passagemath-objects 10.6.45__cp313-cp313-musllinux_1_2_x86_64.whl

sage/categories/pushout.py

@@ -0,0 +1,4834 @@
+# sage_setup: distribution = sagemath-objects
+"""
+Coercion via construction functors
+"""
+# ****************************************************************************
+#       Copyright (C) 2007-2014 Robert Bradshaw
+#                     2007-2018 David Roe
+#                     2009-2013 Simon King
+#                     2010      John Cremona
+#                     2010-2011 Mike Hansen
+#                     2012      Julian Rueth
+#                     2013-2016 Peter Bruin
+#                     2014      Wilfried Luebbe
+#                     2015      Benjamin Hackl
+#                     2015      Daniel Krenn
+#                     2016-2020 Frédéric Chapoton
+#                     2017      Jori Mäntysalo
+#                     2018      Vincent Delecroix
+#                     2020      Marc Mezzarobba
+#                     2020-2022 Matthias Koeppe
+#
+# This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
+# it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
+# the Free Software Foundation, either version 2 of the License, or
+# (at your option) any later version.
+#                  https://www.gnu.org/licenses/
+# ****************************************************************************
+
+import operator
+try:
+    from typing import Self  # type: ignore (Python >= 3.11)
+except ImportError:
+    from typing_extensions import Self  # type: ignore (Python 3.10)
+
+from sage.categories.functor import Functor, IdentityFunctor_generic
+from sage.misc.lazy_import import lazy_import
+from sage.structure.coerce_exceptions import CoercionException
+
+lazy_import('sage.categories.commutative_additive_groups', 'CommutativeAdditiveGroups')
+lazy_import('sage.categories.commutative_rings', 'CommutativeRings')
+lazy_import('sage.categories.groups', 'Groups')
+lazy_import('sage.categories.objects', 'Objects')
+lazy_import('sage.categories.rings', 'Rings')
+
+# TODO, think through the rankings, and override pushout where necessary.
+
+
+class ConstructionFunctor(Functor):
+    """
+    Base class for construction functors.
+
+    A construction functor is a functorial algebraic construction,
+    such as the construction of a matrix ring over a given ring
+    or the fraction field of a given ring.
+
+    In addition to the class :class:`~sage.categories.functor.Functor`,
+    construction functors provide rules for combining and merging
+    constructions. This is an important part of Sage's coercion model,
+    namely the pushout of two constructions: When a polynomial ``p`` in
+    a variable ``x`` with integer coefficients is added to a rational
+    number ``q``, then Sage finds that the parents ``ZZ['x']`` and
+    ``QQ`` are obtained from ``ZZ`` by applying a polynomial ring
+    construction respectively the fraction field construction. Each
+    construction functor has an attribute ``rank``, and the rank of
+    the polynomial ring construction is higher than the rank of the
+    fraction field construction. This means that the pushout of ``QQ``
+    and ``ZZ['x']``, and thus a common parent in which ``p`` and ``q``
+    can be added, is ``QQ['x']``, since the construction functor with
+    a lower rank is applied first.
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: F1, R = QQ.construction()
+        sage: F1
+        FractionField
+        sage: R
+        Integer Ring
+        sage: F2, R = (ZZ['x']).construction()
+        sage: F2
+        Poly[x]
+        sage: R
+        Integer Ring
+        sage: F3 = F2.pushout(F1)
+        sage: F3
+        Poly[x](FractionField(...))
+        sage: F3(R)
+        Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+        sage: from sage.categories.pushout import pushout
+        sage: P.<x> = ZZ[]
+        sage: pushout(QQ,P)
+        Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+        sage: ((x+1) + 1/2).parent()
+        Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+
+    When composing two construction functors, they are sometimes
+    merged into one, as is the case in the Quotient construction::
+
+        sage: Q15, R = (ZZ.quo(15*ZZ)).construction()
+        sage: Q15
+        QuotientFunctor
+        sage: Q35, R = (ZZ.quo(35*ZZ)).construction()
+        sage: Q35
+        QuotientFunctor
+        sage: Q15.merge(Q35)
+        QuotientFunctor
+        sage: Q15.merge(Q35)(ZZ)
+        Ring of integers modulo 5
+
+    Functors can not only be applied to objects, but also to morphisms in the
+    respective categories. For example::
+
+        sage: P.<x,y> = ZZ[]
+        sage: F = P.construction()[0]; F
+        MPoly[x,y]
+        sage: A.<a,b> = GF(5)[]
+        sage: f = A.hom([a + b, a - b], A)
+        sage: F(A)
+        Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y
+         over Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a, b over Finite Field of size 5
+        sage: F(f)
+        Ring endomorphism of Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y
+         over Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a, b over Finite Field of size 5
+          Defn: Induced from base ring by
+                Ring endomorphism of Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a, b
+                 over Finite Field of size 5
+                  Defn: a |--> a + b
+                        b |--> a - b
+        sage: F(f)(F(A)(x)*a)
+        (a + b)*x
+    """
+    def __mul__(self, other):
+        """
+        Compose ``self`` and ``other`` to a composite construction
+        functor, unless one of them is the identity.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            The product is in functorial notation, i.e., when applying the
+            product to an object, the second factor is applied first.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import IdentityConstructionFunctor
+            sage: I = IdentityConstructionFunctor()
+            sage: F = QQ.construction()[0]
+            sage: P = ZZ['t'].construction()[0]
+            sage: F*P
+            FractionField(Poly[t](...))
+            sage: P*F
+            Poly[t](FractionField(...))
+            sage: (F*P)(ZZ)
+            Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Integer Ring
+            sage: I*P is P
+            True
+            sage: F*I is F
+            True
+        """
+        if not isinstance(self, ConstructionFunctor) and not isinstance(other, ConstructionFunctor):
+            raise CoercionException("Non-constructive product")
+        if isinstance(other, IdentityConstructionFunctor):
+            return self
+        if isinstance(self, IdentityConstructionFunctor):
+            return other
+        return CompositeConstructionFunctor(other, self)
+
+    def pushout(self, other):
+        """
+        Composition of two construction functors, ordered by their ranks.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            - This method seems not to be used in the coercion model.
+
+            - By default, the functor with smaller rank is applied first.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: F = QQ.construction()[0]
+            sage: P = ZZ['t'].construction()[0]
+            sage: F.pushout(P)
+            Poly[t](FractionField(...))
+            sage: P.pushout(F)
+            Poly[t](FractionField(...))
+        """
+        if self.rank > other.rank:
+            return self * other
+        else:
+            return other * self
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        """
+        Equality here means that they are mathematically equivalent, though they may have
+        specific implementation data. This method will usually be overloaded in subclasses.
+        by default, only the types of the functors are compared. Also see the :meth:`merge` function.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import IdentityConstructionFunctor
+            sage: I = IdentityConstructionFunctor()
+            sage: F = QQ.construction()[0]
+            sage: P = ZZ['t'].construction()[0]
+            sage: I == F        # indirect doctest
+            False
+            sage: I == I        # indirect doctest
+            True
+        """
+        return type(self) is type(other)
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        """
+        Check whether ``self`` is not equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import IdentityConstructionFunctor
+            sage: I = IdentityConstructionFunctor()
+            sage: F = QQ.construction()[0]
+            sage: P = ZZ['t'].construction()[0]
+            sage: I != F        # indirect doctest
+            True
+            sage: I != I        # indirect doctest
+            False
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    def __hash__(self):
+        """
+        Return the hash of ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import IdentityConstructionFunctor
+            sage: I = IdentityConstructionFunctor()
+            sage: F = QQ.construction()[0]
+            sage: hash(I) == hash(F)
+            False
+            sage: hash(I) == hash(I)
+            True
+        """
+        return hash(repr(self))
+
+    def _repr_(self):
+        """
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            By default, it returns the name of the construction
+            functor's class.  Usually, this method will be overloaded.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: F = QQ.construction()[0]
+            sage: F                  # indirect doctest
+            FractionField
+            sage: Q = ZZ.quo(2).construction()[0]
+            sage: Q                  # indirect doctest
+            QuotientFunctor
+        """
+        s = str(type(self))
+        import re
+        return re.sub(r"<.*'.*\.([^.]*)'>", "\\1", s)
+
+    def merge(self, other) -> Self | None:
+        """
+        Merge ``self`` with another construction functor, or return ``None``.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            The default is to merge only if the two functors coincide. But this
+            may be overloaded for subclasses, such as the quotient functor.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: F = QQ.construction()[0]
+            sage: P = ZZ['t'].construction()[0]
+            sage: F.merge(F)
+            FractionField
+            sage: F.merge(P)
+            sage: P.merge(F)
+            sage: P.merge(P)
+            Poly[t]
+        """
+        if self == other:
+            return self
+        else:
+            return None
+
+    def commutes(self, other):
+        """
+        Determine whether ``self`` commutes with another construction functor.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            By default, ``False`` is returned in all cases (even if the two
+            functors are the same, since in this case :meth:`merge` will apply
+            anyway). So far there is no construction functor that overloads
+            this method. Anyway, this method only becomes relevant if two
+            construction functors have the same rank.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: F = QQ.construction()[0]
+            sage: P = ZZ['t'].construction()[0]
+            sage: F.commutes(P)
+            False
+            sage: P.commutes(F)
+            False
+            sage: F.commutes(F)
+            False
+        """
+        return False
+
+    def expand(self):
+        """
+        Decompose ``self`` into a list of construction functors.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            The default is to return the list only containing ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: F = QQ.construction()[0]
+            sage: F.expand()
+            [FractionField]
+            sage: Q = ZZ.quo(2).construction()[0]
+            sage: Q.expand()
+            [QuotientFunctor]
+            sage: P = ZZ['t'].construction()[0]
+            sage: FP = F*P
+            sage: FP.expand()
+            [FractionField, Poly[t]]
+        """
+        return [self]
+
+    # See the pushout() function below for explanation.
+    coercion_reversed = False
+
+    def common_base(self, other_functor, self_bases, other_bases):
+        r"""
+        This function is called by :func:`pushout` when no common parent
+        is found in the construction tower.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            The main use is for multivariate construction functors,
+            which use this function to implement recursion for
+            :func:`pushout`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other_functor`` -- a construction functor
+
+        - ``self_bases`` -- the arguments passed to this functor
+
+        - ``other_bases`` -- the arguments passed to the functor
+          ``other_functor``
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        Nothing, since a
+        :class:`~sage.structure.coerce_exceptions.CoercionException`
+        is raised.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            Overload this function in derived class, see
+            e.e. :class:`MultivariateConstructionFunctor`.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import pushout
+            sage: pushout(QQ, cartesian_product([ZZ]))  # indirect doctest
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            CoercionException: No common base ("join") found for
+            FractionField(Integer Ring) and The cartesian_product functorial construction(Integer Ring).
+        """
+        self._raise_common_base_exception_(
+            other_functor, self_bases, other_bases)
+
+    def _raise_common_base_exception_(self, other_functor,
+                                      self_bases, other_bases,
+                                      reason=None):
+        r"""
+        Raise a coercion exception.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other_functor`` -- a functor
+
+        - ``self_bases`` -- the arguments passed to this functor
+
+        - ``other_bases`` -- the arguments passed to the functor
+          ``other_functor``
+
+        - ``reason`` -- string or ``None`` (default)
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import pushout
+            sage: pushout(QQ, cartesian_product([QQ]))  # indirect doctest
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            CoercionException: No common base ("join") found for
+            FractionField(Integer Ring) and The cartesian_product functorial construction(Rational Field).
+        """
+        if not isinstance(self_bases, (tuple, list)):
+            self_bases = (self_bases,)
+        if not isinstance(other_bases, (tuple, list)):
+            other_bases = (other_bases,)
+        if reason is None:
+            reason = '.'
+        else:
+            reason = ': ' + reason + '.'
+        raise CoercionException(
+            'No common base ("join") found for %s(%s) and %s(%s)%s' %
+            (self, ', '.join(str(b) for b in self_bases),
+             other_functor, ', '.join(str(b) for b in other_bases),
+             reason))
+
+
+class CompositeConstructionFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+    """
+    A Construction Functor composed by other Construction Functors.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``F1, F2,...`` -- a list of Construction Functors. The result is the
+      composition ``F1`` followed by ``F2`` followed by ...
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.categories.pushout import CompositeConstructionFunctor
+        sage: F = CompositeConstructionFunctor(QQ.construction()[0], ZZ['x'].construction()[0],
+        ....:                                  QQ.construction()[0], ZZ['y'].construction()[0])
+        sage: F
+        Poly[y](FractionField(Poly[x](FractionField(...))))
+        sage: F == loads(dumps(F))
+        True
+        sage: F == CompositeConstructionFunctor(*F.all)
+        True
+        sage: F(GF(2)['t'])                                                             # needs sage.libs.ntl
+        Univariate Polynomial Ring in y
+         over Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in x
+          over Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in t
+           over Finite Field of size 2 (using ...)
+    """
+    def __init__(self, *args):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import CompositeConstructionFunctor
+            sage: F = CompositeConstructionFunctor(QQ.construction()[0], ZZ['x'].construction()[0],
+            ....:                                  QQ.construction()[0], ZZ['y'].construction()[0])
+            sage: F
+            Poly[y](FractionField(Poly[x](FractionField(...))))
+            sage: F == CompositeConstructionFunctor(*F.all)
+            True
+        """
+        self.all = []
+        for c in args:
+            if isinstance(c, list):
+                self.all += c
+            elif isinstance(c, CompositeConstructionFunctor):
+                self.all += c.all
+            else:
+                self.all.append(c)
+        Functor.__init__(self, self.all[0].domain(), self.all[-1].codomain())
+
+    def _apply_functor_to_morphism(self, f):
+        """
+        Apply the functor to an object of ``self``'s domain.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import CompositeConstructionFunctor
+            sage: F = CompositeConstructionFunctor(QQ.construction()[0],ZZ['x'].construction()[0],QQ.construction()[0],ZZ['y'].construction()[0])
+            sage: R.<a,b> = QQ[]
+            sage: f = R.hom([a+b, a-b])
+            sage: F(f)           # indirect doctest
+            Ring endomorphism of Univariate Polynomial Ring in y over Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Fraction Field of Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a, b over Rational Field
+              Defn: Induced from base ring by
+                    Ring endomorphism of Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Fraction Field of Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a, b over Rational Field
+                      Defn: Induced from base ring by
+                            Ring endomorphism of Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Fraction Field of Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a, b over Rational Field
+                              Defn: Induced from base ring by
+                                    Ring endomorphism of Fraction Field of Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a, b over Rational Field
+                                      Defn: a |--> a + b
+                                            b |--> a - b
+        """
+        for c in self.all:
+            f = c(f)
+        return f
+
+    def _apply_functor(self, R):
+        """
+        Apply the functor to an object of ``self``'s domain.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import CompositeConstructionFunctor
+            sage: F = CompositeConstructionFunctor(QQ.construction()[0],ZZ['x'].construction()[0],QQ.construction()[0],ZZ['y'].construction()[0])
+            sage: R.<a,b> = QQ[]
+            sage: F(R)       # indirect doctest
+            Univariate Polynomial Ring in y over Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Fraction Field of Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a, b over Rational Field
+        """
+        for c in self.all:
+            R = c(R)
+        return R
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import CompositeConstructionFunctor
+            sage: F = CompositeConstructionFunctor(QQ.construction()[0],ZZ['x'].construction()[0],QQ.construction()[0],ZZ['y'].construction()[0])
+            sage: F == loads(dumps(F)) # indirect doctest
+            True
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, CompositeConstructionFunctor):
+            return self.all == other.all
+        else:
+            return type(self) is type(other)
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        """
+        Check whether ``self`` is not equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import CompositeConstructionFunctor
+            sage: F = CompositeConstructionFunctor(QQ.construction()[0],ZZ['x'].construction()[0],QQ.construction()[0],ZZ['y'].construction()[0])
+            sage: F != loads(dumps(F)) # indirect doctest
+            False
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    __hash__ = ConstructionFunctor.__hash__
+
+    def __mul__(self, other):
+        """
+        Compose construction functors to a composite construction functor, unless one of them is the identity.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            The product is in functorial notation, i.e., when applying the product to an object
+            then the second factor is applied first.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import CompositeConstructionFunctor
+            sage: F1 = CompositeConstructionFunctor(QQ.construction()[0],ZZ['x'].construction()[0])
+            sage: F2 = CompositeConstructionFunctor(QQ.construction()[0],ZZ['y'].construction()[0])
+            sage: F1*F2
+            Poly[x](FractionField(Poly[y](FractionField(...))))
+        """
+        if isinstance(self, CompositeConstructionFunctor):
+            all = [other] + self.all
+        elif isinstance(other, IdentityConstructionFunctor):
+            return self
+        else:
+            all = other.all + [self]
+        return CompositeConstructionFunctor(*all)
+
+    def _repr_(self):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import CompositeConstructionFunctor
+            sage: F = CompositeConstructionFunctor(QQ.construction()[0],ZZ['x'].construction()[0],QQ.construction()[0],ZZ['y'].construction()[0])
+            sage: F     # indirect doctest
+            Poly[y](FractionField(Poly[x](FractionField(...))))
+        """
+        s = "..."
+        for c in self.all:
+            s = "%s(%s)" % (c, s)
+        return s
+
+    def expand(self):
+        """
+        Return expansion of a CompositeConstructionFunctor.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            The product over the list of components, as returned by
+            the ``expand()`` method, is equal to ``self``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import CompositeConstructionFunctor
+            sage: F = CompositeConstructionFunctor(QQ.construction()[0],
+            ....:                                  ZZ['x'].construction()[0],
+            ....:                                  QQ.construction()[0],
+            ....:                                  ZZ['y'].construction()[0])
+            sage: F
+            Poly[y](FractionField(Poly[x](FractionField(...))))
+            sage: prod(F.expand()) == F
+            True
+        """
+        return list(reversed(self.all))
+
+
+class IdentityConstructionFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+    """
+    A construction functor that is the identity functor.
+
+    TESTS::
+
+        sage: from sage.categories.pushout import IdentityConstructionFunctor
+        sage: I = IdentityConstructionFunctor()
+        sage: I(RR) is RR
+        True
+        sage: I == loads(dumps(I))
+        True
+    """
+    rank = -100
+
+    def __init__(self):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import IdentityConstructionFunctor
+            sage: I = IdentityConstructionFunctor()
+            sage: IdentityFunctor(Sets()) == I
+            True
+            sage: I(RR) is RR
+            True
+        """
+        from sage.categories.sets_cat import Sets
+        ConstructionFunctor.__init__(self, Sets(), Sets())
+
+    def _apply_functor(self, x):
+        """
+        Return the argument unaltered.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import IdentityConstructionFunctor
+            sage: I = IdentityConstructionFunctor()
+            sage: I(RR) is RR      # indirect doctest
+            True
+        """
+        return x
+
+    def _apply_functor_to_morphism(self, f):
+        """
+        Return the argument unaltered.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import IdentityConstructionFunctor
+            sage: I = IdentityConstructionFunctor()
+            sage: f = ZZ['t'].hom(['x'],QQ['x'])
+            sage: I(f) is f      # indirect doctest
+            True
+        """
+        return f
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import IdentityConstructionFunctor
+            sage: I = IdentityConstructionFunctor()
+            sage: I == IdentityFunctor(Sets())     # indirect doctest
+            True
+            sage: I == QQ.construction()[0]
+            False
+        """
+        c = (type(self) is type(other))
+        if not c:
+            if isinstance(other, IdentityFunctor_generic):
+                return True
+        return c
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        """
+        Check whether ``self`` is not equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import IdentityConstructionFunctor
+            sage: I = IdentityConstructionFunctor()
+            sage: I != IdentityFunctor(Sets())     # indirect doctest
+            False
+            sage: I != QQ.construction()[0]
+            True
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    __hash__ = ConstructionFunctor.__hash__
+
+    def __mul__(self, other):
+        """
+        Compose construction functors to a composite construction functor, unless one of them is the identity.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            The product is in functorial notation, i.e., when applying the
+            product to an object then the second factor is applied first.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import IdentityConstructionFunctor
+            sage: I = IdentityConstructionFunctor()
+            sage: F = QQ.construction()[0]
+            sage: P = ZZ['t'].construction()[0]
+            sage: I*F is F     # indirect doctest
+            True
+            sage: F*I is F
+            True
+            sage: I*P is P
+            True
+            sage: P*I is P
+            True
+        """
+        if isinstance(self, IdentityConstructionFunctor):
+            return other
+        else:
+            return self
+
+
+class MultivariateConstructionFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+    """
+    An abstract base class for functors that take
+    multiple inputs (e.g. Cartesian products).
