pycontrails 0.54.2__cp313-cp313-macosx_11_0_arm64.whl → 0.54.4__cp313-cp313-macosx_11_0_arm64.whl

pycontrails/models/ps_model/ps_aircraft_params.py

@@ -11,7 +11,9 @@ from typing import Any
 import numpy as np
 import pandas as pd
 
+from pycontrails.core.aircraft_performance import AircraftPerformanceParams
 from pycontrails.physics import constants as c
+from pycontrails.utils.types import ArrayOrFloat
 
 #: Path to the Poll-Schumann aircraft parameters CSV file.
 PS_FILE_PATH = pathlib.Path(__file__).parent / "static" / "ps-aircraft-params-20240524.csv"
@@ -193,7 +195,7 @@ def _row_to_aircraft_engine_params(tup: Any) -> tuple[str, PSAircraftEngineParam
 
 @functools.cache
 def load_aircraft_engine_params(
-    engine_deterioration_factor: float = 0.025,
+    engine_deterioration_factor: float = AircraftPerformanceParams.engine_deterioration_factor,
 ) -> Mapping[str, PSAircraftEngineParams]:
     """
     Extract aircraft-engine parameters for each aircraft type supported by the PS model.
@@ -254,23 +256,23 @@ def load_aircraft_engine_params(
     }
 
     df = pd.read_csv(PS_FILE_PATH, dtype=dtypes)
-    df["eta_1"] = df["eta_1"] * (1.0 - engine_deterioration_factor)
+    df["eta_1"] *= 1.0 - engine_deterioration_factor
 
     return dict(_row_to_aircraft_engine_params(tup) for tup in df.itertuples(index=False))
 
 
-def turbine_entry_temperature_at_max_take_off(first_flight: float) -> float:
+def turbine_entry_temperature_at_max_take_off(first_flight: ArrayOrFloat) -> ArrayOrFloat:
     """
     Calculate turbine entry temperature at maximum take-off rating.
 
     Parameters
     ----------
-    first_flight: float
+    first_flight: ArrayOrFloat
         Year of first flight
 
     Returns
     -------
-    float
+    ArrayOrFloat
         Turbine entry temperature at maximum take-off rating, ``tet_mto``, [:math:`K`]
 
     Notes
@@ -283,7 +285,10 @@ def turbine_entry_temperature_at_max_take_off(first_flight: float) -> float:
     ----------
     - :cite:`cumpstyJetPropulsion2015`
     """
-    return 2000.0 * (1 - np.exp(62.8 - 0.0325 * first_flight))
+    out = 2000.0 * (1.0 - np.exp(62.8 - 0.0325 * first_flight))
+    if isinstance(first_flight, np.ndarray):
+        return out
+    return out.item()
 
 
 def turbine_entry_temperature_at_max_continuous_climb(tet_mto: float) -> float:

pycontrails/models/ps_model/ps_grid.py

@@ -10,7 +10,6 @@ import numpy as np
 import numpy.typing as npt
 import scipy.optimize
 import xarray as xr
-import xarray.core.coordinates as xrcc
 
 from pycontrails.core.aircraft_performance import (
     AircraftPerformanceGrid,
@@ -178,9 +177,9 @@ class PSGrid(AircraftPerformanceGrid):
 @dataclasses.dataclass
 class _PerfVariables:
     atyp_param: PSAircraftEngineParams
-    air_pressure: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float
-    air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float
-    mach_number: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float
+    air_pressure: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float
+    air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float
+    mach_number: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float
     q_fuel: float
 
 
@@ -193,8 +192,10 @@ def _nominal_perf(aircraft_mass: ArrayOrFloat, perf: _PerfVariables) -> Aircraft
     mach_number = perf.mach_number
     q_fuel = perf.q_fuel
 
