pycontrails 0.53.0__cp313-cp313-win_amd64.whl

pycontrails/core/flight.py

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+"""Flight Data Handling."""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import enum
+import logging
+import warnings
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, NoReturn, TypeVar
+
+import numpy as np
+import numpy.typing as npt
+import pandas as pd
+import scipy.signal
+from overrides import overrides
+
+from pycontrails.core.fuel import Fuel, JetA
+from pycontrails.core.vector import AttrDict, GeoVectorDataset, VectorDataDict, VectorDataset
+from pycontrails.physics import constants, geo, units
+from pycontrails.utils import dependencies
+from pycontrails.utils.types import ArrayOrFloat
+
+logger = logging.getLogger(__name__)
+
+FlightType = TypeVar("FlightType", bound="Flight")
+
+# optional imports
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    import matplotlib.axes
+    import traffic.core
+
+
+class FlightPhase(enum.IntEnum):
+    """Flight phase enumeration.
+
+    Use :func:`segment_phase` or :meth:`Flight.segment_phase` to determine flight phase.
+    """
+
+    #: Waypoints at which the flight is in a climb phase
+    CLIMB = enum.auto()
+
+    #: Waypoints at which the flight is in a cruise phase
+    CRUISE = enum.auto()
+
+    #: Waypoints at which the flight is in a descent phase
+    DESCENT = enum.auto()
+
+    #: Waypoints at which the flight is not in a climb, cruise, or descent phase.
+    #: In practice, this category is used for waypoints at which the ROCD resembles
+    #: that of a cruise phase, but the altitude is below the minimum cruise altitude.
+    LEVEL_FLIGHT = enum.auto()
+
+    #: Waypoints at which the ROCD is not defined.
+    NAN = enum.auto()
+
+
+#: Max airport elevation, [:math:`ft`]
+#: See `Daocheng_Yading_Airport <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daocheng_Yading_Airport>`_
+MAX_AIRPORT_ELEVATION = 15_000.0
+
+#: Min estimated cruise altitude, [:math:`ft`]
+MIN_CRUISE_ALTITUDE = 20_000.0
+
+#: Short haul duration cutoff, [:math:`s`]
+SHORT_HAUL_DURATION = 3600.0
+
+#: Set maximum speed compatible with "on_ground" indicator, [:math:`mph`]
+#: Thresholds assessed based on scatter plot (150 knots = 278 km/h)
+MAX_ON_GROUND_SPEED = 150.0
+
+
+class Flight(GeoVectorDataset):
+    """A single flight trajectory.
+
+    Expect latitude-longitude coordinates in WGS 84.
+    Expect altitude in [:math:`m`].
+    Expect pressure level (`level`) in [:math:`hPa`].
+
+    Use the attribute :attr:`attrs["crs"]` to specify coordinate reference system
+    using `PROJ <https://proj.org/>`_ or `EPSG <https://epsg.org/home.html>`_ syntax.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : dict[str, np.ndarray] | pd.DataFrame | VectorDataDict | VectorDataset | None
+        Flight trajectory waypoints as data dictionary or :class:`pandas.DataFrame`.
+        Must include columns ``time``, ``latitude``, ``longitude``, ``altitude`` or ``level``.
+        Keyword arguments for ``time``, ``latitude``, ``longitude``, ``altitude`` or ``level``
+        will override ``data`` inputs. Expects ``altitude`` in meters and ``time`` as a
+        DatetimeLike (or array that can processed with :func:`pd.to_datetime`).
+        Additional waypoint-specific data can be included as additional keys/columns.
+    longitude : npt.ArrayLike, optional
+        Flight trajectory waypoint longitude.
+        Defaults to None.
+    latitude : npt.ArrayLike, optional
+        Flight trajectory waypoint latitude.
+        Defaults to None.
+    altitude : npt.ArrayLike, optional
+        Flight trajectory waypoint altitude, [:math:`m`].
+        Defaults to None.
+    altitude_ft : npt.ArrayLike, optional
+        Flight trajectory waypoint altitude, [:math:`ft`].
+    level : npt.ArrayLike, optional
+        Flight trajectory waypoint pressure level, [:math:`hPa`].
+        Defaults to None.
+    time : npt.ArrayLike, optional
+        Flight trajectory waypoint time.
+        Defaults to None.
+    attrs : dict[str, Any], optional
+        Additional flight properties as a dictionary.
+        While different models may utilize Flight attributes differently,
+        pycontrails applies the following conventions:
+
+        - ``flight_id``: An internal flight identifier. Used internally
+          for :class:`Fleet` interoperability.
+        - ``aircraft_type``: Aircraft type ICAO, e.g. ``"A320"``.
+        - ``wingspan``: Aircraft wingspan, [:math:`m`].
+        - ``n_engine``: Number of aircraft engines.
+        - ``engine_uid``: Aircraft engine unique identifier. Used for emissions
+          calculations with the ICAO Aircraft Emissions Databank (EDB).
+        - ``max_mach_number``: Maximum Mach number at cruise altitude. Used by
+          some aircraft performance models to clip true airspeed.
+
+        Numeric quantities that are constant over the entire flight trajectory
+        should be included as attributes.
+    copy : bool, optional
+        Copy data on Flight creation.
+        Defaults to True.
+    fuel : Fuel, optional
+        Fuel used in flight trajectory. Defaults to :class:`JetA`.
+    drop_duplicated_times : bool, optional
+        Drop duplicate times in flight trajectory. Defaults to False.
+    **attrs_kwargs : Any
+        Additional flight properties passed as keyword arguments.
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    KeyError
+        Raises if ``data`` input does not contain at least ``time``, ``latitude``, ``longitude``,
+        (``altitude`` or ``level``).
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The `Traffic <https://traffic-viz.github.io/index.html>`_ library has many helpful
+    flight processing utilities.
+
+    See :class:`traffic.core.Flight` for more information.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> import numpy as np
+    >>> import pandas as pd
+    >>> from pycontrails import Flight
+
+    >>> # Create `Flight` from a DataFrame.
+    >>> df = pd.DataFrame({
+    ...     "longitude": np.linspace(20, 30, 500),
+    ...     "latitude": np.linspace(40, 10, 500),
+    ...     "altitude": 10500,
+    ...     "time": pd.date_range('2021-01-01T10', '2021-01-01T15', periods=500),
+    ... })
+    >>> fl = Flight(data=df, flight_id=123)  # specify a flight_id by keyword
+    >>> fl
+    Flight [4 keys x 500 length, 2 attributes]
+    Keys: longitude, latitude, altitude, time
+    Attributes:
+    time                [2021-01-01 10:00:00, 2021-01-01 15:00:00]
+    longitude           [20.0, 30.0]
+    latitude            [10.0, 40.0]
+    altitude            [10500.0, 10500.0]
+    flight_id           123
+    crs                 EPSG:4326
+
+    >>> # Create `Flight` from keywords
+    >>> fl = Flight(
+    ...     longitude=np.linspace(20, 30, 200),
+    ...     latitude=np.linspace(40, 30, 200),
+    ...     altitude=11000 * np.ones(200),
+    ...     time=pd.date_range('2021-01-01T12', '2021-01-01T14', periods=200),
+    ... )
+    >>> fl
+    Flight [4 keys x 200 length, 1 attributes]
+        Keys: longitude, latitude, time, altitude
+        Attributes:
+        time                [2021-01-01 12:00:00, 2021-01-01 14:00:00]
+        longitude           [20.0, 30.0]
+        latitude            [30.0, 40.0]
+        altitude            [11000.0, 11000.0]
+        crs                 EPSG:4326
+
+    >>> # Access the underlying data as DataFrame
+    >>> fl.dataframe.head()
+       longitude   latitude                          time  altitude
+    0  20.000000  40.000000 2021-01-01 12:00:00.000000000   11000.0
+    1  20.050251  39.949749 2021-01-01 12:00:36.180904522   11000.0
+    2  20.100503  39.899497 2021-01-01 12:01:12.361809045   11000.0
+    3  20.150754  39.849246 2021-01-01 12:01:48.542713567   11000.0
+    4  20.201005  39.798995 2021-01-01 12:02:24.723618090   11000.0
+    """
+
+    __slots__ = ("fuel",)
+
+    #: Fuel used in flight trajectory
+    fuel: Fuel
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        data: (
+            dict[str, npt.ArrayLike] | pd.DataFrame | VectorDataDict | VectorDataset | None
+        ) = None,
+        *,
+        longitude: npt.ArrayLike | None = None,
+        latitude: npt.ArrayLike | None = None,
+        altitude: npt.ArrayLike | None = None,
+        altitude_ft: npt.ArrayLike | None = None,
+        level: npt.ArrayLike | None = None,
+        time: npt.ArrayLike | None = None,
+        attrs: dict[str, Any] | AttrDict | None = None,
+        copy: bool = True,
+        fuel: Fuel | None = None,
+        drop_duplicated_times: bool = False,
+        **attrs_kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> None:
+        super().__init__(
+            data=data,
+            longitude=longitude,
+            latitude=latitude,
+            altitude=altitude,
+            altitude_ft=altitude_ft,
+            level=level,
+            time=time,
+            attrs=attrs,
+            copy=copy,
+            **attrs_kwargs,
+        )
+
+        # Set fuel - fuel instance is NOT copied
+        self.fuel = fuel or JetA()
+
+        # Check flight data for possible errors
+        if np.any(self.altitude > 16000.0):
+            flight_id = self.attrs.get("flight_id", "")
+            flight_id = flight_id and f" for flight {flight_id}"
+            warnings.warn(
+                f"Flight altitude is high{flight_id}. Expected altitude unit is meters. "
+                f"Found waypoint with altitude {self.altitude.max():.0f} m."
+            )
+
+        # Get time differences between waypoints
+        if np.isnat(self["time"]).any():
+            warnings.warn(
+                "Flight trajectory contains NaT times. This will cause errors "
+                "with segment-based methods (e.g. 'segment_true_airspeed')."
+            )
+
+        time_diff = np.diff(self["time"])
+
+        # Ensure that time is sorted
+        if self and np.any(time_diff < np.timedelta64(0)):
+            if not copy:
+                raise ValueError(
+                    "The 'time' array must be sorted if 'copy=False' on creation. "
+                    "Set copy=False, or sort data before creating Flight."