+
+    TESTS::
+
+        sage: from sage.categories.pushout import pushout
+        sage: A = cartesian_product((QQ['z'], QQ))
+        sage: B = cartesian_product((ZZ['t']['z'], QQ))
+        sage: pushout(A, B)
+        The Cartesian product of (Univariate Polynomial Ring in z over
+        Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Rational Field,
+        Rational Field)
+        sage: A.construction()
+        (The cartesian_product functorial construction,
+         (Univariate Polynomial Ring in z over Rational Field, Rational Field))
+        sage: pushout(A, B)
+        The Cartesian product of (Univariate Polynomial Ring in z over Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Rational Field, Rational Field)
+    """
+    def common_base(self, other_functor, self_bases, other_bases):
+        r"""
+        This function is called by :func:`pushout` when no common parent
+        is found in the construction tower.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other_functor`` -- a construction functor
+
+        - ``self_bases`` -- the arguments passed to this functor
+
+        - ``other_bases`` -- the arguments passed to the functor
+          ``other_functor``
+
+        OUTPUT: a parent
+
+        If no common base is found a :class:`sage.structure.coerce_exceptions.CoercionException`
+        is raised.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            Overload this function in derived class, see
+            e.g. :class:`MultivariateConstructionFunctor`.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import pushout
+            sage: pushout(cartesian_product([ZZ]), QQ)  # indirect doctest
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            CoercionException: No common base ("join") found for
+            The cartesian_product functorial construction(Integer Ring) and FractionField(Integer Ring):
+            (Multivariate) functors are incompatible.
+            sage: pushout(cartesian_product([ZZ]), cartesian_product([ZZ, QQ]))  # indirect doctest
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            CoercionException: No common base ("join") found ...
+        """
+        if self != other_functor:
+            self._raise_common_base_exception_(
+                other_functor, self_bases, other_bases,
+                '(Multivariate) functors are incompatible')
+        if len(self_bases) != len(other_bases):
+            self._raise_common_base_exception_(
+                other_functor, self_bases, other_bases,
+                'Functors need the same number of arguments')
+        from sage.structure.element import coercion_model
+        Z_bases = tuple(coercion_model.common_parent(S, O)
+                        for S, O in zip(self_bases, other_bases))
+        return self(Z_bases)
+
+
+class PolynomialFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+    """
+    Construction functor for univariate polynomial rings.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: P = ZZ['t'].construction()[0]
+        sage: P(GF(3))
+        Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Finite Field of size 3
+        sage: P == loads(dumps(P))
+        True
+        sage: R.<x,y> = GF(5)[]
+        sage: f = R.hom([x + 2*y, 3*x - y], R)
+        sage: P(f)((x+y) * P(R).0)
+        (-x + y)*t
+
+    By :issue:`9944`, the construction functor distinguishes sparse and
+    dense polynomial rings. Before, the following example failed::
+
+        sage: R.<x> = PolynomialRing(GF(5), sparse=True)
+        sage: F, B = R.construction()
+        sage: F(B) is R
+        True
+        sage: S.<x> = PolynomialRing(ZZ)
+        sage: R.has_coerce_map_from(S)
+        False
+        sage: S.has_coerce_map_from(R)
+        False
+        sage: S.0 + R.0
+        2*x
+        sage: (S.0 + R.0).parent()
+        Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Finite Field of size 5
+        sage: (S.0 + R.0).parent().is_sparse()
+        False
+    """
+    rank = 9
+
+    def __init__(self, var, multi_variate=False, sparse=False, implementation=None):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import PolynomialFunctor
+            sage: P = PolynomialFunctor('x')
+            sage: P(GF(3))
+            Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Finite Field of size 3
+
+        There is an optional parameter ``multi_variate``, but
+        apparently it is not used::
+
+            sage: Q = PolynomialFunctor('x',multi_variate=True)
+            sage: Q(ZZ)
+            Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+            sage: Q == P
+            True
+        """
+        from .rings import Rings
+        Functor.__init__(self, Rings(), Rings())
+        self.var = var
+        self.multi_variate = multi_variate
+        self.sparse = sparse
+        self.implementation = implementation
+
+    def _apply_functor(self, R):
+        """
+        Apply the functor to an object of ``self``'s domain.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: P = ZZ['x'].construction()[0]
+            sage: P(GF(3))      # indirect doctest
+            Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Finite Field of size 3
+        """
+        from sage.rings.polynomial.polynomial_ring_constructor import PolynomialRing
+        kwds = {}
+        if self.implementation:
+            kwds['implementation'] = self.implementation
+        return PolynomialRing(R, self.var, sparse=self.sparse, **kwds)
+
+    def _apply_functor_to_morphism(self, f):
+        """
+        Apply the functor ``self`` to the morphism `f`.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: P = ZZ['x'].construction()[0]
+            sage: P(ZZ.hom(GF(3)))  # indirect doctest
+            Ring morphism:
+              From: Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+              To:   Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Finite Field of size 3
+              Defn: Induced from base ring by
+                    Natural morphism:
+                      From: Integer Ring
+                      To:   Finite Field of size 3
+        """
+        from sage.rings.polynomial.polynomial_ring_homomorphism import (
+            PolynomialRingHomomorphism_from_base,
+        )
+        R = self._apply_functor(f.domain())
+        S = self._apply_functor(f.codomain())
+        return PolynomialRingHomomorphism_from_base(R.Hom(S), f)
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import MultiPolynomialFunctor
+            sage: Q = MultiPolynomialFunctor(('x',),'lex')
+            sage: P = ZZ['x'].construction()[0]
+            sage: P
+            Poly[x]
+            sage: Q
+            MPoly[x]
+            sage: P == Q
+            True
+            sage: P == loads(dumps(P))
+            True
+            sage: P == QQ.construction()[0]
+            False
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, PolynomialFunctor):
+            return self.var == other.var
+        elif isinstance(other, MultiPolynomialFunctor):
+            return (other == self)
+        else:
+            return False
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        """
+        Check whether ``self`` is not equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import MultiPolynomialFunctor
+            sage: Q = MultiPolynomialFunctor(('x',),'lex')
+            sage: P = ZZ['x'].construction()[0]
+            sage: P != Q
+            False
+            sage: P != loads(dumps(P))
+            False
+            sage: P != QQ.construction()[0]
+            True
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    __hash__ = ConstructionFunctor.__hash__
+
+    def merge(self, other):
+        """
+        Merge ``self`` with another construction functor, or return ``None``.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            Internally, the merging is delegated to the merging of
+            multipolynomial construction functors. But in effect,
+            this does the same as the default implementation, that
+            returns ``None`` unless the to-be-merged functors coincide.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P = ZZ['x'].construction()[0]
+            sage: Q = ZZ['y','x'].construction()[0]
+            sage: P.merge(Q)
+            sage: P.merge(P) is P
+            True
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, MultiPolynomialFunctor):
+            return other.merge(self)
+        elif self == other:
+            # i.e., they only differ in sparsity
+            if not self.sparse:
+                return self
+            return other
+        else:
+            return None
+
+    def _repr_(self):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: P = ZZ['x'].construction()[0]
+            sage: P       # indirect doctest
+            Poly[x]
+        """
+        return "Poly[%s]" % self.var
+
+
+class MultiPolynomialFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+    """
+    A constructor for multivariate polynomial rings.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: P.<x,y> = ZZ[]
+        sage: F = P.construction()[0]; F
+        MPoly[x,y]
+        sage: A.<a,b> = GF(5)[]
+        sage: F(A)
+        Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y
+         over Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a, b over Finite Field of size 5
+        sage: f = A.hom([a+b, a-b], A)
+        sage: F(f)
+        Ring endomorphism of Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y
+         over Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a, b over Finite Field of size 5
+          Defn: Induced from base ring by
+                Ring endomorphism of Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a, b over Finite Field of size 5
+                  Defn: a |--> a + b
+                        b |--> a - b
+        sage: F(f)(F(A)(x)*a)
+        (a + b)*x
+    """
+
+    rank = 9
+
+    def __init__(self, vars, term_order):
+        """
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: F = sage.categories.pushout.MultiPolynomialFunctor(['x','y'], None)
+            sage: F
+            MPoly[x,y]
+            sage: F(ZZ)
+            Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y over Integer Ring
+            sage: F(CC)                                                                 # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+            Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y over Complex Field with 53 bits of precision
+        """
+        Functor.__init__(self, Rings(), Rings())
+        self.vars = vars
+        self.term_order = term_order
+
+    def _apply_functor(self, R):
+        """
+        Apply the functor to an object of ``self``'s domain.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R.<x,y,z> = QQ[]
+            sage: F = R.construction()[0]; F
+            MPoly[x,y,z]
+            sage: type(F)
+            <class 'sage.categories.pushout.MultiPolynomialFunctor'>
+            sage: F(ZZ)          # indirect doctest
+            Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y, z over Integer Ring
+            sage: F(RR)          # indirect doctest                                     # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+            Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y, z over Real Field with 53 bits of precision
+        """
+        from sage.rings.polynomial.polynomial_ring_constructor import PolynomialRing
+        return PolynomialRing(R, self.vars)
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        """
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: F = ZZ['x,y,z'].construction()[0]
+            sage: G = QQ['x,y,z'].construction()[0]
+            sage: F == G
+            True
+            sage: G == loads(dumps(G))
+            True
+            sage: G = ZZ['x,y'].construction()[0]
+            sage: F == G
+            False
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, MultiPolynomialFunctor):
+            return (self.vars == other.vars and
+                    self.term_order == other.term_order)
+        elif isinstance(other, PolynomialFunctor):
+            return self.vars == (other.var,)
+        else:
+            return False
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        """
+        Check whether ``self`` is not equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: F = ZZ['x,y,z'].construction()[0]
+            sage: G = QQ['x,y,z'].construction()[0]
+            sage: F != G
+            False
+            sage: G != loads(dumps(G))
+            False
+            sage: G = ZZ['x,y'].construction()[0]
+            sage: F != G
+            True
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    __hash__ = ConstructionFunctor.__hash__
+
+    def __mul__(self, other):
+        """
+        If two MPoly functors are given in a row, form a single MPoly functor
+        with all of the variables.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: F = sage.categories.pushout.MultiPolynomialFunctor(['x','y'], None)
+            sage: G = sage.categories.pushout.MultiPolynomialFunctor(['t'], None)
+            sage: G*F
+            MPoly[x,y,t]
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, IdentityConstructionFunctor):
+            return self
+        if isinstance(other, MultiPolynomialFunctor):
+            if self.term_order != other.term_order:
+                raise CoercionException("Incompatible term orders (%s,%s)." % (self.term_order, other.term_order))
+            if set(self.vars).intersection(other.vars):
+                raise CoercionException("Overlapping variables (%s,%s)" % (self.vars, other.vars))
+            return MultiPolynomialFunctor(other.vars + self.vars, self.term_order)
+        elif (isinstance(other, CompositeConstructionFunctor)
+              and isinstance(other.all[-1], MultiPolynomialFunctor)):
+            return CompositeConstructionFunctor(other.all[:-1], self * other.all[-1])
+        else:
+            return CompositeConstructionFunctor(other, self)
+
+    def merge(self, other):
+        """
+        Merge ``self`` with another construction functor, or return ``None``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: F = sage.categories.pushout.MultiPolynomialFunctor(['x','y'], None)
+            sage: G = sage.categories.pushout.MultiPolynomialFunctor(['t'], None)
+            sage: F.merge(G) is None
+            True
+            sage: F.merge(F)
+            MPoly[x,y]
+        """
+        if self == other:
+            return self
+        else:
+            return None
+
+    def expand(self):
+        """
+        Decompose ``self`` into a list of construction functors.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: F = QQ['x,y,z,t'].construction()[0]; F
+            MPoly[x,y,z,t]
+            sage: F.expand()
+            [MPoly[t], MPoly[z], MPoly[y], MPoly[x]]
+
+        Now an actual use case::
+
+            sage: R.<x,y,z> = ZZ[]
+            sage: S.<z,t> = QQ[]
+            sage: x+t
+            x + t
+            sage: parent(x+t)
+            Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y, z, t over Rational Field
+            sage: T.<y,s> = QQ[]
+            sage: x + s
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: unsupported operand parent(s) for +:
+            'Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y, z over Integer Ring' and
+            'Multivariate Polynomial Ring in y, s over Rational Field'
+            sage: R = PolynomialRing(ZZ, 'x', 50)
+            sage: S = PolynomialRing(GF(5), 'x', 20)
+            sage: R.gen(0) + S.gen(0)
+            2*x0
+        """
+        if len(self.vars) <= 1:
+            return [self]
+        else:
+            return [MultiPolynomialFunctor((x,), self.term_order) for x in reversed(self.vars)]
+
+    def _repr_(self):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: QQ['x,y,z,t'].construction()[0]
+            MPoly[x,y,z,t]
+        """
+        return "MPoly[%s]" % ','.join(self.vars)
+
+
+class InfinitePolynomialFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+    r"""
+    A Construction Functor for Infinite Polynomial Rings (see :mod:`~sage.rings.polynomial.infinite_polynomial_ring`).
+
+    AUTHOR:
+
+    -- Simon King
+
+    This construction functor is used to provide uniqueness of infinite polynomial rings as parent structures.
+    As usual, the construction functor allows for constructing pushouts.
+
+    Another purpose is to avoid name conflicts of variables of the to-be-constructed infinite polynomial ring with
+    variables of the base ring, and moreover to keep the internal structure of an Infinite Polynomial Ring as simple
+    as possible: If variables `v_1,...,v_n` of the given base ring generate an *ordered* sub-monoid of the monomials
+    of the ambient Infinite Polynomial Ring, then they are removed from the base ring and merged with the generators
+    of the ambient ring. However, if the orders don't match, an error is raised, since there was a name conflict
+    without merging.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: A.<a,b> = InfinitePolynomialRing(ZZ['t'])
+        sage: A.construction()
+        [InfPoly{[a,b], "lex", "dense"},
+         Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Integer Ring]
+        sage: type(_[0])
+        <class 'sage.categories.pushout.InfinitePolynomialFunctor'>
+        sage: B.<x,y,a_3,a_1> = PolynomialRing(QQ, order='lex')
+        sage: B.construction()
+        (MPoly[x,y,a_3,a_1], Rational Field)
+        sage: A.construction()[0] * B.construction()[0]
+        InfPoly{[a,b], "lex", "dense"}(MPoly[x,y](...))
+
+    Apparently the variables `a_1,a_3` of the polynomial ring are merged with the variables
+    `a_0, a_1, a_2, ...` of the infinite polynomial ring; indeed, they form an ordered sub-structure.
+    However, if the polynomial ring was given a different ordering, merging would not be allowed,
+    resulting in a name conflict::
+
+        sage: R = PolynomialRing(QQ, names=['x','y','a_3','a_1'])
+        sage: A.construction()[0] * R.construction()[0]
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        CoercionException: Incompatible term orders lex, degrevlex
+
+    In an infinite polynomial ring with generator `a_\ast`, the variable `a_3` will always be greater
+    than the variable `a_1`. Hence, the orders are incompatible in the next example as well::
+
+        sage: R = PolynomialRing(QQ, names=['x','y','a_1','a_3'], order='lex')
+        sage: A.construction()[0] * R.construction()[0]
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        CoercionException: Overlapping variables (('a', 'b'),['a_1', 'a_3'])
+        are incompatible
+
+    Another requirement is that after merging the order of the remaining variables must be unique.
+    This is not the case in the following example, since it is not clear whether the variables `x,y`
+    should be greater or smaller than the variables `b_\ast`::
+
+        sage: R = PolynomialRing(QQ, names=['a_3','a_1','x','y'], order='lex')
+        sage: A.construction()[0] * R.construction()[0]
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        CoercionException: Overlapping variables (('a', 'b'),['a_3', 'a_1'])
+        are incompatible
+
+    Since the construction functors are actually used to construct infinite polynomial rings, the following
+    result is no surprise::
+
+        sage: C.<a,b> = InfinitePolynomialRing(B); C
+        Infinite polynomial ring in a, b
+         over Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y over Rational Field
+
+    There is also an overlap in the next example::
+
+        sage: X.<w,x,y> = InfinitePolynomialRing(ZZ)
+        sage: Y.<x,y,z> = InfinitePolynomialRing(QQ)
+
+    `X` and `Y` have an overlapping generators `x_\ast, y_\ast`. Since the default lexicographic order is
+    used in both rings, it gives rise to isomorphic sub-monoids in both `X` and `Y`. They are merged in the
+    pushout, which also yields a common parent for doing arithmetic::
+
+        sage: P = sage.categories.pushout.pushout(Y,X); P
+        Infinite polynomial ring in w, x, y, z over Rational Field
+        sage: w[2]+z[3]
+        w_2 + z_3
+        sage: _.parent() is P
+        True
+    """
+
+    # We do provide merging with polynomial rings. However, it seems that it is better
+    # to have a greater rank, since we want to apply InfinitePolynomialFunctor *after*
+    # [Multi]PolynomialFunctor, which have rank 9. But there is the MatrixFunctor, which
+    # has rank 10. So, do fine tuning...
+    rank = 9.5
+
+    def __init__(self, gens, order, implementation):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: F = sage.categories.pushout.InfinitePolynomialFunctor(['a','b','x'],'degrevlex','sparse'); F # indirect doctest
+            InfPoly{[a,b,x], "degrevlex", "sparse"}
+            sage: F == loads(dumps(F))
+            True
+        """
+        if not gens:
+            raise ValueError("Infinite Polynomial Rings have at least one generator")
+        ConstructionFunctor.__init__(self, Rings(), Rings())
+        self._gens = tuple(gens)
+        self._order = order
+        self._imple = implementation
+
+    def _apply_functor_to_morphism(self, f):
+        """
+        Morphisms for infinite polynomial rings are not implemented yet.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: R.<alpha> = InfinitePolynomialRing(P)
+            sage: f = P.hom([x+y,x-y],P)
+            sage: R.construction()[0](f)     # indirect doctest
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            NotImplementedError: morphisms for infinite polynomial rings are not implemented yet
+        """
+        raise NotImplementedError("morphisms for infinite polynomial rings are not implemented yet")
+
+    def _apply_functor(self, R):
+        """
+        Apply the functor to an object of ``self``'s domain.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: F = sage.categories.pushout.InfinitePolynomialFunctor(['a','b','x'],'degrevlex','sparse'); F
+            InfPoly{[a,b,x], "degrevlex", "sparse"}
+            sage: F(QQ['t']) # indirect doctest
+            Infinite polynomial ring in a, b, x over Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Rational Field
+        """
+        from sage.rings.polynomial.infinite_polynomial_ring import (
+            InfinitePolynomialRing,
+        )
+        return InfinitePolynomialRing(R, self._gens, order=self._order, implementation=self._imple)
+
+    def _repr_(self):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: F = sage.categories.pushout.InfinitePolynomialFunctor(['a','b','x'],'degrevlex','sparse'); F # indirect doctest
+            InfPoly{[a,b,x], "degrevlex", "sparse"}
+        """
+        return 'InfPoly{[%s], "%s", "%s"}' % (','.join(self._gens), self._order, self._imple)
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: F = sage.categories.pushout.InfinitePolynomialFunctor(['a','b','x'],'degrevlex','sparse'); F # indirect doctest
+            InfPoly{[a,b,x], "degrevlex", "sparse"}
+            sage: F == loads(dumps(F)) # indirect doctest
+            True
+            sage: F == sage.categories.pushout.InfinitePolynomialFunctor(['a','b','x'],'deglex','sparse')
+            False
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, InfinitePolynomialFunctor):
+            return (self._gens == other._gens and
+                    self._order == other._order and
+                    self._imple == other._imple)
+        return False
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        """
+        Check whether ``self`` is not equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: F = sage.categories.pushout.InfinitePolynomialFunctor(['a','b','x'],'degrevlex','sparse'); F # indirect doctest
+            InfPoly{[a,b,x], "degrevlex", "sparse"}
+            sage: F != loads(dumps(F)) # indirect doctest
+            False
+            sage: F != sage.categories.pushout.InfinitePolynomialFunctor(['a','b','x'],'deglex','sparse')
+            True
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    __hash__ = ConstructionFunctor.__hash__
+
+    def __mul__(self, other):
+        """
+        Compose construction functors to a composite construction functor, unless one of them is the identity.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            The product is in functorial notation, i.e., when applying the
+            product to an object then the second factor is applied first.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: F1 = QQ['a','x_2','x_1','y_3','y_2'].construction()[0]; F1
+            MPoly[a,x_2,x_1,y_3,y_2]
+            sage: F2 = InfinitePolynomialRing(QQ, ['x','y'],order='degrevlex').construction()[0]; F2
+            InfPoly{[x,y], "degrevlex", "dense"}
+            sage: F3 = InfinitePolynomialRing(QQ, ['x','y'],order='degrevlex',implementation='sparse').construction()[0]; F3
+            InfPoly{[x,y], "degrevlex", "sparse"}
+            sage: F2*F1
+            InfPoly{[x,y], "degrevlex", "dense"}(Poly[a](...))
