pycontrails 0.54.2__cp310-cp310-macosx_11_0_arm64.whl → 0.54.4__cp310-cp310-macosx_11_0_arm64.whl

pycontrails/core/flight.py

@@ -6,13 +6,18 @@ import enum
 import logging
 import sys
 import warnings
-from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, NoReturn, TypeVar
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, NoReturn
 
 if sys.version_info >= (3, 12):
     from typing import override
 else:
     from typing_extensions import override
 
+if sys.version_info >= (3, 11):
+    from typing import Self
+else:
+    from typing_extensions import Self
+
 
 import numpy as np
 import numpy.typing as npt
@@ -27,8 +32,6 @@ from pycontrails.utils.types import ArrayOrFloat
 
 logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
 
-FlightType = TypeVar("FlightType", bound="Flight")
-
 # optional imports
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     import matplotlib.axes
@@ -121,6 +124,8 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
           calculations with the ICAO Aircraft Emissions Databank (EDB).
         - ``max_mach_number``: Maximum Mach number at cruise altitude. Used by
           some aircraft performance models to clip true airspeed.
+        - ``load_factor``: The load factor used in determining the aircraft's
+          take-off weight. Used by some aircraft performance models.
 
         Numeric quantities that are constant over the entire flight trajectory
         should be included as attributes.
@@ -283,14 +288,12 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
                 )
 
     @override
-    def copy(self: FlightType, **kwargs: Any) -> FlightType:
+    def copy(self, **kwargs: Any) -> Self:
         kwargs.setdefault("fuel", self.fuel)
         return super().copy(**kwargs)
 
     @override
-    def filter(
-        self: FlightType, mask: npt.NDArray[np.bool_], copy: bool = True, **kwargs: Any
-    ) -> FlightType:
+    def filter(self, mask: npt.NDArray[np.bool_], copy: bool = True, **kwargs: Any) -> Self:
         kwargs.setdefault("fuel", self.fuel)
         return super().filter(mask, copy=copy, **kwargs)
 
@@ -412,7 +415,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
     # Segment Properties
     # ------------
 
-    def segment_duration(self, dtype: npt.DTypeLike = np.float32) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    def segment_duration(self, dtype: npt.DTypeLike = np.float32) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
         r"""Compute time elapsed between waypoints in seconds.
 
         ``np.nan`` appended so the length of the output is the same as number of waypoints.
@@ -425,14 +428,14 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
 
         Returns
         -------
-        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        npt.NDArray[np.floating]
             Time difference between waypoints, [:math:`s`].
             Returns an array with dtype specified by``dtype``
         """
 
         return segment_duration(self.data["time"], dtype=dtype)
 
-    def segment_haversine(self) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    def segment_haversine(self) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
         """Compute Haversine (great circle) distance between flight waypoints.
 
         Helper function used in :meth:`resample_and_fill`.
@@ -443,7 +446,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
 
         Returns
         -------
-        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        npt.NDArray[np.floating]
             Array of great circle distances in [:math:`m`] between waypoints
 
         Examples
@@ -466,7 +469,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
         """
         return geo.segment_haversine(self["longitude"], self["latitude"])
 
-    def segment_length(self) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    def segment_length(self) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
         """Compute spherical distance between flight waypoints.
 
         Helper function used in :meth:`length` and :meth:`length_met`.
@@ -474,7 +477,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
 
         Returns
         -------
-        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        npt.NDArray[np.floating]
             Array of distances in [:math:`m`] between waypoints
 
         Examples
@@ -496,7 +499,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
         """
         return geo.segment_length(self["longitude"], self["latitude"], self.altitude)
 
-    def segment_angle(self) -> tuple[npt.NDArray[np.float64], npt.NDArray[np.float64]]:
+    def segment_angle(self) -> tuple[npt.NDArray[np.floating], npt.NDArray[np.floating]]:
         """Calculate sine and cosine for the angle between each segment and the longitudinal axis.
 
         This is different from the usual navigational angle between two points known as *bearing*.
@@ -516,7 +519,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
 
         Returns
         -------
-        npt.NDArray[np.float64], npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        npt.NDArray[np.floating], npt.NDArray[np.floating]
             Returns ``sin(a), cos(a)``, where ``a`` is the angle between the segment and the
             longitudinal axis. The final values are of both arrays are ``np.nan``.
 
@@ -546,7 +549,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
         """
         return geo.segment_angle(self["longitude"], self["latitude"])
 
-    def segment_azimuth(self) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    def segment_azimuth(self) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
         """Calculate (forward) azimuth at each waypoint.
 