+                )
+            warnings.warn("Sorting Flight data by time.")
+            self.data = GeoVectorDataset(self, copy=False).sort("time").data
+
+            # Update time_diff ... we use it again below
+            time_diff = np.diff(self["time"])
+
+        # Check for duplicate times. If dropping duplicates,
+        # keep the *first* occurrence of each time.
+        duplicated_times = time_diff == np.timedelta64(0)
+        if self and np.any(duplicated_times):
+            if drop_duplicated_times:
+                mask = np.insert(duplicated_times, 0, False)
+                filtered_flight = self.filter(~mask, copy=False)
+                self.data = filtered_flight.data
+            else:
+                warnings.warn(
+                    f"Flight contains {duplicated_times.sum()} duplicate times. "
+                    "This will cause errors with segment-based methods. Set "
+                    "'drop_duplicated_times=True' or call the 'resample_and_fill' method."
+                )
+
+    @overrides
+    def copy(self: FlightType, **kwargs: Any) -> FlightType:
+        kwargs.setdefault("fuel", self.fuel)
+        return super().copy(**kwargs)
+
+    @overrides
+    def filter(
+        self: FlightType, mask: npt.NDArray[np.bool_], copy: bool = True, **kwargs: Any
+    ) -> FlightType:
+        kwargs.setdefault("fuel", self.fuel)
+        return super().filter(mask, copy=copy, **kwargs)
+
+    @overrides
+    def sort(self, by: str | list[str]) -> NoReturn:
+        msg = (
+            "Flight.sort is not implemented. A Flight instance is automatically sorted "
+            "by 'time' on creation. To force sorting, create a GeoVectorDataset instance "
+            "and call the 'sort' method."
+        )
+        raise ValueError(msg)
+
+    @property
+    def time_start(self) -> pd.Timestamp:
+        """First waypoint time.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        pd.Timestamp
+            First waypoint time
+        """
+        return pd.Timestamp(np.nanmin(self["time"]))
+
+    @property
+    def time_end(self) -> pd.Timestamp:
+        """Last waypoint time.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        pd.Timestamp
+            Last waypoint time
+        """
+        return pd.Timestamp(np.nanmax(self["time"]))
+
+    @property
+    def duration(self) -> pd.Timedelta:
+        """Determine flight duration.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        pd.Timedelta
+            Difference between terminal and initial time
+        """
+        return pd.Timedelta(self.time_end - self.time_start)
+
+    @property
+    def max_time_gap(self) -> pd.Timedelta:
+        """Return maximum time gap between waypoints along flight trajectory.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        pd.Timedelta
+            Gap size
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> import numpy as np
+        >>> fl = Flight(
+        ...     longitude=np.linspace(20, 30, 200),
+        ...     latitude=np.linspace(40, 30, 200),
+        ...     altitude=11000 * np.ones(200),
+        ...     time=pd.date_range('2021-01-01T12', '2021-01-01T14', periods=200),
+        ... )
+        >>> fl.max_time_gap
+        Timedelta('0 days 00:00:36.180...')
+        """
+        return pd.Timedelta(np.nanmax(np.diff(self["time"])))
+
+    @property
+    def max_distance_gap(self) -> float:
+        """Return maximum distance gap between waypoints along flight trajectory.
+
+        Distance is calculated based on WGS84 geodesic.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        float
+            Maximum distance between waypoints, [:math:`m`]
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        NotImplementedError
+            Raises when attr:`attrs["crs"]` is not EPSG:4326
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> import numpy as np
+        >>> fl = Flight(
+        ...     longitude=np.linspace(20, 30, 200),
+        ...     latitude=np.linspace(40, 30, 200),
+        ...     altitude=11000 * np.ones(200),
+        ...     time=pd.date_range('2021-01-01T12', '2021-01-01T14', periods=200),
+        ... )
+        >>> fl.max_distance_gap
+        np.float64(7391.27...)
+        """
+        if self.attrs["crs"] != "EPSG:4326":
+            raise NotImplementedError("Only implemented for EPSG:4326 CRS.")
+
+        return self.segment_length()[:-1].max()
+
+    @property
+    def length(self) -> float:
+        """Return flight length based on WGS84 geodesic.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        float
+            Total flight length, [:math:`m`]
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        NotImplementedError
+            Raises when attr:`attrs["crs"]` is not EPSG:4326
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> import numpy as np
+        >>> fl = Flight(
+        ...     longitude=np.linspace(20, 30, 200),
+        ...     latitude=np.linspace(40, 30, 200),
+        ...     altitude=11000 * np.ones(200),
+        ...     time=pd.date_range('2021-01-01T12', '2021-01-01T14', periods=200),
+        ... )
+        >>> fl.length
+        np.float64(1436924.67...)
+        """
+        if self.attrs["crs"] != "EPSG:4326":
+            raise NotImplementedError("Only implemented for EPSG:4326 CRS.")
+
+        # drop off the nan
+        return np.nansum(self.segment_length()[:-1])
+
+    # ------------
+    # Segment Properties
+    # ------------
+
+    def segment_duration(self, dtype: npt.DTypeLike = np.float32) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+        r"""Compute time elapsed between waypoints in seconds.
+
+        ``np.nan`` appended so the length of the output is the same as number of waypoints.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        dtype : np.dtype
+            Numpy dtype for time difference.
+            Defaults to ``np.float64``
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            Time difference between waypoints, [:math:`s`].
+            Returns an array with dtype specified by``dtype``
+        """
+
+        return segment_duration(self.data["time"], dtype=dtype)
+
+    def segment_haversine(self) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+        """Compute Haversine (great circle) distance between flight waypoints.
+
+        Helper function used in :meth:`resample_and_fill`.
+        `np.nan` appended so the length of the output is the same as number of waypoints.
+
+        To account for vertical displacements when computing segment lengths,
+        use :meth:`segment_length`.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            Array of great circle distances in [:math:`m`] between waypoints
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        NotImplementedError
+            Raises when attr:`attrs["crs"]` is not EPSG:4326
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> from pycontrails import Flight
+        >>> fl = Flight(
+        ... longitude=np.array([1, 2, 3, 5, 8]),
+        ... latitude=np.arange(5),
+        ... altitude=np.full(shape=(5,), fill_value=11000),
+        ... time=pd.date_range('2021-01-01T12', '2021-01-01T14', periods=5),
+        ... )
+        >>> fl.segment_haversine()
+        array([157255.03346286, 157231.08336815, 248456.48781503, 351047.44358851,
+                           nan])
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        :func:`segment_haversine`
+        :meth:`segment_length`
+        """
+        if self.attrs["crs"] != "EPSG:4326":
+            raise NotImplementedError("Only implemented for EPSG:4326 CRS.")
+
+        return geo.segment_haversine(self["longitude"], self["latitude"])
+
+    def segment_length(self) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+        """Compute spherical distance between flight waypoints.
+
+        Helper function used in :meth:`length` and :meth:`length_met`.
+        `np.nan` appended so the length of the output is the same as number of waypoints.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            Array of distances in [:math:`m`] between waypoints
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        NotImplementedError
+            Raises when attr:`attrs["crs"]` is not EPSG:4326
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> from pycontrails import Flight
+        >>> fl = Flight(
+        ... longitude=np.array([1, 2, 3, 5, 8]),
+        ... latitude=np.arange(5),
+        ... altitude=np.full(shape=(5,), fill_value=11000),
+        ... time=pd.date_range('2021-01-01T12', '2021-01-01T14', periods=5),
+        ... )
+        >>> fl.segment_length()
+        array([157255.03346286, 157231.08336815, 248456.48781503, 351047.44358851,
+                           nan])
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        :func:`segment_length`
+        """
+        if self.attrs["crs"] != "EPSG:4326":
+            raise NotImplementedError("Only implemented for EPSG:4326 CRS.")
+
+        return geo.segment_length(self["longitude"], self["latitude"], self.altitude)
+
+    def segment_angle(self) -> tuple[npt.NDArray[np.float64], npt.NDArray[np.float64]]:
+        """Calculate sine and cosine for the angle between each segment and the longitudinal axis.
+
+        This is different from the usual navigational angle between two points known as *bearing*.
+
+        *Bearing* in 3D spherical coordinates is referred to as *azimuth*.
+        ::
+
+                    (lon_2, lat_2)  X
+                                   /|
+                                  / |
+                                 /  |
+                                /   |
+                               /    |
+                              /     |
+                             /      |
+            (lon_1, lat_1)  X -------> longitude (x-axis)
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.float64], npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            Returns ``sin(a), cos(a)``, where ``a`` is the angle between the segment and the
+            longitudinal axis. The final values are of both arrays are ``np.nan``.
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        :func:`geo.segment_angle`
+        :func:`units.heading_to_longitudinal_angle`
+        :meth:`segment_azimuth`
+        :func:`geo.forward_azimuth`
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> from pycontrails import Flight
+        >>> fl = Flight(
+        ... longitude=np.array([1, 2, 3, 5, 8]),
+        ... latitude=np.arange(5),
+        ... altitude=np.full(shape=(5,), fill_value=11000),
+        ... time=pd.date_range('2021-01-01T12', '2021-01-01T14', periods=5),
+        ... )
+        >>> sin, cos = fl.segment_angle()
+        >>> sin
+        array([0.70716063, 0.70737598, 0.44819424, 0.31820671,        nan])
+
+        >>> cos
+        array([0.70705293, 0.70683748, 0.8939362 , 0.94802136,        nan])
+
+        """
+        return geo.segment_angle(self["longitude"], self["latitude"])
+
+    def segment_azimuth(self) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+        """Calculate (forward) azimuth at each waypoint.
+
+        Method calls `pyproj.Geod.inv`, which is slow. See `geo.forward_azimuth`
+        for an outline of a faster implementation.
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 0.33.7
+
+            The dtype of the output now matches the dtype of ``self["longitude"]``.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            Array of azimuths.