+            sage: F3*F1
+            InfPoly{[x,y], "degrevlex", "sparse"}(Poly[a](...))
+            sage: F4 = sage.categories.pushout.FractionField()
+            sage: F2*F4
+            InfPoly{[x,y], "degrevlex", "dense"}(FractionField(...))
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, IdentityConstructionFunctor):
+            return self
+        if isinstance(other, self.__class__):
+            INT = set(self._gens).intersection(other._gens)
+            if INT:
+                # if there is overlap of generators, it must only be at the ends, so that
+                # the resulting order after the merging is unique
+                if other._gens[-len(INT):] != self._gens[:len(INT)]:
+                    raise CoercionException("Overlapping variables (%s,%s) are incompatible" % (self._gens, other._gens))
+                OUTGENS = list(other._gens) + list(self._gens[len(INT):])
+            else:
+                OUTGENS = list(other._gens) + list(self._gens)
+            # the orders must coincide
+            if self._order != other._order:
+                return CompositeConstructionFunctor(other, self)
+            # the implementations must coincide
+            if self._imple != other._imple:
+                return CompositeConstructionFunctor(other, self)
+            return InfinitePolynomialFunctor(OUTGENS, self._order, self._imple)
+
+        # Polynomial Constructor
+        # Idea: We merge into self, if the polynomial functor really provides a substructure,
+        # even respecting the order. Note that, if the pushout is computed, only *one* variable
+        # will occur in the polynomial constructor. Hence, any order is fine, which is exactly
+        # what we need in order to have coercion maps for different orderings.
+        if isinstance(other, (MultiPolynomialFunctor, PolynomialFunctor)):
+            if isinstance(other, MultiPolynomialFunctor):
+                othervars = other.vars
+            else:
+                othervars = [other.var]
+
+            OverlappingVars = []
+            # The variable names of the MultiPolynomialFunctor
+            # that can be interpreted as variables in self
+
+            RemainingVars = list(othervars)
+            IsOverlap = False
+            BadOverlap = False
+            for x in othervars:
+                if x.count('_') == 1:
+                    g, n = x.split('_')
+                    if n.isdigit():
+                        if g.isalnum():  # we can interpret x in any InfinitePolynomialRing
+                            if g in self._gens:  # we can interpret x in self, hence, we will not use it as a variable anymore.
+                                RemainingVars.pop(RemainingVars.index(x))
+                                IsOverlap = True  # some variables of other can be interpreted in self.
+                                if OverlappingVars:
+                                    # Is OverlappingVars in the right order?
+                                    g0, n0 = OverlappingVars[-1].split('_')
+                                    i = self._gens.index(g)
+                                    i0 = self._gens.index(g0)
+                                    if i < i0:  # wrong order
+                                        BadOverlap = True
+                                    if i == i0 and int(n) > int(n0):  # wrong order
+                                        BadOverlap = True
+                                OverlappingVars.append(x)
+                            elif IsOverlap: # The overlap must be on the right end of the variable list
+                                BadOverlap = True
+                        elif IsOverlap: # The overlap must be on the right end of the variable list
+                            BadOverlap = True
+                    elif IsOverlap: # The overlap must be on the right end of the variable list
+                        BadOverlap = True
+                elif IsOverlap: # The overlap must be on the right end of the variable list
+                    BadOverlap = True
+
+            if BadOverlap: # the overlapping variables appear in the wrong order
+                raise CoercionException("Overlapping variables (%s,%s) are incompatible" % (self._gens, OverlappingVars))
+            if len(OverlappingVars) > 1: # multivariate, hence, the term order matters
+                if other.term_order.name() != self._order:
+                    raise CoercionException("Incompatible term orders %s, %s" % (self._order, other.term_order.name()))
+            # ok, the overlap is fine, we will return something.
+            if RemainingVars: # we can only partially merge other into self
+                if len(RemainingVars) > 1:
+                    return CompositeConstructionFunctor(MultiPolynomialFunctor(RemainingVars, term_order=other.term_order), self)
+                return CompositeConstructionFunctor(PolynomialFunctor(RemainingVars[0]), self)
+            return self
+        return CompositeConstructionFunctor(other, self)
+
+    def merge(self, other):
+        """
+        Merge two construction functors of infinite polynomial rings, regardless of monomial order and implementation.
+
+        The purpose is to have a pushout (and thus, arithmetic) even in cases when the parents are isomorphic as
+        rings, but not as ordered rings.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: X.<x,y> = InfinitePolynomialRing(QQ, implementation='sparse')
+            sage: Y.<x,y> = InfinitePolynomialRing(QQ, order='degrevlex')
+            sage: X.construction()
+            [InfPoly{[x,y], "lex", "sparse"}, Rational Field]
+            sage: Y.construction()
+            [InfPoly{[x,y], "degrevlex", "dense"}, Rational Field]
+            sage: Y.construction()[0].merge(Y.construction()[0])
+            InfPoly{[x,y], "degrevlex", "dense"}
+            sage: y[3] + X(x[2])
+            x_2 + y_3
+            sage: _.parent().construction()
+            [InfPoly{[x,y], "degrevlex", "dense"}, Rational Field]
+        """
+        # Merging is only done if the ranks of self and other are the same.
+        # It may happen that other is a substructure of self up to the monomial order
+        # and the implementation. And this is when we want to merge, in order to
+        # provide multiplication for rings with different term orderings.
+        if not isinstance(other, InfinitePolynomialFunctor):
+            return None
+        if set(other._gens).issubset(self._gens):
+            return self
+        return None
+        try:
+            OUT = self * other
+            # The following happens if "other" has the same order type etc.
+            if not isinstance(OUT, CompositeConstructionFunctor):
+                return OUT
+        except CoercionException:
+            pass
+        if isinstance(other, InfinitePolynomialFunctor):
+            # We don't require that the orders coincide. This is a difference to self*other
+            # We only merge if other's generators are an ordered subset of self's generators
+            for g in other._gens:
+                if g not in self._gens:
+                    return None
+            # The sequence of variables is part of the ordering. It must coincide in both rings
+            Ind = [self._gens.index(g) for g in other._gens]
+            if sorted(Ind) != Ind:
+                return None
+            # OK, other merges into self. Now, choose the default dense implementation,
+            # unless both functors refer to the sparse implementation
+            if self._imple != other._imple:
+                return InfinitePolynomialFunctor(self._gens, self._order, 'dense')
+            return self
+        return None
+
+    def expand(self):
+        """
+        Decompose the functor `F` into sub-functors, whose product returns `F`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: A = InfinitePolynomialRing(QQ, ['x','y'], order='degrevlex')
+            sage: F = A.construction()[0]; F
+            InfPoly{[x,y], "degrevlex", "dense"}
+            sage: F.expand()
+            [InfPoly{[y], "degrevlex", "dense"}, InfPoly{[x], "degrevlex", "dense"}]
+            sage: A = InfinitePolynomialRing(QQ, ['x','y','z'], order='degrevlex')
+            sage: F = A.construction()[0]; F
+            InfPoly{[x,y,z], "degrevlex", "dense"}
+            sage: F.expand()
+            [InfPoly{[z], "degrevlex", "dense"},
+             InfPoly{[y], "degrevlex", "dense"},
+             InfPoly{[x], "degrevlex", "dense"}]
+            sage: prod(F.expand())==F
+            True
+        """
+        if len(self._gens) == 1:
+            return [self]
+        return [InfinitePolynomialFunctor((x,), self._order, self._imple)
+                for x in reversed(self._gens)]
+
+
+class MatrixFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+    """
+    A construction functor for matrices over rings.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.modules
+        sage: MS = MatrixSpace(ZZ, 2, 3)
+        sage: F = MS.construction()[0]; F
+        MatrixFunctor
+        sage: MS = MatrixSpace(ZZ, 2)
+        sage: F = MS.construction()[0]; F
+        MatrixFunctor
+        sage: P.<x,y> = QQ[]
+        sage: R = F(P); R
+        Full MatrixSpace of 2 by 2 dense matrices
+         over Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y over Rational Field
+        sage: f = P.hom([x+y, x-y], P); F(f)
+        Ring endomorphism
+         of Full MatrixSpace of 2 by 2 dense matrices
+          over Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y over Rational Field
+          Defn: Induced from base ring by
+                Ring endomorphism
+                 of Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y over Rational Field
+                  Defn: x |--> x + y
+                        y |--> x - y
+        sage: M = R([x, y, x*y, x + y])
+        sage: F(f)(M)
+        [    x + y     x - y]
+        [x^2 - y^2       2*x]
+    """
+    rank = 10
+
+    def __init__(self, nrows, ncols, is_sparse=False):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import MatrixFunctor
+            sage: F = MatrixFunctor(2, 3)
+            sage: F == MatrixSpace(ZZ, 2, 3).construction()[0]
+            True
+            sage: F.codomain()
+            Category of commutative additive groups
+            sage: R = MatrixSpace(ZZ, 2, 2).construction()[0]
+            sage: R.codomain()
+            Category of rings
+            sage: F(ZZ)
+            Full MatrixSpace of 2 by 3 dense matrices over Integer Ring
+            sage: F(ZZ) in F.codomain()
+            True
+            sage: R(GF(2))
+            Full MatrixSpace of 2 by 2 dense matrices over Finite Field of size 2
+            sage: R(GF(2)) in R.codomain()
+            True
+        """
+        if nrows == ncols:
+            Functor.__init__(self, Rings(), Rings()) # Algebras() takes a base ring
+        else:
+            # Functor.__init__(self, Rings(), MatrixAlgebras()) # takes a base ring
+            Functor.__init__(self, Rings(), CommutativeAdditiveGroups()) # not a nice solution, but the best we can do.
+        self.nrows = nrows
+        self.ncols = ncols
+        self.is_sparse = is_sparse
+
+    def _apply_functor(self, R):
+        """
+        Apply the functor to an object of ``self``'s domain.
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        The following is a test against a bug discussed at :issue:`8800`::
+
+            sage: F = MatrixSpace(ZZ, 2, 3).construction()[0]                           # needs sage.modules
+            sage: F(RR)         # indirect doctest                                      # needs sage.modules
+            Full MatrixSpace of 2 by 3 dense matrices over Real Field with 53 bits of precision
+            sage: F(RR) in F.codomain()                                                 # needs sage.modules
+            True
+        """
+        from sage.matrix.matrix_space import MatrixSpace
+        return MatrixSpace(R, self.nrows, self.ncols, sparse=self.is_sparse)
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: F = MatrixSpace(ZZ, 2, 3).construction()[0]                           # needs sage.modules
+            sage: F == loads(dumps(F))                                                  # needs sage.modules
+            True
+            sage: F == MatrixSpace(ZZ, 2, 2).construction()[0]                          # needs sage.modules
+            False
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, MatrixFunctor):
+            return (self.nrows == other.nrows and self.ncols == other.ncols)
+        return False
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        """
+        Check whether ``self`` is not equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: F = MatrixSpace(ZZ, 2, 3).construction()[0]                           # needs sage.modules
+            sage: F != loads(dumps(F))                                                  # needs sage.modules
+            False
+            sage: F != MatrixSpace(ZZ, 2, 2).construction()[0]                          # needs sage.modules
+            True
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    __hash__ = ConstructionFunctor.__hash__
+
+    def merge(self, other):
+        """
+        Merging is only happening if both functors are matrix functors of the same dimension.
+
+        The result is sparse if and only if both given functors are sparse.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: F1 = MatrixSpace(ZZ, 2, 2).construction()[0]
+            sage: F2 = MatrixSpace(ZZ, 2, 3).construction()[0]
+            sage: F3 = MatrixSpace(ZZ, 2, 2, sparse=True).construction()[0]
+            sage: F1.merge(F2)
+            sage: F1.merge(F3)
+            MatrixFunctor
+            sage: F13 = F1.merge(F3)
+            sage: F13.is_sparse
+            False
+            sage: F1.is_sparse
+            False
+            sage: F3.is_sparse
+            True
+            sage: F3.merge(F3).is_sparse
+            True
+        """
+        if self != other:
+            return None
+        else:
+            return MatrixFunctor(self.nrows, self.ncols, self.is_sparse and other.is_sparse)
+
+
+class LaurentPolynomialFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+    """
+    Construction functor for Laurent polynomial rings.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: L.<t> = LaurentPolynomialRing(ZZ)
+        sage: F = L.construction()[0]
+        sage: F
+        LaurentPolynomialFunctor
+        sage: F(QQ)
+        Univariate Laurent Polynomial Ring in t over Rational Field
+        sage: K.<x> = LaurentPolynomialRing(ZZ)
+        sage: F(K)
+        Univariate Laurent Polynomial Ring in t
+         over Univariate Laurent Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+        sage: P.<x,y> = ZZ[]
+        sage: f = P.hom([x + 2*y, 3*x - y],P)
+        sage: F(f)
+        Ring endomorphism of Univariate Laurent Polynomial Ring in t
+         over Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y over Integer Ring
+          Defn: Induced from base ring by
+                Ring endomorphism of Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y over Integer Ring
+                  Defn: x |--> x + 2*y
+                        y |--> 3*x - y
+        sage: F(f)(x*F(P).gen()^-2 + y*F(P).gen()^3)
+        (x + 2*y)*t^-2 + (3*x - y)*t^3
+    """
+    rank = 9
+
+    def __init__(self, var, multi_variate=False):
+        """
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``var`` -- string or list of strings
+        - ``multi_variate`` -- boolean (default: ``False``); if ``var`` is a
+          string and ``True`` otherwise: If ``True``, application to a Laurent
+          polynomial ring yields a multivariate Laurent polynomial ring.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import LaurentPolynomialFunctor
+            sage: F1 = LaurentPolynomialFunctor('t')
+            sage: F2 = LaurentPolynomialFunctor('s', multi_variate=True)
+            sage: F3 = LaurentPolynomialFunctor(['s','t'])
+            sage: F1(F2(QQ))
+            Univariate Laurent Polynomial Ring in t over
+             Univariate Laurent Polynomial Ring in s over Rational Field
+            sage: F2(F1(QQ))                                                            # needs sage.modules
+            Multivariate Laurent Polynomial Ring in t, s over Rational Field
+            sage: F3(QQ)                                                                # needs sage.modules
+            Multivariate Laurent Polynomial Ring in s, t over Rational Field
+        """
+        Functor.__init__(self, Rings(), Rings())
+        if not isinstance(var, (str, tuple, list)):
+            raise TypeError("variable name or list of variable names expected")
+        self.var = var
+        self.multi_variate = multi_variate or not isinstance(var, str)
+
+    def _apply_functor(self, R):
+        """
+        Apply the functor to an object of ``self``'s domain.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import LaurentPolynomialFunctor
+            sage: F1 = LaurentPolynomialFunctor('t')
+            sage: F2 = LaurentPolynomialFunctor('s', multi_variate=True)
+            sage: F3 = LaurentPolynomialFunctor(['s','t'])
+            sage: F1(F2(QQ))          # indirect doctest
+            Univariate Laurent Polynomial Ring in t over
+             Univariate Laurent Polynomial Ring in s over Rational Field
+            sage: F2(F1(QQ))                                                            # needs sage.modules
+            Multivariate Laurent Polynomial Ring in t, s over Rational Field
+            sage: F3(QQ)                                                                # needs sage.modules
+            Multivariate Laurent Polynomial Ring in s, t over Rational Field
+        """
+        from sage.rings.polynomial.laurent_polynomial_ring import LaurentPolynomialRing
+        from sage.rings.polynomial.laurent_polynomial_ring_base import (
+            LaurentPolynomialRing_generic,
+        )
+        if self.multi_variate and isinstance(R, LaurentPolynomialRing_generic):
+            return LaurentPolynomialRing(R.base_ring(), list(R.variable_names()) + [self.var])
+        else:
+            return LaurentPolynomialRing(R, self.var)
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import LaurentPolynomialFunctor
+            sage: F1 = LaurentPolynomialFunctor('t')
+            sage: F2 = LaurentPolynomialFunctor('t', multi_variate=True)
+            sage: F3 = LaurentPolynomialFunctor(['s','t'])
+            sage: F1 == F2
+            True
+            sage: F1 == loads(dumps(F1))
+            True
+            sage: F1 == F3
+            False
+            sage: F1 == QQ.construction()[0]
+            False
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, LaurentPolynomialFunctor):
+            return self.var == other.var
+        return False
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        """
+        Check whether ``self`` is not equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import LaurentPolynomialFunctor
+            sage: F1 = LaurentPolynomialFunctor('t')
+            sage: F2 = LaurentPolynomialFunctor('t', multi_variate=True)
+            sage: F3 = LaurentPolynomialFunctor(['s','t'])
+            sage: F1 != F2
+            False
+            sage: F1 != loads(dumps(F1))
+            False
+            sage: F1 != F3
+            True
+            sage: F1 != QQ.construction()[0]
+            True
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    __hash__ = ConstructionFunctor.__hash__
+
+    def merge(self, other):
+        """
+        Two Laurent polynomial construction functors merge if the variable names coincide.
+
+        The result is multivariate if one of the arguments is multivariate.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import LaurentPolynomialFunctor
+            sage: F1 = LaurentPolynomialFunctor('t')
+            sage: F2 = LaurentPolynomialFunctor('t', multi_variate=True)
+            sage: F1.merge(F2)
+            LaurentPolynomialFunctor
+            sage: F1.merge(F2)(LaurentPolynomialRing(GF(2), 'a'))                       # needs sage.modules
+            Multivariate Laurent Polynomial Ring in a, t over Finite Field of size 2
+            sage: F1.merge(F1)(LaurentPolynomialRing(GF(2), 'a'))
+            Univariate Laurent Polynomial Ring in t over
+             Univariate Laurent Polynomial Ring in a over Finite Field of size 2
+        """
+        if self == other or isinstance(other, PolynomialFunctor) and self.var == other.var:
+            return LaurentPolynomialFunctor(self.var, (self.multi_variate or other.multi_variate))
+        else:
+            return None
+
+
+class VectorFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+    """
+    A construction functor for free modules over commutative rings.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.modules
+        sage: F = (ZZ^3).construction()[0]
+        sage: F
+        VectorFunctor
+        sage: F(GF(2)['t'])                                                             # needs sage.libs.ntl
+        Ambient free module of rank 3
+         over the principal ideal domain Univariate Polynomial Ring in t
+          over Finite Field of size 2 (using ...)
+    """
+    rank = 10 # ranking of functor, not rank of module.
+    # This coincides with the rank of the matrix construction functor, but this is OK since they cannot both be applied in any order
+
+    def __init__(self, n=None, is_sparse=False, inner_product_matrix=None, *,
+                 with_basis='standard', basis_keys=None, name_mapping=None, latex_name_mapping=None):
+        """
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``n`` -- the rank of the to-be-created modules (nonnegative integer)
+        - ``is_sparse`` -- boolean (default: ``False``); create sparse
+          implementation of modules
+        - ``inner_product_matrix`` -- ``n`` by ``n`` matrix, used to compute inner products in the
+          to-be-created modules
+        - ``name_mapping``, ``latex_name_mapping`` -- Dictionaries from base rings to names
+        - other keywords: see :func:`~sage.modules.free_module.FreeModule`
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import VectorFunctor
+            sage: F1 = VectorFunctor(3, inner_product_matrix=Matrix(3, 3, range(9)))
+            sage: F1.domain()
+            Category of commutative rings
+            sage: F1.codomain()
+            Category of commutative additive groups
+            sage: M1 = F1(ZZ)
+            sage: M1.is_sparse()
+            False
+            sage: v = M1([3, 2, 1])
+            sage: v * Matrix(3, 3, range(9)) * v.column()
+            (96)
+            sage: v.inner_product(v)
+            96
+            sage: F2 = VectorFunctor(3, is_sparse=True)
+            sage: M2 = F2(QQ); M2; M2.is_sparse()
+            Sparse vector space of dimension 3 over Rational Field
+            True
+        """
+#        Functor.__init__(self, Rings(), FreeModules()) # FreeModules() takes a base ring
+#        Functor.__init__(self, Objects(), Objects())   # Object() makes no sense, since FreeModule raises an error, e.g., on Set(['a',1]).