         Method calls `pyproj.Geod.inv`, which is slow. See `geo.forward_azimuth`
@@ -558,7 +561,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
 
         Returns
         -------
-        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        npt.NDArray[np.floating]
             Array of azimuths.
 
         See Also
@@ -597,7 +600,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
 
     def segment_groundspeed(
         self, smooth: bool = False, window_length: int = 7, polyorder: int = 1
-    ) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    ) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
         """Return groundspeed across segments.
 
         Calculate by dividing the horizontal segment length by the difference in waypoint times.
@@ -614,7 +617,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
 
         Returns
         -------
-        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        npt.NDArray[np.floating]
             Groundspeed of the segment, [:math:`m s^{-1}`]
         """
         # get horizontal distance (altitude is ignored)
@@ -636,22 +639,22 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
 
     def segment_true_airspeed(
         self,
-        u_wind: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float = 0.0,
-        v_wind: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float = 0.0,
+        u_wind: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float = 0.0,
+        v_wind: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float = 0.0,
         smooth: bool = True,
         window_length: int = 7,
         polyorder: int = 1,
-    ) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    ) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
         r"""Calculate the true airspeed [:math:`m/s`] from the ground speed and horizontal winds.
 
         The calculated ground speed will first be smoothed with a Savitzky-Golay filter if enabled.
 
         Parameters
         ----------
-        u_wind : npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float
+        u_wind : npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float
             U wind speed, [:math:`m \ s^{-1}`].
             Defaults to 0 for all waypoints.
-        v_wind : npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float
+        v_wind : npt.NDArray[np.floating] | float
             V wind speed, [:math:`m \ s^{-1}`].
             Defaults to 0 for all waypoints.
         smooth : bool, optional
@@ -664,7 +667,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
 
         Returns
         -------
-        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        npt.NDArray[np.floating]
             True wind speed of each segment, [:math:`m \ s^{-1}`]
         """
         groundspeed = self.segment_groundspeed(smooth, window_length, polyorder)
@@ -678,39 +681,39 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
         return np.sqrt(tas_x * tas_x + tas_y * tas_y)
 
     def segment_mach_number(
-        self, true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.float64], air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
-    ) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+        self, true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.floating], air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+    ) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
         r"""Calculate the mach number of each segment.
 
         Parameters
         ----------
-        true_airspeed : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        true_airspeed : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
             True airspeed of the segment, [:math:`m \ s^{-1}`].
             See :meth:`segment_true_airspeed`.
-        air_temperature : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        air_temperature : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
             Average air temperature of each segment, [:math:`K`]
 
         Returns
         -------
-        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        npt.NDArray[np.floating]
             Mach number of each segment
         """
         return units.tas_to_mach_number(true_airspeed, air_temperature)
 
     def segment_rocd(
         self,
-        air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.float64] = None,
-    ) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+        air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.floating] = None,
+    ) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
         """Calculate the rate of climb and descent (ROCD).
 
         Parameters
         ----------
-        air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.floating]
             Air temperature of each flight waypoint, [:math:`K`]
 
         Returns
         -------
-        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        npt.NDArray[np.floating]
             Rate of climb and descent over segment, [:math:`ft min^{-1}`]
 
         See Also
@@ -723,7 +726,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
         self,
         threshold_rocd: float = 250.0,
         min_cruise_altitude_ft: float = 20000.0,
-        air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.float64] = None,
+        air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.floating] = None,
     ) -> npt.NDArray[np.uint8]:
         """Identify the phase of flight (climb, cruise, descent) for each segment.
 
@@ -737,7 +740,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
             This is specific for each aircraft type,
             and can be approximated as 50% of the altitude ceiling.
             Defaults to 20000 ft.
-        air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.floating]
             Air temperature of each flight waypoint, [:math:`K`]
 
         Returns
@@ -763,7 +766,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
     # Filter/Resample
     # ------------
 
-    def filter_by_first(self) -> Flight:
+    def filter_by_first(self) -> Self:
         """Keep first row of group of waypoints with identical coordinates.
 
         Chaining this method with `resample_and_fill` often gives a cleaner trajectory
@@ -793,7 +796,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
         1       50.0       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 02:00:00
         """
         df = self.dataframe.groupby(["longitude", "latitude"], sort=False).first().reset_index()
-        return Flight(data=df, attrs=self.attrs)
+        return type(self)(data=df, attrs=self.attrs, fuel=self.fuel)
 
     def resample_and_fill(
         self,
@@ -803,8 +806,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
         nominal_rocd: float = constants.nominal_rocd,
         drop: bool = True,
         keep_original_index: bool = False,
-        climb_descend_at_end: bool = False,
-    ) -> Flight:
+    ) -> Self:
         """Resample and fill flight trajectory with geodesics and linear interpolation.
 