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        :meth:`segment_angle`
+        :func:`geo.forward_azimuth`
+        """
+        lon = self["longitude"]
+        lat = self["latitude"]
+
+        lons1 = lon[:-1]
+        lats1 = lat[:-1]
+        lons2 = lon[1:]
+        lats2 = lat[1:]
+
+        try:
+            import pyproj
+        except ModuleNotFoundError as exc:
+            dependencies.raise_module_not_found_error(
+                name="Flight.segment_azimuth method",
+                package_name="pyproj",
+                module_not_found_error=exc,
+                pycontrails_optional_package="pyproj",
+            )
+
+        geod = pyproj.Geod(a=constants.radius_earth)
+        az, *_ = geod.inv(lons1, lats1, lons2, lats2)
+
+        # NOTE: geod.inv automatically promotes to float64. We match the dtype of lon.
+        out = np.empty_like(lon)
+        out[:-1] = az
+        # Convention: append nan
+        out[-1] = np.nan
+
+        return out
+
+    def segment_groundspeed(
+        self, smooth: bool = False, window_length: int = 7, polyorder: int = 1
+    ) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+        """Return groundspeed across segments.
+
+        Calculate by dividing the horizontal segment length by the difference in waypoint times.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        smooth : bool, optional
+            Smooth airspeed with Savitzky-Golay filter.
+            Defaults to False.
+        window_length : int, optional
+            Passed directly to :func:`scipy.signal.savgol_filter`, by default 7.
+        polyorder : int, optional
+            Passed directly to :func:`scipy.signal.savgol_filter`, by default 1.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            Groundspeed of the segment, [:math:`m s^{-1}`]
+        """
+        # get horizontal distance (altitude is ignored)
+        horizontal_segment_length = geo.segment_haversine(self["longitude"], self["latitude"])
+
+        # time between waypoints, in seconds
+        dt_sec = self.segment_duration(dtype=horizontal_segment_length.dtype)
+
+        # calculate groundspeed
+        groundspeed = horizontal_segment_length / dt_sec
+
+        # Savitzky-Golay filter
+        if smooth:
+            # omit final nan value, then reattach it afterwards
+            groundspeed[:-1] = _sg_filter(groundspeed[:-1], window_length, polyorder)
+            groundspeed[-1] = np.nan
+
+        return groundspeed
+
+    def segment_true_airspeed(
+        self,
+        u_wind: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float = 0.0,
+        v_wind: npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float = 0.0,
+        smooth: bool = True,
+        window_length: int = 7,
+        polyorder: int = 1,
+    ) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+        r"""Calculate the true airspeed [:math:`m/s`] from the ground speed and horizontal winds.
+
+        The calculated ground speed will first be smoothed with a Savitzky-Golay filter if enabled.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        u_wind : npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float
+            U wind speed, [:math:`m \ s^{-1}`].
+            Defaults to 0 for all waypoints.
+        v_wind : npt.NDArray[np.float64] | float
+            V wind speed, [:math:`m \ s^{-1}`].
+            Defaults to 0 for all waypoints.
+        smooth : bool, optional
+            Smooth airspeed with Savitzky-Golay filter.
+            Defaults to True.
+        window_length : int, optional
+            Passed directly to :func:`scipy.signal.savgol_filter`, by default 7.
+        polyorder : int, optional
+            Passed directly to :func:`scipy.signal.savgol_filter`, by default 1.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            True wind speed of each segment, [:math:`m \ s^{-1}`]
+        """
+        groundspeed = self.segment_groundspeed(smooth, window_length, polyorder)
+
+        sin_a, cos_a = self.segment_angle()
+        gs_x = groundspeed * cos_a
+        gs_y = groundspeed * sin_a
+        tas_x = gs_x - u_wind
+        tas_y = gs_y - v_wind
+
+        return np.sqrt(tas_x * tas_x + tas_y * tas_y)
+
+    def segment_mach_number(
+        self, true_airspeed: npt.NDArray[np.float64], air_temperature: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+    ) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+        r"""Calculate the mach number of each segment.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        true_airspeed : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            True airspeed of the segment, [:math:`m \ s^{-1}`].
+            See :meth:`segment_true_airspeed`.
+        air_temperature : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            Average air temperature of each segment, [:math:`K`]
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            Mach number of each segment
+        """
+        return units.tas_to_mach_number(true_airspeed, air_temperature)
+
+    def segment_rocd(
+        self,
+        air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.float64] = None,
+    ) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+        """Calculate the rate of climb and descent (ROCD).
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            Air temperature of each flight waypoint, [:math:`K`]
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            Rate of climb and descent over segment, [:math:`ft min^{-1}`]
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        :func:`segment_rocd`
+        """
+        return segment_rocd(self.segment_duration(), self.altitude_ft, air_temperature)
+
+    def segment_phase(
+        self,
+        threshold_rocd: float = 250.0,
+        min_cruise_altitude_ft: float = 20000.0,
+        air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.float64] = None,
+    ) -> npt.NDArray[np.uint8]:
+        """Identify the phase of flight (climb, cruise, descent) for each segment.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        threshold_rocd : float, optional
+            ROCD threshold to identify climb and descent, [:math:`ft min^{-1}`].
+            Currently set to 250 ft/min.
+        min_cruise_altitude_ft : float, optional
+            Minimum altitude for cruise, [:math:`ft`]
+            This is specific for each aircraft type,
+            and can be approximated as 50% of the altitude ceiling.
+            Defaults to 20000 ft.
+        air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+            Air temperature of each flight waypoint, [:math:`K`]
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        npt.NDArray[np.uint8]
+            Array of values enumerating the flight phase.
+            See :attr:`flight.FlightPhase` for enumeration.
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        :attr:`FlightPhase`
+        :func:`segment_phase`
+        :func:`segment_rocd`
+        """
+        return segment_phase(
+            self.segment_rocd(air_temperature),
+            self.altitude_ft,
+            threshold_rocd=threshold_rocd,
+            min_cruise_altitude_ft=min_cruise_altitude_ft,
+        )
+
+    # ------------
+    # Filter/Resample
+    # ------------
+
+    def filter_by_first(self) -> Flight:
+        """Keep first row of group of waypoints with identical coordinates.
+
+        Chaining this method with `resample_and_fill` often gives a cleaner trajectory
+        when using noisy flight waypoints.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Flight
+            Filtered Flight instance
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> from datetime import datetime
+        >>> import pandas as pd
+
+        >>> df = pd.DataFrame()
+        >>> df['longitude'] = [0, 0, 50]
+        >>> df['latitude'] = 0
+        >>> df['altitude'] = 0
+        >>> df['time'] = [datetime(2020, 1, 1, h) for h in range(3)]
+
+        >>> fl = Flight(df)
+
+        >>> fl.filter_by_first().dataframe
+           longitude  latitude  altitude                time
+        0        0.0       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 00:00:00
+        1       50.0       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 02:00:00
+        """
+        df = self.dataframe.groupby(["longitude", "latitude"], sort=False).first().reset_index()
+        return Flight(data=df, attrs=self.attrs)
+
+    def resample_and_fill(
+        self,
+        freq: str = "1min",
+        fill_method: str = "geodesic",
+        geodesic_threshold: float = 100e3,
+        nominal_rocd: float = constants.nominal_rocd,
+        drop: bool = True,
+        keep_original_index: bool = False,
+        climb_descend_at_end: bool = False,
+    ) -> Flight:
+        """Resample and fill flight trajectory with geodesics and linear interpolation.
+
+        Waypoints are resampled according to the frequency ``freq``. Values for :attr:`data`
+        columns ``longitude``, ``latitude``, and ``altitude`` are interpolated.
+
+        Resampled waypoints will include all multiples of ``freq`` between the flight
+        start and end time. For example, when resampling to a frequency of 1 minute,
+        a flight that starts at 2020/1/1 00:00:59 and ends at 2020/1/1 00:01:01
+        will return a single waypoint at 2020/1/1 00:01:00, whereas a flight that
+        starts at 2020/1/1 00:01:01 and ends at 2020/1/1 00:01:59 will return an empty
+        flight.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        freq : str, optional
+            Resampling frequency, by default "1min"
+        fill_method : {"geodesic", "linear"}, optional
+            Choose between ``"geodesic"`` and ``"linear"``, by default ``"geodesic"``.
+            In geodesic mode, large gaps between waypoints are filled with geodesic
+            interpolation and small gaps are filled with linear interpolation. In linear
+            mode, all gaps are filled with linear interpolation.
+        geodesic_threshold : float, optional
+            Threshold for geodesic interpolation, [:math:`m`].
+            If the distance between consecutive waypoints is under this threshold,
+            values are interpolated linearly.
+        nominal_rocd : float | None, optional
+            Nominal rate of climb / descent for aircraft type.
+            Defaults to :attr:`constants.nominal_rocd`.
+        drop : bool, optional
+            Drop any columns that are not resampled and filled.
+            Defaults to ``True``, dropping all keys outside of "time", "latitude",
+            "longitude" and "altitude". If set to False, the extra keys will be
+            kept but filled with ``nan`` or ``None`` values, depending on the data type.
+        keep_original_index : bool, optional
+            Keep the original index of the :class:`Flight` in addition to the new
+            resampled index. Defaults to ``False``.
+            .. versionadded:: 0.45.2
+        climb_or_descend_at_end : bool
+            If true, the climb or descent will be placed at the end of each segment
+            rather than the start. Default is false (climb or descent immediately).