+        # FreeModule requires a commutative ring. Thus, we have
+        Functor.__init__(self, CommutativeRings(), CommutativeAdditiveGroups())
+        self.n = n
+        self.is_sparse = is_sparse
+        self.inner_product_matrix = inner_product_matrix
+        self.with_basis = with_basis
+        self.basis_keys = basis_keys
+        if name_mapping is None:
+            name_mapping = {}
+        self.name_mapping = name_mapping
+        if latex_name_mapping is None:
+            latex_name_mapping = {}
+        self.latex_name_mapping = latex_name_mapping
+
+    def _apply_functor(self, R):
+        r"""
+        Apply the functor to an object of ``self``'s domain.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import VectorFunctor, pushout
+            sage: F1 = VectorFunctor(3, inner_product_matrix=Matrix(3, 3, range(9)))
+            sage: M1 = F1(ZZ)   # indirect doctest
+            sage: M1.is_sparse()
+            False
+            sage: v = M1([3, 2, 1])
+            sage: v * Matrix(3, 3, range(9)) * v.column()
+            (96)
+            sage: v.inner_product(v)
+            96
+            sage: F2 = VectorFunctor(3, is_sparse=True)
+            sage: M2 = F2(QQ); M2; M2.is_sparse()
+            Sparse vector space of dimension 3 over Rational Field
+            True
+            sage: v = M2([3, 2, 1])
+            sage: v.inner_product(v)
+            14
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: M = FreeModule(ZZ, 4, with_basis=None, name='M')
+            sage: latex(M)
+            M
+            sage: M_QQ = pushout(M, QQ)
+            sage: latex(M_QQ)
+            M \otimes \Bold{Q}
+        """
+        from sage.modules.free_module import FreeModule
+        name = self.name_mapping.get(R, None)
+        latex_name = self.latex_name_mapping.get(R, None)
+        if name is None:
+            for name in self.name_mapping.values():
+                name = f'{name}_base_ext'
+                break
+        if latex_name is None:
+            from sage.misc.latex import latex
+            for latex_name in self.latex_name_mapping.values():
+                latex_name = fr'{latex_name} \otimes {latex(R)}'
+                break
+        if name is None and latex_name is None:
+            return FreeModule(R, self.n, sparse=self.is_sparse, inner_product_matrix=self.inner_product_matrix,
+                              with_basis=self.with_basis, basis_keys=self.basis_keys)
+        return FreeModule(R, self.n, sparse=self.is_sparse, inner_product_matrix=self.inner_product_matrix,
+                              with_basis=self.with_basis, basis_keys=self.basis_keys, name=name, latex_name=latex_name)
+
+    def _apply_functor_to_morphism(self, f):
+        """
+        This is not implemented yet.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: F = (ZZ^3).construction()[0]                                          # needs sage.modules
+            sage: P.<x,y> = ZZ[]
+            sage: f = P.hom([x + 2*y, 3*x - y], P)
+            sage: F(f)       # indirect doctest                                         # needs sage.modules
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            NotImplementedError: Cannot create induced morphisms of free modules yet
+        """
+        # TODO: Implement this!
+        raise NotImplementedError("Cannot create induced morphisms of free modules yet")
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        """
+        The rank and the inner product matrix are compared.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import VectorFunctor
+            sage: F1 = VectorFunctor(3, inner_product_matrix=Matrix(3, 3, range(9)))
+            sage: F2 = (ZZ^3).construction()[0]
+            sage: F1 == F2
+            False
+            sage: F1(QQ) == F2(QQ)
+            False
+            sage: F1 == loads(dumps(F1))
+            True
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, VectorFunctor):
+            return (self.n == other.n and
+                    self.inner_product_matrix == other.inner_product_matrix and
+                    self.with_basis == other.with_basis and
+                    self.basis_keys == other.basis_keys and
+                    self.name_mapping == other.name_mapping and
+                    self.latex_name_mapping == other.latex_name_mapping)
+        return False
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        """
+        Check whether ``self`` is not equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import VectorFunctor
+            sage: F1 = VectorFunctor(3, inner_product_matrix=Matrix(3, 3, range(9)))
+            sage: F2 = (ZZ^3).construction()[0]
+            sage: F1 != F2
+            True
+            sage: F1(QQ) != F2(QQ)
+            True
+            sage: F1 != loads(dumps(F1))
+            False
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    __hash__ = ConstructionFunctor.__hash__
+
+    def merge(self, other):
+        """
+        Two constructors of free modules merge, if the module ranks and the inner products coincide. If both
+        have explicitly given inner product matrices, they must coincide as well.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        Two modules without explicitly given inner product allow coercion::
+
+            sage: M1 = QQ^3                                                             # needs sage.modules
+            sage: P.<t> = ZZ[]
+            sage: M2 = FreeModule(P, 3)                                                 # needs sage.modules
+            sage: M1([1,1/2,1/3]) + M2([t,t^2+t,3])     # indirect doctest              # needs sage.modules
+            (t + 1, t^2 + t + 1/2, 10/3)
+
+        If only one summand has an explicit inner product, the result will be provided
+        with it::
+
+            sage: M3 = FreeModule(P, 3, inner_product_matrix=Matrix(3, 3, range(9)))    # needs sage.modules
+            sage: M1([1,1/2,1/3]) + M3([t,t^2+t,3])                                     # needs sage.modules
+            (t + 1, t^2 + t + 1/2, 10/3)
+            sage: (M1([1,1/2,1/3]) + M3([t,t^2+t,3])).parent().inner_product_matrix()   # needs sage.modules
+            [0 1 2]
+            [3 4 5]
+            [6 7 8]
+
+        If both summands have an explicit inner product (even if it is the standard
+        inner product), then the products must coincide. The only difference between
+        ``M1`` and ``M4`` in the following example is the fact that the default
+        inner product was *explicitly* requested for ``M4``. It is therefore not
+        possible to coerce with a different inner product::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: M4 = FreeModule(QQ, 3, inner_product_matrix=Matrix(3, 3, 1))
+            sage: M4 == M1
+            True
+            sage: M4.inner_product_matrix() == M1.inner_product_matrix()
+            True
+            sage: M4([1,1/2,1/3]) + M3([t,t^2+t,3])      # indirect doctest
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: unsupported operand parent(s) for +:
+            'Ambient quadratic space of dimension 3 over Rational Field
+            Inner product matrix:
+            [1 0 0]
+            [0 1 0]
+            [0 0 1]' and
+            'Ambient free quadratic module of rank 3 over the integral domain
+            Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Integer Ring
+            Inner product matrix:
+            [0 1 2]
+            [3 4 5]
+            [6 7 8]'
+
+        Names are removed when they conflict::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import VectorFunctor, pushout
+            sage: M_ZZx = FreeModule(ZZ['x'], 4, with_basis=None, name='M_ZZx')
+            sage: N_ZZx = FreeModule(ZZ['x'], 4, with_basis=None, name='N_ZZx')
+            sage: pushout(M_ZZx, QQ)
+            Rank-4 free module M_ZZx_base_ext
+             over the Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+            sage: pushout(M_ZZx, N_ZZx)
+            Rank-4 free module
+             over the Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+            sage: pushout(pushout(M_ZZx, N_ZZx), QQ)
+            Rank-4 free module
+             over the Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+        """
+        if not isinstance(other, VectorFunctor):
+            return None
+
+        if self.with_basis != other.with_basis:
+            return None
+        else:
+            with_basis = self.with_basis
+
+        if self.basis_keys != other.basis_keys:
+            # TODO: If both are enumerated families, should we try to take the union of the families?
+            return None
+        else:
+            basis_keys = self.basis_keys
+
+        is_sparse = self.is_sparse and other.is_sparse
+
+        if self.inner_product_matrix is None:
+            inner_product_matrix = other.inner_product_matrix
+        elif other.inner_product_matrix is None:
+            inner_product_matrix = self.inner_product_matrix
+        elif self.inner_product_matrix != other.inner_product_matrix:
+            # At this point, we know that the user wants to take care of the inner product.
+            # So, we only merge if both coincide:
+            return None
+        else:
+            inner_product_matrix = None
+
+        if self.n != other.n:
+            return None
+        else:
+            n = self.n
+
+        name_mapping = {}
+        for base_ring, name in self.name_mapping.items():
+            try:
+                other_name = other.name_mapping[base_ring]
+            except KeyError:
+                name_mapping[base_ring] = name
+            else:
+                if name == other_name:
+                    name_mapping[base_ring] = name
+
+        latex_name_mapping = {}
+        for base_ring, latex_name in self.latex_name_mapping.items():
+            try:
+                other_latex_name = other.latex_name_mapping[base_ring]
+            except KeyError:
+                latex_name_mapping[base_ring] = latex_name
+            else:
+                if latex_name == other_latex_name:
+                    latex_name_mapping[base_ring] = latex_name
+
+        return VectorFunctor(n, is_sparse, inner_product_matrix,
+                             with_basis=with_basis, basis_keys=basis_keys,
+                             name_mapping=name_mapping, latex_name_mapping=latex_name_mapping)
+
+
+class SubspaceFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+    """
+    Constructing a subspace of an ambient free module, given by a basis.
+
+    .. NOTE::
+
+        This construction functor keeps track of the basis. It can only be
+        applied to free modules into which this basis coerces.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.modules
+        sage: M = ZZ^3
+        sage: S = M.submodule([(1,2,3), (4,5,6)]); S
+        Free module of degree 3 and rank 2 over Integer Ring
+        Echelon basis matrix:
+        [1 2 3]
+        [0 3 6]
+        sage: F = S.construction()[0]
+        sage: F(GF(2)^3)
+        Vector space of degree 3 and dimension 2 over Finite Field of size 2
+        User basis matrix:
+        [1 0 1]
+        [0 1 0]
+    """
+    rank = 11 # ranking of functor, not rank of module
+
+    # The subspace construction returns an object admitting a coercion
+    # map into the original, not vice versa.
+    coercion_reversed = True
+
+    def __init__(self, basis):
+        """
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``basis`` -- list of elements of a free module
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import SubspaceFunctor
+            sage: M = ZZ^3                                                              # needs sage.modules
+            sage: F = SubspaceFunctor([M([1,2,3]), M([4,5,6])])                         # needs sage.modules
+            sage: F(GF(5)^3)                                                            # needs sage.modules
+            Vector space of degree 3 and dimension 2 over Finite Field of size 5
+            User basis matrix:
+            [1 2 3]
+            [4 0 1]
+        """
+#        Functor.__init__(self, FreeModules(), FreeModules()) # takes a base ring
+#        Functor.__init__(self, Objects(), Objects())   # is too general
+        # It seems that the category of commutative additive groups
+        # currently is the smallest base ring free category that
+        # contains in- and output
+        Functor.__init__(self, CommutativeAdditiveGroups(), CommutativeAdditiveGroups())
+        self.basis = basis
+
+    def _apply_functor(self, ambient):
+        """
+        Apply the functor to an object of ``self``'s domain.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: M = ZZ^3
+            sage: S = M.submodule([(1,2,3), (4,5,6)]); S
+            Free module of degree 3 and rank 2 over Integer Ring
+            Echelon basis matrix:
+            [1 2 3]
+            [0 3 6]
+            sage: F = S.construction()[0]
+            sage: F(GF(2)^3)    # indirect doctest
+            Vector space of degree 3 and dimension 2 over Finite Field of size 2
+            User basis matrix:
+            [1 0 1]
+            [0 1 0]
+        """
+        return ambient.span_of_basis(self.basis)
+
+    def _apply_functor_to_morphism(self, f):
+        """
+        This is not implemented yet.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: F = (ZZ^3).span([(1,2,3), (4,5,6)]).construction()[0]
+            sage: P.<x,y> = ZZ[]
+            sage: f = P.hom([x + 2*y, 3*x - y],P)
+            sage: F(f)      # indirect doctest
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            NotImplementedError: Cannot create morphisms of free sub-modules yet
+        """
+        raise NotImplementedError("Cannot create morphisms of free sub-modules yet")
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: F1 = (GF(5)^3).span([(1,2,3),(4,5,6)]).construction()[0]
+            sage: F2 = (ZZ^3).span([(1,2,3),(4,5,6)]).construction()[0]
+            sage: F3 = (QQ^3).span([(1,2,3),(4,5,6)]).construction()[0]
+            sage: F4 = (ZZ^3).span([(1,0,-1),(0,1,2)]).construction()[0]
+            sage: F1 == loads(dumps(F1))
+            True
+
+        The ``span`` method automatically transforms the given basis into
+        echelon form. The bases look like that::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: F1.basis
+            [(1, 0, 4), (0, 1, 2)]
+            sage: F2.basis
+            [(1, 2, 3), (0, 3, 6)]
+            sage: F3.basis
+            [(1, 0, -1), (0, 1, 2)]
+            sage: F4.basis
+            [(1, 0, -1), (0, 1, 2)]
+
+
+        The basis of ``F2`` is modulo 5 different from the other bases.
+        So, we have::
+
+            sage: F1 != F2 != F3                                                        # needs sage.modules
+            True
+
+        The bases of ``F1``, ``F3`` and ``F4`` are the same modulo 5; however,
+        there is no coercion from ``QQ^3`` to ``GF(5)^3``. Therefore, we have::
+
+            sage: F1 == F3                                                              # needs sage.modules
+            False
+
+        But there are coercions from ``ZZ^3`` to ``QQ^3`` and ``GF(5)^3``, thus::
+
+            sage: F1 == F4 == F3                                                        # needs sage.modules
+            True
+        """
+        if not isinstance(other, SubspaceFunctor):
+            return False
+
+        # since comparing the basis involves constructing the pushout
+        # of the ambient module, we cannot do:
+        # c = (self.basis == other.basis)
+        # Instead, we only test whether there are coercions.
+        L = self.basis.universe()
+        R = other.basis.universe()
+        c = (L == R)
+        if L.has_coerce_map_from(R):
+            return tuple(self.basis) == tuple(L(x) for x in other.basis)
+        elif R.has_coerce_map_from(L):
+            return tuple(other.basis) == tuple(R(x) for x in self.basis)
+        return c
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        """
+        Check whether ``self`` is not equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: F1 = (GF(5)^3).span([(1,2,3),(4,5,6)]).construction()[0]              # needs sage.modules
+            sage: F1 != loads(dumps(F1))                                                # needs sage.modules
+            False
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    __hash__ = ConstructionFunctor.__hash__
+
+    def merge(self, other):
+        """
+        Two Subspace Functors are merged into a construction functor of the sum of two subspaces.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: M = GF(5)^3
+            sage: S1 = M.submodule([(1,2,3),(4,5,6)])
+            sage: S2 = M.submodule([(2,2,3)])
+            sage: F1 = S1.construction()[0]
+            sage: F2 = S2.construction()[0]
+            sage: F1.merge(F2)
+            SubspaceFunctor
+            sage: F1.merge(F2)(GF(5)^3) == S1 + S2
+            True
+            sage: F1.merge(F2)(GF(5)['t']^3)
+            Free module of degree 3 and rank 3
+             over Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Finite Field of size 5
+            User basis matrix:
+            [1 0 0]
+            [0 1 0]
+            [0 0 1]
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: P.<t> = ZZ[]
+            sage: S1 = (ZZ^3).submodule([(1,2,3), (4,5,6)])
+            sage: S2 = (Frac(P)^3).submodule([(t,t^2,t^3+1), (4*t,0,1)])
+            sage: v = S1([0,3,6]) + S2([2,0,1/(2*t)]); v   # indirect doctest
+            (2, 3, (-12*t - 1)/(-2*t))
+            sage: v.parent()
+            Vector space of degree 3 and dimension 3
+             over Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Integer Ring
+            User basis matrix:
+            [1 0 0]
+            [0 1 0]
+            [0 0 1]
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, SubspaceFunctor):
+            # in order to remove linear dependencies, and in
+            # order to test compatibility of the base rings,
+            # we try to construct a sample submodule
+            if not other.basis:
+                return self
+            if not self.basis:
+                return other
+            try:
+                P = pushout(self.basis[0].parent().ambient_module(),
+                            other.basis[0].parent().ambient_module())
+            except CoercionException:
+                return None
+            try:
+                # Use span instead of submodule because we want to
+                # allow denominators.
+                submodule = P.span
+            except AttributeError:
+                return None
+            S = submodule(self.basis + other.basis).echelonized_basis()
+            return SubspaceFunctor(S)
+        else:
+            return None
+
+
+class FractionField(ConstructionFunctor):
+    """
+    Construction functor for fraction fields.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: F = QQ.construction()[0]
+        sage: F
+        FractionField
+        sage: F.domain()
+        Category of integral domains
+        sage: F.codomain()
+        Category of fields
+        sage: F(GF(5)) is GF(5)
+        True
+        sage: F(ZZ['t'])
+        Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Integer Ring
+        sage: P.<x,y> = QQ[]
+        sage: f = P.hom([x+2*y,3*x-y],P)
+        sage: F(f)
+        Ring endomorphism of
+         Fraction Field of Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y over Rational Field
+          Defn: x |--> x + 2*y
+                y |--> 3*x - y
+        sage: F(f)(1/x)
+        1/(x + 2*y)
+        sage: F == loads(dumps(F))
+        True
+    """
+    rank = 5
+
+    def __init__(self):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import FractionField
+            sage: F = FractionField()
+            sage: F
+            FractionField
+            sage: F(ZZ['t'])
+            Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Integer Ring
+        """
+        from sage.categories.fields import Fields
+        from sage.categories.integral_domains import IntegralDomains
+        Functor.__init__(self, IntegralDomains(), Fields())
+
+    def _apply_functor(self, R):
+        """
+        Apply the functor to an object of ``self``'s domain.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: F = QQ.construction()[0]
+            sage: F(GF(5)['t'])      # indirect doctest
+            Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in t
+             over Finite Field of size 5
+        """
+        return R.fraction_field()
+
+
+class CompletionFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+    """
+    Completion of a ring with respect to a given prime (including infinity).
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.rings.padics
+        sage: R = Zp(5)
+        sage: R
+        5-adic Ring with capped relative precision 20
+        sage: F1 = R.construction()[0]
+        sage: F1
+        Completion[5, prec=20]
+        sage: F1(ZZ) is R
+        True
+        sage: F1(QQ)
+        5-adic Field with capped relative precision 20
+
+        sage: F2 = RR.construction()[0]
+        sage: F2
+        Completion[+Infinity, prec=53]
+        sage: F2(QQ) is RR
+        True
+
+        sage: P.<x> = ZZ[]
+        sage: Px = P.completion(x) # currently the only implemented completion of P
+        sage: Px
+        Power Series Ring in x over Integer Ring
+        sage: F3 = Px.construction()[0]
+        sage: F3(GF(3)['x'])
+        Power Series Ring in x over Finite Field of size 3
+
+    TESTS::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.rings.padics
+        sage: R1.<a> = Zp(5, prec=20)[]
+        sage: R2 = Qp(5, prec=40)
+        sage: R2(1) + a
+        (1 + O(5^20))*a + 1 + O(5^40)
+        sage: 1/2 + a
+        (1 + O(5^20))*a + 3 + 2*5 + 2*5^2 + 2*5^3 + 2*5^4 + 2*5^5 + 2*5^6 + 2*5^7 + 2*5^8 + 2*5^9 + 2*5^10 + 2*5^11 + 2*5^12 + 2*5^13 + 2*5^14 + 2*5^15 + 2*5^16 + 2*5^17 + 2*5^18 + 2*5^19 + O(5^20)
+    """
+    rank = 4
+    _real_types = ['Interval', 'Ball', 'MPFR', 'RDF', 'RLF', 'RR']
+    _dvr_types = [None, 'fixed-mod', 'floating-point', 'capped-abs', 'capped-rel', 'lattice-cap', 'lattice-float', 'relaxed']
+
+    def __init__(self, p, prec, extras=None):
+        """
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``p`` -- prime number, the generator of a univariate polynomial ring,
+          or ``+Infinity``
+
+        - ``prec`` -- integer; yielding the precision in bits. Note that
+          if ``p`` is prime then the ``prec`` is the *capped* precision,
+          while it is the *set* precision if ``p`` is ``+Infinity``.
+          In the ``lattice-cap`` precision case, ``prec`` will be a tuple instead.
+
+        - ``extras`` -- dictionary (optional); information on how to print elements, etc.