-    theta = 0.0
-    dv_dt = 0.0
+    # Using np.float32 here avoids scalar promotion to float64 via numpy 2.0 and NEP50
+    # In other words, the dtype of the perf variables is maintained
+    theta = np.float32(0.0)
+    dv_dt = np.float32(0.0)
 
     rn = ps_model.reynolds_number(
         atyp_param.wing_surface_area, mach_number, air_temperature, air_pressure
@@ -271,7 +272,7 @@ def _estimate_mass_extremes(
     atyp_param: PSAircraftEngineParams,
     perf: _PerfVariables,
     n_iter: int = 3,
-) -> tuple[npt.NDArray[np.float64], npt.NDArray[np.float64]]:
+) -> tuple[npt.NDArray[np.floating], npt.NDArray[np.floating]]:
     """Calculate the minimum and maximum mass for a given aircraft type."""
 
     oem = atyp_param.amass_oew  # operating empty mass
@@ -296,43 +297,57 @@ def _estimate_mass_extremes(
 
 
 def _parse_variables(
-    level: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | None,
-    air_temperature: xr.DataArray | npt.NDArray[np.float64] | None,
-) -> tuple[npt.NDArray[np.float64], npt.NDArray[np.float64]]:
-    """Parse the level and air temperature arguments."""
-
+    level: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None,
+    air_temperature: xr.DataArray | npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None,
+) -> tuple[
+    tuple[str],
+    dict[str, npt.NDArray[np.floating]],
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+]:
+    """Parse the level and air temperature arguments.
+
+    Returns a tuple of ``(dims, coords, air_pressure, air_temperature)``.
+    """
     if isinstance(air_temperature, xr.DataArray):
         if level is not None:
             msg = "If 'air_temperature' is a DataArray, 'level' must be None"
             raise ValueError(msg)
 
-        level_da = air_temperature["level"]
-        air_temperature, level_da = xr.broadcast(air_temperature, level_da)
-        return np.asarray(level_da), np.asarray(air_temperature)
-
-    if air_temperature is None:
-        if level is None:
-            msg = "The 'level' argument must be specified"
-            raise ValueError(msg)
-        altitude_m = units.pl_to_m(level)
-        air_temperature = units.m_to_T_isa(altitude_m)
-        return level, air_temperature
+        try:
+            pressure_da = air_temperature["air_pressure"]
+        except KeyError as exc:
+            msg = "An 'air_pressure' coordinate must be present in 'air_temperature'"
+            raise KeyError(msg) from exc
+
+        air_temperature, pressure_da = xr.broadcast(air_temperature, pressure_da)
+        return (  # type: ignore[return-value]
+            air_temperature.dims,
+            air_temperature.coords,
+            np.asarray(pressure_da),
+            np.asarray(air_temperature),
+        )
 
     if level is None:
-        msg = "The 'level' argument must be specified"
+        msg = "The 'level' argument must be provided"
         raise ValueError(msg)
 
-    return level, air_temperature
+    air_pressure = level * 100.0
+    if air_temperature is None:
+        altitude_m = units.pl_to_m(level)
+        air_temperature = units.m_to_T_isa(altitude_m)
+    return ("level",), {"level": level}, air_pressure, air_temperature
 
 
 def ps_nominal_grid(
     aircraft_type: str,
     *,
-    level: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | None = None,
-    air_temperature: xr.DataArray | npt.NDArray[np.float64] | None = None,
+    level: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None = None,
+    air_temperature: xr.DataArray | npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None = None,
     q_fuel: float = JetA.q_fuel,
     mach_number: float | None = None,
     maxiter: int = PSGridParams.maxiter,
+    engine_deterioration_factor: float = PSGridParams.engine_deterioration_factor,
 ) -> xr.Dataset:
     """Calculate the nominal performance grid for a given aircraft type.
 