         Waypoints are resampled according to the frequency ``freq``. Values for :attr:`data`
@@ -842,9 +844,6 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
             Keep the original index of the :class:`Flight` in addition to the new
             resampled index. Defaults to ``False``.
             .. versionadded:: 0.45.2
-        climb_or_descend_at_end : bool
-            If true, the climb or descent will be placed at the end of each segment
-            rather than the start. Default is false (climb or descent immediately).
 
         Returns
         -------
@@ -938,16 +937,13 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
 
         if shift is not None:
             # We need to translate back to the original chart here
-            df["longitude"] += shift
-            df["longitude"] = ((df["longitude"] + 180.0) % 360.0) - 180.0
+            df["longitude"] = ((df["longitude"] + shift + 180.0) % 360.0) - 180.0
 
         # STEP 6: Interpolate nan values in altitude
         altitude = df["altitude"].to_numpy()
+        time = df.index.to_numpy()
         if np.any(np.isnan(altitude)):
-            df_freq = pd.Timedelta(freq).to_numpy()
-            new_alt = _altitude_interpolation(altitude, nominal_rocd, df_freq, climb_descend_at_end)
-            _verify_altitude(new_alt, nominal_rocd, df_freq)
-            df["altitude"] = new_alt
+            df["altitude"] = _altitude_interpolation(altitude, time, nominal_rocd)
 
         # Remove original index if requested
         if not keep_original_index:
@@ -961,7 +957,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
                 msg = f"{msg} Pass 'keep_original_index=True' to keep the original index."
             warnings.warn(msg)
 
-        return Flight(data=df, attrs=self.attrs)
+        return type(self)(data=df, attrs=self.attrs, fuel=self.fuel)
 
     def clean_and_resample(
         self,
@@ -974,8 +970,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
         force_filter: bool = False,
         drop: bool = True,
         keep_original_index: bool = False,
-        climb_descend_at_end: bool = False,
-    ) -> Flight:
+    ) -> Self:
         """Resample and (possibly) filter a flight trajectory.
 
         Waypoints are resampled according to the frequency ``freq``. If the original
@@ -1016,9 +1011,6 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
             Keep the original index of the :class:`Flight` in addition to the new
             resampled index. Defaults to ``False``.
             .. versionadded:: 0.45.2
-        climb_or_descend_at_end : bool
-            If true, the climb or descent will be placed at the end of each segment
-            rather than the start. Default is false (climb or descent immediately).
 
         Returns
         -------
@@ -1037,7 +1029,6 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
                 nominal_rocd,
                 drop,
                 keep_original_index,
-                climb_descend_at_end,
             )
 
         # If the flight has large gap(s), then call resample and fill, then filter altitude
@@ -1053,7 +1044,6 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
                     nominal_rocd,
                     drop,
                     keep_original_index,
-                    climb_descend_at_end,
                 )
             clean_flight = clean_flight.filter_altitude(kernel_size, cruise_threshold)
         else:
@@ -1067,14 +1057,13 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
             nominal_rocd,
             drop,
             keep_original_index,
-            climb_descend_at_end,
         )
 
     def filter_altitude(
         self,
         kernel_size: int = 17,
         cruise_threshold: float = 120.0,
-    ) -> Flight:
+    ) -> Self:
         """
         Filter noisy altitude on a single flight.
 
@@ -1506,7 +1495,7 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
         >>> fl["air_temperature"] = fl.intersect_met(met["air_temperature"])
         >>> fl["air_temperature"]
         array([235.94657007, 235.55745645, 235.56709768, ..., 234.59917962,
-               234.60387402, 234.60845312])
+               234.60387402, 234.60845312], shape=(1081,))
 
         >>> # Length (in meters) of waypoints whose temperature exceeds 236K
         >>> fl.length_met("air_temperature", threshold=236)
@@ -1604,12 +1593,12 @@ class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
         return ax
 
 
-def _return_linestring(data: dict[str, npt.NDArray[np.float64]]) -> list[list[float]]:
+def _return_linestring(data: dict[str, npt.NDArray[np.floating]]) -> list[list[float]]:
     """Return list of coordinates for geojson constructions.
 