+          If 'type' is given as a key, the corresponding value should be a string among
+          the following:
+
+          - 'RDF', 'Interval', 'RLF', or 'RR' for completions at infinity
+
+          - 'capped-rel', 'capped-abs', 'fixed-mod', 'lattice-cap' or 'lattice-float'
+            for completions at a finite place or ideal of a DVR.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import CompletionFunctor
+            sage: F1 = CompletionFunctor(5, 100)
+            sage: F1(QQ)                                                                # needs sage.rings.padics
+            5-adic Field with capped relative precision 100
+            sage: F1(ZZ)                                                                # needs sage.rings.padics
+            5-adic Ring with capped relative precision 100
+            sage: F1.type is None
+            True
+            sage: sorted(F1.extras.items())
+            []
+            sage: F2 = RR.construction()[0]
+            sage: F2
+            Completion[+Infinity, prec=53]
+            sage: F2.type                                                               # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+            'MPFR'
+            sage: F2.extras                                                             # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+            {'rnd': 0, 'sci_not': False}
+        """
+        Functor.__init__(self, Rings(), Rings())
+        self.p = p
+        self.prec = prec
+
+        if extras is None:
+            self.extras = {}
+            self.type = None
+        else:
+            self.extras = dict(extras)
+            self.type = self.extras.pop('type', None)
+            from sage.rings.infinity import Infinity
+            if self.p == Infinity:
+                if self.type not in self._real_types:
+                    raise ValueError("completion type must be one of %s" % (", ".join(self._real_types)))
+            elif self.type not in self._dvr_types:
+                raise ValueError("completion type must be one of %s" % (", ".join(self._dvr_types[1:])))
+
+    def _repr_(self):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: Zp(7).construction()         # indirect doctest                       # needs sage.rings.padics
+            (Completion[7, prec=20], Integer Ring)
+
+            sage: RR.construction()            # indirect doctest
+            (Completion[+Infinity, prec=53], Rational Field)
+        """
+        return 'Completion[%s, prec=%s]' % (self.p, self.prec)
+
+    def _apply_functor(self, R):
+        """
+        Apply the functor to an object of ``self``'s domain.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.padics
+            sage: R = Zp(5)
+            sage: F1 = R.construction()[0]
+            sage: F1(ZZ) is R  # indirect doctest
+            True
+            sage: F1(QQ)
+            5-adic Field with capped relative precision 20
+        """
+        try:
+            if not self.extras:
+                if self.type is None:
+                    try:
+                        return R.completion(self.p, self.prec)
+                    except TypeError:
+                        return R.completion(self.p, self.prec, {})
+                else:
+                    return R.completion(self.p, self.prec, {'type': self.type})
+            else:
+                extras = self.extras.copy()
+                if self.type is not None:
+                    extras['type'] = self.type
+                return R.completion(self.p, self.prec, extras)
+        except (NotImplementedError, AttributeError):
+            if R.construction() is None:
+                raise NotImplementedError("Completion is not implemented for %s" % R.__class__)
+            F, BR = R.construction()
+            M = self.merge(F) or F.merge(self)
+            if M is not None:
+                return M(BR)
+            if self.commutes(F) or F.commutes(self):
+                return F(self(BR))
+            raise NotImplementedError("Don't know how to apply %s to %s" % (repr(self), repr(R)))
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        """
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            Only the prime used in the completion is relevant to comparison
+            of Completion functors, although the resulting rings also take
+            the precision into account.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.padics
+            sage: R1 = Zp(5, prec=30)
+            sage: R2 = Zp(5, prec=40)
+            sage: F1 = R1.construction()[0]
+            sage: F2 = R2.construction()[0]
+            sage: F1 == loads(dumps(F1))    # indirect doctest
+            True
+            sage: F1 == F2
+            True
+            sage: F1(QQ) == F2(QQ)
+            False
+            sage: R3 = Zp(7)
+            sage: F3 = R3.construction()[0]
+            sage: F1 == F3
+            False
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, CompletionFunctor):
+            return self.p == other.p
+        return False
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        """
+        Check whether ``self`` is not equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.padics
+            sage: R1 = Zp(5, prec=30)
+            sage: R2 = Zp(5, prec=40)
+            sage: F1 = R1.construction()[0]
+            sage: F2 = R2.construction()[0]
+            sage: F1 != loads(dumps(F1))    # indirect doctest
+            False
+            sage: F1 != F2
+            False
+            sage: F1(QQ) != F2(QQ)
+            True
+            sage: R3 = Zp(7)
+            sage: F3 = R3.construction()[0]
+            sage: F1 != F3
+            True
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    __hash__ = ConstructionFunctor.__hash__
+
+    def merge(self, other):
+        """
+        Two Completion functors are merged, if they are equal. If the precisions of
+        both functors coincide, then a Completion functor is returned that results
+        from updating the ``extras`` dictionary of ``self`` by ``other.extras``.
+        Otherwise, if the completion is at infinity then merging does not increase
+        the set precision, and if the completion is at a finite prime, merging
+        does not decrease the capped precision.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.padics
+            sage: R1.<a> = Zp(5, prec=20)[]
+            sage: R2 = Qp(5, prec=40)
+            sage: R2(1) + a       # indirect doctest
+            (1 + O(5^20))*a + 1 + O(5^40)
+            sage: R3 = RealField(30)
+            sage: R4 = RealField(50)
+            sage: R3(1) + R4(1)   # indirect doctest
+            2.0000000
+            sage: (R3(1) + R4(1)).parent()
+            Real Field with 30 bits of precision
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        We check that :issue:`12353` has been resolved::
+
+            sage: RIF(1) > RR(1)                                                        # needs sage.rings.real_interval_field
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: unsupported operand parent(s) for >:
+            'Real Interval Field with 53 bits of precision' and 'Real Field with 53 bits of precision'
+
+        We check that various pushouts work::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.real_interval_field sage.rings.real_mpfr
+            sage: R0 = RealIntervalField(30)
+            sage: R1 = RealIntervalField(30, sci_not=True)
+            sage: R2 = RealIntervalField(53)
+            sage: R3 = RealIntervalField(53, sci_not=True)
+            sage: R4 = RealIntervalField(90)
+            sage: R5 = RealIntervalField(90, sci_not=True)
+            sage: R6 = RealField(30)
+            sage: R7 = RealField(30, sci_not=True)
+            sage: R8 = RealField(53, rnd='RNDD')
+            sage: R9 = RealField(53, sci_not=True, rnd='RNDZ')
+            sage: R10 = RealField(53, sci_not=True)
+            sage: R11 = RealField(90, sci_not=True, rnd='RNDZ')
+            sage: Rlist = [R0,R1,R2,R3,R4,R5,R6,R7,R8,R9,R10,R11]
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import pushout
+            sage: pushouts = [R0,R0,R0,R1,R0,R1,R0,R1,R0,R1,R1,R1,R1,R1,R1,R1,R1,R1,R1,R1,R1,R1,R1,R1,R0,R1,R2,R2,R2,R3,R0,R1,R2,R3,R3,R3,R1,R1,R3,R3,R3,R3,R1,R1,R3,R3,R3,R3,R0,R1,R2,R3,R4,R4,R0,R1,R2,R3,R3,R5,R1,R1,R3,R3,R5,R5,R1,R1,R3,R3,R3,R5,R0,R1,R0,R1,R0,R1,R6,R6,R6,R7,R7,R7,R1,R1,R1,R1,R1,R1,R7,R7,R7,R7,R7,R7,R0,R1,R2,R3,R2,R3,R6,R7,R8,R9,R10,R9,R1,R1,R3,R3,R3,R3,R7,R7,R9,R9,R10,R9,R1,R1,R3,R3,R3,R3,R7,R7,R10,R10,R10,R10,R1,R1,R3,R3,R5,R5,R7,R7,R9,R9,R10,R11]
+            sage: all(R is S for R, S in zip(pushouts, [pushout(a, b) for a in Rlist for b in Rlist]))
+            True
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.padics
+            sage: P0 = ZpFM(5, 10)
+            sage: P1 = ZpFM(5, 20)
+            sage: P2 = ZpCR(5, 10)
+            sage: P3 = ZpCR(5, 20)
+            sage: P4 = ZpCA(5, 10)
+            sage: P5 = ZpCA(5, 20)
+            sage: P6 = Qp(5, 10)
+            sage: P7 = Qp(5, 20)
+            sage: Plist = [P2,P3,P4,P5,P6,P7]
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import pushout
+            sage: pushouts = [P2,P3,P4,P5,P6,P7,P3,P3,P5,P5,P7,P7,P4,P5,P4,P5,P6,P7,
+            ....:             P5,P5,P5,P5,P7,P7,P6,P7,P6,P7,P6,P7,P7,P7,P7,P7,P7,P7]
+            sage: all(P is Q
+            ....:     for P, Q in zip(pushouts, [pushout(a, b) for a in Plist for b in Plist]))
+            True
+        """
+        if self == other: # both are Completion functors with the same p
+            from sage.rings.infinity import Infinity
+            if self.p == Infinity:
+                new_prec = min(self.prec, other.prec)
+                new_type = self._real_types[min(self._real_types.index(self.type),
+                                                self._real_types.index(other.type))]
+                new_scinot = max(self.extras.get('sci_not', 0),
+                                 other.extras.get('sci_not', 0))
+                new_rnd = min(self.extras.get('rnd', 0),
+                              other.extras.get('rnd', 0))
+                return CompletionFunctor(self.p, new_prec,
+                                         {'type': new_type,
+                                          'sci_not': new_scinot,
+                                          'rnd': new_rnd})
+            else:
+                new_type = self._dvr_types[min(self._dvr_types.index(self.type), self._dvr_types.index(other.type))]
+                if new_type in ('fixed-mod', 'floating-point'):
+                    if self.type != other.type:
+                        return None # no coercion into fixed-mod or floating-point
+                    new_prec = min(self.prec, other.prec)
+                else:
+                    new_prec = max(self.prec, other.prec) # since elements track their own precision, we don't want to truncate them
+                extras = self.extras.copy()
+                extras.update(other.extras)
+                extras['type'] = new_type
+                return CompletionFunctor(self.p, new_prec, extras)
+
+#   Completion has a lower rank than FractionField
+#   and is thus applied first. However, fact is that
+#   both commute. This is used in the call method,
+#   since some fraction fields have no completion method
+#   implemented.
+
+    def commutes(self, other):
+        """
+        Completion commutes with fraction fields.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: F1 = Zp(5).construction()[0]                                          # needs sage.rings.padics
+            sage: F2 = QQ.construction()[0]
+            sage: F1.commutes(F2)                                                       # needs sage.rings.padics
+            True
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        The fraction field ``R`` in the example below has no completion
+        method. But completion commutes with the fraction field functor,
+        and so it is tried internally whether applying the construction
+        functors in opposite order works. It does::
+
+            sage: P.<x> = ZZ[]
+            sage: C = P.completion(x).construction()[0]
+            sage: R = FractionField(P)
+            sage: hasattr(R,'completion')
+            False
+            sage: C(R) is Frac(C(P))
+            True
+            sage: F = R.construction()[0]
+            sage: (C*F)(ZZ['x']) is (F*C)(ZZ['x'])
+            True
+
+        The following was fixed in :issue:`15329` (it used to result
+        in an infinite recursion. In :issue:`23218` the construction
+        of `p`-adic fields changed, so there is no longer an
+        Ambiguous base extension error raised)::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import pushout
+            sage: pushout(Qp(7), RLF)                                                   # needs sage.rings.padics
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            CoercionException: Don't know how to
+            apply Completion[+Infinity, prec=+Infinity]
+            to 7-adic Ring with capped relative precision 20
+        """
+        return isinstance(other, FractionField)
+
+
+class QuotientFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+    """
+    Construction functor for quotient rings.
+
+    .. NOTE::
+
+        The functor keeps track of variable names. Optionally, it may
+        keep track of additional properties of the quotient, such as
+        its category or its implementation.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: P.<x,y> = ZZ[]
+        sage: Q = P.quo([x^2 + y^2] * P)
+        sage: F = Q.construction()[0]
+        sage: F(QQ['x','y'])
+        Quotient of Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y over Rational Field
+         by the ideal (x^2 + y^2)
+        sage: F(QQ['x','y']) == QQ['x','y'].quo([x^2 + y^2] * QQ['x','y'])
+        True
+        sage: F(QQ['x','y','z'])
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        CoercionException: Cannot apply this quotient functor to
+         Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y, z over Rational Field
+        sage: F(QQ['y','z'])                                                            # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        TypeError: Could not find a mapping of the passed element to this ring.
+    """
+    rank = 4.5
+
+    def __init__(self, I, names=None, as_field=False, domain=None,
+                 codomain=None, **kwds):
+        """
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``I`` -- an ideal (the modulus)
+        - ``names`` -- string or list of strings (optional); the names for the
+          quotient ring generators
+        - ``as_field`` -- boolean (default: ``False``); return the quotient
+          ring as field (if available)
+        - ``domain`` -- category (default: ``Rings()``); the domain of
+          this functor
+        - ``codomain`` -- category (default: ``Rings()``); the codomain
+          of this functor
+        - Further named arguments. In particular, an implementation of the
+          quotient can be suggested here.  These named arguments are passed to
+          the quotient construction.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import QuotientFunctor
+            sage: P.<t> = ZZ[]
+            sage: F = QuotientFunctor([5 + t^2] * P)
+            sage: F(P)                                                                  # needs sage.libs.pari
+            Univariate Quotient Polynomial Ring in tbar
+             over Integer Ring with modulus t^2 + 5
+            sage: F(QQ['t'])                                                            # needs sage.libs.pari
+            Univariate Quotient Polynomial Ring in tbar
+             over Rational Field with modulus t^2 + 5
+            sage: F = QuotientFunctor([5 + t^2] * P, names='s')
+            sage: F(P)                                                                  # needs sage.libs.pari
+            Univariate Quotient Polynomial Ring in s
+             over Integer Ring with modulus t^2 + 5
+            sage: F(QQ['t'])                                                            # needs sage.libs.pari
+            Univariate Quotient Polynomial Ring in s
+             over Rational Field with modulus t^2 + 5
+            sage: F = QuotientFunctor([5] * ZZ, as_field=True)
+            sage: F(ZZ)
+            Finite Field of size 5
+            sage: F = QuotientFunctor([5] * ZZ)
+            sage: F(ZZ)
+            Ring of integers modulo 5
+        """
+        if domain is None:
+            domain = Rings()
+        if codomain is None:
+            codomain = Rings()
+        Functor.__init__(self, domain, codomain)
+
+        self.I = I
+        if names is None:
+            self.names = None
+        elif isinstance(names, str):
+            self.names = (names,)
+        else:
+            self.names = tuple(names)
+        self.as_field = as_field
+        self.kwds = kwds
+
+    def _apply_functor(self, R):
+        """
+        Apply the functor to an object of ``self``'s domain.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: P.<x,y> = ZZ[]
+            sage: Q = P.quo([2 + x^2, 3*x + y^2])
+            sage: F = Q.construction()[0]; F
+            QuotientFunctor
+            sage: F(QQ['x','y'])     # indirect doctest
+            Quotient of Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y over Rational Field
+             by the ideal (x^2 + 2, y^2 + 3*x)
+
+        Note that the ``quo()`` method of a field used to return the
+        integer zero. That strange behaviour was removed in github
+        issue :issue:`9138`. It now returns a trivial quotient ring
+        when applied to a field::
+
+            sage: F = ZZ.quo([5]*ZZ).construction()[0]
+            sage: F(QQ)
+            Ring of integers modulo 1
+            sage: QQ.quo(5)
+            Quotient of Rational Field by the ideal (1)
+        """
+        I = self.I
+        if not I.is_zero():
+            from sage.categories.fields import Fields
+            if R in Fields():
+                from sage.rings.finite_rings.integer_mod_ring import Integers
+                return Integers(1)
+        if I.ring() != R:
+            if I.ring().has_coerce_map_from(R):
+                R = I.ring()
+            else:
+                R = pushout(R, I.ring().base_ring())
+                I = R.ideal([R.one() * t for t in I.gens()], warn=False)
+        try:
+            Q = R.quo(I, names=self.names, **self.kwds)
+        except IndexError:  # That may happen!
+            raise CoercionException("Cannot apply this quotient functor to %s" % R)
+        if self.as_field:
+            try:
+                Q = Q.field()
+            except AttributeError:
+                pass
+        return Q
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        """
+        The types, domain, codomain, names and moduli are compared.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.libs.pari
+            sage: P.<x> = QQ[]
+            sage: F = P.quo([(x^2+1)^2*(x^2-3),(x^2+1)^2*(x^5+3)]).construction()[0]
+            sage: F == loads(dumps(F))
+            True
+            sage: P2.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: F == P2.quo([(x^2+1)^2*(x^2-3),(x^2+1)^2*(x^5+3)]).construction()[0]
+            False
+            sage: P3.<x> = ZZ[]
+            sage: F == P3.quo([(x^2+1)^2*(x^2-3),(x^2+1)^2*(x^5+3)]).construction()[0]
+            True
+        """
+        if not isinstance(other, QuotientFunctor):
+            return False
+        return (type(self) is type(other) and
+                self.domain() == other.domain() and
+                self.codomain() == other.codomain() and
+                self.names == other.names and
+                self.I == other.I)
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        """
+        Check whether ``self`` is not equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.libs.pari
+            sage: P.<x> = QQ[]
+            sage: F = P.quo([(x^2+1)^2*(x^2-3),(x^2+1)^2*(x^5+3)]).construction()[0]
+            sage: F != loads(dumps(F))
+            False
+            sage: P2.<x,y> = QQ[]
+            sage: F != P2.quo([(x^2+1)^2*(x^2-3),(x^2+1)^2*(x^5+3)]).construction()[0]
+            True
+            sage: P3.<x> = ZZ[]
+            sage: F != P3.quo([(x^2+1)^2*(x^2-3),(x^2+1)^2*(x^5+3)]).construction()[0]
+            False
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    __hash__ = ConstructionFunctor.__hash__
+
+    def merge(self, other):
+        """
+        Two quotient functors with coinciding names are merged by taking the gcd
+        of their moduli, the meet of their domains, and the join of their codomains.
+
+        In particular, if one of the functors being merged knows that the quotient
+        is going to be a field, then the merged functor will return fields as
+        well.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.libs.pari
+            sage: P.<x> = QQ[]
+            sage: Q1 = P.quo([(x^2+1)^2*(x^2-3)])
+            sage: Q2 = P.quo([(x^2+1)^2*(x^5+3)])
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import pushout
+            sage: pushout(Q1,Q2)    # indirect doctest
+            Univariate Quotient Polynomial Ring in xbar over Rational Field
+             with modulus x^4 + 2*x^2 + 1
+
+        The following was fixed in :issue:`8800`::
+
+            sage: pushout(GF(5), Integers(5))                                           # needs sage.libs.pari
+            Finite Field of size 5
+        """
+        if type(self) is not type(other):
+            return None
+        if self.names != other.names:
+            return None
+        if self == other:
+            if self.as_field == other.as_field:
+                # The two functors are *really* equal
+                return self
+            # They are equal up to the additional arguments
+            I = self.I
+            domain = self.domain()
+            codomain = self.codomain()
+        else:
+            try:
+                I = self.I + other.I
+            except (TypeError, NotImplementedError):
+                try:
+                    I = self.I.gcd(other.I)
+                except (TypeError, NotImplementedError):
+                    return None
+            domain = self.domain().meet([self.domain(), other.domain()])
+            codomain = self.codomain().join([self.codomain(), other.codomain()])
+        # Get the optional arguments:
+        as_field = self.as_field or other.as_field
+        kwds = dict(self.kwds)
+        for k, v in other.kwds.items():
+            if k == 'category':
+                if kwds[k] is not None:
+                    kwds[k] = v.join([v, kwds[k]])
+                else:
+                    kwds[k] = v
+                continue
+            if k in kwds and kwds[k] is not None and v != kwds[k]:
+                # Don't know what default to choose. Hence: No merge!
+                return None
+            kwds[k] = v
+        if I.is_trivial() and not I.is_zero():
+            # quotient by I would result in the trivial ring/group/...
+            # Rather than create the zero ring, we claim they can't be merged
+            # TODO: Perhaps this should be detected at a higher level...
+            raise TypeError("trivial quotient intersection")
+        # GF(p) has a coercion from Integers(p). Hence, merging should
+        # yield a field if either self or other yields a field.
+        return QuotientFunctor(I, names=self.names, as_field=as_field,
+                               domain=domain, codomain=codomain, **kwds)
+
+
+class AlgebraicExtensionFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+    """
+    Algebraic extension (univariate polynomial ring modulo principal ideal).