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Flight
+            Filled Flight
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        ValueError
+            Unknown ``fill_method``
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> from datetime import datetime
+        >>> import pandas as pd
+
+        >>> df = pd.DataFrame()
+        >>> df['longitude'] = [0, 0, 50]
+        >>> df['latitude'] = 0
+        >>> df['altitude'] = 0
+        >>> df['time'] = [datetime(2020, 1, 1, h) for h in range(3)]
+
+        >>> fl = Flight(df)
+        >>> fl.dataframe
+           longitude  latitude  altitude                time
+                   0        0.0       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 00:00:00
+                   1        0.0       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 01:00:00
+                   2       50.0       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 02:00:00
+
+        >>> fl.resample_and_fill('10min').dataframe  # resample with 10 minute frequency
+            longitude  latitude  altitude                time
+        0    0.000000       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 00:00:00
+        1    0.000000       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 00:10:00
+        2    0.000000       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 00:20:00
+        3    0.000000       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 00:30:00
+        4    0.000000       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 00:40:00
+        5    0.000000       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 00:50:00
+        6    0.000000       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 01:00:00
+        7    8.333333       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 01:10:00
+        8   16.666667       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 01:20:00
+        9   25.000000       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 01:30:00
+        10  33.333333       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 01:40:00
+        11  41.666667       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 01:50:00
+        12  50.000000       0.0       0.0 2020-01-01 02:00:00
+        """
+        methods = "geodesic", "linear"
+        if fill_method not in methods:
+            raise ValueError(f'Unknown `fill_method`. Supported  methods: {", ".join(methods)}')
+
+        # STEP 0: If self is empty, return an empty flight
+        if not self:
+            warnings.warn("Flight instance is empty.")
+            return self.copy()
+
+        # STEP 1: Prepare DataFrame on which we'll perform resampling
+        df = self.dataframe
+
+        # put altitude on dataframe if its not already there
+        if "altitude" not in df:
+            df["altitude"] = self.altitude
+
+        # always drop level
+        if "level" in df:
+            df = df.drop(columns="level")
+
+        # drop all cols except time/lon/lat/alt
+        if drop:
+            df = df.loc[:, ["time", "longitude", "latitude", "altitude"]]
+
+        # STEP 2: Fill large horizontal gaps with interpolated geodesics
+        if fill_method == "geodesic":
+            filled = self._geodesic_interpolation(geodesic_threshold)
+            if filled is not None:
+                df = pd.concat([df, filled])
+
+        # STEP 3: Set the time index, and sort it
+        df = df.set_index("time", verify_integrity=True).sort_index()
+
+        # STEP 4: handle antimeridian crossings
+        # For flights spanning the antimeridian, we translate them to a
+        # common "chart" away from the antimeridian (see variable `shift`),
+        # then apply the interpolation, then shift back to their original position.
+        shift = self._antimeridian_shift()
+        if shift is not None:
+            df["longitude"] = (df["longitude"] - shift) % 360.0
+
+        # STEP 5: Resample flight to freq
+        # Save altitudes to copy over - these just get rounded down in time.
+        # Also get target sample indices
+        df, t = _resample_to_freq(df, freq)
+
+        if shift is not None:
+            # We need to translate back to the original chart here
+            df["longitude"] += shift
+            df["longitude"] = ((df["longitude"] + 180.0) % 360.0) - 180.0
+
+        # STEP 6: Interpolate nan values in altitude
+        altitude = df["altitude"].to_numpy()
+        if np.any(np.isnan(altitude)):
+            df_freq = pd.Timedelta(freq).to_numpy()
+            new_alt = _altitude_interpolation(altitude, nominal_rocd, df_freq, climb_descend_at_end)
+            _verify_altitude(new_alt, nominal_rocd, df_freq)
+            df["altitude"] = new_alt
+
+        # Remove original index if requested
+        if not keep_original_index:
+            df = df.loc[t]
+
+        # finally reset index
+        df = df.reset_index()
+        if df.empty:
+            msg = "Method 'resample_and_fill' returns in an empty Flight."
+            if not keep_original_index:
+                msg = f"{msg} Pass 'keep_original_index=True' to keep the original index."
+            warnings.warn(msg)
+
+        return Flight(data=df, attrs=self.attrs)
+
+    def clean_and_resample(
+        self,
+        freq: str = "1min",
+        fill_method: str = "geodesic",
+        geodesic_threshold: float = 100e3,
+        nominal_rocd: float = constants.nominal_rocd,
+        kernel_size: int = 17,
+        cruise_threshold: float = 120.0,
+        force_filter: bool = False,
+        drop: bool = True,
+        keep_original_index: bool = False,
+        climb_descend_at_end: bool = False,
+    ) -> Flight:
+        """Resample and (possibly) filter a flight trajectory.
+
+        Waypoints are resampled according to the frequency ``freq``. If the original
+        flight data has a short sampling period, `filter_altitude` will also be called
+        to clean the data.  Large gaps in trajectories may be interpolated as step climbs
+        through `_altitude_interpolation`.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        freq : str, optional
+            Resampling frequency, by default "1min"
+        fill_method : {"geodesic", "linear"}, optional
+            Choose between ``"geodesic"`` and ``"linear"``, by default ``"geodesic"``.
+            In geodesic mode, large gaps between waypoints are filled with geodesic
+            interpolation and small gaps are filled with linear interpolation. In linear
+            mode, all gaps are filled with linear interpolation.
+        geodesic_threshold : float, optional
+            Threshold for geodesic interpolation, [:math:`m`].
+            If the distance between consecutive waypoints is under this threshold,
+            values are interpolated linearly.
+        nominal_rocd : float, optional
+            Nominal rate of climb / descent for aircraft type.
+            Defaults to :attr:`constants.nominal_rocd`.
+        kernel_size : int, optional
+            Passed directly to :func:`scipy.signal.medfilt`, by default 11.
+            Passed also to :func:`scipy.signal.medfilt`
+        cruise_theshold : float, optional
+            Minimal length of time, in seconds, for a flight to be in cruise to apply median filter
+        force_filter: bool, optional
+            If set to true, meth:`filter_altitude` will always be called. otherwise, it will only
+            be called if the flight has a median sample period under 10 seconds
+        drop : bool, optional
+            Drop any columns that are not resampled and filled.
+            Defaults to ``True``, dropping all keys outside of "time", "latitude",
+            "longitude" and "altitude". If set to False, the extra keys will be
+            kept but filled with ``nan`` or ``None`` values, depending on the data type.
+        keep_original_index : bool, optional
+            Keep the original index of the :class:`Flight` in addition to the new
+            resampled index. Defaults to ``False``.
+            .. versionadded:: 0.45.2
+        climb_or_descend_at_end : bool
+            If true, the climb or descent will be placed at the end of each segment
+            rather than the start. Default is false (climb or descent immediately).
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Flight
+            Filled Flight
+        """
+        clean_flight: Flight
+        # If the flight has a large sampling period, don't try to smooth it unless requested
+        seg_duration = self.segment_duration()
+        median_gap = np.nanmedian(seg_duration)
+        if (median_gap > 10.0) and (not force_filter):
+            return self.resample_and_fill(
+                freq,
+                fill_method,
+                geodesic_threshold,
+                nominal_rocd,
+                drop,
+                keep_original_index,
+                climb_descend_at_end,
+            )
+
+        # If the flight has large gap(s), then call resample and fill, then filter altitude
+        max_gap = np.max(seg_duration)
+        if max_gap > 300.0:
+            # Ignore warning in intermediate resample
+            with warnings.catch_warnings():
+                warnings.filterwarnings("ignore", message="^.*greater than nominal.*$")
+                clean_flight = self.resample_and_fill(
+                    "1s",
+                    fill_method,
+                    geodesic_threshold,
+                    nominal_rocd,
+                    drop,
+                    keep_original_index,
+                    climb_descend_at_end,
+                )
+            clean_flight = clean_flight.filter_altitude(kernel_size, cruise_threshold)
+        else:
+            clean_flight = self.filter_altitude(kernel_size, cruise_threshold)
+
+        # Resample to requested rate and return
+        return clean_flight.resample_and_fill(
+            freq,
+            fill_method,
+            geodesic_threshold,
+            nominal_rocd,
+            drop,
+            keep_original_index,
+            climb_descend_at_end,
+        )
+
+    def filter_altitude(
+        self,
+        kernel_size: int = 17,
+        cruise_threshold: float = 120.0,
+    ) -> Flight:
+        """
+        Filter noisy altitude on a single flight.
+
+        Currently runs altitude through a median filter using :func:`scipy.signal.medfilt`
+        with ``kernel_size``, then a Savitzky-Golay filter to filter noise. The median filter
+        is only applied during cruise segments that are longer than ``cruise_threshold``.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        kernel_size : int, optional
+            Passed directly to :func:`scipy.signal.medfilt`, by default 11.
+            Passed also to :func:`scipy.signal.medfilt`
+        cruise_theshold : float, optional
+            Minimal length of time, in seconds, for a flight to be in cruise to apply median filter
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        Flight
+            Filtered Flight
+
+        Notes
+        -----
+        Algorithm is derived from :meth:`traffic.core.flight.Flight.filter`.
+
+        The `traffic
+        <https://traffic-viz.github.io/api_reference/traffic.core.flight.html#traffic.core.Flight.filter>`_
+        algorithm also computes thresholds on sliding windows
+        and replaces unacceptable values with NaNs.
+
+        Errors may raised if the ``kernel_size`` is too large.
+
+        See Also
+        --------
+        :meth:`traffic.core.flight.Flight.filter`
+        :func:`scipy.signal.medfilt`
+        """
+        out = self.copy()
+        altitude_ft_filtered = filter_altitude(
+            self["time"], self.altitude_ft, kernel_size, cruise_threshold
+        )
+        out.update(altitude_ft=altitude_ft_filtered)
+        out.data.pop("altitude", None)  # avoid any ambiguity
+        out.data.pop("level", None)  # avoid any ambiguity
+        return out
+
+    def distance_to_coords(self: Flight, distance: ArrayOrFloat) -> tuple[
+        ArrayOrFloat,
+        ArrayOrFloat,
+        np.intp | npt.NDArray[np.intp],
+    ]:
+        """
+        Convert distance along flight path to geodesic coordinates.
+
+        Will return a tuple containing `(lat, lon, index)`, where index indicates which flight
+        segment contains the returned coordinate.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        distance : ArrayOrFloat
+            Distance along flight path, [:math:`m`]
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        (ArrayOrFloat, ArrayOrFloat, int | npt.NDArray[int])
+            latitude, longitude, and segment index cooresponding to distance.