     Parameters
     ----------
-    data : dict[str, npt.NDArray[np.float64]]
+    data : dict[str, npt.NDArray[np.floating]]
         :attr:`data` containing `longitude`, `latitude`, and `altitude` keys
 
     Returns
@@ -1657,15 +1646,15 @@ def _antimeridian_index(longitude: pd.Series) -> list[int]:
 
 
 def _sg_filter(
-    vals: npt.NDArray[np.float64], window_length: int = 7, polyorder: int = 1
-) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    vals: npt.NDArray[np.floating], window_length: int = 7, polyorder: int = 1
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
     """Apply Savitzky-Golay filter to smooth out noise in the time-series data.
 
     Used to smooth true airspeed, fuel flow, and altitude.
 
     Parameters
     ----------
-    vals : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    vals : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
         Input array
     window_length : int, optional
         Parameter for :func:`scipy.signal.savgol_filter`
@@ -1674,7 +1663,7 @@ def _sg_filter(
 
     Returns
     -------
-    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
         Smoothed values
 
     Raises
@@ -1700,11 +1689,12 @@ def _sg_filter(
 
 
 def _altitude_interpolation(
-    altitude: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+    altitude: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    time: npt.NDArray[np.datetime64],
     nominal_rocd: float,
-    freq: np.timedelta64,
-    climb_or_descend_at_end: bool = False,
-) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    minimum_cruise_altitude_ft: float = 20000.0,
+    assumed_cruise_altitude_ft: float = 30000.0,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
     """Interpolate nan values in ``altitude`` array.
 
     Suppose each group of consecutive nan values is enclosed by ``a0`` and ``a1`` with
@@ -1716,31 +1706,50 @@ def _altitude_interpolation(
 
     Parameters
     ----------
-    altitude : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    altitude : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
         Array of altitude values containing nan values. This function will raise
         an error if ``altitude`` does not contain nan values. Moreover, this function
-        assumes the initial and final entries in ``altitude`` are not nan.
+        assumes the initial and final entries in ``altitude`` are not nan, [:math:`m`]
+    time : npt.NDArray[np.datetime64]
+        Timestamp at each waypoint. Must be monotonically increasing.
     nominal_rocd : float
-        Nominal rate of climb/descent, in m/s
-    freq : np.timedelta64
-        Frequency of time index associated to ``altitude``.
-    climb_or_descend_at_end : bool
-        If true, the climb or descent will be placed at the end of each segment
-        rather than the start. Default is false (climb or descent immediately).
+        Nominal rate of climb/descent, [:math:`m s^{-1}`]
+    minimum_cruise_altitude_ft : float
+        Minimium cruising altitude for a given aircraft type, [:math:`ft`].
+        By default, this is 20000.0 ft.
+    assumed_cruise_altitude_ft : float
+        Assumed cruising altitude for a given aircraft type, [:math:`ft`].
+        By default, this is 30000.0 ft.
 
     Returns
     -------
-    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
-        Altitude after nan values have been filled
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
+        Altitude after nan values have been filled, [:math:`m`]
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Default values for ``minimum_cruise_altitude_ft`` and ``assumed_cruise_altitude_ft`` should be
+    provided if aircraft-specific parameters are available to improve the output quality.
+
+    We can assume ``minimum_cruise_altitude_ft`` as 0.5 times the aircraft service ceiling, and
+    ``assumed_cruise_altitude_ft`` as 0.8 times the aircraft service ceiling.
+
+    Assume that aircraft will generally prefer to climb to a higher altitude as early as possible,
+    and descent to a lower altitude as late as possible, because a higher altitude can reduce
+    drag and fuel consumption.
     """
+    # Work in units of feet
+    alt_ft = units.m_to_ft(altitude)
+    nominal_rocd_ft_min = units.m_to_ft(nominal_rocd) * 60.0
+
     # Determine nan state of altitude
-    isna = np.isnan(altitude)
+    isna = np.isnan(alt_ft)
 
-    start_na = np.empty(altitude.size, dtype=bool)
+    start_na = np.empty(alt_ft.size, dtype=bool)
     start_na[:-1] = ~isna[:-1] & isna[1:]
     start_na[-1] = False
 
-    end_na = np.empty(altitude.size, dtype=bool)
+    end_na = np.empty(alt_ft.size, dtype=bool)
     end_na[0] = False
     end_na[1:] = isna[:-1] & ~isna[1:]
 
@@ -1749,214 +1758,119 @@ def _altitude_interpolation(
     end_na_idxs = np.flatnonzero(end_na)
     na_group_size = end_na_idxs - start_na_idxs
 
