phasorpy 0.7__cp314-cp314-win_arm64.whl

phasorpy/phasor.py

@@ -0,0 +1,2018 @@
+"""Calculate, convert, and reduce phasor coordinates.
+
+The ``phasorpy.phasor`` module provides functions to:
+
+- calculate phasor coordinates from time-resolved and spectral signals:
+
+  - :py:func:`phasor_from_signal`
+
+- synthesize signals from phasor coordinates:
+
+  - :py:func:`phasor_to_signal`
+
+- convert to and from polar coordinates (phase and modulation):
+
+  - :py:func:`phasor_from_polar`
+  - :py:func:`phasor_to_polar`
+
+- transform phasor coordinates:
+
+  - :py:func:`phasor_transform`
+  - :py:func:`phasor_multiply`
+  - :py:func:`phasor_divide`
+  - :py:func:`phasor_normalize`
+
+- reduce dimensionality of arrays of phasor coordinates:
+
+  - :py:func:`phasor_center`
+  - :py:func:`phasor_to_principal_plane`
+
+- filter phasor coordinates:
+
+  - :py:func:`phasor_filter_median`
+  - :py:func:`phasor_filter_pawflim`
+  - :py:func:`phasor_threshold`
+
+- find nearest neighbor phasor coordinates from other phasor coordinates:
+
+  - :py:func:`phasor_nearest_neighbor`
+
+"""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+__all__ = [
+    'phasor_center',
+    'phasor_divide',
+    'phasor_filter_median',
+    'phasor_filter_pawflim',
+    'phasor_from_polar',
+    'phasor_from_signal',
+    'phasor_multiply',
+    'phasor_nearest_neighbor',
+    'phasor_normalize',
+    'phasor_threshold',
+    'phasor_to_complex',
+    'phasor_to_polar',
+    'phasor_to_principal_plane',
+    'phasor_to_signal',
+    'phasor_transform',
+]
+
+import math
+from collections.abc import Sequence
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from ._typing import (
+        Any,
+        NDArray,
+        ArrayLike,
+        DTypeLike,
+        Callable,
+        Literal,
+    )
+
+import numpy
+
+from ._phasorpy import (
+    _median_filter_2d,
+    _nearest_neighbor_2d,
+    _phasor_divide,
+    _phasor_from_polar,
+    _phasor_from_signal,
+    _phasor_multiply,
+    _phasor_threshold_closed,
+    _phasor_threshold_mean_closed,
+    _phasor_threshold_mean_open,
+    _phasor_threshold_nan,
+    _phasor_threshold_open,
+    _phasor_to_polar,
+    _phasor_transform,
+    _phasor_transform_const,
+)
+from ._utils import parse_harmonic, parse_signal_axis, parse_skip_axis
+from .utils import number_threads
+
+
+def phasor_from_signal(
+    signal: ArrayLike,
+    /,
+    *,
+    axis: int | str | None = None,
+    harmonic: int | Sequence[int] | Literal['all'] | str | None = None,
+    sample_phase: ArrayLike | None = None,
+    use_fft: bool | None = None,
+    rfft: Callable[..., NDArray[Any]] | None = None,
+    dtype: DTypeLike = None,
+    normalize: bool = True,
+    num_threads: int | None = None,
+) -> tuple[NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any]]:
+    r"""Return phasor coordinates from signal.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    signal : array_like
+        Frequency-domain, time-domain, or hyperspectral data.
+        A minimum of three samples are required along `axis`.
+        The samples must be uniformly spaced.
+    axis : int or str, optional
+        Axis over which to compute phasor coordinates.
+        By default, the 'H' or 'C' axes if signal contains such dimension
+        names, else the last axis (-1).
+    harmonic : int, sequence of int, or 'all', optional
+        Harmonics to return.
+        If `'all'`, return all harmonics for `signal` samples along `axis`.
+        Else, harmonics must be at least one and no larger than half the
+        number of `signal` samples along `axis`.
+        The default is the first harmonic (fundamental frequency).
+        A minimum of `harmonic * 2 + 1` samples are required along `axis`
+        to calculate correct phasor coordinates at `harmonic`.
+    sample_phase : array_like, optional
+        Phase values (in radians) of `signal` samples along `axis`.
+        If None (default), samples are assumed to be uniformly spaced along
+        one period.
+        The array size must equal the number of samples along `axis`.
+        Cannot be used with `harmonic!=1` or `use_fft=True`.
+    use_fft : bool, optional
+        If true, use a real forward Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
+        If false, use a Cython implementation that is optimized (faster and
+        resource saving) for calculating few harmonics.
+        By default, FFT is only used when all or at least 8 harmonics are
+        calculated, or `rfft` is specified.
+    rfft : callable, optional
+        Drop-in replacement function for ``numpy.fft.rfft``.
+        For example, ``scipy.fft.rfft`` or ``mkl_fft._numpy_fft.rfft``.
+        Used to calculate the real forward FFT.
+    dtype : dtype_like, optional
+        Data type of output arrays. Either float32 or float64.
+        The default is float64 unless the `signal` is float32.
+    normalize : bool, optional
+        Return normalized phasor coordinates.
+        If true (default), return average of `signal` along `axis` and
+        Fourier coefficients divided by sum of `signal` along `axis`.
+        Else, return sum of `signal` along `axis` and unscaled Fourier
+        coefficients.
+        Un-normalized phasor coordinates cannot be used with most of PhasorPy's
+        functions but may be required for intermediate processing.
+    num_threads : int, optional
+        Number of OpenMP threads to use for parallelization when not using FFT.
+        By default, multi-threading is disabled.
+        If zero, up to half of logical CPUs are used.
+        OpenMP may not be available on all platforms.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    mean : ndarray
+        Average of `signal` along `axis` (zero harmonic).
+    real : ndarray
+        Real component of phasor coordinates at `harmonic` along `axis`.
+    imag : ndarray
+        Imaginary component of phasor coordinates at `harmonic` along `axis`.
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        The `signal` has less than three samples along `axis`.
+        The `sample_phase` size does not equal the number of samples along
+        `axis`.
+    IndexError
+        `harmonic` is smaller than 1 or greater than half the samples along
+        `axis`.
+    TypeError
+        The `signal`, `dtype`, or `harmonic` types are not supported.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    phasorpy.phasor.phasor_to_signal
+    phasorpy.phasor.phasor_normalize
+    :ref:`sphx_glr_tutorials_misc_phasorpy_phasor_from_signal.py`
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The normalized phasor coordinates `real` (:math:`G`), `imag` (:math:`S`),
+    and average intensity `mean` (:math:`F_{DC}`) are calculated from
+    :math:`K \ge 3` samples of the signal :math:`F` at `harmonic` :math:`h`
+    according to:
+
+    .. math::
+
+        F_{DC} &= \frac{1}{K} \sum_{k=0}^{K-1} F_{k}
+
+        G &= \frac{1}{K} \sum_{k=0}^{K-1} F_{k}
+        \cos{\left (2 \pi h \frac{k}{K} \right )} \cdot \frac{1}{F_{DC}}
+
+        S &= \frac{1}{K} \sum_{k=0}^{K-1} F_{k}
+        \sin{\left (2 \pi h \frac{k}{K} \right )} \cdot \frac{1}{F_{DC}}
+
+    If :math:`F_{DC} = 0`, the phasor coordinates are undefined
+    (resulting in NaN or infinity).
+    Use NaN-aware software to further process the phasor coordinates.
+
+    The phasor coordinates may be zero, for example, in case of only constant
+    background in time-resolved signals, or as the result of linear
+    combination of non-zero spectral phasors coordinates.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Calculate phasor coordinates of a phase-shifted sinusoidal waveform:
+
+    >>> sample_phase = numpy.linspace(0, 2 * math.pi, 5, endpoint=False)
+    >>> signal = 1.1 * (numpy.cos(sample_phase - 0.785398) * 2 * 0.707107 + 1)
+    >>> phasor_from_signal(signal)  # doctest: +NUMBER
+    (array(1.1), array(0.5), array(0.5))
+
+    The sinusoidal signal does not have a second harmonic component:
+
+    >>> phasor_from_signal(signal, harmonic=2)  # doctest: +NUMBER
+    (array(1.1), array(0.0), array(0.0))
+
+    """
+    # TODO: C-order not required by rfft?
+    # TODO: preserve array subtypes?