+        """
+
+        # Check if flight crosses antimeridian line
+        # If it does, shift longitude chart to remove jump
+        lon_ = self["longitude"]
+        lat_ = self["latitude"]
+        shift = self._antimeridian_shift()
+        if shift is not None:
+            lon_ = (lon_ - shift) % 360.0
+
+        # Make a fake flight that flies at constant height so distance is just
+        # distance traveled across groud
+        flat_dataset = Flight(
+            longitude=self.coords["longitude"],
+            latitude=self.coords["latitude"],
+            time=self.coords["time"],
+            level=[self.coords["level"][0] for _ in range(self.size)],
+        )
+
+        lengths = flat_dataset.segment_length()
+        cumulative_lengths = np.nancumsum(lengths)
+        cumulative_lengths = np.insert(cumulative_lengths[:-1], 0, 0)
+        seg_idx: np.intp | npt.NDArray[np.intp]
+
+        if isinstance(distance, float):
+            seg_idx = np.argmax(cumulative_lengths > distance)
+        else:
+            seg_idx = np.argmax(cumulative_lengths > distance.reshape((distance.size, 1)), axis=1)
+
+        # If in the last segment (which has length 0), then just return the last waypoint
+        seg_idx -= 1
+
+        # linear interpolation in lat/lon - assuming the way points are within 100-200km so this
+        # should be accurate enough without needed to reproject or use spherical distance
+        lat1: ArrayOrFloat = lat_[seg_idx]
+        lon1: ArrayOrFloat = lon_[seg_idx]
+        lat2: ArrayOrFloat = lat_[seg_idx + 1]
+        lon2: ArrayOrFloat = lon_[seg_idx + 1]
+
+        dx = distance - cumulative_lengths[seg_idx]
+        fx = dx / lengths[seg_idx]
+        lat = (1 - fx) * lat1 + fx * lat2
+        lon = (1 - fx) * lon1 + fx * lon2
+
+        if isinstance(distance, float):
+            if distance < 0:
+                lat = np.nan
+                lon = np.nan
+                seg_idx = np.intp(0)
+            elif distance >= cumulative_lengths[-1]:
+                lat = lat_[-1]
+                lon = lon_[-1]
+                seg_idx = np.intp(self.size - 1)
+        else:
+            lat[distance < 0] = np.nan
+            lon[distance < 0] = np.nan
+            seg_idx[distance < 0] = 0  # type: ignore
+
+            lat[distance >= cumulative_lengths[-1]] = lat_[-1]
+            lon[distance >= cumulative_lengths[-1]] = lon_[-1]
+            seg_idx[distance >= cumulative_lengths[-1]] = self.size - 1  # type: ignore
+
+        if shift is not None:
+            # We need to translate back to the original chart here
+            lon += shift
+            lon = ((lon + 180.0) % 360.0) - 180.0
+
+        return lat, lon, seg_idx
+
+    def _antimeridian_shift(self) -> float | None:
+        """Determine shift required for resampling trajectories that cross antimeridian.
+
+        Because flights sometimes span more than 180 degree longitude (for example,
+        when flight-level winds favor travel in a specific direction, typically eastward),
+        antimeridian crossings cannot reliably be detected by looking only at minimum
+        and maximum longitudes.
+
+        Instead, this function checks each flight segment for an antimeridian crossing,
+        and if it finds one returns the coordinate of a meridian that is not crossed by
+        the flight.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        float | None
+            Longitude shift for handling antimeridian crossings, or None if the
+            flight does not cross the antimeridian.
+        """
+
+        # logic for detecting crossings is consistent with _antimeridian_crossing,
+        # but implementation is separate to keep performance costs as low as possible
+        lon = self["longitude"]
+        if np.any(np.isnan(lon)):
+            warnings.warn("Anti-meridian crossings can't be reliably detected with nan longitudes")
+
+        s1 = (lon >= -180) & (lon <= -90)
+        s2 = (lon <= 180) & (lon >= 90)
+        jump12 = s1[:-1] & s2[1:]  # westward
+        jump21 = s2[:-1] & s1[1:]  # eastward
+        if not np.any(jump12 | jump21):
+            return None
+
+        # separate flight into segments that are east and west of crossings
+        net_westward = np.insert(np.cumsum(jump12.astype(int) - jump21.astype(int)), 0, 0)
+        max_westward = net_westward.max()
+        if max_westward - net_westward.min() > 1:
+            msg = "Cannot handle consecutive antimeridian crossings in the same direction"
+            raise ValueError(msg)
+        east = (net_westward == 0) if max_westward == 1 else (net_westward == -1)
+
+        # shift must be between maximum longitude east of crossings
+        # and minimum longitude west of crossings
+        shift_min = np.nanmax(lon[east])
+        shift_max = np.nanmin(lon[~east])
+        if shift_min >= shift_max:
+            msg = "Cannot handle flight that spans more than 360 degrees longitude"
+            raise ValueError(msg)
+        return (shift_min + shift_max) / 2
+
+    def _geodesic_interpolation(self, geodesic_threshold: float) -> pd.DataFrame | None:
+        """Geodesic interpolate between large gaps between waypoints.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        geodesic_threshold : float
+            The threshold for large gap, [:math:`m`].
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        pd.DataFrame | None
+            Generated waypoints to be merged into underlying :attr:`data`.
+            Return `None` if no new waypoints are created.
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        NotImplementedError
+            Raises when attr:`attrs["crs"]` is not EPSG:4326
+        """
+        if self.attrs["crs"] != "EPSG:4326":
+            raise NotImplementedError("Only implemented for EPSG:4326 CRS.")
+
+        # Omit the final nan and ensure index + 1 (below) is well defined
+        segs = self.segment_haversine()[:-1]
+
+        # For default geodesic_threshold, we expect gap_indices to be very
+        # sparse (so the for loop below is cheap)
+        gap_indices = np.flatnonzero(segs > geodesic_threshold)
+        if gap_indices.size == 0:
+            # For most flights, gap_indices is empty. It's more performant
+            # to exit now rather than build an empty DataFrame below.
+            return None
+
+        try:
+            import pyproj
+        except ModuleNotFoundError as exc:
+            dependencies.raise_module_not_found_error(
+                name="Flight._geodesic_interpolation method",
+                package_name="pyproj",
+                module_not_found_error=exc,
+                pycontrails_optional_package="pyproj",
+            )
+
+        geod = pyproj.Geod(ellps="WGS84")
+        longitudes: list[float] = []
+        latitudes: list[float] = []
+        times: list[np.ndarray] = []
+
+        longitude = self["longitude"]
+        latitude = self["latitude"]
+        time = self["time"]
+
+        for index in gap_indices:
+            lon0 = longitude[index]
+            lat0 = latitude[index]
+            t0 = time[index]
+            lon1 = longitude[index + 1]
+            lat1 = latitude[index + 1]
+            t1 = time[index + 1]
+
+            distance = segs[index]
+            n_steps = distance // geodesic_threshold  # number of new waypoints to generate
+
+            # This is the expensive call within the for-loop
+            # NOTE: geod.npts does not return the initial or terminal points
+            lonlats: list[tuple[float, float]] = geod.npts(lon0, lat0, lon1, lat1, n_steps)
+
+            lons, lats = zip(*lonlats, strict=True)
+            longitudes.extend(lons)
+            latitudes.extend(lats)
+
+            # + 1 to denominator to stay consistent with geod.npts (only interior points)
+            t_step = (t1 - t0) / (n_steps + 1.0)
+
+            # subtract 0.5 * t_step to ensure round-off error doesn't put final arange point
+            # very close to t1
+            t_range = np.arange(t0 + t_step, t1 - 0.5 * t_step, t_step)
+            times.append(t_range)
+
+        times_ = np.concatenate(times)
+        return pd.DataFrame({"longitude": longitudes, "latitude": latitudes, "time": times_})
+
+    # ------------
+    # I / O
+    # ------------
+
+    def to_geojson_linestring(self) -> dict[str, Any]:
+        """Return trajectory as geojson FeatureCollection containing single LineString.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict[str, Any]
+            Python representation of geojson FeatureCollection
+        """
+        points = _return_linestring(
+            {
+                "longitude": self["longitude"],
+                "latitude": self["latitude"],
+                "altitude": self.altitude,
+            }
+        )
+        geometry = {"type": "LineString", "coordinates": points}
+        properties = {
+            "start_time": self.time_start.isoformat(),
+            "end_time": self.time_end.isoformat(),
+        }
+        properties.update(self.constants)
+        linestring = {"type": "Feature", "geometry": geometry, "properties": properties}
+
+        return {"type": "FeatureCollection", "features": [linestring]}
+
+    def to_geojson_multilinestring(
+        self, key: str | None = None, split_antimeridian: bool = True
+    ) -> dict[str, Any]:
+        """Return trajectory as GeoJSON FeatureCollection of MultiLineStrings.
+
+        If `key` is provided, Flight :attr:`data` is grouped according to values of ``key``.
+        Each group gives rise to a Feature containing a MultiLineString geometry.
+        Each MultiLineString can optionally be split over the antimeridian.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        key : str, optional
+            If provided, name of :attr:`data` column to group by.
+        split_antimeridian : bool, optional
+            Split linestrings that cross the antimeridian. Defaults to True.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict[str, Any]
+            Python representation of GeoJSON FeatureCollection of MultiLinestring Features
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        KeyError
+            ``key`` is provided but :attr:`data` does not contain column ``key``
+        """
+        if key is not None and key not in self.dataframe.columns:
+            raise KeyError(f"Column {key} does not exist in data.")
+
+        jump_indices = _antimeridian_index(pd.Series(self["longitude"]), self.attrs["crs"])
+
+        def _group_to_feature(group: pd.DataFrame) -> dict[str, str | dict[str, Any]]:
+            # assigns a different value to each group of consecutive indices
+            subgrouping = group.index.to_series().diff().ne(1).cumsum()
+
+            # increments values after antimeridian crossings
+            if split_antimeridian:
+                for jump_index in jump_indices:
+                    if jump_index in subgrouping:
+                        subgrouping.loc[jump_index:] += 1
+
+            # creates separate linestrings for sets of points
+            # - with non-consecutive indices
+            # - before and after antimeridian crossings
+            multi_ls = [_return_linestring(g) for _, g in group.groupby(subgrouping)]
+            geometry = {"type": "MultiLineString", "coordinates": multi_ls}
+
+            # adding in static properties
+            properties: dict[str, Any] = {key: group.name} if key is not None else {}
+            properties.update(self.constants)
+            return {"type": "Feature", "geometry": geometry, "properties": properties}
+
+        if key is not None:
+            groups = self.dataframe.groupby(key)
+        else:
+            # create a single group containing all rows of dataframe
+            groups = self.dataframe.groupby(lambda _: 0)
+
+        features = groups.apply(_group_to_feature, include_groups=False).values.tolist()
+        return {"type": "FeatureCollection", "features": features}
+
+    def to_traffic(self) -> traffic.core.Flight:
+        """Convert Flight instance to :class:`traffic.core.Flight` instance.