-    if climb_or_descend_at_end:
-        return _altitude_interpolation_climb_descend_end(
-            altitude, na_group_size, nominal_rocd, freq, isna
+    # NOTE: Only fill altitude gaps that require special attention
+    # At the end of this for loop, those with NaN altitudes will be filled with pd.interpolate
+    for i in range(len(na_group_size)):
+        alt_ft_start = alt_ft[start_na_idxs[i]]
+        alt_ft_end = alt_ft[end_na_idxs[i]]
+        time_start = time[start_na_idxs[i]]
+        time_end = time[end_na_idxs[i]]
+
+        # Calculate parameters to determine how to interpolate altitude
+        # Time to next waypoint
+        dt_next = (time_end - time_start) / np.timedelta64(1, "m")
+
+        # (1): Unrealistic scenario: first and next known waypoints are at very
+        # low altitudes with a large time gap.
+        is_unrealistic = (
+            dt_next > 60.0
+            and alt_ft_start < minimum_cruise_altitude_ft
+            and alt_ft_end < minimum_cruise_altitude_ft
         )
 
-    return _altitude_interpolation_climb_descend_middle(
-        altitude, start_na_idxs, end_na_idxs, na_group_size, freq, nominal_rocd, isna
-    )
-
-
-def _altitude_interpolation_climb_descend_end(
-    altitude: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
-    na_group_size: npt.NDArray[np.intp],
-    nominal_rocd: float,
-    freq: np.timedelta64,
-    isna: npt.NDArray[np.bool_],
-) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
-    """Interpolate altitude values by placing climbs/descents at end of nan sequences.
-
-    The segment will remain at constant elevation until the end of the segment where
-    it will climb or descend at a constant rocd based on `nominal_rocd`, reaching the
-    target altitude at the end of the segment.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    altitude : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
-        Array of altitude values containing nan values. This function will raise
-        an error if ``altitude`` does not contain nan values. Moreover, this function
-        assumes the initial and final entries in ``altitude`` are not nan.
-    na_group_size : npt.NDArray[np.intp]
-        Array of the length of each consecutive sequence of nan values within the
-        array provided to input parameter `altitude`.
-    nominal_rocd : float
-        Nominal rate of climb/descent, in m/s
-    freq : np.timedelta64
-        Frequency of time index associated to ``altitude``.
-    isna : npt.NDArray[np.bool_]
-        Array of boolean values indicating whether or not each entry in `altitude`
-        is nan-valued.
-    -------
-    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
-        Altitude after nan values have been filled
-    """
-    cumalt_list = [np.flip(np.arange(1, size, dtype=float)) for size in na_group_size]
-    cumalt = np.concatenate(cumalt_list)
-    cumalt = cumalt * nominal_rocd * (freq / np.timedelta64(1, "s"))
-
-    # Expand cumalt to the full size of altitude
-    nominal_fill = np.zeros_like(altitude)
-    nominal_fill[isna] = cumalt
-
-    # Use pandas to forward and backfill altitude values
-    s = pd.Series(altitude)
-    s_ff = s.ffill()
-    s_bf = s.bfill()
-
-    # Construct altitude values if the flight were to climb / descent throughout
-    # group of consecutive nan values. The call to np.minimum / np.maximum cuts
-    # the climb / descent off at the terminal altitude of the nan group
-    fill_climb = np.maximum(s_ff, s_bf - nominal_fill)
-    fill_descent = np.minimum(s_ff, s_bf + nominal_fill)
-
-    # Explicitly determine if the flight is in a climb or descent state
-    sign = np.full_like(altitude, np.nan)
-    sign[~isna] = np.sign(np.diff(altitude[~isna], append=np.nan))
-    sign = pd.Series(sign).ffill()
-
-    # And return the mess
-    return np.where(sign == 1.0, fill_climb, fill_descent)
-
-
-def _altitude_interpolation_climb_descend_middle(
-    altitude: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
-    start_na_idxs: npt.NDArray[np.intp],
-    end_na_idxs: npt.NDArray[np.intp],
-    na_group_size: npt.NDArray[np.intp],
-    freq: np.timedelta64,
-    nominal_rocd: float,
-    isna: npt.NDArray[np.bool_],
-) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
-    """Interpolate nan altitude values based on step-climb logic.
-
-    For short segments, the climb will be placed at the begining of the segment. For
-    long climbs (greater than two hours) the climb will be placed in the middle. For
-    all descents, the descent will be placed at the end of the segment.
-
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    altitude : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
-        Array of altitude values containing nan values. This function will raise
-        an error if ``altitude`` does not contain nan values. Moreover, this function
-        assumes the initial and final entries in ``altitude`` are not nan.
-    start_na_idxs : npt.NDArray[np.intp]