@@ -344,13 +359,13 @@ def ps_nominal_grid(
     ----------
     aircraft_type : str
         The aircraft type.
-    level : npt.NDArray[np.float64] | None, optional
+    level : npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None, optional
         The pressure level, [:math:`hPa`]. If None, the ``air_temperature``
-        argument must be a :class:`xarray.DataArray` with a ``level`` coordinate.
-    air_temperature : xr.DataArray | npt.NDArray[np.float64] | None, optional
+        argument must be a :class:`xarray.DataArray` with an ``air_pressure`` coordinate.
+    air_temperature : xr.DataArray | npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None, optional
         The ambient air temperature, [:math:`K`]. If None (default), the ISA
         temperature is computed from the ``level`` argument. If a :class:`xarray.DataArray`,
-        the ``level`` coordinate must be present and the ``level`` argument must be None
+        an ``air_pressure`` coordinate must be present and the ``level`` argument must be None
         to avoid ambiguity. If a :class:`numpy.ndarray` is passed, it is assumed to be 1
         dimensional with the same shape as the ``level`` argument.
     q_fuel : float, optional
@@ -359,6 +374,9 @@ def ps_nominal_grid(
         The Mach number. If None (default), the PS design Mach number is used.
     maxiter : int, optional
         Passed into :func:`scipy.optimize.newton`.
+    engine_deterioration_factor : float, optional
+        The engine deterioration factor,
+        by default :attr:`PSGridParams.engine_deterioration_factor`.
 
     Returns
     -------
@@ -376,6 +394,10 @@ def ps_nominal_grid(
     KeyError
         If "aircraft_type" is not supported by the PS model.
 
+    See Also
+    --------
+    ps_nominal_optimize_mach
+
     Examples
     --------
     >>> level = np.arange(200, 300, 10, dtype=float)
@@ -389,16 +411,16 @@ def ps_nominal_grid(
     >>> perf.to_dataframe()
            aircraft_mass  engine_efficiency  fuel_flow
     level
-    200.0   58416.230843           0.300958   0.575635
+    200.0   58416.230844           0.300958   0.575635
     210.0   61617.676624           0.300958   0.604417
-    220.0   64829.702583           0.300958   0.633199
-    230.0   68026.415695           0.300958   0.662998
+    220.0   64829.702584           0.300958   0.633199
+    230.0   68026.415694           0.300958   0.662998
     240.0   71187.897060           0.300958   0.694631
-    250.0   71775.399825           0.300824   0.703349
-    260.0   71765.716737           0.300363   0.708259
-    270.0   71752.405400           0.299671   0.714514
-    280.0   71736.129079           0.298823   0.721878
-    290.0   71717.392170           0.297875   0.730169
+    250.0   71775.399880           0.300824   0.703349
+    260.0   71765.716789           0.300363   0.708259
+    270.0   71752.405449           0.299671   0.714514
+    280.0   71736.129125           0.298823   0.721878
+    290.0   71717.392213           0.297875   0.730169
 
     >>> # Now compute it for a higher Mach number
     >>> perf = ps_nominal_grid("A320", level=level, mach_number=0.78)
@@ -407,28 +429,18 @@ def ps_nominal_grid(
     level
     200.0   57941.825236           0.306598   0.596100
     210.0   60626.062062           0.306605   0.621331
-    220.0   63818.498306           0.306605   0.650918
-    230.0   66993.691517           0.306605   0.681551
-    240.0   70129.930503           0.306605   0.714069
-    250.0   71703.009059           0.306560   0.732944
-    260.0   71690.188652           0.306239   0.739276
-    270.0   71673.392089           0.305694   0.747052
-    280.0   71653.431321           0.304997   0.755990
-    290.0   71630.901315           0.304201   0.765883
+    220.0   63818.498305           0.306605   0.650918
+    230.0   66993.691515           0.306605   0.681551
+    240.0   70129.930502           0.306605   0.714069
+    250.0   71703.009114           0.306560   0.732944
+    260.0   71690.188703           0.306239   0.739276
+    270.0   71673.392137           0.305694   0.747052
+    280.0   71653.431366           0.304997   0.755990
+    290.0   71630.901358           0.304201   0.765883
     """
-    coords: dict[str, Any] | xrcc.DataArrayCoordinates
-    if isinstance(air_temperature, xr.DataArray):
-        dims = air_temperature.dims
-        coords = air_temperature.coords
-    else:
-        dims = ("level",)
-        coords = {"level": level}
+    dims, coords, air_pressure, air_temperature = _parse_variables(level, air_temperature)
 