+
+    axis, _ = parse_signal_axis(signal, axis)
+
+    signal = numpy.asarray(signal, order='C')
+    if signal.dtype.kind not in 'uif':
+        raise TypeError(f'signal must be real valued, not {signal.dtype=}')
+    samples = numpy.size(signal, axis)  # this also verifies axis and ndim >= 1
+    if samples < 3:
+        raise ValueError(f'not enough {samples=} along {axis=}')
+
+    if dtype is None:
+        dtype = numpy.float32 if signal.dtype.char == 'f' else numpy.float64
+    dtype = numpy.dtype(dtype)
+    if dtype.kind != 'f':
+        raise TypeError(f'{dtype=} not supported')
+
+    harmonic, keepdims = parse_harmonic(harmonic, samples // 2)
+    num_harmonics = len(harmonic)
+
+    if sample_phase is not None:
+        if use_fft:
+            raise ValueError('sample_phase cannot be used with FFT')
+        if num_harmonics > 1 or harmonic[0] != 1:
+            raise ValueError('sample_phase cannot be used with harmonic != 1')
+        sample_phase = numpy.atleast_1d(
+            numpy.asarray(sample_phase, dtype=numpy.float64)
+        )
+        if sample_phase.ndim != 1 or sample_phase.size != samples:
+            raise ValueError(f'{sample_phase.shape=} != ({samples},)')
+
+    if use_fft is None:
+        use_fft = sample_phase is None and (
+            rfft is not None
+            or num_harmonics > 7
+            or num_harmonics >= samples // 2
+        )
+
+    if use_fft:
+        if rfft is None:
+            rfft = numpy.fft.rfft
+
+        fft: NDArray[Any] = rfft(
+            signal, axis=axis, norm='forward' if normalize else 'backward'
+        )
+
+        mean = fft.take(0, axis=axis).real
+        if not mean.ndim == 0:
+            mean = numpy.ascontiguousarray(mean, dtype)
+        fft = fft.take(harmonic, axis=axis)
+        real = numpy.ascontiguousarray(fft.real, dtype)
+        imag = numpy.ascontiguousarray(fft.imag, dtype)
+        del fft
+
+        if not keepdims and real.shape[axis] == 1:
+            dc = mean
+            real = real.squeeze(axis)
+            imag = imag.squeeze(axis)
+        else:
+            # make broadcastable
+            dc = numpy.expand_dims(mean, 0)
+            real = numpy.moveaxis(real, axis, 0)
+            imag = numpy.moveaxis(imag, axis, 0)
+
+        if normalize:
+            with numpy.errstate(divide='ignore', invalid='ignore'):
+                real /= dc
+                imag /= dc
+        numpy.negative(imag, out=imag)
+
+        if not keepdims and real.ndim == 0:
+            return mean.squeeze(), real.squeeze(), imag.squeeze()
+
+        return mean, real, imag
+
+    num_threads = number_threads(num_threads)
+
+    sincos = numpy.empty((num_harmonics, samples, 2))
+    for i, h in enumerate(harmonic):
+        if sample_phase is None:
+            phase = numpy.linspace(
+                0,
+                h * math.pi * 2.0,
+                samples,
+                endpoint=False,
+                dtype=numpy.float64,
+            )
+        else:
+            phase = sample_phase
+        sincos[i, :, 0] = numpy.cos(phase)
+        sincos[i, :, 1] = numpy.sin(phase)
+
+    # reshape to 3D with axis in middle
+    axis = axis % signal.ndim
+    shape0 = signal.shape[:axis]
+    shape1 = signal.shape[axis + 1 :]
+    size0 = math.prod(shape0)
+    size1 = math.prod(shape1)
+    phasor = numpy.empty((num_harmonics * 2 + 1, size0, size1), dtype)
+    signal = signal.reshape((size0, samples, size1))
+
+    _phasor_from_signal(phasor, signal, sincos, normalize, num_threads)
+
+    # restore original shape
+    shape = shape0 + shape1
+    mean = phasor[0].reshape(shape)
+    if keepdims:
+        shape = (num_harmonics,) + shape
+    real = phasor[1 : num_harmonics + 1].reshape(shape)
+    imag = phasor[1 + num_harmonics :].reshape(shape)
+    if shape:
+        return mean, real, imag
+    return mean.squeeze(), real.squeeze(), imag.squeeze()
+
+
+def phasor_to_signal(
+    mean: ArrayLike,
+    real: ArrayLike,
+    imag: ArrayLike,
+    /,
+    *,
+    samples: int = 64,
+    harmonic: int | Sequence[int] | Literal['all'] | str | None = None,
+    axis: int = -1,
+    irfft: Callable[..., NDArray[Any]] | None = None,
+) -> NDArray[numpy.float64]:
+    """Return signal from phasor coordinates using inverse Fourier transform.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    mean : array_like
+        Average signal intensity (DC).
+        If not scalar, shape must match the last dimensions of `real`.
+    real : array_like
+        Real component of phasor coordinates.
+        Multiple harmonics, if any, must be in the first axis.
+    imag : array_like
+        Imaginary component of phasor coordinates.
+        Must be same shape as `real`.
+    samples : int, default: 64
+        Number of signal samples to return. Must be at least three.
+    harmonic : int, sequence of int, or 'all', optional
+        Harmonics included in first axis of `real` and `imag`.
+        If None, lower harmonics are inferred from the shapes of phasor
+        coordinates (most commonly, lower harmonics are present if the number
+        of dimensions of `mean` is one less than `real`).
+        If `'all'`, the harmonics in the first axis of phasor coordinates are
+        the lower harmonics necessary to synthesize `samples`.
+        Else, harmonics must be at least one and no larger than half of
+        `samples`.
+        The phasor coordinates of missing harmonics are zeroed
+        if `samples` is greater than twice the number of harmonics.
+    axis : int, optional
+        Axis at which to return signal samples.
+        The default is the last axis (-1).
+    irfft : callable, optional
+        Drop-in replacement function for ``numpy.fft.irfft``.
+        For example, ``scipy.fft.irfft`` or ``mkl_fft._numpy_fft.irfft``.
+        Used to calculate the real inverse FFT.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    signal : ndarray
+        Reconstructed signal with samples of one period along the last axis.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    phasorpy.phasor.phasor_from_signal
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The reconstructed signal may be undefined if the input phasor coordinates,
+    or signal mean contain NaN values.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Reconstruct exact signal from phasor coordinates at all harmonics:
+
+    >>> sample_phase = numpy.linspace(0, 2 * math.pi, 5, endpoint=False)
+    >>> signal = 1.1 * (numpy.cos(sample_phase - 0.785398) * 2 * 0.707107 + 1)
+    >>> signal
+    array([2.2, 2.486, 0.8566, -0.4365, 0.3938])
+    >>> phasor_to_signal(
+    ...     *phasor_from_signal(signal, harmonic='all'),
+    ...     harmonic='all',
+    ...     samples=len(signal)
+    ... )  # doctest: +NUMBER
+    array([2.2, 2.486, 0.8566, -0.4365, 0.3938])
+
+    Reconstruct a single-frequency waveform from phasor coordinates at
+    first harmonic:
+
+    >>> phasor_to_signal(1.1, 0.5, 0.5, samples=5)  # doctest: +NUMBER
+    array([2.2, 2.486, 0.8566, -0.4365, 0.3938])
+
+    """
+    if samples < 3:
+        raise ValueError(f'{samples=} < 3')
+
+    mean = numpy.array(mean, ndmin=0, copy=True)
+    real = numpy.array(real, ndmin=0, copy=True)
+    imag = numpy.array(imag, ndmin=1, copy=True)
+
+    harmonic_ = harmonic
+    harmonic, has_harmonic_axis = parse_harmonic(harmonic, samples // 2)
+
+    if real.ndim == 1 and len(harmonic) > 1 and real.shape[0] == len(harmonic):
+        # single axis contains harmonic
+        has_harmonic_axis = True
+        real = real[..., None]
+        imag = imag[..., None]
+        keepdims = mean.ndim > 0
+    else:
+        keepdims = mean.ndim > 0 or real.ndim > 0
+
+    mean = numpy.asarray(numpy.atleast_1d(mean))
+    real = numpy.asarray(numpy.atleast_1d(real))
+
+    if real.dtype.kind != 'f' or imag.dtype.kind != 'f':
+        raise ValueError(f'{real.dtype=} or {imag.dtype=} not floating point')
+    if real.shape != imag.shape:
+        raise ValueError(f'{real.shape=} != {imag.shape=}')
+
+    if (
+        harmonic_ is None
+        and mean.size > 1
+        and mean.ndim + 1 == real.ndim
+        and mean.shape == real.shape[1:]
+    ):
+        # infer harmonic from shapes of mean and real
+        harmonic = list(range(1, real.shape[0] + 1))
+        has_harmonic_axis = True
+
+    if not has_harmonic_axis:
+        real = real[None, ...]
+        imag = imag[None, ...]