-        Array of indices of the array `altitude` that correspond to the last non-nan-
-        valued index before a sequence of consequtive nan values.
-    end_na_idxs : npt.NDArray[np.intp]
-        Array of indices of the array `altitude` that correspond to the first non-nan-
-        valued index after a sequence of consequtive nan values.
-    na_group_size : npt.NDArray[np.intp]
-        Array of the length of each consecutive sequence of nan values within the
-        array provided to input parameter `altitude`.
-    nominal_rocd : float
-        Nominal rate of climb/descent, in m/s
-    freq : np.timedelta64
-        Frequency of time index associated to ``altitude``.
-    isna : npt.NDArray[np.bool_]
-        Array of boolean values indicating whether or not each entry in `altitude`
-        is nan-valued.
-    -------
-    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
-        Altitude after nan values have been filled
-    """
-    s = pd.Series(altitude)
-
-    # Check to see if we have gaps greater than two hours
-    step_threshold = np.timedelta64(2, "h") / freq
-    step_groups = na_group_size > step_threshold
-    if np.any(step_groups):
-        # If there are gaps greater than two hours, step through one by one
-        for i, step_group in enumerate(step_groups):
-            # Skip short segments and segments that do not climb
-            if not step_group:
-                continue
-            if s[start_na_idxs[i]] >= s[end_na_idxs[i]]:
-                continue
-
-            # We have a long climbing segment.  Keep first half of segment at the starting
-            # altitude, then climb at mid point. Adjust indicies computed before accordingly
-            na_group_size[i], is_odd = divmod(na_group_size[i], 2)
-            nan_fill_size = na_group_size[i] + is_odd
-
-            sl = slice(start_na_idxs[i], start_na_idxs[i] + nan_fill_size + 1)
-            isna[sl] = False
-            s[sl] = s[start_na_idxs[i]]
-            start_na_idxs[i] += nan_fill_size
-
-    # Use pandas to forward and backfill altitude values
-    s_ff = s.ffill()
-    s_bf = s.bfill()
-
-    # Form array of cumulative altitude values if the flight were to climb
-    # at nominal_rocd over each group of nan
-    cumalt_list = []
-    for start_na_idx, end_na_idx, size in zip(
-        start_na_idxs, end_na_idxs, na_group_size, strict=True
-    ):
-        if s[start_na_idx] <= s[end_na_idx]:
-            cumalt_list.append(np.arange(1, size, dtype=float))
-        else:
-            cumalt_list.append(np.flip(np.arange(1, size, dtype=float)))
-
-    cumalt = np.concatenate(cumalt_list)
-    cumalt = cumalt * nominal_rocd * (freq / np.timedelta64(1, "s"))
-
-    # Expand cumalt to the full size of altitude
-    nominal_fill = np.zeros_like(altitude)
-    nominal_fill[isna] = cumalt
-
-    # Construct altitude values if the flight were to climb / descent throughout
-    # group of consecutive nan values. The call to np.minimum / np.maximum cuts
-    # the climb / descent off at the terminal altitude of the nan group
-    fill_climb = np.minimum(s_ff + nominal_fill, s_bf)
-    fill_descent = np.minimum(s_ff, s_bf + nominal_fill)
-
-    # Explicitly determine if the flight is in a climb or descent state
-    sign = np.full_like(altitude, np.nan)
-    sign[~isna] = np.sign(np.diff(s[~isna], append=np.nan))
-    sign = pd.Series(sign).ffill()
+        # If unrealistic, assume flight will climb to cruise altitudes (0.8 * max_altitude_ft),
+        # stay there, and then descent to the next known waypoint
+        if is_unrealistic:
+            # Add altitude at top of climb
+            alt_ft_cruise = assumed_cruise_altitude_ft
+            d_alt_start = alt_ft_cruise - alt_ft_start
+            dt_climb = int(np.ceil(d_alt_start / nominal_rocd_ft_min))
+            t_cruise_start = time_start + np.timedelta64(dt_climb, "m")
+            idx_cruise_start = np.searchsorted(time, t_cruise_start) + 1
+            alt_ft[idx_cruise_start] = alt_ft_cruise
+
+            # Add altitude at top of descent
+            d_alt_end = alt_ft_cruise - alt_ft_end
+            dt_descent = int(np.ceil(d_alt_end / nominal_rocd_ft_min))
+            t_cruise_end = time_end - np.timedelta64(dt_descent, "m")
+            idx_cruise_end = np.searchsorted(time, t_cruise_end) - 1
+            alt_ft[idx_cruise_end] = alt_ft_cruise
+            continue
+
+        # (2): If both altitudes are the same, then skip entire operations below
+        if alt_ft_start == alt_ft_end:
+            continue
+
+        # Rate of climb and descent to next waypoint, in ft/min
+        rocd_next = (alt_ft_end - alt_ft_start) / dt_next
+
+        # (3): If cruise over 2 h with small altitude change, set change to mid-point
+        is_long_segment_small_altitude_change = (
+            dt_next > 120.0
+            and rocd_next < 500.0
+            and rocd_next > -500.0
+            and alt_ft_start > minimum_cruise_altitude_ft
+            and alt_ft_end > minimum_cruise_altitude_ft
+        )
 