-    level, air_temperature = _parse_variables(level, air_temperature)
-
-    air_pressure = level * 100.0
-
-    aircraft_engine_params = ps_model.load_aircraft_engine_params()
+    aircraft_engine_params = ps_model.load_aircraft_engine_params(engine_deterioration_factor)
 
     try:
         atyp_param = aircraft_engine_params[aircraft_type]
@@ -471,7 +483,7 @@ def ps_nominal_grid(
         func=_newton_func,
         args=(perf,),
         x0=x0,
-        tol=1.0,
+        tol=80.0,  # use roughly the weight of a passenger as a tolerance
         disp=False,
         maxiter=maxiter,
     )
@@ -503,3 +515,187 @@ def ps_nominal_grid(
         coords=coords,
         attrs=attrs,
     )
+
+
+def _newton_mach(
+    mach_number: ArrayOrFloat,
+    perf: _PerfVariables,
+    aircraft_mass: ArrayOrFloat,
+    headwind: ArrayOrFloat,
+    cost_index: ArrayOrFloat,
+) -> ArrayOrFloat:
+    """Approximate the derivative of the cost of a segment based on mach number.
+
+    This is used to find the mach number at which cost in minimized.
+    """
+    perf.mach_number = mach_number + 1e-4
+    tas = units.mach_number_to_tas(perf.mach_number, perf.air_temperature)
+    groundspeed = tas - headwind
+    ff1 = _nominal_perf(aircraft_mass, perf).fuel_flow
+    eccf1 = (cost_index + ff1 * 60) / groundspeed
+
+    perf.mach_number = mach_number - 1e-4
+    tas = units.mach_number_to_tas(perf.mach_number, perf.air_temperature)
+    groundspeed = tas - headwind
+    ff2 = _nominal_perf(aircraft_mass, perf).fuel_flow
+    eccf2 = (cost_index + ff2 * 60) / groundspeed
+    return eccf1 - eccf2
+
+
+def ps_nominal_optimize_mach(
+    aircraft_type: str,
+    aircraft_mass: ArrayOrFloat,
+    cost_index: ArrayOrFloat,
+    level: ArrayOrFloat,
+    *,
+    air_temperature: ArrayOrFloat | None = None,
+    northward_wind: ArrayOrFloat | None = None,
+    eastward_wind: ArrayOrFloat | None = None,
+    sin_a: ArrayOrFloat | None = None,
+    cos_a: ArrayOrFloat | None = None,
+    q_fuel: float = JetA.q_fuel,
+    engine_deterioration_factor: float = PSGridParams.engine_deterioration_factor,
+) -> xr.Dataset:
+    """Calculate the nominal optimal mach number for a given aircraft type.
+
+    This function is similar to the :class:`ps_nominal_grid` method, but rather than
+    maximizing engine efficiency by adjusting aircraft, we are minimizing cost by adjusting
+    mach number.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    aircraft_type : str
+        The aircraft type.
+    aircraft_mass: ArrayOrFloat
+        The aircraft mass, [:math:`kg`].
+    cost_index: ArrayOrFloat
+        The cost index, [:math:`kg/min`], or non-fuel cost of one minute of flight time
+    level : ArrayOrFloat
+        The pressure level, [:math:`hPa`]. If a :class:`numpy.ndarray` is passed, it is
+        assumed to be one dimensional and the same length as the``aircraft_mass`` argument.
+    air_temperature : ArrayOrFloat | None, optional
+        The ambient air temperature, [:math:`K`]. If None (default), the ISA
+        temperature is computed from the ``level`` argument. If a :class:`numpy.ndarray`
+        is passed, it is assumed to be one dimensional and the same length as the
+        ``aircraft_mass`` argument.
+    air_temperature : ArrayOrFloat | None, optional
+    northward_wind: ArrayOrFloat | None = None, optional
+        The northward component of winds, [:math:`m/s`]. If None (default) assumed to be
+        zero.
+    eastward_wind: ArrayOrFloat | None = None, optional
+        The eastward component of winds, [:math:`m/s`]. If None (default) assumed to be
+        zero.
+    sin_a: ArrayOrFloat | None = None, optional
+        The sine between the true bearing of flight and the longitudinal axis. Must be
+        specified if wind data is provided. Will be ignored if wind data is not provided.
+    cos_a: ArrayOrFloat | None = None, optional