+
+        See https://traffic-viz.github.io/traffic.core.flight.html#traffic.core.Flight
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        :class:`traffic.core.Flight`
+            `traffic.core.Flight` instance
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        ModuleNotFoundError
+            `traffic` package not installed
+        """
+        try:
+            import traffic.core
+        except ModuleNotFoundError as e:
+            dependencies.raise_module_not_found_error(
+                name="Flight.to_traffic method",
+                package_name="traffic",
+                module_not_found_error=e,
+            )
+
+        return traffic.core.Flight(
+            self.to_dataframe(copy=True).rename(columns={"time": "timestamp"})
+        )
+
+    # ------------
+    # MET
+    # ------------
+
+    def length_met(self, key: str, threshold: float = 1.0) -> float:
+        """Calculate total horizontal distance where column ``key`` exceeds ``threshold``.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        key : str
+            Column key in :attr:`data`
+        threshold : float
+            Consider trajectory waypoints whose associated ``key`` value exceeds ``threshold``,
+            by default 1.0
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        float
+            Total distance, [:math:`m`]
+
+        Raises
+        ------
+        KeyError
+            :attr:`data` does not contain column ``key``
+        NotImplementedError
+            Raised when ``attrs["crs"]`` is not EPSG:4326
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        >>> from datetime import datetime
+        >>> import pandas as pd
+        >>> import numpy as np
+        >>> from pycontrails.datalib.ecmwf import ERA5
+        >>> from pycontrails import Flight
+
+        >>> # Get met data
+        >>> times = (datetime(2022, 3, 1, 0),  datetime(2022, 3, 1, 3))
+        >>> variables = ["air_temperature", "specific_humidity"]
+        >>> levels = [300, 250, 200]
+        >>> era5 = ERA5(time=times, variables=variables, pressure_levels=levels)
+        >>> met = era5.open_metdataset()
+
+        >>> # Build flight
+        >>> df = pd.DataFrame()
+        >>> df["time"] = pd.date_range("2022-03-01T00", "2022-03-01T03", periods=11)
+        >>> df["longitude"] = np.linspace(-20, 20, 11)
+        >>> df["latitude"] = np.linspace(-20, 20, 11)
+        >>> df["altitude"] = np.linspace(9500, 10000, 11)
+        >>> fl = Flight(df).resample_and_fill("10s")
+
+        >>> # Intersect and attach
+        >>> fl["air_temperature"] = fl.intersect_met(met["air_temperature"])
+        >>> fl["air_temperature"]
+        array([235.94657007, 235.55745645, 235.56709768, ..., 234.59917962,
+               234.60387402, 234.60845312])
+
+        >>> # Length (in meters) of waypoints whose temperature exceeds 236K
+        >>> fl.length_met("air_temperature", threshold=236)
+        np.float64(3589705.998...)
+
+        >>> # Proportion (with respect to distance) of waypoints whose temperature exceeds 236K
+        >>> fl.proportion_met("air_temperature", threshold=236)
+        np.float64(0.576...)
+        """
+        if key not in self.data:
+            raise KeyError(f"Column {key} does not exist in data.")
+        if self.attrs["crs"] != "EPSG:4326":
+            raise NotImplementedError("Only implemented for EPSG:4326 CRS.")
+
+        # The column of interest may contain floating point values less than 1.
+        # In this case, if the default threshold is not changed, warn the user that the behavior
+        # might not be what is expected.
+
+        # Checking if column of interest contains floating point values below 1
+        if threshold == 1.0 and ((self[key] > 0) & (self[key] < 1)).any():
+            warnings.warn(
+                f"Column {key} contains real numbers between 0 and 1. "
+                "To include these values in this calculation, change the `threshold` parameter "
+                "or modify the underlying DataFrame in place."
+            )
+
+        segs = self.segment_length()[:-1]  # lengths between waypoints, dropping off the nan
+
+        # giving each waypoint the average of the segments on either side side
+        segs = np.concatenate([segs[:1], (segs[1:] + segs[:-1]) / 2, segs[-1:]])
+
+        # filter by region of interest
+        indices = np.where(self[key] >= threshold)[0]
+
+        return np.sum(segs[indices])
+
+    def proportion_met(self, key: str, threshold: float = 1.0) -> float:
+        """Calculate proportion of flight with certain meteorological constraint.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        key : str
+            Column key in :attr:`data`
+        threshold : float
+            Consider trajectory waypoints whose associated ``key`` value exceeds ``threshold``,
+            Defaults to 1.0
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        float
+            Ratio
+        """
+        try:
+            return self.length_met(key, threshold) / self.length
+        except ZeroDivisionError:
+            return 0.0
+
+    # ------------
+    # Visualization
+    # ------------
+
+    def plot(self, **kwargs: Any) -> matplotlib.axes.Axes:
+        """Plot flight trajectory longitude-latitude values.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        **kwargs : Any
+            Additional plot properties to passed to `pd.DataFrame.plot`
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        :class:`matplotlib.axes.Axes`
+            Plot
+        """
+        kwargs.setdefault("legend", False)
+        ax = self.dataframe.plot(x="longitude", y="latitude", **kwargs)
+        ax.set(xlabel="longitude", ylabel="latitude")
+        return ax
+
+    def plot_profile(self, **kwargs: Any) -> matplotlib.axes.Axes:
+        """Plot flight trajectory time-altitude values.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        **kwargs : Any
+            Additional plot properties to passed to `pd.DataFrame.plot`
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        :class:`matplotlib.axes.Axes`
+            Plot
+        """
+        kwargs.setdefault("legend", False)
+        df = self.dataframe.assign(altitude_ft=self.altitude_ft)
+        ax = df.plot(x="time", y="altitude_ft", **kwargs)
+        ax.set(xlabel="time", ylabel="altitude_ft")
+        return ax
+
+
+def _return_linestring(data: dict[str, npt.NDArray[np.float64]]) -> list[list[float]]:
+    """Return list of coordinates for geojson constructions.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : dict[str, npt.NDArray[np.float64]]
+        :attr:`data` containing `longitude`, `latitude`, and `altitude` keys
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    list[list[float]]
+        The list of coordinates
+    """
+    # rounding to reduce the size of resultant json arrays
+    points = zip(
+        np.round(data["longitude"], decimals=4),
+        np.round(data["latitude"], decimals=4),
+        np.round(data["altitude"], decimals=4),
+        strict=True,
+    )
+    return [list(p) for p in points]
+
+
+def _antimeridian_index(longitude: pd.Series, crs: str = "EPSG:4326") -> list[int]:
+    """Return indices after flight crosses antimeridian, or an empty list if flight does not cross.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    longitude : pd.Series
+        longitude values with an integer index
+    crs : str, optional
+        Coordinate Reference system for longitude specified in EPSG format.
+        Currently only supports "EPSG:4326" and "EPSG:3857".
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    list[int]
+        Indices after jump, or empty list of flight does not cross antimeridian.
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        CRS is not supported.
+    """
+    # WGS84
+    if crs in ["EPSG:4326"]:
+        l1 = (-180.0, -90.0)
+        l2 = (90.0, 180.0)
+
+    # pseudo mercator
+    elif crs in ["EPSG:3857"]:
+        # values calculated through pyproj.Transformer
+        l1 = (-20037508.342789244, -10018754.171394622)
+        l2 = (10018754.171394622, 20037508.342789244)
+
+    else:
+        raise ValueError("CRS must be one of EPSG:4326 or EPSG:3857")
+
+    # TODO: When nans exist, this method *may* not find the meridian
+    if np.any(np.isnan(longitude)):
+        warnings.warn("Anti-meridian index can't be found accurately with nan values in longitude")
+
+    s1 = longitude.between(*l1)
+    s2 = longitude.between(*l2)
+    jump12 = longitude[s1 & s2.shift()]
+    jump21 = longitude[s1.shift() & s2]
+    jump_index = pd.concat([jump12, jump21]).index.to_list()
+
+    return jump_index
+
+
+def _sg_filter(
+    vals: npt.NDArray[np.float64], window_length: int = 7, polyorder: int = 1
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    """Apply Savitzky-Golay filter to smooth out noise in the time-series data.
+
+    Used to smooth true airspeed, fuel flow, and altitude.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    vals : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Input array
+    window_length : int, optional
+        Parameter for :func:`scipy.signal.savgol_filter`
+    polyorder : int, optional
+        Parameter for :func:`scipy.signal.savgol_filter`
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Smoothed values
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ArithmeticError
+        Raised if NaN values input to SG filter
+    """
+    # The window_length must be less than or equal to the number of data points available.
+    window_length = min(window_length, vals.size)
+
+    # The time window_length must be odd.
+    if (window_length % 2) == 0:
+        window_length -= 1
+
+    # If there is not enough data points to perform smoothing, return the mean ground speed
+    if window_length <= polyorder:
+        return np.full_like(vals, np.nanmean(vals))
+
+    if np.isnan(vals).any():
+        raise ArithmeticError("NaN values not supported by SG filter.")
+
+    return scipy.signal.savgol_filter(vals, window_length, polyorder)
+
+
+def _altitude_interpolation(
+    altitude: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+    nominal_rocd: float,
+    freq: np.timedelta64,
+    climb_or_descend_at_end: bool = False,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    """Interpolate nan values in ``altitude`` array.
+
+    Suppose each group of consecutive nan values is enclosed by ``a0`` and ``a1`` with
+    corresponding time values ``t0`` and ``t1`` respectively. For segments under two hours,
+    this function immediately climbs  starting at ``t0``, or for descents, descents at the end
+    the segment so ``a1`` is met at ``t1``. For segments greater than two hours, a descent will
+    still occur at the end of the segment, but climbs will start halfway between ``t0`` and
+    ``t1``.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    altitude : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Array of altitude values containing nan values. This function will raise
+        an error if ``altitude`` does not contain nan values. Moreover, this function
+        assumes the initial and final entries in ``altitude`` are not nan.
+    nominal_rocd : float
+        Nominal rate of climb/descent, in m/s
+    freq : np.timedelta64
+        Frequency of time index associated to ``altitude``.
+    climb_or_descend_at_end : bool
+        If true, the climb or descent will be placed at the end of each segment
+        rather than the start. Default is false (climb or descent immediately).
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Altitude after nan values have been filled
+    """
+    # Determine nan state of altitude
+    isna = np.isnan(altitude)
+
+    start_na = np.empty(altitude.size, dtype=bool)
+    start_na[:-1] = ~isna[:-1] & isna[1:]
+    start_na[-1] = False
+
+    end_na = np.empty(altitude.size, dtype=bool)
+    end_na[0] = False
+    end_na[1:] = isna[:-1] & ~isna[1:]
+
+    # And get the size of each group of consecutive nan values
+    start_na_idxs = np.flatnonzero(start_na)
+    end_na_idxs = np.flatnonzero(end_na)
+    na_group_size = end_na_idxs - start_na_idxs
+
+    if climb_or_descend_at_end:
+        return _altitude_interpolation_climb_descend_end(
+            altitude, na_group_size, nominal_rocd, freq, isna
+        )
+
+    return _altitude_interpolation_climb_descend_middle(
+        altitude, start_na_idxs, end_na_idxs, na_group_size, freq, nominal_rocd, isna
+    )
+
+
+def _altitude_interpolation_climb_descend_end(
+    altitude: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+    na_group_size: npt.NDArray[np.intp],
+    nominal_rocd: float,
+    freq: np.timedelta64,
+    isna: npt.NDArray[np.bool_],
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    """Interpolate altitude values by placing climbs/descents at end of nan sequences.
+
+    The segment will remain at constant elevation until the end of the segment where
+    it will climb or descend at a constant rocd based on `nominal_rocd`, reaching the
+    target altitude at the end of the segment.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    altitude : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Array of altitude values containing nan values. This function will raise
+        an error if ``altitude`` does not contain nan values. Moreover, this function
+        assumes the initial and final entries in ``altitude`` are not nan.
+    na_group_size : npt.NDArray[np.intp]
+        Array of the length of each consecutive sequence of nan values within the
+        array provided to input parameter `altitude`.
+    nominal_rocd : float
+        Nominal rate of climb/descent, in m/s
+    freq : np.timedelta64
+        Frequency of time index associated to ``altitude``.
+    isna : npt.NDArray[np.bool_]
+        Array of boolean values indicating whether or not each entry in `altitude`
+        is nan-valued.
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Altitude after nan values have been filled
+    """
+    cumalt_list = [np.flip(np.arange(1, size, dtype=float)) for size in na_group_size]
+    cumalt = np.concatenate(cumalt_list)
+    cumalt = cumalt * nominal_rocd * (freq / np.timedelta64(1, "s"))
+
+    # Expand cumalt to the full size of altitude
+    nominal_fill = np.zeros_like(altitude)
+    nominal_fill[isna] = cumalt
+
+    # Use pandas to forward and backfill altitude values
+    s = pd.Series(altitude)
+    s_ff = s.ffill()
+    s_bf = s.bfill()
+
+    # Construct altitude values if the flight were to climb / descent throughout
+    # group of consecutive nan values. The call to np.minimum / np.maximum cuts
+    # the climb / descent off at the terminal altitude of the nan group
+    fill_climb = np.maximum(s_ff, s_bf - nominal_fill)
+    fill_descent = np.minimum(s_ff, s_bf + nominal_fill)
+
+    # Explicitly determine if the flight is in a climb or descent state
+    sign = np.full_like(altitude, np.nan)
+    sign[~isna] = np.sign(np.diff(altitude[~isna], append=np.nan))
+    sign = pd.Series(sign).ffill()
+
+    # And return the mess
+    return np.where(sign == 1.0, fill_climb, fill_descent)
+
+
+def _altitude_interpolation_climb_descend_middle(
+    altitude: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+    start_na_idxs: npt.NDArray[np.intp],
+    end_na_idxs: npt.NDArray[np.intp],
+    na_group_size: npt.NDArray[np.intp],
+    freq: np.timedelta64,
+    nominal_rocd: float,
+    isna: npt.NDArray[np.bool_],
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    """Interpolate nan altitude values based on step-climb logic.
+
+    For short segments, the climb will be placed at the begining of the segment. For
+    long climbs (greater than two hours) the climb will be placed in the middle. For
+    all descents, the descent will be placed at the end of the segment.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    altitude : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Array of altitude values containing nan values. This function will raise
+        an error if ``altitude`` does not contain nan values. Moreover, this function
+        assumes the initial and final entries in ``altitude`` are not nan.
+    start_na_idxs : npt.NDArray[np.intp]
+        Array of indices of the array `altitude` that correspond to the last non-nan-
+        valued index before a sequence of consequtive nan values.
+    end_na_idxs : npt.NDArray[np.intp]
+        Array of indices of the array `altitude` that correspond to the first non-nan-
+        valued index after a sequence of consequtive nan values.
+    na_group_size : npt.NDArray[np.intp]
+        Array of the length of each consecutive sequence of nan values within the
+        array provided to input parameter `altitude`.
+    nominal_rocd : float
+        Nominal rate of climb/descent, in m/s
+    freq : np.timedelta64
+        Frequency of time index associated to ``altitude``.
+    isna : npt.NDArray[np.bool_]
+        Array of boolean values indicating whether or not each entry in `altitude`
+        is nan-valued.
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Altitude after nan values have been filled
+    """
+    s = pd.Series(altitude)
+
+    # Check to see if we have gaps greater than two hours
+    step_threshold = np.timedelta64(2, "h") / freq
+    step_groups = na_group_size > step_threshold
+    if np.any(step_groups):
+        # If there are gaps greater than two hours, step through one by one
+        for i, step_group in enumerate(step_groups):
+            # Skip short segments and segments that do not climb
+            if not step_group:
+                continue
+            if s[start_na_idxs[i]] >= s[end_na_idxs[i]]:
+                continue
+
+            # We have a long climbing segment.  Keep first half of segment at the starting
+            # altitude, then climb at mid point. Adjust indicies computed before accordingly
+            na_group_size[i], is_odd = divmod(na_group_size[i], 2)
+            nan_fill_size = na_group_size[i] + is_odd
+
+            sl = slice(start_na_idxs[i], start_na_idxs[i] + nan_fill_size + 1)
+            isna[sl] = False
+            s[sl] = s[start_na_idxs[i]]
+            start_na_idxs[i] += nan_fill_size
+
+    # Use pandas to forward and backfill altitude values
+    s_ff = s.ffill()
+    s_bf = s.bfill()
+
+    # Form array of cumulative altitude values if the flight were to climb
+    # at nominal_rocd over each group of nan
+    cumalt_list = []
+    for start_na_idx, end_na_idx, size in zip(
+        start_na_idxs, end_na_idxs, na_group_size, strict=True
+    ):
+        if s[start_na_idx] <= s[end_na_idx]:
+            cumalt_list.append(np.arange(1, size, dtype=float))
+        else:
+            cumalt_list.append(np.flip(np.arange(1, size, dtype=float)))
+
+    cumalt = np.concatenate(cumalt_list)
+    cumalt = cumalt * nominal_rocd * (freq / np.timedelta64(1, "s"))
+
+    # Expand cumalt to the full size of altitude
+    nominal_fill = np.zeros_like(altitude)
+    nominal_fill[isna] = cumalt
+
+    # Construct altitude values if the flight were to climb / descent throughout
+    # group of consecutive nan values. The call to np.minimum / np.maximum cuts
+    # the climb / descent off at the terminal altitude of the nan group
+    fill_climb = np.minimum(s_ff + nominal_fill, s_bf)
+    fill_descent = np.minimum(s_ff, s_bf + nominal_fill)
+
+    # Explicitly determine if the flight is in a climb or descent state
+    sign = np.full_like(altitude, np.nan)
+    sign[~isna] = np.sign(np.diff(s[~isna], append=np.nan))
+    sign = pd.Series(sign).ffill()
+
+    # And return the mess
+    return np.where(sign == 1.0, fill_climb, fill_descent)
+
+
+def _verify_altitude(
+    altitude: npt.NDArray[np.float64], nominal_rocd: float, freq: np.timedelta64
+) -> None:
+    """Confirm that the time derivative of `altitude` does not exceed twice `nominal_rocd`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    altitude : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Array of filled altitude values containing nan values.
+    nominal_rocd : float
+        Nominal rate of climb/descent, in m/s
+    freq : np.timedelta64
+        Frequency of time index associated to `altitude`.
+    """
+    dalt = np.diff(altitude)
+    dt = freq / np.timedelta64(1, "s")
+    rocd = np.abs(dalt / dt)
+    if np.any(rocd > 2.0 * nominal_rocd):
+        warnings.warn(
+            "Rate of climb/descent values greater than nominal "
+            f"({nominal_rocd} m/s) after altitude interpolation"
+        )
+    if np.any(np.isnan(altitude)):
+        warnings.warn(
+            f"Found nan values altitude after ({nominal_rocd} m/s) after altitude interpolation"
+        )
+
+
+def filter_altitude(
+    time: npt.NDArray[np.datetime64],
+    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+    kernel_size: int = 17,
+    cruise_threshold: float = 120,
+    air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.float64] = None,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    """
+    Filter noisy altitude on a single flight.
+
+    Currently runs altitude through a median filter using :func:`scipy.signal.medfilt`
+    with ``kernel_size``, then a Savitzky-Golay filter to filter noise. The median filter
+    is only applied during cruise segments that are longer than ``cruise_threshold``.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    time : npt.NDArray[np.datetime64]
+        Waypoint time in ``np.datetime64`` format.