-    # And return the mess
-    return np.where(sign == 1.0, fill_climb, fill_descent)
+        if is_long_segment_small_altitude_change:
+            mid_na_idx = int(0.5 * (start_na_idxs[i] + end_na_idxs[i]))
+            alt_ft[mid_na_idx] = alt_ft_start
+            alt_ft[mid_na_idx + 1] = alt_ft_end
+            continue
+
+        # (4): Climb at the start until target altitude and level off if:
+        #:  (i) large time gap (`dt_next` > 20 minutes) and positive `rocd`, or
+        #:  (ii) shallow climb (0 < `rocd_next` < 500 ft/min) between current and next waypoint
+
+        #: For (i), we only perform this for large time gaps, because we do not want the aircraft to
+        #: constantly climb, level off, and repeat, while the ADS-B waypoints show that it is
+        #: continuously climbing
+        if (dt_next > 20.0 and rocd_next > 0.0) or (0.0 < rocd_next < 500.0):
+            dt_climb = int(np.ceil((alt_ft_end - alt_ft_start) / nominal_rocd_ft_min * 60))
+            t_climb_complete = time_start + np.timedelta64(dt_climb, "s")
+            idx_climb_complete = np.searchsorted(time, t_climb_complete)
+
+            #: [Safeguard for very small `dt_next`] Ensure climb can be performed within the
+            #: interpolated time step. If False, then aircraft will climb between waypoints instead
+            #: of levelling off.
+            if start_na_idxs[i] < idx_climb_complete < end_na_idxs[i]:
+                alt_ft[idx_climb_complete] = alt_ft_end
+
+            continue
+
+        # (5):  Descent towards the end until target altitude and level off if:
+        #:  (i) large time gap (`dt_next` > 20 minutes) and negative `rocd`, or
+        #:  (ii) shallow descent (-250 < `rocd_next` < 0 ft/min) between current and next waypoint
+        if (dt_next > 20.0 and rocd_next < 0.0) or (-250.0 < rocd_next < 0.0):
+            dt_descent = int(np.ceil((alt_ft_start - alt_ft_end) / nominal_rocd_ft_min * 60))
+            t_descent_start = time_end - np.timedelta64(dt_descent, "s")
+            idx_descent_start = np.where(
+                -250.0 < rocd_next < 0.0,
+                np.searchsorted(time, t_descent_start) - 1,
+                np.searchsorted(time, t_descent_start),
+            )
 
+            #: [Safeguard for very small `dt_next`] Ensure descent can be performed within the
+            #: interpolated time step. If False, then aircraft will descent between waypoints
+            #: instead of levelling off.
+            if start_na_idxs[i] < idx_descent_start < end_na_idxs[i]:
+                alt_ft[idx_descent_start] = alt_ft_start
 
-def _verify_altitude(
-    altitude: npt.NDArray[np.float64], nominal_rocd: float, freq: np.timedelta64
-) -> None:
-    """Confirm that the time derivative of `altitude` does not exceed twice `nominal_rocd`.
+            continue
 
-    Parameters
-    ----------
-    altitude : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
-        Array of filled altitude values containing nan values.
-    nominal_rocd : float
-        Nominal rate of climb/descent, in m/s
-    freq : np.timedelta64
-        Frequency of time index associated to `altitude`.
-    """
-    dalt = np.diff(altitude)
-    dt = freq / np.timedelta64(1, "s")
-    rocd = np.abs(dalt / dt)
-    if np.any(rocd > 2.0 * nominal_rocd):
-        warnings.warn(
-            "Rate of climb/descent values greater than nominal "
-            f"({nominal_rocd} m/s) after altitude interpolation"
-        )
-    if np.any(np.isnan(altitude)):
-        warnings.warn(
-            f"Found nan values altitude after ({nominal_rocd} m/s) after altitude interpolation"
-        )
+    # Linearly interpolate between remaining nan values
+    out_alt_ft = pd.Series(alt_ft, index=time).interpolate(method="index")
+    return units.ft_to_m(out_alt_ft.to_numpy())
 
 
 def filter_altitude(
     time: npt.NDArray[np.datetime64],
-    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
     kernel_size: int = 17,
     cruise_threshold: float = 120,
-    air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.float64] = None,
-) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.floating] = None,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
     """
     Filter noisy altitude on a single flight.
 