+        The cosine between the true bearing of flight and the longitudinal axis. Must be
+        specified if wind data is provided. Will be ignored if wind data is not provided.
+    q_fuel : float, optional
+        The fuel heating value, by default :attr:`JetA.q_fuel`.
+    engine_deterioration_factor : float, optional
+        The engine deterioration factor,
+        by default :attr:`PSGridParams.engine_deterioration_factor`.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    xr.Dataset
+        The nominal performance grid. The grid is indexed by altitude.
+        Contains the following variables:
+
+        - ``"mach_number"``: The mach number that minimizes segment cost
+        - ``"fuel_flow"`` : Fuel flow rate, [:math:`kg/s`]
+        - ``"engine_efficiency"`` : Engine efficiency
+        - ``"aircraft_mass"`` : Aircraft mass, [:math:`kg`]
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    KeyError
+        If "aircraft_type" is not supported by the PS model.
+    ValueError
+        If wind data is provided without segment angles.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    ps_nominal_grid
+    """
+    dims = ("level",)
+    coords = {"level": level}
+    aircraft_engine_params = ps_model.load_aircraft_engine_params(engine_deterioration_factor)
+    try:
+        atyp_param = aircraft_engine_params[aircraft_type]
+    except KeyError as exc:
+        msg = (
+            f"The aircraft type {aircraft_type} is not currently supported by the PS model. "
+            f"Available aircraft types are: {list(aircraft_engine_params)}"
+        )
+        raise KeyError(msg) from exc
+
+    if air_temperature is None:
+        altitude_m = units.pl_to_m(level)
+        air_temperature = units.m_to_T_isa(altitude_m)
+
+    if northward_wind is not None and eastward_wind is not None:
+        if sin_a is None or cos_a is None:
+            msg = "Segment angles must be provide if wind data is specified"
+            raise ValueError(msg)
+        headwind = -(northward_wind * cos_a + eastward_wind * sin_a)  # type: ignore[misc]
+    else:
+        headwind = 0.0  # type: ignore
+
+    min_mach = ps_operational_limits.minimum_mach_num(
+        air_pressure=level * 100.0,
+        aircraft_mass=aircraft_mass,
+        atyp_param=atyp_param,
+    )
+
+    max_mach = ps_operational_limits.maximum_mach_num(
+        altitude_ft=units.pl_to_ft(level),
+        air_pressure=level * 100.0,
+        aircraft_mass=aircraft_mass,
+        air_temperature=air_temperature,
+        theta=np.full_like(aircraft_mass, 0.0),
+        atyp_param=atyp_param,
+    )
+
+    x0 = (min_mach + max_mach) / 2.0  # type: ignore
+
+    perf = _PerfVariables(
+        atyp_param=atyp_param,
+        air_pressure=level * 100.0,
+        air_temperature=air_temperature,
+        mach_number=x0,
+        q_fuel=q_fuel,
+    )
+
+    opt_mach = scipy.optimize.newton(
+        func=_newton_mach,
+        args=(perf, aircraft_mass, headwind, cost_index),
+        x0=x0,
+        tol=1e-4,
+        disp=False,
+    ).clip(min=min_mach, max=max_mach)
+
+    perf.mach_number = opt_mach
+    output = _nominal_perf(aircraft_mass, perf)
+
+    engine_efficiency = output.engine_efficiency
+    fuel_flow = output.fuel_flow
+
+    attrs = {
+        "aircraft_type": aircraft_type,
+        "q_fuel": q_fuel,
+        "wingspan": atyp_param.wing_span,
+        "n_engine": atyp_param.n_engine,
+    }
+
+    return xr.Dataset(
+        {
+            "mach_number": (dims, opt_mach),
+            "aircraft_mass": (dims, aircraft_mass),
+            "engine_efficiency": (dims, engine_efficiency),
+            "fuel_flow": (dims, fuel_flow),
+        },
+        coords=coords,
+        attrs=attrs,
+    )

pycontrails/models/ps_model/ps_model.py

@@ -51,13 +51,6 @@ class PSFlightParams(AircraftPerformanceParams):
     #: efficiency to always exceed this value.
     eta_over_eta_b_min: float | None = 0.5
 
-    #: Account for "in-service" engine deterioration between maintenance cycles.
-    #: Default value is set to +2.5% increase in fuel consumption.
-    # Reference:
-    # Gurrola Arrieta, M.D.J., Botez, R.M. and Lasne, A., 2024. An Engine Deterioration Model for
-    # Predicting Fuel Consumption Impact in a Regional Aircraft. Aerospace, 11(6), p.426.
-    engine_deterioration_factor: float = 0.025
-
 
 class PSFlight(AircraftPerformance):
     """Simulate aircraft performance using Poll-Schumann (PS) model.
@@ -70,6 +63,10 @@ class PSFlight(AircraftPerformance):
     Poll & Schumann (2022). An estimation method for the fuel burn and other performance
     characteristics of civil transport aircraft. Part 3 Generalisation to cover climb,
     descent and holding. Aero. J., submitted.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    pycontrails.physics.jet.aircraft_load_factor
     """
 
     name = "PSFlight"
@@ -227,14 +224,14 @@ class PSFlight(AircraftPerformance):
         self,
         *,
         aircraft_type: str,
-        altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
-        air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+        altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+        air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
         time: npt.NDArray[np.datetime64] | None,
-        true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
-        aircraft_mass: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float,
-        engine_efficiency: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
-        fuel_flow: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
-        thrust: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float | None,
+        true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float | None,
+        aircraft_mass: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float,
+        engine_efficiency: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float | None,
+        fuel_flow: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float | None,
+        thrust: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float | None,
         q_fuel: float,
         **kwargs: Any,
     ) -> AircraftPerformanceData:
@@ -269,8 +266,8 @@ class PSFlight(AircraftPerformance):
         rn = reynolds_number(atyp_param.wing_surface_area, mach_num, air_temperature, air_pressure)
 
         # Allow array or None time
-        dv_dt: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float
-        theta: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float
+        dv_dt: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float
+        theta: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float
         if time is None:
             # Assume a nominal cruising state
             dt_sec = None
@@ -783,7 +780,7 @@ def overall_propulsion_efficiency(
     c_t_eta_b: ArrayOrFloat,
     atyp_param: PSAircraftEngineParams,
     eta_over_eta_b_min: float | None = None,
-) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
     """Calculate overall propulsion efficiency.
 
     Parameters
@@ -803,7 +800,7 @@ def overall_propulsion_efficiency(
 
     Returns
     -------
-    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
         Overall propulsion efficiency
     """
     eta_over_eta_b = propulsion_efficiency_over_max_propulsion_efficiency(mach_num, c_t, c_t_eta_b)
@@ -819,7 +816,7 @@ def propulsion_efficiency_over_max_propulsion_efficiency(
     mach_num: ArrayOrFloat,
     c_t: ArrayOrFloat,
     c_t_eta_b: ArrayOrFloat,
-) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
     """Calculate ratio of OPE to maximum OPE that can be attained for a given Mach number.
 
     Parameters
@@ -833,7 +830,7 @@ def propulsion_efficiency_over_max_propulsion_efficiency(
 
     Returns
     -------
-    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
         Ratio of OPE to maximum OPE, ``eta / eta_b``
 
     Notes
@@ -843,7 +840,7 @@ def propulsion_efficiency_over_max_propulsion_efficiency(
     """
     c_t_over_c_t_eta_b = c_t / c_t_eta_b
 
-    sigma = np.where(mach_num < 0.4, 1.3 * (0.4 - mach_num), 0.0)
+    sigma = np.where(mach_num < 0.4, 1.3 * (0.4 - mach_num), np.float32(0.0))  # avoid promotion
 
     eta_over_eta_b_low = (
         10.0 * (1.0 + 0.8 * (sigma - 0.43) - 0.6027 * sigma * 0.43) * c_t_over_c_t_eta_b