+
+    if len(harmonic) != real.shape[0]:
+        raise ValueError(f'{len(harmonic)=} != {real.shape[0]=}')
+
+    real *= mean
+    imag *= mean
+    numpy.negative(imag, out=imag)
+
+    fft: NDArray[Any] = numpy.zeros(
+        (samples // 2 + 1, *real.shape[1:]), dtype=numpy.complex128
+    )
+    fft.real[[0]] = mean
+    fft.real[harmonic] = real[: len(harmonic)]
+    fft.imag[harmonic] = imag[: len(harmonic)]
+
+    if irfft is None:
+        irfft = numpy.fft.irfft
+
+    signal: NDArray[Any] = irfft(fft, samples, axis=0, norm='forward')
+
+    if not keepdims:
+        signal = signal[:, 0]
+    elif axis != 0:
+        signal = numpy.moveaxis(signal, 0, axis)
+    return signal
+
+
+def phasor_to_complex(
+    real: ArrayLike,
+    imag: ArrayLike,
+    /,
+    *,
+    dtype: DTypeLike = None,
+) -> NDArray[numpy.complex64 | numpy.complex128]:
+    """Return phasor coordinates as complex numbers.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    real : array_like
+        Real component of phasor coordinates.
+    imag : array_like
+        Imaginary component of phasor coordinates.
+    dtype : dtype_like, optional
+        Data type of output array. Either complex64 or complex128.
+        By default, complex64 if `real` and `imag` are float32,
+        else complex128.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    complex : ndarray
+        Phasor coordinates as complex numbers.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Convert phasor coordinates to complex number arrays:
+
+    >>> phasor_to_complex([0.4, 0.5], [0.2, 0.3])
+    array([0.4+0.2j, 0.5+0.3j])
+
+    """
+    real = numpy.asarray(real)
+    imag = numpy.asarray(imag)
+    if dtype is None:
+        if real.dtype == numpy.float32 and imag.dtype == numpy.float32:
+            dtype = numpy.complex64
+        else:
+            dtype = numpy.complex128
+    else:
+        dtype = numpy.dtype(dtype)
+        if dtype.kind != 'c':
+            raise ValueError(f'{dtype=} not a complex type')
+
+    c = numpy.empty(numpy.broadcast(real, imag).shape, dtype)
+    c.real = real
+    c.imag = imag
+    return c
+
+
+def phasor_multiply(
+    real: ArrayLike,
+    imag: ArrayLike,
+    factor_real: ArrayLike,
+    factor_imag: ArrayLike,
+    /,
+    **kwargs: Any,
+) -> tuple[NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any]]:
+    r"""Return complex multiplication of two phasors.
+
+    Complex multiplication can be used, for example, to convolve two signals
+    such as exponential decay and instrument response functions.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    real : array_like
+        Real component of phasor coordinates to multiply.
+    imag : array_like
+        Imaginary component of phasor coordinates to multiply.
+    factor_real : array_like
+        Real component of phasor coordinates to multiply by.
+    factor_imag : array_like
+        Imaginary component of phasor coordinates to multiply by.
+    **kwargs
+        Optional `arguments passed to numpy universal functions
+        <https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/ufuncs.html#ufuncs-kwargs>`_.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    real : ndarray
+        Real component of complex multiplication.
+    imag : ndarray
+        Imaginary component of complex multiplication.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The phasor coordinates `real` (:math:`G`) and `imag` (:math:`S`)
+    are multiplied by phasor coordinates `factor_real` (:math:`g`)
+    and `factor_imag` (:math:`s`) according to:
+
+    .. math::
+
+        G' &= G \cdot g - S \cdot s
+
+        S' &= G \cdot s + S \cdot g
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Multiply two sets of phasor coordinates:
+
+    >>> phasor_multiply([0.1, 0.2], [0.3, 0.4], [0.5, 0.6], [0.7, 0.8])
+    (array([-0.16, -0.2]), array([0.22, 0.4]))
+
+    """
+    # c = phasor_to_complex(real, imag) * phasor_to_complex(
+    #     factor_real, factor_imag
+    # )
+    # return c.real, c.imag
+    return _phasor_multiply(  # type: ignore[no-any-return]
+        real, imag, factor_real, factor_imag, **kwargs
+    )
+
+
+def phasor_divide(
+    real: ArrayLike,
+    imag: ArrayLike,
+    divisor_real: ArrayLike,
+    divisor_imag: ArrayLike,
+    /,
+    **kwargs: Any,
+) -> tuple[NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any]]:
+    r"""Return complex division of two phasors.
+
+    Complex division can be used, for example, to deconvolve two signals
+    such as exponential decay and instrument response functions.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    real : array_like
+        Real component of phasor coordinates to divide.
+    imag : array_like
+        Imaginary component of phasor coordinates to divide.
+    divisor_real : array_like
+        Real component of phasor coordinates to divide by.
+    divisor_imag : array_like
+        Imaginary component of phasor coordinates to divide by.
+    **kwargs
+        Optional `arguments passed to numpy universal functions
+        <https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/ufuncs.html#ufuncs-kwargs>`_.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    real : ndarray
+        Real component of complex division.
+    imag : ndarray
+        Imaginary component of complex division.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The phasor coordinates `real` (:math:`G`) and `imag` (:math:`S`)
+    are divided by phasor coordinates `divisor_real` (:math:`g`)
+    and `divisor_imag` (:math:`s`) according to:
+
+    .. math::
+
+        d &= g \cdot g + s \cdot s
+
+        G' &= (G \cdot g + S \cdot s) / d
+
+        S' &= (G \cdot s - S \cdot g) / d
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Divide two sets of phasor coordinates:
+
+    >>> phasor_divide([-0.16, -0.2], [0.22, 0.4], [0.5, 0.6], [0.7, 0.8])
+    (array([0.1, 0.2]), array([0.3, 0.4]))
+
+    """
+    # c = phasor_to_complex(real, imag) / phasor_to_complex(
+    #     divisor_real, divisor_imag
+    # )
+    # return c.real, c.imag
+    return _phasor_divide(  # type: ignore[no-any-return]
+        real, imag, divisor_real, divisor_imag, **kwargs
+    )
+
+
+def phasor_normalize(
+    mean_unnormalized: ArrayLike,
+    real_unnormalized: ArrayLike,
+    imag_unnormalized: ArrayLike,
+    /,
+    samples: int = 1,
+    dtype: DTypeLike = None,
+) -> tuple[NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any]]:
+    r"""Return normalized phasor coordinates.
+
+    Use to normalize the phasor coordinates returned by
+    ``phasor_from_signal(..., normalize=False)``.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    mean_unnormalized : array_like
+        Unnormalized intensity of phasor coordinates.
+    real_unnormalized : array_like
+        Unnormalized real component of phasor coordinates.
+    imag_unnormalized : array_like
+        Unnormalized imaginary component of phasor coordinates.
+    samples : int, default: 1
+        Number of signal samples over which `mean` was integrated.
+    dtype : dtype_like, optional
+        Data type of output arrays. Either float32 or float64.
+        The default is float64 unless the `real` is float32.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    mean : ndarray
+        Normalized intensity.
+    real : ndarray
+        Normalized real component.
+    imag : ndarray
+        Normalized imaginary component.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The average intensity `mean` (:math:`F_{DC}`) and normalized phasor
+    coordinates `real` (:math:`G`) and `imag` (:math:`S`) are calculated from
+    the signal `intensity` (:math:`F`), the  number of `samples` (:math:`K`),
+    `real_unnormalized` (:math:`G'`), and `imag_unnormalized` (:math:`S'`)
+    according to:
+
+    .. math::
+
+        F_{DC} &= F / K
+
+        G &= G' / F
+
+        S &= S' / F
+
+    If :math:`F = 0`, the normalized phasor coordinates (:math:`G`)
+    and (:math:`S`) are undefined (NaN or infinity).
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Normalize phasor coordinates with intensity integrated over 10 samples:
+
+    >>> phasor_normalize([0.0, 0.1], [0.0, 0.3], [0.4, 0.5], samples=10)
+    (array([0, 0.01]), array([nan, 3]), array([inf, 5]))
+
+    Normalize multi-harmonic phasor coordinates:
+
+    >>> phasor_normalize(0.1, [0.0, 0.3], [0.4, 0.5], samples=10)
+    (array(0.01), array([0, 3]), array([4, 5]))
+
+    """
+    if samples < 1:
+        raise ValueError(f'{samples=} < 1')
+
+    if (
+        dtype is None
+        and isinstance(real_unnormalized, numpy.ndarray)
+        and real_unnormalized.dtype == numpy.float32
+    ):
+        real = real_unnormalized.copy()
+    else:
+        real = numpy.array(real_unnormalized, dtype, copy=True)
+    imag = numpy.array(imag_unnormalized, real.dtype, copy=True)
+    mean = numpy.array(mean_unnormalized, real.dtype, copy=True)
+
+    with numpy.errstate(divide='ignore', invalid='ignore'):
+        numpy.divide(real, mean, out=real)
+        numpy.divide(imag, mean, out=imag)
+    if samples > 1:
+        numpy.divide(mean, samples, out=mean)
+
+    return mean, real, imag
+
+
+def phasor_transform(
+    real: ArrayLike,
+    imag: ArrayLike,
+    phase: ArrayLike = 0.0,
+    modulation: ArrayLike = 1.0,
+    /,
+    **kwargs: Any,
+) -> tuple[NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any]]:
+    r"""Return rotated and scaled phasor coordinates.