@@ -1968,19 +1882,19 @@ def filter_altitude(
     ----------
     time : npt.NDArray[np.datetime64]
         Waypoint time in ``np.datetime64`` format.
-    altitude_ft : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    altitude_ft : npt.NDArray[np.floating]
         Altitude signal in feet
     kernel_size : int, optional
         Passed directly to :func:`scipy.signal.medfilt`, by default 11.
         Passed also to :func:`scipy.signal.medfilt`
     cruise_theshold : int, optional
         Minimal length of time, in seconds, for a flight to be in cruise to apply median filter
-    air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.floating]
         Air temperature of each flight waypoint, [:math:`K`]
 
     Returns
     -------
-    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
         Filtered altitude
 
     Notes
@@ -2070,7 +1984,7 @@ def filter_altitude(
 
 def segment_duration(
     time: npt.NDArray[np.datetime64], dtype: npt.DTypeLike = np.float32
-) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
     """Calculate the time difference between waypoints.
 
     ``np.nan`` appended so the length of the output is the same as number of waypoints.
@@ -2081,13 +1995,13 @@ def segment_duration(
         Waypoint time in ``np.datetime64`` format.
     dtype : np.dtype
         Numpy dtype for time difference.
-        Defaults to ``np.float64``
+        Defaults to ``np.float32``
 
     Returns
     -------
-    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
         Time difference between waypoints, [:math:`s`].
-        This returns an array with dtype specified by``dtype``.
+        This returns an array with dtype specified by ``dtype``.
     """
     out = np.empty_like(time, dtype=dtype)
     out[-1] = np.nan
@@ -2096,8 +2010,8 @@ def segment_duration(
 
 
 def segment_phase(
-    rocd: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
-    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+    rocd: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
     *,
     threshold_rocd: float = 250.0,
     min_cruise_altitude_ft: float = MIN_CRUISE_ALTITUDE,
@@ -2109,7 +2023,7 @@ def segment_phase(
     rocd: pt.NDArray[np.float64]
         Rate of climb and descent across segment, [:math:`ft min^{-1}`].
         See output from :func:`segment_rocd`.
-    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
         Altitude, [:math:`ft`]
     threshold_rocd: float, optional
         ROCD threshold to identify climb and descent, [:math:`ft min^{-1}`].
@@ -2159,31 +2073,31 @@ def segment_phase(
 
 
 def segment_rocd(
-    segment_duration: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
-    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
-    air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.float64] = None,
-) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    segment_duration: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.floating],
+    air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None = None,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.floating]:
     """Calculate the rate of climb and descent (ROCD).
 
     Parameters
     ----------
-    segment_duration: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    segment_duration: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
         Time difference between waypoints, [:math:`s`].
-        Expected to have numeric `dtype`, not `"timedelta64"`.
+        Expected to have numeric ``dtype``, not ``np.timedelta64``.
         See output from :func:`segment_duration`.
-    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.floating]
         Altitude of each waypoint, [:math:`ft`]
-    air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.floating] | None
         Air temperature of each flight waypoint, [:math:`K`]
 
     Returns
     -------
-    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    npt.NDArray[np.floating]
         Rate of climb and descent over segment, [:math:`ft min^{-1}`]
 
     Notes
     -----
-    The hydrostatic equation will be used to estimate the ROCD if `air_temperature` is provided.
+    The hydrostatic equation will be used to estimate the ROCD if ``air_temperature`` is provided.
     This will improve the accuracy of the estimated ROCD with a temperature correction. The
     estimated ROCD with the temperature correction are expected to differ by up to +-5% compared to
     those without the correction. These differences are important when the ROCD estimates are used
@@ -2191,7 +2105,7 @@ def segment_rocd(
 
     See Also
     --------
-    :func:`segment_duration`
+    segment_duration
     """
     dt_min = segment_duration / 60.0
 
@@ -2209,7 +2123,7 @@ def segment_rocd(
     T_correction[:-1] = (air_temperature[:-1] + air_temperature[1:]) / (T_isa[:-1] + T_isa[1:])
     T_correction[-1] = np.nan
 
-    return T_correction * out
+    return T_correction * out  # type: ignore[return-value]
 
 
 def _resample_to_freq(df: pd.DataFrame, freq: str) -> tuple[pd.DataFrame, pd.DatetimeIndex]: