)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_U2(kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: U2, qubit: cudaq.QuakeValue) -> None:
+        """Handle an U2 gate operation."""
+        kernel.u3(theta=np.pi / 2, phi=float(gate.phi), delta=float(gate.gamma), target=qubit)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_U3(kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: U3, qubit: cudaq.QuakeValue) -> None:
+        """Handle an U3 gate operation."""
+        kernel.u3(theta=float(gate.theta), phi=float(gate.phi), delta=float(gate.gamma), target=qubit)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_SWAP(kernel: cudaq.Kernel, gate: SWAP, qubit_0: cudaq.QuakeValue, qubit_1: cudaq.QuakeValue) -> None:
+        kernel.swap(qubit_0, qubit_1)
+
+    def _hamiltonian_to_cuda(self, hamiltonian: Hamiltonian) -> OperatorSum:
+        out = None
+        for offset, terms in hamiltonian:
+            if out is None:
+                out = offset * np.prod([self._pauli_operator_handlers[type(pauli)](pauli) for pauli in terms])
+            else:
+                out += offset * np.prod([self._pauli_operator_handlers[type(pauli)](pauli) for pauli in terms])
+        return out
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_PauliX(operator: PauliX) -> ElementaryOperator:
+        return spin.x(target=operator.qubit)  # ty:ignore[unresolved-attribute]
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_PauliY(operator: PauliY) -> ElementaryOperator:
+        return spin.y(target=operator.qubit)  # ty:ignore[unresolved-attribute]
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_PauliZ(operator: PauliZ) -> ElementaryOperator:
+        return spin.z(target=operator.qubit)  # ty:ignore[unresolved-attribute]
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _handle_PauliI(operator: PauliI) -> ElementaryOperator:
+        return spin.i(target=operator.qubit)  # ty:ignore[unresolved-attribute]