+    altitude_ft : npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Altitude signal in feet
+    kernel_size : int, optional
+        Passed directly to :func:`scipy.signal.medfilt`, by default 11.
+        Passed also to :func:`scipy.signal.medfilt`
+    cruise_theshold : int, optional
+        Minimal length of time, in seconds, for a flight to be in cruise to apply median filter
+    air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Air temperature of each flight waypoint, [:math:`K`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Filtered altitude
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Algorithm is derived from :meth:`traffic.core.flight.Flight.filter`.
+
+    The `traffic
+    <https://traffic-viz.github.io/api_reference/traffic.core.flight.html#traffic.core.Flight.filter>`_
+    algorithm also computes thresholds on sliding windows
+    and replaces unacceptable values with NaNs.
+
+    Errors may raised if the ``kernel_size`` is too large.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    :meth:`traffic.core.flight.Flight.filter`
+    :func:`scipy.signal.medfilt`
+    """
+    if not len(altitude_ft):
+        raise ValueError("Altitude must have non-zero length to filter")
+
+    # The kernel_size must be less than or equal to the number of data points available.
+    kernel_size = min(kernel_size, altitude_ft.size)
+
+    # The kernel_size must be odd.
+    if (kernel_size % 2) == 0:
+        kernel_size -= 1
+
+    # Apply a median filter above a certain threshold
+    altitude_filt = scipy.signal.medfilt(altitude_ft, kernel_size=kernel_size)
+
+    # Apply Savitzky-Golay filter
+    altitude_filt = _sg_filter(altitude_filt, window_length=kernel_size)
+
+    # Remove noise manually
+    # only remove above max airport elevation
+    d_alt_ft = np.diff(altitude_filt, append=np.nan)
+    is_noise = (np.abs(d_alt_ft) <= 25.0) & (altitude_filt > MAX_AIRPORT_ELEVATION)
+    altitude_filt[is_noise] = np.round(altitude_filt[is_noise], -3)
+
+    # Find cruise phase in filtered profile
+    seg_duration = segment_duration(time)
+    seg_rocd = segment_rocd(seg_duration, altitude_filt, air_temperature)
+    seg_phase = segment_phase(seg_rocd, altitude_filt)
+    is_cruise = seg_phase == FlightPhase.CRUISE
+
+    # Compute cumulative segment time in cruise segments
+    v = np.nan_to_num(seg_duration)
+    v[~is_cruise] = 0.0
+    n = v == 0.0
+    c = np.cumsum(v)
+    d = np.diff(c[n], prepend=0.0)
+    v[n] = -d
+    cruise_duration = np.cumsum(v)
+
+    # Find cruise segment start and end indices
+    not_cruise = cruise_duration == 0.0
+
+    end_cruise = np.empty(cruise_duration.size, dtype=bool)
+    end_cruise[:-1] = ~not_cruise[:-1] & not_cruise[1:]
+    # if last sample is in cruise, last sample of end_cruise marks the end of a cruise segment
+    end_cruise[-1] = ~not_cruise[-1]
+
+    start_cruise = np.empty(cruise_duration.size, dtype=bool)
+    # if first sample is in cruise, first sample of start_cruise marks start of a segment
+    start_cruise[0] = ~not_cruise[0]
+    start_cruise[1:] = not_cruise[:-1] & ~not_cruise[1:]
+
+    start_idxs = np.flatnonzero(start_cruise)
+    end_idxs = np.flatnonzero(end_cruise)
+
+    # Threshold for min cruise segment
+    long_mask = cruise_duration[end_idxs] > cruise_threshold
+    start_idxs = start_idxs[long_mask]
+    end_idxs = end_idxs[long_mask]
+
+    result = np.copy(altitude_ft)
+    if np.any(start_idxs):
+        for i0, i1 in zip(start_idxs, end_idxs, strict=True):
+            result[i0:i1] = altitude_filt[i0:i1]
+
+    # reapply Savitzky-Golay filter to smooth climb and descent
+    result = _sg_filter(result, window_length=kernel_size)
+
+    return result
+
+
+def segment_duration(
+    time: npt.NDArray[np.datetime64], dtype: npt.DTypeLike = np.float32
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    """Calculate the time difference between waypoints.
+
+    ``np.nan`` appended so the length of the output is the same as number of waypoints.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    time : npt.NDArray[np.datetime64]
+        Waypoint time in ``np.datetime64`` format.
+    dtype : np.dtype
+        Numpy dtype for time difference.
+        Defaults to ``np.float64``
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Time difference between waypoints, [:math:`s`].
+        This returns an array with dtype specified by``dtype``.
+    """
+    out = np.empty_like(time, dtype=dtype)
+    out[-1] = np.nan
+    out[:-1] = np.diff(time) / np.timedelta64(1, "s")
+    return out
+
+
+def segment_phase(
+    rocd: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+    *,
+    threshold_rocd: float = 250.0,
+    min_cruise_altitude_ft: float = MIN_CRUISE_ALTITUDE,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.uint8]:
+    """Identify the phase of flight (climb, cruise, descent) for each segment.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    rocd: pt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Rate of climb and descent across segment, [:math:`ft min^{-1}`].
+        See output from :func:`segment_rocd`.
+    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Altitude, [:math:`ft`]
+    threshold_rocd: float, optional
+        ROCD threshold to identify climb and descent, [:math:`ft min^{-1}`].
+        Defaults to 250 ft/min.
+    min_cruise_altitude_ft: float, optional
+        Minimum threshold altitude for cruise, [:math:`ft`]
+        This is specific for each aircraft type,
+        and can be approximated as 50% of the altitude ceiling.
+        Defaults to :attr:`MIN_CRUISE_ALTITUDE`.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.uint8]
+        Array of values enumerating the flight phase.
+        See :attr:`flight.FlightPhase` for enumeration.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Flight data derived from ADS-B and radar sources could contain noise leading
+    to small changes in altitude and ROCD. Hence, an arbitrary ``threshold_rocd``
+    is specified to identify the different phases of flight.
+
+    The flight phase "level-flight" is when an aircraft is holding at lower altitudes.
+    The cruise phase of flight only occurs above a certain threshold altitude.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    :attr:`FlightPhase`
+    :func:`segment_rocd`
+    """
+    nan = np.isnan(rocd)
+    cruise = (
+        (rocd < threshold_rocd) & (rocd > -threshold_rocd) & (altitude_ft > min_cruise_altitude_ft)
+    )
+    climb = ~cruise & (rocd > 0.0)
+    descent = ~cruise & (rocd < 0.0)
+    level_flight = ~(nan | cruise | climb | descent)
+
+    phase = np.empty(rocd.shape, dtype=np.uint8)
+    phase[cruise] = FlightPhase.CRUISE
+    phase[climb] = FlightPhase.CLIMB
+    phase[descent] = FlightPhase.DESCENT
+    phase[level_flight] = FlightPhase.LEVEL_FLIGHT
+    phase[nan] = FlightPhase.NAN
+
+    return phase
+
+
+def segment_rocd(
+    segment_duration: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.float64],
+    air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.float64] = None,
+) -> npt.NDArray[np.float64]:
+    """Calculate the rate of climb and descent (ROCD).
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    segment_duration: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Time difference between waypoints, [:math:`s`].
+        Expected to have numeric `dtype`, not `"timedelta64"`.
+        See output from :func:`segment_duration`.
+    altitude_ft: npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Altitude of each waypoint, [:math:`ft`]
+    air_temperature: None | npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Air temperature of each flight waypoint, [:math:`K`]
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    npt.NDArray[np.float64]
+        Rate of climb and descent over segment, [:math:`ft min^{-1}`]
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The hydrostatic equation will be used to estimate the ROCD if `air_temperature` is provided.
+    This will improve the accuracy of the estimated ROCD with a temperature correction. The
+    estimated ROCD with the temperature correction are expected to differ by up to +-5% compared to
+    those without the correction. These differences are important when the ROCD estimates are used
+    as inputs to aircraft performance models.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    :func:`segment_duration`
+    """
+    dt_min = segment_duration / 60.0
+
+    out = np.empty_like(altitude_ft)
+    out[:-1] = np.diff(altitude_ft) / dt_min[:-1]
+    out[-1] = np.nan
+
+    if air_temperature is None:
+        return out
+
+    altitude_m = units.ft_to_m(altitude_ft)
+    T_isa = units.m_to_T_isa(altitude_m)
+
+    T_correction = np.empty_like(altitude_ft)
+    T_correction[:-1] = (air_temperature[:-1] + air_temperature[1:]) / (T_isa[:-1] + T_isa[1:])
+    T_correction[-1] = np.nan
+
+    return T_correction * out
+
+
+def _resample_to_freq(df: pd.DataFrame, freq: str) -> tuple[pd.DataFrame, pd.DatetimeIndex]:
+    """Resample a DataFrame to a given frequency.
+
+    This function is used to resample a DataFrame to a given frequency. The new
+    index will include all the original index values and the new resampled-to-freq
+    index values. The "longitude" and "latitude" columns will be linearly interpolated
+    to the new index values.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    df : pd.DataFrame
+        DataFrame to resample. Assumed to have a :class:`pd.DatetimeIndex`
+        and "longitude" and "latitude" columns.
+    freq : str
+        Frequency to resample to. See :func:`pd.DataFrame.resample` for
+        valid frequency strings.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    tuple[pd.DataFrame, pd.DatetimeIndex]
+        Resampled DataFrame and the new index.
+    """
+
+    # Manually create a new index that includes all the original index values
+    # and the resampled-to-freq index values.
+    t0 = df.index[0].ceil(freq)
+    t1 = df.index[-1]
+    t = pd.date_range(t0, t1, freq=freq, name="time")
+
+    concat_arr = np.concatenate([df.index, t])
+    concat_arr = np.unique(concat_arr)
+    concat_index = pd.DatetimeIndex(concat_arr, name="time", copy=False)
+
+    out = df.reindex(concat_index)
+
+    # Linearly interpolate small horizontal gap
+    coords = ["longitude", "latitude"]
+    out.loc[:, coords] = out.loc[:, coords].interpolate(method="index")
+
+    return out, t