+
+    This function rotates and uniformly scales phasor coordinates around the
+    origin.
+    It can be used, for example, to calibrate phasor coordinates.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    real : array_like
+        Real component of phasor coordinates to transform.
+    imag : array_like
+        Imaginary component of phasor coordinates to transform.
+    phase : array_like, optional, default: 0.0
+        Rotation angle in radians.
+    modulation : array_like, optional, default: 1.0
+        Uniform scale factor.
+    **kwargs
+        Optional `arguments passed to numpy universal functions
+        <https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/ufuncs.html#ufuncs-kwargs>`_.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    real : ndarray
+        Real component of rotated and scaled phasor coordinates.
+    imag : ndarray
+        Imaginary component of rotated and scaled phasor coordinates.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The phasor coordinates `real` (:math:`G`) and `imag` (:math:`S`)
+    are rotated by `phase` (:math:`\phi`)
+    and scaled by `modulation_zero` (:math:`M`)
+    around the origin according to:
+
+    .. math::
+
+        g &= M \cdot \cos{\phi}
+
+        s &= M \cdot \sin{\phi}
+
+        G' &= G \cdot g - S \cdot s
+
+        S' &= G \cdot s + S \cdot g
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Use scalar reference coordinates to rotate and scale phasor coordinates:
+
+    >>> phasor_transform(
+    ...     [0.1, 0.2, 0.3], [0.4, 0.5, 0.6], 0.1, 0.5
+    ... )  # doctest: +NUMBER
+    (array([0.0298, 0.0745, 0.119]), array([0.204, 0.259, 0.3135]))
+
+    Use separate reference coordinates for each phasor coordinate:
+
+    >>> phasor_transform(
+    ...     [0.1, 0.2, 0.3], [0.4, 0.5, 0.6], [0.2, 0.2, 0.3], [0.5, 0.2, 0.3]
+    ... )  # doctest: +NUMBER
+    (array([0.00927, 0.0193, 0.0328]), array([0.206, 0.106, 0.1986]))
+
+    """
+    if numpy.ndim(phase) == 0 and numpy.ndim(modulation) == 0:
+        return _phasor_transform_const(  # type: ignore[no-any-return]
+            real,
+            imag,
+            modulation * numpy.cos(phase),
+            modulation * numpy.sin(phase),
+        )
+    return _phasor_transform(  # type: ignore[no-any-return]
+        real, imag, phase, modulation, **kwargs
+    )
+
+
+def phasor_to_polar(
+    real: ArrayLike,
+    imag: ArrayLike,
+    /,
+    **kwargs: Any,
+) -> tuple[NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any]]:
+    r"""Return polar coordinates from phasor coordinates.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    real : array_like
+        Real component of phasor coordinates.
+    imag : array_like
+        Imaginary component of phasor coordinates.
+    **kwargs
+        Optional `arguments passed to numpy universal functions
+        <https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/ufuncs.html#ufuncs-kwargs>`_.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The phasor coordinates `real` (:math:`G`) and `imag` (:math:`S`)
+    are converted to polar coordinates `phase` (:math:`\phi`) and
+    `modulation` (:math:`M`) according to:
+
+    .. math::
+
+        \phi &= \arctan(S / G)
+
+        M &= \sqrt{G^2 + S^2}
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    phase : ndarray
+        Angular component of polar coordinates in radians.
+    modulation : ndarray
+        Radial component of polar coordinates.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    phasorpy.phasor.phasor_from_polar
+    :ref:`sphx_glr_tutorials_phasorpy_lifetime_geometry.py`
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Calculate polar coordinates from three phasor coordinates:
+
+    >>> phasor_to_polar([1.0, 0.5, 0.0], [0.0, 0.5, 1.0])  # doctest: +NUMBER
+    (array([0, 0.7854, 1.571]), array([1, 0.7071, 1]))
+
+    """
+    return _phasor_to_polar(  # type: ignore[no-any-return]
+        real, imag, **kwargs
+    )
+
+
+def phasor_from_polar(
+    phase: ArrayLike,
+    modulation: ArrayLike,
+    /,
+    **kwargs: Any,
+) -> tuple[NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any]]:
+    r"""Return phasor coordinates from polar coordinates.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    phase : array_like
+        Angular component of polar coordinates in radians.
+    modulation : array_like
+        Radial component of polar coordinates.
+    **kwargs
+        Optional `arguments passed to numpy universal functions
+        <https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/ufuncs.html#ufuncs-kwargs>`_.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    real : ndarray
+        Real component of phasor coordinates.
+    imag : ndarray
+        Imaginary component of phasor coordinates.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    phasorpy.phasor.phasor_to_polar
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The polar coordinates `phase` (:math:`\phi`) and `modulation` (:math:`M`)
+    are converted to phasor coordinates `real` (:math:`G`) and
+    `imag` (:math:`S`) according to:
+
+    .. math::
+
+        G &= M \cdot \cos{\phi}
+
+        S &= M \cdot \sin{\phi}
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Calculate phasor coordinates from three polar coordinates:
+
+    >>> phasor_from_polar(
+    ...     [0.0, math.pi / 4, math.pi / 2], [1.0, math.sqrt(0.5), 1.0]
+    ... )  # doctest: +NUMBER
+    (array([1, 0.5, 0.0]), array([0, 0.5, 1]))
+
+    """
+    return _phasor_from_polar(  # type: ignore[no-any-return]
+        phase, modulation, **kwargs
+    )
+
+
+def phasor_to_principal_plane(
+    real: ArrayLike,
+    imag: ArrayLike,
+    /,
+    *,
+    reorient: bool = True,
+) -> tuple[NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any]]:
+    """Return multi-harmonic phasor coordinates projected onto principal plane.
+
+    Principal component analysis (PCA) is used to project
+    multi-harmonic phasor coordinates onto a plane, along which
+    coordinate axes the phasor coordinates have the largest variations.
+
+    The transformed coordinates are not phasor coordinates. However, the
+    coordinates can be used in visualization and cursor analysis since
+    the transformation is affine (preserving collinearity and ratios
+    of distances).
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    real : array_like
+        Real component of multi-harmonic phasor coordinates.
+        The first axis is the frequency dimension.
+        If less than 2-dimensional, size-1 dimensions are prepended.
+    imag : array_like
+        Imaginary component of multi-harmonic phasor coordinates.
+        Must be of same shape as `real`.
+    reorient : bool, optional, default: True
+        Reorient coordinates for easier visualization.
+        The projected coordinates are rotated and scaled, such that
+        the center lies in same quadrant and the projection
+        of [1, 0] lies at [1, 0].
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    x : ndarray
+        X-coordinates of projected phasor coordinates.
+        If not `reorient`, this is the coordinate on the first principal axis.
+        The shape is ``real.shape[1:]``.
+    y : ndarray
+        Y-coordinates of projected phasor coordinates.
+        If not `reorient`, this is the coordinate on the second principal axis.
+    transformation_matrix : ndarray
+        Affine transformation matrix used to project phasor coordinates.
+        The shape is ``(2, 2 * real.shape[0])``.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    :ref:`sphx_glr_tutorials_api_phasorpy_pca.py`
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+
+    This implementation does not work with coordinates containing
+    undefined NaN values.
+
+    The transformation matrix can be used to project multi-harmonic phasor
+    coordinates, where the first axis is the frequency:
+
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        x, y = numpy.dot(
+            numpy.vstack(
+                real.reshape(real.shape[0], -1),
+                imag.reshape(imag.shape[0], -1),
+            ),
+            transformation_matrix,
+        ).reshape(2, *real.shape[1:])
+
+    An application of PCA to full-harmonic phasor coordinates from MRI signals
+    can be found in [1]_.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [1] Franssen WMJ, Vergeldt FJ, Bader AN, van Amerongen H, and Terenzi C.
+      `Full-harmonics phasor analysis: unravelling multiexponential trends
+      in magnetic resonance imaging data
+      <https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpclett.0c02319>`_.
+      *J Phys Chem Lett*, 11(21): 9152-9158 (2020)
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    The phasor coordinates of multi-exponential decays may be almost
+    indistinguishable at certain frequencies but are separated in the
+    projection on the principal plane:
+
+    >>> real = [[0.495, 0.502], [0.354, 0.304]]
+    >>> imag = [[0.333, 0.334], [0.301, 0.349]]
+    >>> x, y, transformation_matrix = phasor_to_principal_plane(real, imag)
+    >>> x, y  # doctest: +SKIP
+    (array([0.294, 0.262]), array([0.192, 0.242]))
+    >>> transformation_matrix  # doctest: +SKIP
+    array([[0.67, 0.33, -0.09, -0.41], [0.52, -0.52, -0.04, 0.44]])
+
+    """
+    re, im = numpy.atleast_2d(real, imag)
+    if re.shape != im.shape:
+        raise ValueError(f'real={re.shape} != imag={im.shape}')
+
+    # reshape to variables in row, observations in column
+    frequencies = re.shape[0]
+    shape = re.shape[1:]
+    re = re.reshape(re.shape[0], -1)
+    im = im.reshape(im.shape[0], -1)
+
+    # vector of multi-frequency phasor coordinates
+    coordinates = numpy.vstack([re, im])
+
+    # vector of centered coordinates
+    center = numpy.nanmean(coordinates, axis=1, keepdims=True)
+    coordinates -= center
+
+    # covariance matrix (scatter matrix would also work)
+    cov = numpy.cov(coordinates, rowvar=True)
+
+    # calculate eigenvectors
+    _, eigvec = numpy.linalg.eigh(cov)
+
+    # projection matrix: two eigenvectors with largest eigenvalues
+    transformation_matrix = eigvec.T[-2:][::-1]
+
+    if reorient:
+        # for single harmonic, this should restore original coordinates.
+
+        # 1. rotate and scale such that projection of [1, 0] lies at [1, 0]
+        x, y = numpy.dot(
+            transformation_matrix,
+            numpy.vstack(([[1.0]] * frequencies, [[0.0]] * frequencies)),
+        )
+        x = x.item()
+        y = y.item()
+        angle = -math.atan2(y, x)
+        if angle < 0:
+            angle += 2.0 * math.pi
+        cos = math.cos(angle)
+        sin = math.sin(angle)
+        transformation_matrix = numpy.dot(
+            [[cos, -sin], [sin, cos]], transformation_matrix
+        )
+        scale_factor = 1.0 / math.hypot(x, y)
+        transformation_matrix = numpy.dot(
+            [[scale_factor, 0], [0, scale_factor]], transformation_matrix
+        )
+
+        # 2. mirror such that projected center lies in same quadrant
+        cs = math.copysign
+        x, y = numpy.dot(transformation_matrix, center)
+        x = x.item()
+        y = y.item()
+        transformation_matrix = numpy.dot(
+            [
+                [-1 if cs(1, x) != cs(1, center[0][0]) else 1, 0],
+                [0, -1 if cs(1, y) != cs(1, center[1][0]) else 1],
+            ],
+            transformation_matrix,
+        )
+
+    # project multi-frequency phasor coordinates onto principal plane
+    coordinates += center
+    coordinates = numpy.dot(transformation_matrix, coordinates)
+
+    return (
+        coordinates[0].reshape(shape),  # x coordinates
+        coordinates[1].reshape(shape),  # y coordinates
+        transformation_matrix,
+    )
+
+
+def phasor_filter_median(
+    mean: ArrayLike,
+    real: ArrayLike,
+    imag: ArrayLike,
+    /,
+    *,
+    repeat: int = 1,
+    size: int = 3,
+    skip_axis: int | Sequence[int] | None = None,
+    use_scipy: bool = False,
+    num_threads: int | None = None,
+    **kwargs: Any,
+) -> tuple[NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any]]:
+    """Return median-filtered phasor coordinates.
+
+    By default, apply a NaN-aware median filter independently to the real
+    and imaginary components of phasor coordinates once with a kernel size of 3
+    multiplied by the number of dimensions of the input arrays. Return the
+    intensity unchanged.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    mean : array_like
+        Intensity of phasor coordinates.
+    real : array_like
+        Real component of phasor coordinates to be filtered.
+    imag : array_like
+        Imaginary component of phasor coordinates to be filtered.
+    repeat : int, optional
+        Number of times to apply median filter. The default is 1.
+    size : int, optional
+        Size of median filter kernel. The default is 3.
+    skip_axis : int or sequence of int, optional
+        Axes in `mean` to exclude from filter.
+        By default, all axes except harmonics are included.
+    use_scipy : bool, optional
+        Use :py:func:`scipy.ndimage.median_filter`.
+        This function has undefined behavior if the input arrays contain
+        NaN values but is faster when filtering more than 2 dimensions.
+        See `issue #87 <https://github.com/phasorpy/phasorpy/issues/87>`_.
+    num_threads : int, optional
+        Number of OpenMP threads to use for parallelization.
+        Applies to filtering in two dimensions when not using scipy.
+        By default, multi-threading is disabled.
+        If zero, up to half of logical CPUs are used.
+        OpenMP may not be available on all platforms.
+    **kwargs
+        Optional arguments passed to :py:func:`scipy.ndimage.median_filter`.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    mean : ndarray
+        Unchanged intensity of phasor coordinates.
+    real : ndarray
+        Filtered real component of phasor coordinates.
+    imag : ndarray
+        Filtered imaginary component of phasor coordinates.
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        If `repeat` is less than 0.
+        If `size` is less than 1.
+        The array shapes of `mean`, `real`, and `imag` do not match.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Apply three times a median filter with a kernel size of three:
+
+    >>> mean, real, imag = phasor_filter_median(
+    ...     [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]],
+    ...     [[0.0, 0.0, 0.0], [0.5, 0.5, 0.5], [0.2, 0.2, 0.2]],
+    ...     [[0.3, 0.3, 0.3], [0.6, math.nan, 0.6], [0.4, 0.4, 0.4]],
+    ...     size=3,
+    ...     repeat=3,
+    ... )
+    >>> mean
+    array([[1, 2, 3],
+           [4, 5, 6],
+           [7, 8, 9]])
+    >>> real
+    array([[0, 0, 0],
+           [0.2, 0.2, 0.2],
+           [0.2, 0.2, 0.2]])
+    >>> imag
+    array([[0.3, 0.3, 0.3],
+           [0.4, nan, 0.4],
+           [0.4, 0.4, 0.4]])
+
+    """
+    if repeat < 0:
+        raise ValueError(f'{repeat=} < 0')
+    if size < 1:
+        raise ValueError(f'{size=} < 1')
+    if size == 1:
+        # no need to filter
+        repeat = 0
+
+    mean = numpy.asarray(mean)
+    if use_scipy or repeat == 0:  # or using nD numpy filter
+        real = numpy.asarray(real)
+    elif isinstance(real, numpy.ndarray) and real.dtype == numpy.float32:
+        real = real.copy()
+    else:
+        real = numpy.array(real, numpy.float64, copy=True)
+    if use_scipy or repeat == 0:  # or using nD numpy filter
+        imag = numpy.asarray(imag)
+    elif isinstance(imag, numpy.ndarray) and imag.dtype == numpy.float32:
+        imag = imag.copy()
+    else:
+        imag = numpy.array(imag, numpy.float64, copy=True)
+
+    if mean.shape != real.shape[-mean.ndim if mean.ndim else 1 :]:
+        raise ValueError(f'{mean.shape=} != {real.shape=}')
+    if real.shape != imag.shape:
+        raise ValueError(f'{real.shape=} != {imag.shape=}')
+
+    prepend_axis = mean.ndim + 1 == real.ndim
+    _, axes = parse_skip_axis(skip_axis, mean.ndim, prepend_axis)
+
+    # in case mean is also filtered
+    # if prepend_axis:
+    #     mean = numpy.expand_dims(mean, axis=0)
+    # ...
+    # if prepend_axis:
+    #     mean = numpy.asarray(mean[0])
+
+    if repeat == 0:
+        # no need to call filter
+        return mean, real, imag
+
+    if use_scipy:
+        # use scipy NaN-unaware fallback
+        from scipy.ndimage import median_filter
+
+        kwargs.pop('axes', None)
+
+        for _ in range(repeat):
+            real = median_filter(real, size=size, axes=axes, **kwargs)
+            imag = median_filter(imag, size=size, axes=axes, **kwargs)
+
+        return mean, numpy.asarray(real), numpy.asarray(imag)
+
+    if len(axes) != 2:
+        # n-dimensional median filter using numpy
+        from numpy.lib.stride_tricks import sliding_window_view
+
+        kernel_shape = tuple(
+            size if i in axes else 1 for i in range(real.ndim)
+        )
+        pad_width = [
+            (s // 2, s // 2) if s > 1 else (0, 0) for s in kernel_shape
+        ]
+        axis = tuple(range(-real.ndim, 0))
+
+        nan_mask = numpy.isnan(real)
+        for _ in range(repeat):
+            real = numpy.pad(real, pad_width, mode='edge')
+            real = sliding_window_view(real, kernel_shape)
+            real = numpy.nanmedian(real, axis=axis)
+            real = numpy.where(nan_mask, numpy.nan, real)
+
+        nan_mask = numpy.isnan(imag)
+        for _ in range(repeat):
+            imag = numpy.pad(imag, pad_width, mode='edge')
+            imag = sliding_window_view(imag, kernel_shape)
+            imag = numpy.nanmedian(imag, axis=axis)
+            imag = numpy.where(nan_mask, numpy.nan, imag)
+
+        return mean, real, imag
+
+    # 2-dimensional median filter using optimized Cython implementation
+    num_threads = number_threads(num_threads)
+
+    buffer = numpy.empty(
+        tuple(real.shape[axis] for axis in axes), dtype=real.dtype
+    )
+
+    for index in numpy.ndindex(
+        *[real.shape[ax] for ax in range(real.ndim) if ax not in axes]
+    ):
+        index_list: list[int | slice] = list(index)
+        for ax in axes:
+            index_list = index_list[:ax] + [slice(None)] + index_list[ax:]
+        full_index = tuple(index_list)
+
+        _median_filter_2d(real[full_index], buffer, size, repeat, num_threads)
+        _median_filter_2d(imag[full_index], buffer, size, repeat, num_threads)
+
+    return mean, real, imag
+
+
+def phasor_filter_pawflim(
+    mean: ArrayLike,
+    real: ArrayLike,
+    imag: ArrayLike,
+    /,
+    *,
+    sigma: float = 2.0,
+    levels: int = 1,
+    harmonic: Sequence[int] | None = None,
+    skip_axis: int | Sequence[int] | None = None,
+) -> tuple[NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any]]:
+    """Return pawFLIM wavelet-filtered phasor coordinates.
+
+    This function must only be used with calibrated, unprocessed phasor
+    coordinates obtained from FLIM data. The coordinates must not be filtered,
+    thresholded, or otherwise pre-processed.
+
+    The pawFLIM wavelet filter is described in [2]_.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    mean : array_like
+        Intensity of phasor coordinates.
+    real : array_like
+        Real component of phasor coordinates to be filtered.
+        Must have at least two harmonics in the first axis.
+    imag : array_like
+        Imaginary component of phasor coordinates to be filtered.
+        Must have at least two harmonics in the first axis.
+    sigma : float, optional
+        Significance level to test difference between two phasors.
+        Given in terms of the equivalent 1D standard deviations.
+        sigma=2 corresponds to ~95% (or 5%) significance.
+    levels : int, optional
+        Number of levels for wavelet decomposition.
+        Controls the maximum averaging area, which has a length of
+        :math:`2^level`.
+    harmonic : sequence of int or None, optional
+        Harmonics included in first axis of `real` and `imag`.
+        If None (default), the first axis of `real` and `imag` contains lower
+        harmonics starting at and increasing by one.
+        All harmonics must have a corresponding half or double harmonic.
+    skip_axis : int or sequence of int, optional
+        Axes in `mean` to exclude from filter.
+        By default, all axes except harmonics are included.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    mean : ndarray
+        Unchanged intensity of phasor coordinates.
+    real : ndarray
+        Filtered real component of phasor coordinates.
+    imag : ndarray
+        Filtered imaginary component of phasor coordinates.
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        If `level` is less than 0.
+        The array shapes of `mean`, `real`, and `imag` do not match.
+        If `real` and `imag` have no harmonic axis.
+        Number of harmonics in `harmonic` is less than 2 or does not match
+        the first axis of `real` and `imag`.
+        Not all harmonics in `harmonic` have a corresponding half
+        or double harmonic.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    .. [2] Silberberg M, and Grecco H. `pawFLIM: reducing bias and
+      uncertainty to enable lower photon count in FLIM experiments
+      <https://doi.org/10.1088/2050-6120/aa72ab>`_.
+      *Methods Appl Fluoresc*, 5(2): 024016 (2017)
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Apply a pawFLIM wavelet filter with four significance levels (sigma)
+    and three decomposition levels:
+
+    >>> mean, real, imag = phasor_filter_pawflim(
+    ...     [[1, 1], [1, 1]],
+    ...     [[[0.5, 0.8], [0.5, 0.8]], [[0.2, 0.4], [0.2, 0.4]]],
+    ...     [[[0.5, 0.4], [0.5, 0.4]], [[0.4, 0.5], [0.4, 0.5]]],
+    ...     sigma=4,
+    ...     levels=3,
+    ...     harmonic=[1, 2],
+    ... )
+    >>> mean
+    array([[1, 1],
+           [1, 1]])
+    >>> real
+    array([[[0.65, 0.65],
+            [0.65, 0.65]],
+           [[0.3, 0.3],
+            [0.3, 0.3]]])
+    >>> imag
+    array([[[0.45, 0.45],
+            [0.45, 0.45]],
+           [[0.45, 0.45],
+            [0.45, 0.45]]])
+
+    """
+    from pawflim import pawflim  # type: ignore[import-untyped]
+
+    mean = numpy.asarray(mean)
+    real = numpy.asarray(real)
+    imag = numpy.asarray(imag)
+
+    if levels < 0:
+        raise ValueError(f'{levels=} < 0')
+    if levels == 0:
+        return mean, real, imag
+
+    if mean.shape != real.shape[-mean.ndim if mean.ndim else 1 :]:
+        raise ValueError(f'{mean.shape=} != {real.shape=}')
+    if real.shape != imag.shape:
+        raise ValueError(f'{real.shape=} != {imag.shape=}')
+
+    has_harmonic_axis = mean.ndim + 1 == real.ndim
+    if not has_harmonic_axis:
+        raise ValueError('no harmonic axis')
+    if harmonic is None:
+        harmonics, _ = parse_harmonic('all', real.shape[0])
+    else:
+        harmonics, _ = parse_harmonic(harmonic, None)
+    if len(harmonics) < 2:
+        raise ValueError(
+            'at least two harmonics required, ' f'got {len(harmonics)}'
+        )
+    if len(harmonics) != real.shape[0]:
+        raise ValueError(
+            'number of harmonics does not match first axis of real and imag'
+        )
+
+    mean = numpy.asarray(numpy.nan_to_num(mean), dtype=float)
+    real = numpy.asarray(numpy.nan_to_num(real * mean), dtype=float)
+    imag = numpy.asarray(numpy.nan_to_num(imag * mean), dtype=float)
+
+    mean_expanded = numpy.broadcast_to(mean, real.shape).copy()
+    original_mean_expanded = mean_expanded.copy()
+    real_filtered = real.copy()
+    imag_filtered = imag.copy()
+
+    _, axes = parse_skip_axis(skip_axis, mean.ndim, True)
+
+    for index in numpy.ndindex(
+        *(
+            real.shape[ax]
+            for ax in range(real.ndim)
+            if ax not in axes and ax != 0
+        )
+    ):
+        index_list: list[int | slice] = list(index)
+        for ax in axes:
+            index_list = index_list[:ax] + [slice(None)] + index_list[ax:]
+        full_index = tuple(index_list)
+
+        processed_harmonics = set()
+
+        for h in harmonics:
+            if h in processed_harmonics and (
+                h * 4 in harmonics or h * 2 not in harmonics
+            ):
+                continue
+            if h * 2 not in harmonics:
+                raise ValueError(
+                    f'harmonic {h} does not have a corresponding half '
+                    f'or double harmonic in {harmonics}'
+                )
+            n = harmonics.index(h)
+            n2 = harmonics.index(h * 2)
+
+            complex_phasor = numpy.empty(
+                (3, *original_mean_expanded[n][full_index].shape),
+                dtype=complex,
+            )
+            complex_phasor[0] = original_mean_expanded[n][full_index]
+            complex_phasor[1] = real[n][full_index] + 1j * imag[n][full_index]
+            complex_phasor[2] = (
+                real[n2][full_index] + 1j * imag[n2][full_index]
+            )
+
+            complex_phasor = pawflim(
+                complex_phasor, n_sigmas=sigma, levels=levels
+            )
+
+            for i, idx in enumerate([n, n2]):
+                if harmonics[idx] in processed_harmonics:
+                    continue
+                mean_expanded[idx][full_index] = complex_phasor[0].real
+                real_filtered[idx][full_index] = complex_phasor[i + 1].real
+                imag_filtered[idx][full_index] = complex_phasor[i + 1].imag
+
+            processed_harmonics.add(h)
+            processed_harmonics.add(h * 2)
+
+    with numpy.errstate(divide='ignore', invalid='ignore'):
+        real = numpy.asarray(numpy.divide(real_filtered, mean_expanded))
+        imag = numpy.asarray(numpy.divide(imag_filtered, mean_expanded))
+
+    return mean, real, imag
+
+
+def phasor_threshold(
+    mean: ArrayLike,
+    real: ArrayLike,
+    imag: ArrayLike,
+    /,
+    mean_min: ArrayLike | None = None,
+    mean_max: ArrayLike | None = None,
+    *,
+    real_min: ArrayLike | None = None,
+    real_max: ArrayLike | None = None,
+    imag_min: ArrayLike | None = None,
+    imag_max: ArrayLike | None = None,
+    phase_min: ArrayLike | None = None,
+    phase_max: ArrayLike | None = None,
+    modulation_min: ArrayLike | None = None,
+    modulation_max: ArrayLike | None = None,
+    open_interval: bool = False,
+    detect_harmonics: bool = True,
+    **kwargs: Any,
+) -> tuple[NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any]]:
+    """Return phasor coordinates with values outside interval replaced by NaN.
+
+    Interval thresholds can be set for mean intensity, real and imaginary
+    coordinates, and phase and modulation.
+    Phasor coordinates smaller than minimum thresholds or larger than maximum
+    thresholds are replaced with NaN.
+    No threshold is applied by default.
+    NaNs in `mean` or any `real` and `imag` harmonic are propagated to
+    `mean` and all harmonics in `real` and `imag`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    mean : array_like
+        Intensity of phasor coordinates.
+    real : array_like
+        Real component of phasor coordinates.
+    imag : array_like
+        Imaginary component of phasor coordinates.
+    mean_min : array_like, optional
+        Lower threshold for mean intensity.
+    mean_max : array_like, optional
+        Upper threshold for mean intensity.
+    real_min : array_like, optional
+        Lower threshold for real coordinates.
+    real_max : array_like, optional
+        Upper threshold for real coordinates.
+    imag_min : array_like, optional
+        Lower threshold for imaginary coordinates.
+    imag_max : array_like, optional
+        Upper threshold for imaginary coordinates.
+    phase_min : array_like, optional
+        Lower threshold for phase angle.
+    phase_max : array_like, optional
+        Upper threshold for phase angle.
+    modulation_min : array_like, optional
+        Lower threshold for modulation.
+    modulation_max : array_like, optional
+        Upper threshold for modulation.
+    open_interval : bool, optional
+        If true, the interval is open, and the threshold values are
+        not included in the interval.
+        If false (default), the interval is closed, and the threshold values
+        are included in the interval.
+    detect_harmonics : bool, optional
+        By default, detect presence of multiple harmonics from array shapes.
+        If false, no harmonics are assumed to be present, and the function
+        behaves like a numpy universal function.
+    **kwargs
+        Optional `arguments passed to numpy universal functions
+        <https://numpy.org/doc/stable/reference/ufuncs.html#ufuncs-kwargs>`_.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    mean : ndarray
+        Thresholded intensity of phasor coordinates.
+    real : ndarray
+        Thresholded real component of phasor coordinates.
+    imag : ndarray
+        Thresholded imaginary component of phasor coordinates.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Set phasor coordinates to NaN if mean intensity is smaller than 1.1:
+
+    >>> phasor_threshold([1, 2, 3], [0.1, 0.2, 0.3], [0.4, 0.5, 0.6], 1.1)
+    (array([nan, 2, 3]), array([nan, 0.2, 0.3]), array([nan, 0.5, 0.6]))
+
+    Set phasor coordinates to NaN if real component is smaller than 0.15 or
+    larger than 0.25:
+
+    >>> phasor_threshold(
+    ...     [1.0, 2.0, 3.0],
+    ...     [0.1, 0.2, 0.3],
+    ...     [0.4, 0.5, 0.6],
+    ...     real_min=0.15,
+    ...     real_max=0.25,
+    ... )
+    (array([nan, 2, nan]), array([nan, 0.2, nan]), array([nan, 0.5, nan]))
+
+    Apply NaNs to other input arrays:
+
+    >>> phasor_threshold(
+    ...     [numpy.nan, 2, 3], [0.1, 0.2, 0.3], [0.4, 0.5, numpy.nan]
+    ... )
+    (array([nan, 2, nan]), array([nan, 0.2, nan]), array([nan, 0.5, nan]))
+
+    """
+    threshold_mean_only = None
+    if mean_min is None:
+        mean_min = numpy.nan
+    else:
+        threshold_mean_only = True
+    if mean_max is None:
+        mean_max = numpy.nan
+    else:
+        threshold_mean_only = True
+    if real_min is None:
+        real_min = numpy.nan
+    else:
+        threshold_mean_only = False
+    if real_max is None:
+        real_max = numpy.nan
+    else:
+        threshold_mean_only = False
+    if imag_min is None:
+        imag_min = numpy.nan
+    else:
+        threshold_mean_only = False
+    if imag_max is None:
+        imag_max = numpy.nan
+    else:
+        threshold_mean_only = False
+    if phase_min is None:
+        phase_min = numpy.nan
+    else:
+        threshold_mean_only = False
+    if phase_max is None:
+        phase_max = numpy.nan
+    else:
+        threshold_mean_only = False
+    if modulation_min is None:
+        modulation_min = numpy.nan
+    else:
+        threshold_mean_only = False
+    if modulation_max is None:
+        modulation_max = numpy.nan
+    else:
+        threshold_mean_only = False
+
+    if detect_harmonics:
+        mean = numpy.asarray(mean)
+        real = numpy.asarray(real)
+        imag = numpy.asarray(imag)
+
+        shape = numpy.broadcast_shapes(mean.shape, real.shape, imag.shape)
+        ndim = len(shape)
+
+        has_harmonic_axis = (
+            # detect multi-harmonic in axis 0
+            mean.ndim + 1 == ndim
+            and real.shape == shape
+            and imag.shape == shape
+            and mean.shape == shape[-mean.ndim if mean.ndim else 1 :]
+        )
+    else:
+        has_harmonic_axis = False
+
+    if threshold_mean_only is None:
+        mean, real, imag = _phasor_threshold_nan(mean, real, imag, **kwargs)
+
+    elif threshold_mean_only:
+        mean_func = (
+            _phasor_threshold_mean_open
+            if open_interval
+            else _phasor_threshold_mean_closed
+        )
+        mean, real, imag = mean_func(
+            mean, real, imag, mean_min, mean_max, **kwargs
+        )
+
+    else:
+        func = (
+            _phasor_threshold_open
+            if open_interval
+            else _phasor_threshold_closed
+        )
+        mean, real, imag = func(
+            mean,
+            real,
+            imag,
+            mean_min,
+            mean_max,
+            real_min,
+            real_max,
+            imag_min,
+            imag_max,
+            phase_min,
+            phase_max,
+            modulation_min,
+            modulation_max,
+            **kwargs,
+        )
+
+    mean = numpy.asarray(mean)
+    real = numpy.asarray(real)
+    imag = numpy.asarray(imag)
+    if has_harmonic_axis and mean.ndim > 0:
+        # propagate NaN to all dimensions
+        mean = numpy.mean(mean, axis=0, keepdims=True)
+        mask = numpy.where(numpy.isnan(mean), numpy.nan, 1.0)
+        numpy.multiply(real, mask, out=real)
+        numpy.multiply(imag, mask, out=imag)
+        # remove harmonic dimension created by broadcasting
+        mean = numpy.asarray(numpy.asarray(mean)[0])
+
+    return mean, real, imag
+
+
+def phasor_nearest_neighbor(
+    real: ArrayLike,
+    imag: ArrayLike,
+    neighbor_real: ArrayLike,
+    neighbor_imag: ArrayLike,
+    /,
+    *,
+    values: ArrayLike | None = None,
+    dtype: DTypeLike | None = None,
+    distance_max: float | None = None,
+    num_threads: int | None = None,
+) -> NDArray[Any]:
+    """Return indices or values of nearest neighbors from other coordinates.
+
+    For each phasor coordinate, find the nearest neighbor in another set of
+    phasor coordinates and return its flat index. If more than one neighbor
+    has the same distance, return the smallest index.
+
+    For phasor coordinates that are NaN, or have a distance to the nearest
+    neighbor that is larger than `distance_max`, return an index of -1.
+
+    If `values` are provided, return the values corresponding to the nearest
+    neighbor coordinates instead of indices. Return NaN values for indices
+    that are -1.
+
+    This function does not support multi-harmonic, multi-channel, or
+    multi-frequency phasor coordinates.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    real : array_like
+        Real component of phasor coordinates.
+    imag : array_like
+        Imaginary component of phasor coordinates.
+    neighbor_real : array_like
+        Real component of neighbor phasor coordinates.
+    neighbor_imag : array_like
+        Imaginary component of neighbor phasor coordinates.
+    values : array_like, optional
+        Array of values corresponding to neighbor coordinates.
+        If provided, return the values corresponding to the nearest
+        neighbor coordinates.
+    distance_max : float, optional
+        Maximum Euclidean distance to consider a neighbor valid.
+        By default, all neighbors are considered.
+    dtype : dtype_like, optional
+        Floating point data type used for calculation and output values.
+        Either `float32` or `float64`. The default is `float64`.
+    num_threads : int, optional
+        Number of OpenMP threads to use for parallelization.
+        By default, multi-threading is disabled.
+        If zero, up to half of logical CPUs are used.
+        OpenMP may not be available on all platforms.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    nearest : ndarray
+        Flat indices (or the corresponding values if provided) of the nearest
+        neighbor coordinates.
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        If the shapes of `real`, and `imag` do not match.
+        If the shapes of `neighbor_real` and `neighbor_imag` do not match.
+        If the shapes of `values` and `neighbor_real` do not match.
+        If `distance_max` is less than or equal to zero.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    :ref:`sphx_glr_tutorials_applications_phasorpy_fret_efficiency.py`
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    This function uses linear search, which is inefficient for large
+    number of coordinates or neighbors.
+    ``scipy.spatial.KDTree.query()`` would be more efficient in those cases.
+    However, KDTree is known to return non-deterministic results in case of
+    multiple neighbors with the same distance.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> phasor_nearest_neighbor(
+    ...     [0.1, 0.5, numpy.nan],
+    ...     [0.1, 0.5, numpy.nan],
+    ...     [0, 0.4],
+    ...     [0, 0.4],
+    ...     values=[10, 20],
+    ... )
+    array([10, 20, nan])
+
+    """
+    dtype = numpy.dtype(dtype)
+    if dtype.char not in {'f', 'd'}:
+        raise ValueError(f'{dtype=} is not a floating point type')
+
+    real = numpy.ascontiguousarray(real, dtype=dtype)
+    imag = numpy.ascontiguousarray(imag, dtype=dtype)
+    neighbor_real = numpy.ascontiguousarray(neighbor_real, dtype=dtype)
+    neighbor_imag = numpy.ascontiguousarray(neighbor_imag, dtype=dtype)
+
+    if real.shape != imag.shape:
+        raise ValueError(f'{real.shape=} != {imag.shape=}')
+    if neighbor_real.shape != neighbor_imag.shape:
+        raise ValueError(f'{neighbor_real.shape=} != {neighbor_imag.shape=}')
+
+    shape = real.shape
+    real = real.ravel()
+    imag = imag.ravel()
+    neighbor_real = neighbor_real.ravel()
+    neighbor_imag = neighbor_imag.ravel()
+
+    indices = numpy.empty(
+        real.shape, numpy.min_scalar_type(-neighbor_real.size)
+    )
+
+    if distance_max is None:
+        distance_max = numpy.inf
+    else:
+        distance_max = float(distance_max)
+        if distance_max <= 0:
+            raise ValueError(f'{distance_max=} <= 0')
+
+    num_threads = number_threads(num_threads)
+
+    _nearest_neighbor_2d(
+        indices,
+        real,
+        imag,
+        neighbor_real,
+        neighbor_imag,
+        distance_max,
+        num_threads,
+    )
+
+    if values is None:
+        return numpy.asarray(indices.reshape(shape))
+
+    values = numpy.ascontiguousarray(values, dtype=dtype).ravel()
+    if values.shape != neighbor_real.shape:
+        raise ValueError(f'{values.shape=} != {neighbor_real.shape=}')
+
+    nearest_values = values[indices]
+    nearest_values[indices == -1] = numpy.nan
+
+    return numpy.asarray(nearest_values.reshape(shape))
+
+
+def phasor_center(
+    mean: ArrayLike,
+    real: ArrayLike,
+    imag: ArrayLike,
+    /,
+    *,
+    skip_axis: int | Sequence[int] | None = None,
+    method: Literal['mean', 'median'] = 'mean',
+    nan_safe: bool = True,
+    **kwargs: Any,
+) -> tuple[NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any]]:
+    """Return center of phasor coordinates.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    mean : array_like
+        Intensity of phasor coordinates.
+    real : array_like
+        Real component of phasor coordinates.
+    imag : array_like
+        Imaginary component of phasor coordinates.
+    skip_axis : int or sequence of int, optional
+        Axes in `mean` to excluded from center calculation.
+        By default, all axes except harmonics are included.
+    method : str, optional
+        Method used for center calculation:
+
+        - ``'mean'``: Arithmetic mean of phasor coordinates.
+        - ``'median'``: Spatial median of phasor coordinates.
+
+    nan_safe : bool, optional
+        Ensure `method` is applied to same elements of input arrays.
+        By default, distribute NaNs among input arrays before applying
+        `method`. May be disabled if phasor coordinates were filtered by
+        :py:func:`phasor_threshold`.
+    **kwargs
+        Optional arguments passed to :py:func:`numpy.nanmean` or
+        :py:func:`numpy.nanmedian`.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    mean_center : ndarray
+        Intensity center coordinates.
+    real_center : ndarray
+        Real center coordinates.
+    imag_center : ndarray
+        Imaginary center coordinates.
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        If the specified method is not supported.
+        If the shapes of `mean`, `real`, and `imag` do not match.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Compute center coordinates with the default 'mean' method:
+
+    >>> phasor_center(
+    ...     [2, 1, 2], [0.1, 0.2, 0.3], [0.4, 0.5, 0.6]
+    ... )  # doctest: +NUMBER
+    (1.67, 0.2, 0.5)
+
+    Compute center coordinates with the 'median' method:
+
+    >>> phasor_center(
+    ...     [1, 2, 3], [0.1, 0.2, 0.3], [0.4, 0.5, 0.6], method='median'
+    ... )
+    (2.0, 0.2, 0.5)
+
+    """
+    methods = {
+        'mean': _mean,
+        'median': _median,
+    }
+    if method not in methods:
+        raise ValueError(
+            f'Method not supported, supported methods are: '
+            f"{', '.join(methods)}"
+        )
+
+    mean = numpy.asarray(mean)
+    real = numpy.asarray(real)
+    imag = numpy.asarray(imag)
+    if real.shape != imag.shape:
+        raise ValueError(f'{real.shape=} != {imag.shape=}')
+    if mean.shape != real.shape[-mean.ndim if mean.ndim else 1 :]:
+        raise ValueError(f'{mean.shape=} != {real.shape=}')
+
+    prepend_axis = mean.ndim + 1 == real.ndim
+    _, axis = parse_skip_axis(skip_axis, mean.ndim, prepend_axis)
+    if prepend_axis:
+        mean = numpy.expand_dims(mean, axis=0)
+
+    if nan_safe:
+        mean, real, imag = phasor_threshold(mean, real, imag)
+
+    mean, real, imag = methods[method](mean, real, imag, axis=axis, **kwargs)
+
+    if prepend_axis:
+        mean = numpy.asarray(mean[0])
+    return mean, real, imag
+
+
+def _mean(
+    mean: NDArray[Any],
+    real: NDArray[Any],
+    imag: NDArray[Any],
+    /,
+    **kwargs: Any,
+) -> tuple[NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any]]:
+    """Return mean center of phasor coordinates."""
+    real = numpy.nanmean(real * mean, **kwargs)
+    imag = numpy.nanmean(imag * mean, **kwargs)
+    mean = numpy.nanmean(mean, **kwargs)
+    with numpy.errstate(divide='ignore', invalid='ignore'):
+        real /= mean
+        imag /= mean
+    return mean, real, imag
+
+
+def _median(
+    mean: NDArray[Any],
+    real: NDArray[Any],
+    imag: NDArray[Any],
+    /,
+    **kwargs: Any,
+) -> tuple[NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any], NDArray[Any]]:
+    """Return spatial median center of phasor coordinates."""
+    return (
+        numpy.nanmedian(mean, **kwargs),
+        numpy.nanmedian(real, **kwargs),
+        numpy.nanmedian(imag, **kwargs),
+    )