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: x = polygen(QQ, 'x')
+        sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + x^2 + 1)                                        # needs sage.rings.number_field
+        sage: F = K.construction()[0]                                                   # needs sage.rings.number_field
+        sage: F(ZZ['t'])                                                                # needs sage.rings.number_field
+        Univariate Quotient Polynomial Ring in a
+         over Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Integer Ring
+         with modulus a^3 + a^2 + 1
+
+    Note that, even if a field is algebraically closed, the algebraic
+    extension will be constructed as the quotient of a univariate
+    polynomial ring::
+
+        sage: F(CC)                                                                     # needs sage.rings.number_field
+        Univariate Quotient Polynomial Ring in a
+         over Complex Field with 53 bits of precision
+         with modulus a^3 + a^2 + 1.00000000000000
+        sage: F(RR)                                                                     # needs sage.rings.number_field
+        Univariate Quotient Polynomial Ring in a
+         over Real Field with 53 bits of precision
+         with modulus a^3 + a^2 + 1.00000000000000
+
+    Note that the construction functor of a number field applied to
+    the integers returns an order (not necessarily maximal) of that
+    field, similar to the behaviour of ``ZZ.extension(...)``::
+
+        sage: F(ZZ)                                                                     # needs sage.rings.number_field
+        Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 + x^2 + 1
+
+    This also holds for non-absolute number fields::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+        sage: x = polygen(QQ, 'x')
+        sage: K.<a,b> = NumberField([x^3 + x^2 + 1, x^2 + x + 1])
+        sage: F = K.construction()[0]
+        sage: O = F(ZZ); O
+        Relative Order
+         generated by [(b - 2)*a^2 + (3*b - 1)*a + 3*b + 4, a - b]
+         in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 + x^2 + 1
+         over its base field
+        sage: O.ambient() is K
+        True
+
+    Special cases are made for cyclotomic fields and residue fields::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+        sage: C = CyclotomicField(8)
+        sage: F, R = C.construction()
+        sage: F
+        AlgebraicExtensionFunctor
+        sage: R
+        Rational Field
+        sage: F(R)
+        Cyclotomic Field of order 8 and degree 4
+        sage: F(ZZ)
+        Maximal Order generated by zeta8 in Cyclotomic Field of order 8 and degree 4
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+        sage: K.<z> = CyclotomicField(7)
+        sage: P = K.factor(17)[0][0]
+        sage: k = K.residue_field(P)
+        sage: F, R = k.construction()
+        sage: F
+        AlgebraicExtensionFunctor
+        sage: R
+        Cyclotomic Field of order 7 and degree 6
+        sage: F(R) is k
+        True
+        sage: F(ZZ)
+        Residue field of Integers modulo 17
+        sage: F(CyclotomicField(49))
+        Residue field in zbar of Fractional ideal (17)
+    """
+    rank = 3
+
+    def __init__(self, polys, names, embeddings=None, structures=None,
+                 cyclotomic=None, precs=None, implementations=None,
+                 *, residue=None, latex_names=None, **kwds):
+        """
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``polys`` -- list of polynomials (or of integers, for
+          finite fields and unramified local extensions)
+
+        - ``names`` -- list of strings of the same length as the
+          list ``polys``
+
+        - ``embeddings`` -- (optional) list of approximate complex
+          values, determining an embedding of the generators into the
+          complex field, or ``None`` for each generator whose
+          embedding is not prescribed.
+
+        - ``structures`` -- (optional) list of structural morphisms of
+          number fields; see
+          :class:`~sage.rings.number_field.structure.NumberFieldStructure`.
+
+        - ``cyclotomic`` -- (optional) integer. If it is provided,
+          application of the functor to the rational field yields a
+          cyclotomic field, rather than just a number field.
+
+        - ``precs`` -- (optional) list of integers. If it is provided,
+          it is used to determine the precision of `p`-adic extensions.
+
+        - ``implementations`` -- (optional) list of strings.
+          If it is provided, it is used to determine an implementation in the
+          `p`-adic case.
+
+        - ``residue`` -- (optional) prime ideal of an order in a number
+          field, determining a residue field. If it is provided,
+          application of the functor to a number field yields the
+          residue field with respect to the given prime ideal
+          (coerced into the number field).
+
+        - ``latex_names`` -- (optional) list of strings of the same length
+          as the list ``polys``
+
+        - ``**kwds`` -- further keywords; when the functor is applied
+          to a ring `R`, these are passed to the ``extension()``
+          method of `R`.
+
+        REMARK:
+
+        Currently, an embedding can only be provided for the last
+        generator, and only when the construction functor is applied
+        to the rational field. There will be no error when constructing
+        the functor, but when applying it.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import AlgebraicExtensionFunctor
+            sage: P.<x> = ZZ[]
+            sage: F1 = AlgebraicExtensionFunctor([x^3 - x^2 + 1], ['a'], [None])
+            sage: F2 = AlgebraicExtensionFunctor([x^3 - x^2 + 1], ['a'], [0])
+            sage: F1 == F2
+            False
+            sage: F1(QQ)                                                                # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 - x^2 + 1
+            sage: F1(QQ).coerce_embedding()                                             # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: phi = F2(QQ).coerce_embedding().__copy__(); phi                       # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            Generic morphism:
+              From: Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 - x^2 + 1
+                    with a = -0.7548776662466928?
+              To:   Real Lazy Field
+              Defn: a -> -0.7548776662466928?
+            sage: F1(QQ) == F2(QQ)                                                      # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            False
+            sage: F1(GF(5))                                                             # needs sage.libs.pari
+            Univariate Quotient Polynomial Ring in a over Finite Field of size 5
+             with modulus a^3 + 4*a^2 + 1
+            sage: F2(GF(5))                                                             # needs sage.libs.pari
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            NotImplementedError: ring extension with prescribed embedding is not implemented
+
+        When applying a number field constructor to the ring of
+        integers, an order (not necessarily maximal) of that field is
+        returned, similar to the behaviour of ``ZZ.extension``::
+
+            sage: F1(ZZ)                                                                # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 - x^2 + 1
+
+        The cyclotomic fields form a special case of number fields
+        with prescribed embeddings::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: C = CyclotomicField(8)
+            sage: F, R = C.construction()
+            sage: F
+            AlgebraicExtensionFunctor
+            sage: R
+            Rational Field
+            sage: F(R)
+            Cyclotomic Field of order 8 and degree 4
+            sage: F(ZZ)
+            Maximal Order generated by zeta8 in Cyclotomic Field of order 8 and degree 4
+
+        The data stored in this construction includes structural
+        morphisms of number fields (see :issue:`20826`)::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: R.<x> = ZZ[]
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^2 - 3)
+            sage: L0.<b> = K.change_names()
+            sage: L0.structure()
+            (Isomorphism given by variable name change map:
+               From: Number Field in b with defining polynomial x^2 - 3
+               To:   Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 - 3,
+             Isomorphism given by variable name change map:
+               From: Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^2 - 3
+               To:   Number Field in b with defining polynomial x^2 - 3)
+            sage: L1 = (b*x).parent().base_ring()
+            sage: L1 is L0
+            True
+        """
+        Functor.__init__(self, Rings(), Rings())
+        if not (isinstance(polys, (list, tuple)) and isinstance(names, (list, tuple))):
+            raise ValueError("Arguments must be lists or tuples")
+        n = len(polys)
+        if embeddings is None:
+            embeddings = [None] * n
+        if structures is None:
+            structures = [None] * n
+        if precs is None:
+            precs = [None] * n
+        if implementations is None:
+            implementations = [None] * n
+        if latex_names is None:
+            latex_names = [None] * n
+        if not (len(names) == len(embeddings) == len(structures) == len(latex_names) == n):
+            raise ValueError("All arguments must be of the same length")
+        self.polys = list(polys)
+        self.names = list(names)
+        self.embeddings = list(embeddings)
+        self.structures = list(structures)
+        self.cyclotomic = int(cyclotomic) if cyclotomic is not None else None
+        self.precs = list(precs)
+        self.implementations = list(implementations)
+        self.residue = residue
+        # Normalize latex_names:  Use None when latex_name does not override the default.
+        latex_names = list(latex_names)
+        for i, name in enumerate(self.names):
+            if latex_names[i] is not None:
+                from sage.misc.latex import latex_variable_name
+                if latex_names[i] == latex_variable_name(name):
+                    latex_names[i] = None
+        self.latex_names = latex_names
+        self.kwds = kwds
+
+    def _apply_functor(self, R):
+        """
+        Apply the functor to an object of ``self``'s domain.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: x = polygen(QQ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + x^2 + 1)
+            sage: F = K.construction()[0]
+            sage: F(ZZ)       # indirect doctest
+            Order generated by a in Number Field in a with defining polynomial x^3 + x^2 + 1
+            sage: F(ZZ['t'])  # indirect doctest
+            Univariate Quotient Polynomial Ring in a over
+             Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Integer Ring with modulus a^3 + a^2 + 1
+            sage: F(RR)       # indirect doctest
+            Univariate Quotient Polynomial Ring in a over
+             Real Field with 53 bits of precision with modulus a^3 + a^2 + 1.00000000000000
+
+        Check that :issue:`13538` is fixed::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.padics
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import AlgebraicExtensionFunctor
+            sage: K = Qp(3, 3)
+            sage: R.<a> = K[]
+            sage: AEF = AlgebraicExtensionFunctor([a^2 - 3], ['a'], [None])
+            sage: AEF(K)
+            3-adic Eisenstein Extension Field in a defined by a^2 - 3
+        """
+        from sage.rings.integer_ring import ZZ
+        from sage.rings.rational_field import QQ
+        if self.cyclotomic:
+            from sage.rings.number_field.number_field import CyclotomicField
+            if R == QQ:
+                return CyclotomicField(self.cyclotomic)
+            if R == ZZ:
+                return CyclotomicField(self.cyclotomic).maximal_order()
+        elif self.residue is not None:
+            return R.residue_field(R*self.residue, names=tuple(self.names))
+        if len(self.polys) == 1:
+            return R.extension(self.polys[0], names=self.names[0], embedding=self.embeddings[0],
+                               structure=self.structures[0], prec=self.precs[0],
+                               implementation=self.implementations[0],
+                               latex_names=self.latex_names[0], **self.kwds)
+        return R.extension(self.polys, names=self.names, embedding=self.embeddings,
+                           structure=self.structures, prec=self.precs,
+                           implementation=self.implementations,
+                           latex_names=self.latex_names, **self.kwds)
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        """
+        Check whether ``self`` is equal to ``other``.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: x = polygen(QQ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + x^2 + 1)
+            sage: F = K.construction()[0]
+            sage: F == loads(dumps(F))
+            True
+
+            sage: K2.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + x^2 + 1, latex_names='a')                  # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: F2 = K2.construction()[0]                                             # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: F2 == F                                                               # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            True
+
+            sage: K3.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + x^2 + 1, latex_names='alpha')              # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: F3 = K3.construction()[0]                                             # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: F3 == F                                                               # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            False
+        """
+        if not isinstance(other, AlgebraicExtensionFunctor):
+            return False
+
+        return (self.polys == other.polys and
+                self.embeddings == other.embeddings and
+                self.structures == other.structures and
+                self.precs == other.precs and
+                self.latex_names == other.latex_names)
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        """
+        Check whether ``self`` is not equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(QQ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + x^2 + 1)                                    # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: F = K.construction()[0]                                               # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: F != loads(dumps(F))                                                  # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            False
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    __hash__ = ConstructionFunctor.__hash__
+
+    def merge(self, other):
+        """
+        Merging with another :class:`AlgebraicExtensionFunctor`.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``other`` -- Construction Functor
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        - If ``self==other``, ``self`` is returned.
+        - If ``self`` and ``other`` are simple extensions
+          and both provide an embedding, then it is tested
+          whether one of the number fields provided by
+          the functors coerces into the other; the functor
+          associated with the target of the coercion is
+          returned. Otherwise, the construction functor
+          associated with the pushout of the codomains
+          of the two embeddings is returned, provided that
+          it is a number field.
+        - If these two extensions are defined by Conway polynomials
+          over finite fields, merges them into a single extension of
+          degree the lcm of the two degrees.
+        - Otherwise, ``None`` is returned.
+
+        REMARK:
+
+        Algebraic extension with embeddings currently only
+        works when applied to the rational field. This is
+        why we use the admittedly strange rule above for
+        merging.
+
+        EXAMPLES:
+
+        The following demonstrate coercions for finite fields using Conway or
+        pseudo-Conway polynomials::
+
+            sage: k = GF(3^2, prefix='z'); a = k.gen()                                  # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            sage: l = GF(3^3, prefix='z'); b = l.gen()                                  # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            sage: a + b  # indirect doctest                                             # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            z6^5 + 2*z6^4 + 2*z6^3 + z6^2 + 2*z6 + 1
+
+        Note that embeddings are compatible in lattices of such finite fields::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            sage: m = GF(3^5, prefix='z'); c = m.gen()
+            sage: (a + b) + c == a + (b + c) # indirect doctest
+            True
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import pushout
+            sage: n = pushout(k, l)
+            sage: o = pushout(l, m)
+            sage: q = pushout(n, o)
+            sage: q(o(b)) == q(n(b)) # indirect doctest
+            True
+
+        Coercion is also available for number fields::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: P.<x> = QQ[]
+            sage: L.<b> = NumberField(x^8 - x^4 + 1, embedding=CDF.0)
+            sage: M1.<c1> = NumberField(x^2 + x + 1, embedding=b^4 - 1)
+            sage: M2.<c2> = NumberField(x^2 + 1, embedding=-b^6)
+            sage: M1.coerce_map_from(M2)
+            sage: M2.coerce_map_from(M1)
+            sage: c1 + c2; parent(c1 + c2)    #indirect doctest
+            -b^6 + b^4 - 1
+            Number Field in b with defining polynomial x^8 - x^4 + 1
+             with b = -0.2588190451025208? + 0.9659258262890683?*I
+            sage: pushout(M1['x'], M2['x'])                                             # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            Univariate Polynomial Ring in x
+             over Number Field in b with defining polynomial x^8 - x^4 + 1
+              with b = -0.2588190451025208? + 0.9659258262890683?*I
+
+        In the previous example, the number field ``L`` becomes the pushout
+        of ``M1`` and ``M2`` since both are provided with an embedding into
+        ``L``, *and* since ``L`` is a number field. If two number fields
+        are embedded into a field that is not a numberfield, no merging
+        occurs::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.complex_double sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: cbrt2 = CDF(2)^(1/3)
+            sage: zeta3 = CDF.zeta(3)
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 - 2, embedding=cbrt2 * zeta3)
+            sage: L.<b> = NumberField(x^6 - 2, embedding=1.1)
+            sage: L.coerce_map_from(K)
+            sage: K.coerce_map_from(L)
+            sage: pushout(K, L)                                                         # needs sage.rings.finite_rings
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            CoercionException: ('Ambiguous Base Extension', Number Field in a with
+            defining polynomial x^3 - 2 with a = -0.6299605249474365? + 1.091123635971722?*I,
+            Number Field in b with defining polynomial x^6 - 2 with b = 1.122462048309373?)
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, AlgebraicClosureFunctor):
+            return other
+        elif not isinstance(other, AlgebraicExtensionFunctor):
+            return None
+        if self == other:
+            return self
+        # This method is supposed to be used in pushout(),
+        # *after* expanding the functors. Hence, we can
+        # assume that both functors have a single variable.
+        # But for being on the safe side...:
+        if not (len(self.names) == 1 == len(other.names)):
+            return None
+#       We don't accept a forgetful coercion, since, together
+#       with bidirectional coercions between two embedded
+#       number fields, it would yield to contradictions in
+#       the coercion system.
+#        if self.polys==other.polys and self.names==other.names:
+#            # We have a forgetful functor:
+#            if self.embeddings==[None]:
+#                return self
+#            if  other.embeddings==[None]:
+#                return other
+        # ... or we may use the given embeddings:
+        if self.embeddings != [None] and other.embeddings != [None]:
+            from sage.rings.rational_field import QQ
+            KS = self(QQ)
+            KO = other(QQ)
+            if KS.has_coerce_map_from(KO):
+                return self
+            if KO.has_coerce_map_from(KS):
+                return other
+            # nothing else helps, hence, we move to the pushout of the codomains of the embeddings
+            try:
+                P = pushout(self.embeddings[0].parent(), other.embeddings[0].parent())
+                from sage.rings.number_field.number_field_base import NumberField
+                if isinstance(P, NumberField):
+                    return P.construction()[0]
+            except CoercionException:
+                return None
+        # Finite fields and unramified local extensions may use
+        # integers to encode degrees of extensions.
+        from sage.rings.integer import Integer
+        kwds_self = dict(self.kwds.items())
+        if 'impl' in kwds_self:
+            del kwds_self['impl']
+        kwds_other = dict(other.kwds.items())
+        if 'impl' in kwds_other:
+            del kwds_other['impl']
+        if (isinstance(self.polys[0], Integer)
+                and isinstance(other.polys[0], Integer)
+                and self.embeddings == other.embeddings == [None]
+                and self.structures == other.structures == [None]
+                and kwds_self == kwds_other):
+            return AlgebraicExtensionFunctor([self.polys[0].lcm(other.polys[0])], [None], **kwds_self)
+
+    def __mul__(self, other):
+        """
+        Compose construction functors to a composite construction functor, unless one of them is the identity.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            The product is in functorial notation, i.e., when applying the
+            product to an object then the second factor is applied first.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: P.<x> = QQ[]
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 - 5, embedding=0)
+            sage: L.<b> = K.extension(x^2 + a)
+            sage: F, R = L.construction()
+            sage: prod(F.expand())(R) == L  #indirect doctest
+            True
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, IdentityConstructionFunctor):
+            return self
+        if isinstance(other, AlgebraicExtensionFunctor):
+            if set(self.names).intersection(other.names):
+                raise CoercionException("Overlapping names (%s,%s)" % (self.names, other.names))
+            return AlgebraicExtensionFunctor(self.polys + other.polys, self.names + other.names,
+                                             self.embeddings + other.embeddings,
+                                             self.structures + other.structures,
+                                             precs=self.precs + other.precs,
+                                             implementations=self.implementations + other.implementations,
+                                             latex_names=self.latex_names + other.latex_names,
+                                             **self.kwds)
+        elif (isinstance(other, CompositeConstructionFunctor)
+              and isinstance(other.all[-1], AlgebraicExtensionFunctor)):
+            return CompositeConstructionFunctor(other.all[:-1], self * other.all[-1])
+        else:
+            return CompositeConstructionFunctor(other, self)
+
+    def expand(self):
+        """
+        Decompose the functor `F` into sub-functors, whose product returns `F`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: P.<x> = QQ[]
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 - 5, embedding=0)
+            sage: L.<b> = K.extension(x^2 + a)
+            sage: F, R = L.construction()
+            sage: prod(F.expand())(R) == L
+            True
+            sage: K = NumberField([x^2 - 2, x^2 - 3],'a')
+            sage: F, R = K.construction()
+            sage: F
+            AlgebraicExtensionFunctor
+            sage: L = F.expand(); L
+            [AlgebraicExtensionFunctor, AlgebraicExtensionFunctor]
+            sage: L[-1](QQ)
+            Number Field in a1 with defining polynomial x^2 - 3
+        """
+        n = len(self.polys)
+        if n == 1:
+            return [self]
+        return [AlgebraicExtensionFunctor([self.polys[i]], [self.names[i]], [self.embeddings[i]],
+                                          [self.structures[i]], precs=[self.precs[i]],
+                                          implementations=[self.implementations[i]],
+                                          latex_names=[self.latex_names[i]], **self.kwds)
+                for i in range(n)]
+
+
+class AlgebraicClosureFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+    """
+    Algebraic Closure.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.rings.complex_double sage.rings.number_field
+        sage: F = CDF.construction()[0]
+        sage: F(QQ)
+        Algebraic Field
+        sage: F(RR)                                                                     # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+        Complex Field with 53 bits of precision
+        sage: F(F(QQ)) is F(QQ)
+        True
+    """
+    rank = 3
+
+    def __init__(self):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import AlgebraicClosureFunctor
+            sage: F = AlgebraicClosureFunctor()
+            sage: F(QQ)                                                                 # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            Algebraic Field
+            sage: F(RR)                                                                 # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+            Complex Field with 53 bits of precision
+            sage: F == loads(dumps(F))
+            True
+        """
+        Functor.__init__(self, Rings(), Rings())
+
+    def _apply_functor(self, R):
+        """
+        Apply the functor to an object of ``self``'s domain.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: F = CDF.construction()[0]                                             # needs sage.rings.complex_double
+            sage: F(QQ)       # indirect doctest                                        # needs sage.rings.complex_double sage.rings.number_field
+            Algebraic Field
+        """
+        try:
+            c = R.construction()
+            if c is not None and c[0] == self:
+                return R
+        except AttributeError:
+            pass
+        return R.algebraic_closure()
+
+    def merge(self, other):
+        """
+        Mathematically, Algebraic Closure subsumes Algebraic Extension.
+        However, it seems that people do want to work with algebraic
+        extensions of ``RR``. Therefore, we do not merge with algebraic extension.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: x = polygen(QQ, 'x')
+            sage: K.<a> = NumberField(x^3 + x^2 + 1)                                    # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: CDF.construction()[0].merge(K.construction()[0]) is None              # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            True
+            sage: CDF.construction()[0].merge(CDF.construction()[0])                    # needs sage.rings.complex_double
+            AlgebraicClosureFunctor
+        """
+        if self == other:
+            return self
+        return None
+        # Mathematically, Algebraic Closure subsumes Algebraic Extension.
+        # However, it seems that people do want to work with
+        # algebraic extensions of RR (namely RR/poly*RR). So, we don't do:
+        # if isinstance(other,AlgebraicExtensionFunctor):
+        #     return self
+
+
+class PermutationGroupFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+
+    rank = 10
+
+    def __init__(self, gens, domain):
+        """
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import PermutationGroupFunctor
+            sage: PF = PermutationGroupFunctor([PermutationGroupElement([(1,2)])],      # needs sage.groups
+            ....:                              [1,2]); PF
+            PermutationGroupFunctor[(1,2)]
+        """
+        Functor.__init__(self, Groups(), Groups())
+        self._gens = tuple(gens)
+        self._domain = domain
+
+    def _repr_(self):
+        """
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P1 = PermutationGroup([[(1,2)]])                                      # needs sage.groups
+            sage: PF, P = P1.construction()                                             # needs sage.groups
+            sage: PF                                                                    # needs sage.groups
+            PermutationGroupFunctor[(1,2)]
+        """
+        return "PermutationGroupFunctor%s" % list(self.gens())
+
+    def __call__(self, R):
+        """
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P1 = PermutationGroup([[(1,2)]])                                      # needs sage.groups
+            sage: PF, P = P1.construction()                                             # needs sage.groups
+            sage: PF(P)                                                                 # needs sage.groups
+            Permutation Group with generators [(1,2)]
+        """
+        from sage.groups.perm_gps.permgroup import PermutationGroup
+        return PermutationGroup([g for g in (R.gens() + self.gens()) if not g.is_one()],
+                                domain=self._domain)
+
+    def gens(self) -> tuple:
+        """
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P1 = PermutationGroup([[(1,2)]])                                      # needs sage.groups
+            sage: PF, P = P1.construction()                                             # needs sage.groups
+            sage: PF.gens()                                                             # needs sage.groups
+            ((1,2),)
+        """
+        return self._gens
+
+    def merge(self, other):
+        """
+        Merge ``self`` with another construction functor, or return ``None``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.groups
+            sage: P1 = PermutationGroup([[(1,2)]])
+            sage: PF1, P = P1.construction()
+            sage: P2 = PermutationGroup([[(1,3)]])
+            sage: PF2, P = P2.construction()
+            sage: PF1.merge(PF2)
+            PermutationGroupFunctor[(1,2), (1,3)]
+        """
+        if self.__class__ != other.__class__:
+            return None
+        from sage.sets.finite_enumerated_set import FiniteEnumeratedSet
+
+        new_domain = set(self._domain).union(set(other._domain))
+        try:
+            new_domain = FiniteEnumeratedSet(sorted(new_domain))
+        except TypeError:
+            # Sorting the domain will sometimes fail with Python 3.
+            # Fallback (not ideal: find a better solution?)
+            new_domain = FiniteEnumeratedSet(sorted(new_domain, key=str))
+        return PermutationGroupFunctor(self.gens() + other.gens(),
+                                       new_domain)
+
+
+class EquivariantSubobjectConstructionFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+    r"""
+    Constructor for subobjects invariant or equivariant under given semigroup actions.
+
+    Let `S` be a semigroup that
+    - acts on a parent `X` as `s \cdot x` (``action``, ``side='left'``) or
+    - acts on `X` as `x \cdot s` (``action``, ``side='right'``),
+    and (possibly trivially)
+    - acts on `X` as `s * x` (``other_action``, ``other_side='left'``) or
+    - acts on `X` as `x * s` (``other_action``, ``other_side='right'``).
+
+    The `S`-equivariant subobject is the subobject
+
+    .. MATH::
+
+        X^S := \{x \in X : s \cdot x = s * x,\, \forall s \in S \}
+
+    when ``side = other_side = 'left'`` and mutatis mutandis for the other values
+    of ``side`` and ``other_side``.
+
+    When ``other_action`` is trivial, `X^S` is called the `S`-invariant subobject.
+
+    EXAMPLES:
+
+    Monoterm symmetries of a tensor, here only for matrices: row (index 0),
+    column (index 1); the order of the extra element 2 in a permutation determines
+    whether it is a symmetry or an antisymmetry::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.groups sage.modules
+        sage: GSym01 = PermutationGroup([[(0,1),(2,),(3,)]]); GSym01
+        Permutation Group with generators [(0,1)]
+        sage: GASym01 = PermutationGroup([[(0,1),(2,3)]]); GASym01
+        Permutation Group with generators [(0,1)(2,3)]
+        sage: from sage.categories.action import Action
+        sage: from sage.structure.element import Matrix
+        sage: class TensorIndexAction(Action):
+        ....:     def _act_(self, g, x):
+        ....:         if isinstance(x, Matrix):
+        ....:             if g(0) == 1:
+        ....:                 if g(2) == 2:
+        ....:                     return x.transpose()
+        ....:                 else:
+        ....:                     return -x.transpose()
+        ....:             else:
+        ....:                 return x
+        ....:         raise NotImplementedError
+        sage: M = matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]]); M
+        [1 2]
+        [3 4]
+        sage: GSym01_action = TensorIndexAction(GSym01, M.parent())
+        sage: GASym01_action = TensorIndexAction(GASym01, M.parent())
+        sage: GSym01_action.act(GSym01.0, M)
+        [1 3]
+        [2 4]
+        sage: GASym01_action.act(GASym01.0, M)
+        [-1 -3]
+        [-2 -4]
+        sage: Sym01 = M.parent().invariant_module(GSym01, action=GSym01_action); Sym01
+        (Permutation Group with generators [(0,1)])-invariant submodule
+         of Full MatrixSpace of 2 by 2 dense matrices over Integer Ring
+        sage: list(Sym01.basis())
+        [B[0], B[1], B[2]]
+        sage: list(Sym01.basis().map(Sym01.lift))
+        [
+        [1 0]  [0 1]  [0 0]
+        [0 0], [1 0], [0 1]
+        ]
+        sage: ASym01 = M.parent().invariant_module(GASym01, action=GASym01_action)
+        sage: ASym01
+        (Permutation Group with generators [(0,1)(2,3)])-invariant submodule
+         of Full MatrixSpace of 2 by 2 dense matrices over Integer Ring
+        sage: list(ASym01.basis())
+        [B[0]]
+        sage: list(ASym01.basis().map(ASym01.lift))
+        [
+        [ 0  1]
+        [-1  0]
+        ]
+        sage: from sage.categories.pushout import pushout
+        sage: pushout(Sym01, QQ)
+        (Permutation Group with generators [(0,1)])-invariant submodule
+         of Full MatrixSpace of 2 by 2 dense matrices over Rational Field
+    """
+    def __init__(self, S, action=operator.mul, side='left',
+                 other_action=None, other_side='left'):
+        """
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.combinat sage.groups sage.modules
+            sage: G = SymmetricGroup(3); G.rename('S3')
+            sage: M = FreeModule(ZZ, [1,2,3], prefix='M'); M.rename('M')
+            sage: action = lambda g, x: M.term(g(x))
+            sage: I = M.invariant_module(G, action_on_basis=action); I
+            (S3)-invariant submodule of M
+            sage: I.construction()
+            (EquivariantSubobjectConstructionFunctor,
+            Representation of S3 indexed by {1, 2, 3} over Integer Ring)
+        """
+        from sage.categories.sets_cat import Sets
+        super().__init__(Sets(), Sets())
+        self.S = S
+        self.action = action
+        self.side = side
+        self.other_action = other_action
+        self.other_side = other_side
+
+    def _apply_functor(self, X):
+        """
+        Apply the functor to an object of ``self``'s domain.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import EquivariantSubobjectConstructionFunctor
+            sage: M2 = MatrixSpace(QQ, 2); M2                                           # needs sage.modules
+            Full MatrixSpace of 2 by 2 dense matrices over Rational Field
+            sage: F = EquivariantSubobjectConstructionFunctor(M2,                       # needs sage.modules
+            ....:         operator.mul, 'left',
+            ....:         operator.mul, 'right'); F
+            EquivariantSubobjectConstructionFunctor
+            sage: F(M2)                                                                 # needs sage.modules
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            NotImplementedError: non-trivial other_action=<built-in function mul> is not implemented
+        """
+        other_action = self.other_action
+        if other_action is not None:
+            raise NotImplementedError(f'non-trivial {other_action=} is not implemented')
+        # Currently only implemented for FiniteDimensionalModulesWithBasis
+        return X.invariant_module(self.S, action=self.action, side=self.side)
+
+
+class BlackBoxConstructionFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+    """
+    Construction functor obtained from any callable object.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.categories.pushout import BlackBoxConstructionFunctor
+
+        sage: # needs sage.libs.gap
+        sage: from sage.interfaces.gap import gap
+        sage: FG = BlackBoxConstructionFunctor(gap)
+        sage: FG
+        BlackBoxConstructionFunctor
+        sage: FG(ZZ)
+        Integers
+        sage: FG(ZZ).parent()
+        Gap
+        sage: FG == loads(dumps(FG))
+        True
+
+        sage: FS = BlackBoxConstructionFunctor(singular)
+        sage: FS(QQ['t'])                                                               # needs sage.libs.singular
+        polynomial ring, over a field, global ordering
+        // coefficients: QQ...
+        // number of vars : 1
+        //        block   1 : ordering lp
+        //                  : names    t
+        //        block   2 : ordering C
+        sage: FG == FS                                                                  # needs sage.libs.gap sage.libs.singular
+        False
+    """
+    rank = 100
+
+    def __init__(self, box):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import BlackBoxConstructionFunctor
+            sage: FG = BlackBoxConstructionFunctor(gap)
+            sage: FM = BlackBoxConstructionFunctor(maxima)                              # needs sage.symbolic
+            sage: FM == FG                                                              # needs sage.libs.gap sage.symbolic
+            False
+            sage: FM == loads(dumps(FM))                                                # needs sage.symbolic
+            True
+        """
+        ConstructionFunctor.__init__(self, Objects(), Objects())
+        if not callable(box):
+            raise TypeError("input must be callable")
+        self.box = box
+
+    def _apply_functor(self, R):
+        """
+        Apply the functor to an object of ``self``'s domain.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import BlackBoxConstructionFunctor
+            sage: f = lambda x: x^2
+            sage: F = BlackBoxConstructionFunctor(f)
+            sage: F(ZZ)           # indirect doctest                                    # needs sage.modules
+            Ambient free module of rank 2 over the principal ideal domain Integer Ring
+        """
+        return self.box(R)
+
+    def __eq__(self, other):
+        """
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import BlackBoxConstructionFunctor
+            sage: FG = BlackBoxConstructionFunctor(gap)
+            sage: FM = BlackBoxConstructionFunctor(maxima)                              # needs sage.symbolic
+            sage: FM == FG       # indirect doctest                                     # needs sage.libs.gap sage.symbolic
+            False
+            sage: FM == loads(dumps(FM))                                                # needs sage.symbolic
+            True
+        """
+        if not isinstance(other, BlackBoxConstructionFunctor):
+            return False
+
+        return self.box == other.box
+
+    def __ne__(self, other):
+        """
+        Check whether ``self`` is not equal to ``other``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.categories.pushout import BlackBoxConstructionFunctor
+            sage: FG = BlackBoxConstructionFunctor(gap)
+            sage: FM = BlackBoxConstructionFunctor(maxima)                              # needs sage.symbolic
+            sage: FM != FG       # indirect doctest                                     # needs sage.libs.gap sage.symbolic
+            True
+            sage: FM != loads(dumps(FM))                                                # needs sage.symbolic
+            False
+        """
+        return not (self == other)
+
+    __hash__ = ConstructionFunctor.__hash__
+
+
+def pushout(R, S):
+    r"""
+    Given a pair of objects `R` and `S`, try to construct a
+    reasonable object `Y` and return maps such that
+    canonically `R \leftarrow Y \rightarrow S`.
+
+    ALGORITHM:
+
+    This incorporates the idea of functors discussed at Sage Days 4.
+    Every object `R` can be viewed as an initial object and a series
+    of functors (e.g. polynomial, quotient, extension, completion,
+    vector/matrix, etc.). Call the series of increasingly simple
+    objects (with the associated functors) the "tower" of `R`. The
+    construction method is used to create the tower.
+
+    Given two objects `R` and `S`, try to find a common initial object
+    `Z`. If the towers of `R` and `S` meet, let `Z` be their join.
+    Otherwise, see if the top of one coerces naturally into the other.
+
+    Now we have an initial object and two ordered lists of functors to
+    apply. We wish to merge these in an unambiguous order, popping
+    elements off the top of one or the other tower as we apply them to
+    `Z`.
+
+    - If the functors are of distinct types, there is an absolute
+      ordering given by the rank attribute. Use this.
+
+    - Otherwise:
+
+      - If the tops are equal, we (try to) merge them.
+
+      - If exactly one occurs lower in the other tower, we may
+        unambiguously apply the other (hoping for a later merge).
+
+      - If the tops commute, we can apply either first.
+
+      - Otherwise fail due to ambiguity.
+
+    The algorithm assumes by default that when a construction `F` is
+    applied to an object `X`, the object `F(X)` admits a coercion map
+    from `X`.  However, the algorithm can also handle the case where
+    `F(X)` has a coercion map *to* `X` instead.  In this case, the
+    attribute ``coercion_reversed`` of the class implementing `F`
+    should be set to ``True``.
+
+    EXAMPLES:
+
+    Here our "towers" are `R = Complete_7(Frac(\ZZ))` and `Frac(Poly_x(\ZZ))`,
+    which give us `Frac(Poly_x(Complete_7(Frac(\ZZ))))`::
+
+        sage: from sage.categories.pushout import pushout
+        sage: pushout(Qp(7), Frac(ZZ['x']))                                             # needs sage.rings.padics
+        Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in x
+         over 7-adic Field with capped relative precision 20
+
+    Note we get the same thing with
+    ::
+
+        sage: pushout(Zp(7), Frac(QQ['x']))                                             # needs sage.rings.padics
+        Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in x
+         over 7-adic Field with capped relative precision 20
+        sage: pushout(Zp(7)['x'], Frac(QQ['x']))                                        # needs sage.rings.padics
+        Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in x
+         over 7-adic Field with capped relative precision 20
+
+    Note that polynomial variable ordering must be unambiguously determined.
+    ::
+
+        sage: pushout(ZZ['x,y,z'], QQ['w,z,t'])
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        CoercionException: ('Ambiguous Base Extension',
+        Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y, z over Integer Ring,
+        Multivariate Polynomial Ring in w, z, t over Rational Field)
+        sage: pushout(ZZ['x,y,z'], QQ['w,x,z,t'])
+        Multivariate Polynomial Ring in w, x, y, z, t over Rational Field
+
+    Some other examples::
+
+        sage: pushout(Zp(7)['y'], Frac(QQ['t'])['x,y,z'])                               # needs sage.rings.padics
+        Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y, z
+         over Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in t
+          over 7-adic Field with capped relative precision 20
+        sage: pushout(ZZ['x,y,z'], Frac(ZZ['x'])['y'])
+        Multivariate Polynomial Ring in y, z
+         over Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+        sage: pushout(MatrixSpace(RDF, 2, 2), Frac(ZZ['x']))                            # needs sage.modules
+        Full MatrixSpace of 2 by 2 dense matrices
+         over Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Real Double Field
+        sage: pushout(ZZ, MatrixSpace(ZZ[['x']], 3, 3))                                 # needs sage.modules
+        Full MatrixSpace of 3 by 3 dense matrices
+         over Power Series Ring in x over Integer Ring
+        sage: pushout(QQ['x,y'], ZZ[['x']])
+        Univariate Polynomial Ring in y
+         over Power Series Ring in x over Rational Field
+        sage: pushout(Frac(ZZ['x']), QQ[['x']])
+        Laurent Series Ring in x over Rational Field
+
+    A construction with ``coercion_reversed=True`` (currently only
+    the :class:`SubspaceFunctor` construction) is only applied if it
+    leads to a valid coercion::
+
+        sage: # needs sage.modules
+        sage: A = ZZ^2
+        sage: V = span([[1, 2]], QQ)
+        sage: P = sage.categories.pushout.pushout(A, V)
+        sage: P
+        Vector space of dimension 2 over Rational Field
+        sage: P.has_coerce_map_from(A)
+        True
+
+        sage: # needs sage.modules
+        sage: V = (QQ^3).span([[1, 2, 3/4]])
+        sage: A = ZZ^3
+        sage: pushout(A, V)
+        Vector space of dimension 3 over Rational Field
+        sage: B = A.span([[0, 0, 2/3]])
+        sage: pushout(B, V)
+        Vector space of degree 3 and dimension 2 over Rational Field
+        User basis matrix:
+        [1 2 0]
+        [0 0 1]
+
+    Some more tests with ``coercion_reversed=True``::
+
+        sage: from sage.categories.pushout import ConstructionFunctor
+        sage: class EvenPolynomialRing(type(QQ['x'])):
+        ....:     def __init__(self, base, var):
+        ....:         super().__init__(base, var)
+        ....:         self.register_embedding(base[var])
+        ....:     def __repr__(self):
+        ....:         return "Even Power " + super().__repr__()
+        ....:     def construction(self):
+        ....:         return EvenPolynomialFunctor(), self.base()[self.variable_name()]
+        ....:     def _coerce_map_from_(self, R):
+        ....:         return self.base().has_coerce_map_from(R)
+        sage: class EvenPolynomialFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+        ....:     rank = 10
+        ....:     coercion_reversed = True
+        ....:     def __init__(self):
+        ....:         ConstructionFunctor.__init__(self, Rings(), Rings())
+        ....:     def _apply_functor(self, R):
+        ....:         return EvenPolynomialRing(R.base(), R.variable_name())
+        sage: pushout(EvenPolynomialRing(QQ, 'x'), ZZ)
+        Even Power Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+        sage: pushout(EvenPolynomialRing(QQ, 'x'), QQ)
+        Even Power Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+        sage: pushout(EvenPolynomialRing(QQ, 'x'), RR)                                  # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+        Even Power Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Real Field with 53 bits of precision
+
+        sage: pushout(EvenPolynomialRing(QQ, 'x'), ZZ['x'])
+        Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+        sage: pushout(EvenPolynomialRing(QQ, 'x'), QQ['x'])
+        Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+        sage: pushout(EvenPolynomialRing(QQ, 'x'), RR['x'])                             # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+        Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Real Field with 53 bits of precision
+
+        sage: pushout(EvenPolynomialRing(QQ, 'x'), EvenPolynomialRing(QQ, 'x'))
+        Even Power Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+        sage: pushout(EvenPolynomialRing(QQ, 'x'), EvenPolynomialRing(RR, 'x'))         # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+        Even Power Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Real Field with 53 bits of precision
+
+        sage: pushout(EvenPolynomialRing(QQ, 'x')^2, RR^2)                              # needs sage.modules sage.rings.real_mpfr
+        Ambient free module of rank 2
+         over the principal ideal domain Even Power Univariate Polynomial Ring in x
+          over Real Field with 53 bits of precision
+        sage: pushout(EvenPolynomialRing(QQ, 'x')^2, RR['x']^2)                         # needs sage.modules sage.rings.real_mpfr
+        Ambient free module of rank 2
+         over the principal ideal domain Univariate Polynomial Ring in x
+         over Real Field with 53 bits of precision
+
+    Some more tests related to univariate/multivariate
+    constructions. We consider a generalization of polynomial rings,
+    where in addition to the coefficient ring `C` we also specify
+    an additive monoid `E` for the exponents of the indeterminate.
+    In particular, the elements of such a parent are given by
+
+    .. MATH::
+
+        \sum_{i=0}^I c_i X^{e_i}
+
+    with `c_i \in C` and `e_i \in E`. We define
+    ::
+
+        sage: class GPolynomialRing(Parent):
+        ....:     def __init__(self, coefficients, var, exponents):
+        ....:         self.coefficients = coefficients
+        ....:         self.var = var
+        ....:         self.exponents = exponents
+        ....:         super().__init__(category=Rings())
+        ....:     def _repr_(self):
+        ....:         return 'Generalized Polynomial Ring in %s^(%s) over %s' % (
+        ....:                self.var, self.exponents, self.coefficients)
+        ....:     def construction(self):
+        ....:         return GPolynomialFunctor(self.var, self.exponents), self.coefficients
+        ....:     def _coerce_map_from_(self, R):
+        ....:         return self.coefficients.has_coerce_map_from(R)
+
+    and
+    ::
+
+        sage: class GPolynomialFunctor(ConstructionFunctor):
+        ....:     rank = 10
+        ....:     def __init__(self, var, exponents):
+        ....:         self.var = var
+        ....:         self.exponents = exponents
+        ....:         ConstructionFunctor.__init__(self, Rings(), Rings())
+        ....:     def _repr_(self):
+        ....:         return 'GPoly[%s^(%s)]' % (self.var, self.exponents)
+        ....:     def _apply_functor(self, coefficients):
+        ....:         return GPolynomialRing(coefficients, self.var, self.exponents)
+        ....:     def merge(self, other):
+        ....:         if isinstance(other, GPolynomialFunctor) and self.var == other.var:
+        ....:             exponents = pushout(self.exponents, other.exponents)
+        ....:             return GPolynomialFunctor(self.var, exponents)
+
+    We can construct a parent now in two different ways::
+
+        sage: GPolynomialRing(QQ, 'X', ZZ)
+        Generalized Polynomial Ring in X^(Integer Ring) over Rational Field
+        sage: GP_ZZ = GPolynomialFunctor('X', ZZ); GP_ZZ
+        GPoly[X^(Integer Ring)]
+        sage: GP_ZZ(QQ)
+        Generalized Polynomial Ring in X^(Integer Ring) over Rational Field
+
+    Since the construction
+    ::
+
+        sage: GP_ZZ(QQ).construction()
+        (GPoly[X^(Integer Ring)], Rational Field)
+
+    uses the coefficient ring, we have the usual coercion with respect
+    to this parameter::
+
+        sage: pushout(GP_ZZ(ZZ), GP_ZZ(QQ))
+        Generalized Polynomial Ring in X^(Integer Ring) over Rational Field
+        sage: pushout(GP_ZZ(ZZ['t']), GP_ZZ(QQ))
+        Generalized Polynomial Ring in X^(Integer Ring)
+          over Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Rational Field
+        sage: pushout(GP_ZZ(ZZ['a,b']), GP_ZZ(ZZ['b,c']))
+        Generalized Polynomial Ring in X^(Integer Ring)
+          over Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a, b, c over Integer Ring
+        sage: pushout(GP_ZZ(ZZ['a,b']), GP_ZZ(QQ['b,c']))
+        Generalized Polynomial Ring in X^(Integer Ring)
+          over Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a, b, c over Rational Field
+        sage: pushout(GP_ZZ(ZZ['a,b']), GP_ZZ(ZZ['c,d']))
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        CoercionException: ('Ambiguous Base Extension', ...)
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: GP_QQ = GPolynomialFunctor('X', QQ)
+        sage: pushout(GP_ZZ(ZZ), GP_QQ(ZZ))
+        Generalized Polynomial Ring in X^(Rational Field) over Integer Ring
+        sage: pushout(GP_QQ(ZZ), GP_ZZ(ZZ))
+        Generalized Polynomial Ring in X^(Rational Field) over Integer Ring
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: GP_ZZt = GPolynomialFunctor('X', ZZ['t'])
+        sage: pushout(GP_ZZt(ZZ), GP_QQ(ZZ))
+        Generalized Polynomial Ring in X^(Univariate Polynomial Ring in t
+          over Rational Field) over Integer Ring
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: pushout(GP_ZZ(ZZ), GP_QQ(QQ))
+        Generalized Polynomial Ring in X^(Rational Field) over Rational Field
+        sage: pushout(GP_ZZ(QQ), GP_QQ(ZZ))
+        Generalized Polynomial Ring in X^(Rational Field) over Rational Field
+        sage: pushout(GP_ZZt(QQ), GP_QQ(ZZ))
+        Generalized Polynomial Ring in X^(Univariate Polynomial Ring in t
+          over Rational Field) over Rational Field
+        sage: pushout(GP_ZZt(ZZ), GP_QQ(QQ))
+        Generalized Polynomial Ring in X^(Univariate Polynomial Ring in t
+          over Rational Field) over Rational Field
+        sage: pushout(GP_ZZt(ZZ['a,b']), GP_QQ(ZZ['c,d']))
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        CoercionException: ('Ambiguous Base Extension', ...)
+        sage: pushout(GP_ZZt(ZZ['a,b']), GP_QQ(ZZ['b,c']))
+        Generalized Polynomial Ring
+         in X^(Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Rational Field)
+          over Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a, b, c over Integer Ring
+
+    Some tests with Cartesian products::
+
+        sage: from sage.sets.cartesian_product import CartesianProduct
+        sage: A = CartesianProduct((ZZ['x'], QQ['y'], QQ['z']),
+        ....:                      Sets().CartesianProducts())
+        sage: B = CartesianProduct((ZZ['x'], ZZ['y'], ZZ['t']['z']),
+        ....:                      Sets().CartesianProducts())
+        sage: A.construction()
+        (The cartesian_product functorial construction,
+         (Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring,
+          Univariate Polynomial Ring in y over Rational Field,
+          Univariate Polynomial Ring in z over Rational Field))
+        sage: pushout(A, B)
+        The Cartesian product of
+         (Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring,
+          Univariate Polynomial Ring in y over Rational Field,
+          Univariate Polynomial Ring in z over
+           Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Rational Field)
+        sage: pushout(ZZ, cartesian_product([ZZ, QQ]))
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        CoercionException: 'NoneType' object is not iterable
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: from sage.categories.pushout import PolynomialFunctor
+        sage: from sage.sets.cartesian_product import CartesianProduct
+        sage: class CartesianProductPoly(CartesianProduct):
+        ....:     def __init__(self, polynomial_rings):
+        ....:         sort = sorted(polynomial_rings,
+        ....:                       key=lambda P: P.variable_name())
+        ....:         super().__init__(sort, Sets().CartesianProducts())
+        ....:     def vars(self):
+        ....:         return tuple(P.variable_name()
+        ....:                      for P in self.cartesian_factors())
+        ....:     def _pushout_(self, other):
+        ....:         if isinstance(other, CartesianProductPoly):
+        ....:             s_vars = self.vars()
+        ....:             o_vars = other.vars()
+        ....:             if s_vars == o_vars:
+        ....:                 return
+        ....:             return pushout(CartesianProductPoly(
+        ....:                     self.cartesian_factors() +
+        ....:                     tuple(f for f in other.cartesian_factors()
+        ....:                           if f.variable_name() not in s_vars)),
+        ....:                 CartesianProductPoly(
+        ....:                     other.cartesian_factors() +
+        ....:                     tuple(f for f in self.cartesian_factors()
+        ....:                           if f.variable_name() not in o_vars)))
+        ....:         C = other.construction()
+        ....:         if C is None:
+        ....:             return
+        ....:         elif isinstance(C[0], PolynomialFunctor):
+        ....:             return pushout(self, CartesianProductPoly((other,)))
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: pushout(CartesianProductPoly((ZZ['x'],)),
+        ....:         CartesianProductPoly((ZZ['y'],)))
+        The Cartesian product of
+         (Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring,
+          Univariate Polynomial Ring in y over Integer Ring)
+        sage: pushout(CartesianProductPoly((ZZ['x'], ZZ['y'])),
+        ....:         CartesianProductPoly((ZZ['x'], ZZ['z'])))
+        The Cartesian product of
+         (Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring,
+          Univariate Polynomial Ring in y over Integer Ring,
+          Univariate Polynomial Ring in z over Integer Ring)
+        sage: pushout(CartesianProductPoly((QQ['a,b']['x'], QQ['y'])),                  # needs sage.symbolic
+        ....:         CartesianProductPoly((ZZ['b,c']['x'], SR['z'])))
+        The Cartesian product of
+         (Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over
+            Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a, b, c over Rational Field,
+          Univariate Polynomial Ring in y over Rational Field,
+          Univariate Polynomial Ring in z over Symbolic Ring)
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: pushout(CartesianProductPoly((ZZ['x'],)), ZZ['y'])
+        The Cartesian product of
+         (Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring,
+          Univariate Polynomial Ring in y over Integer Ring)
+        sage: pushout(QQ['b,c']['y'], CartesianProductPoly((ZZ['a,b']['x'],)))
+        The Cartesian product of
+         (Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over
+            Multivariate Polynomial Ring in a, b over Integer Ring,
+          Univariate Polynomial Ring in y over
+            Multivariate Polynomial Ring in b, c over Rational Field)
+
+    ::
+
+        sage: pushout(CartesianProductPoly((ZZ['x'],)), ZZ)
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        CoercionException: No common base ("join") found for
+        The cartesian_product functorial construction(...) and None(Integer Ring):
+        (Multivariate) functors are incompatible.
+
+    AUTHORS:
+
+    - Robert Bradshaw
+    - Peter Bruin
+    - Simon King
+    - Daniel Krenn
+    - David Roe
+    """
+    if R is S or R == S:
+        return R
+
+    if hasattr(R, '_pushout_'):
+        P = R._pushout_(S)
+        if P is not None:
+            return P
+
+    if hasattr(S, '_pushout_'):
+        P = S._pushout_(R)
+        if P is not None:
+            return P
+
+    if isinstance(R, type):
+        R = type_to_parent(R)
+
+    if isinstance(S, type):
+        S = type_to_parent(S)
+
+    R_tower = construction_tower(R)
+    S_tower = construction_tower(S)
+    Rs = [c[1] for c in R_tower]
+    Ss = [c[1] for c in S_tower]
+
+    # If there is a multivariate construction functor in the tower, we must chop off the end
+    # because tuples don't have has_coerce_map_from functions and to align with the
+    # modification of Rs and Ss below
+    from sage.structure.parent import Parent
+    if not isinstance(Rs[-1], Parent):
+        Rs = Rs[:-1]
+    if not isinstance(Ss[-1], Parent):
+        Ss = Ss[:-1]
+
+    if R in Ss:
+        if not any(c[0].coercion_reversed for c in S_tower[1:]):
+            return S
+    elif S in Rs:
+        if not any(c[0].coercion_reversed for c in R_tower[1:]):
+            return R
+
+    if Rs[-1] in Ss:
+        Rs, Ss = Ss, Rs
+        R_tower, S_tower = S_tower, R_tower
+
+    # look for join
+    Z = None
+    if Ss[-1] in Rs:
+        if Rs[-1] == Ss[-1]:
+            while Rs and Ss and Rs[-1] == Ss[-1]:
+                Rs.pop()
+                Z = Ss.pop()
+        else:
+            Rs = Rs[:Rs.index(Ss[-1])]
+            Z = Ss.pop()
+
+    # look for topmost coercion
+    elif S.has_coerce_map_from(Rs[-1]):
+        while not Ss[-1].has_coerce_map_from(Rs[-1]):
+            Ss.pop()
+        while Rs and Ss[-1].has_coerce_map_from(Rs[-1]):
+            Rs.pop()
+        Z = Ss.pop()
+
+    elif R.has_coerce_map_from(Ss[-1]):
+        while not Rs[-1].has_coerce_map_from(Ss[-1]):
+            Rs.pop()
+        while Ss and Rs[-1].has_coerce_map_from(Ss[-1]):
+            Ss.pop()
+        Z = Rs.pop()
+
+    if Z is None and R_tower[-1][0] is not None:
+        Z = R_tower[-1][0].common_base(S_tower[-1][0], R_tower[-1][1], S_tower[-1][1])
+        R_tower = expand_tower(R_tower[:len(Rs)])
+        S_tower = expand_tower(S_tower[:len(Ss)])
+    else:
+        # Rc is a list of functors from Z to R and Sc is a list of functors from Z to S
+        R_tower = expand_tower(R_tower[:len(Rs) + 1])
+        S_tower = expand_tower(S_tower[:len(Ss) + 1])
+    Rc = [c[0] for c in R_tower[1:]]
+    Sc = [c[0] for c in S_tower[1:]]
+
+    all = IdentityConstructionFunctor()
+
+    def apply_from(Xc):
+        c = Xc.pop()
+        if c.coercion_reversed:
+            Yc = Sc if Xc is Rc else Rc
+            Y_tower = S_tower if Xc is Rc else R_tower
+            Y_partial = Y_tower[len(Yc)][1]
+            if not (c * all)(Z).has_coerce_map_from(Y_partial):
+                return all
+        return c * all
+
+    try:
+        while Rc or Sc:
+            # if we are out of functors in either tower, there is no ambiguity
+            if not Sc:
+                all = apply_from(Rc)
+            elif not Rc:
+                all = apply_from(Sc)
+            # if one of the functors has lower rank, do it first
+            elif Rc[-1].rank < Sc[-1].rank:
+                all = apply_from(Rc)
+            elif Sc[-1].rank < Rc[-1].rank:
+                all = apply_from(Sc)
+            # the ranks are the same, so things are a bit subtler
+            elif Rc[-1] == Sc[-1]:
+                # If they are indeed the same operation, we only do it once.
+                # The \code{merge} function here takes into account non-mathematical
+                # distinctions (e.g. single vs. multivariate polynomials).
+                cR = Rc.pop()
+                cS = Sc.pop()
+                c = cR.merge(cS) or cS.merge(cR)
+                if c:
+                    all = c * all
+                else:
+                    raise CoercionException("Incompatible Base Extension %r, %r (on %r, %r)" % (R, S, cR, cS))
+            # Now we look ahead to see if either top functor is
+            # applied later on in the other tower.
+            # If this is the case for exactly one of them, we unambiguously
+            # postpone that operation, but if both then we abort.
+            elif Rc[-1] in Sc:
+                if Sc[-1] in Rc:
+                    raise CoercionException("Ambiguous Base Extension", R, S)
+                else:
+                    all = apply_from(Sc)
+            elif Sc[-1] in Rc:
+                all = apply_from(Rc)
+            # If, perchance, the two functors commute, then we may do them in any order.
+            elif Rc[-1].commutes(Sc[-1]) or Sc[-1].commutes(Rc[-1]):
+                all = Sc.pop() * Rc.pop() * all
+            else:
+                # try and merge (default merge is failure for unequal functors)
+                cR = Rc.pop()
+                cS = Sc.pop()
+                c = cR.merge(cS) or cS.merge(cR)
+                if c is not None:
+                    all = c * all
+                else:
+                    # Otherwise, we cannot proceed.
+                    raise CoercionException("Ambiguous Base Extension", R, S)
+
+        return all(Z)
+
+    except CoercionException:
+        raise
+    except (TypeError, ValueError, AttributeError, NotImplementedError) as ex:
+        # We do this because we may be trying all kinds of things that don't
+        # make sense, and in this case simply want to return that a pushout
+        # couldn't be found.
+        raise CoercionException(ex)
+
+
+def pushout_lattice(R, S):
+    r"""
+    Given a pair of objects `R` and `S`, try to construct a
+    reasonable object `Y` and return maps such that
+    canonically `R \leftarrow Y \rightarrow S`.
+
+    ALGORITHM:
+
+    This is based on the model that arose from much discussion at
+    Sage Days 4.  Going up the tower of constructions of `R` and `S`
+    (e.g. the reals come from the rationals come from the integers),
+    try to find a common parent, and then try to fill in a lattice
+    with these two towers as sides with the top as the common ancestor
+    and the bottom will be the desired ring.
+
+    See the code for a specific worked-out example.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.categories.pushout import pushout_lattice
+        sage: A, B = pushout_lattice(Qp(7), Frac(ZZ['x']))                              # needs sage.rings.padics
+        sage: A.codomain()                                                              # needs sage.rings.padics
+        Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in x
+         over 7-adic Field with capped relative precision 20
+        sage: A.codomain() is B.codomain()                                              # needs sage.rings.padics
+        True
+        sage: A, B = pushout_lattice(ZZ, MatrixSpace(ZZ[['x']], 3, 3))                  # needs sage.modules
+        sage: B                                                                         # needs sage.modules
+        Identity endomorphism of Full MatrixSpace of 3 by 3 dense matrices
+         over Power Series Ring in x over Integer Ring
+
+    AUTHOR:
+
+    - Robert Bradshaw
+    """
+    R_tower = construction_tower(R)
+    S_tower = construction_tower(S)
+    Rs = [c[1] for c in R_tower]
+    Ss = [c[1] for c in S_tower]
+
+    # look for common ancestor
+    start = None
+    for Z in Rs:
+        if Z in Ss:
+            start = Z
+    if start is None:
+        # Should I test for a map between the tops of the towers?
+        # Or, if they're both not ZZ, is it hopeless?
+        return None
+
+    # truncate at common ancestor
+    R_tower = list(reversed(R_tower[:Rs.index(start) + 1]))
+    S_tower = list(reversed(S_tower[:Ss.index(start) + 1]))
+    Rs = [c[1] for c in R_tower]  # the list of objects
+    Ss = [c[1] for c in S_tower]
+    Rc = [c[0] for c in R_tower]  # the list of functors
+    Sc = [c[0] for c in S_tower]
+
+    # Here we try and construct a 2-dimensional lattice as follows.
+    # Suppose our towers are Z -> Q -> Qp = R and Z -> Z[t] -> Frac(Z[t]) = S
+    lattice = {}
+    # First we fill in the sides
+    #
+    #         Z
+    #       /   \
+    #      Q    Z[t]
+    #    /         \
+    #   Qp       Frac(Z[t])
+    #
+    for i, Rsi in enumerate(Rs):
+        lattice[i, 0] = Rsi
+    for j, Ssj in enumerate(Ss):
+        lattice[0, j] = Ssj
+
+    # Now we attempt to fill in the center, one (diagonal) row at a time,
+    # one commuting square at a time.
+    #
+    #          Z
+    #       /    \
+    #      Q     Z[t]
+    #    /   \  /    \
+    #   Qp   Q[t]   Frac(Z[t])
+    #    \   /
+    #    Qp[t]
+    #
+    # There is always exactly one "correct" path/order in which to apply operations
+    # from the top to the bottom. In our example, this is down the far left side.
+    # We keep track of which that is by clearing out Rc and Sc as we go along.
+    #
+    # Note that when applying the functors in the correct order, base extension
+    # is not needed (though it may occur in the resulting morphisms).
+    #
+    for i in range(len(Rc) - 1):
+        for j in range(len(Sc) - 1):
+            try:
+                if lattice[i, j + 1] == lattice[i + 1, j]:
+                    # In this case we have R <- S -> R
+                    # We don't want to perform the operation twice
+                    # and all subsequent squares will come from objects
+                    # where the operation was already performed (either
+                    # to the left or right)
+                    Rc[i] = Sc[j] = None # IdentityConstructionFunctor()
+                    lattice[i + 1, j + 1] = lattice[i, j + 1]
+                elif Rc[i] is None and Sc[j] is None:
+                    lattice[i + 1, j + 1] = lattice[i, j + 1]
+                elif Rc[i] is None:
+                    lattice[i + 1, j + 1] = Sc[j](lattice[i + 1, j])
+                elif Sc[j] is None:
+                    lattice[i + 1, j + 1] = Rc[i](lattice[i, j + 1])
+                # For now, we just look at the rank.
+                # TODO: be more sophisticated and query the functors themselves
+                elif Rc[i].rank < Sc[j].rank:
+                    lattice[i + 1, j + 1] = Sc[j](lattice[i + 1, j])
+                    Rc[i] = None  # force us to use pre-applied Rc[i]
+                else:
+                    lattice[i + 1, j + 1] = Rc[i](lattice[i, j + 1])
+                    Sc[j] = None  # force us to use pre-applied Sc[i]
+            except (AttributeError, NameError):
+                # pp(lattice)
+                for ni in range(100):
+                    for nj in range(100):
+                        try:
+                            R = lattice[ni, nj]
+                            print(ni, nj, R)
+                        except KeyError:
+                            break
+                raise CoercionException("%s does not support %s"
+                                        % (lattice[ni, nj], 'F'))
+
+    # If we are successful, we should have something that looks like this.
+    #
+    #          Z
+    #       /    \
+    #      Q     Z[t]
+    #    /   \  /    \
+    #   Qp   Q[t]   Frac(Z[t])
+    #    \   /  \    /
+    #    Qp[t]  Frac(Q[t])
+    #      \      /
+    #     Frac(Qp[t])
+    #
+    R_loc = len(Rs) - 1
+    S_loc = len(Ss) - 1
+
+    # Find the composition coercion morphisms along the bottom left...
+    if S_loc > 0:
+        R_map = lattice[R_loc, 1].coerce_map_from(R)
+        for i in range(1, S_loc):
+            map = lattice[R_loc, i + 1].coerce_map_from(lattice[R_loc, i])
+            # The functor used is implicit here, should it be?
+            R_map = map * R_map
+    else:
+        R_map = R.coerce_map_from(R)  # id
+
+    # ... and bottom right
+    if R_loc > 0:
+        S_map = lattice[1, S_loc].coerce_map_from(S)
+        for i in range(1, R_loc):
+            map = lattice[i + 1, S_loc].coerce_map_from(lattice[i, S_loc])
+            S_map = map * S_map
+    else:
+        S_map = S.coerce_map_from(S)  # id
+
+    return R_map, S_map
+
+
+# def pp(lattice):
+#     """
+#     Used in debugging to print the current lattice.
+#     """
+#     for i in range(100):
+#         for j in range(100):
+#             try:
+#                 R = lattice[i,j]
+#                 print(i, j, R)
+#             except KeyError:
+#                 break
+
+
+def construction_tower(R):
+    """
+    An auxiliary function that is used in :func:`pushout` and :func:`pushout_lattice`.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``R`` -- an object
+
+    OUTPUT:
+
+    A constructive description of the object from scratch, by a list of pairs
+    of a construction functor and an object to which the construction functor
+    is to be applied. The first pair is formed by ``None`` and the given object.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.categories.pushout import construction_tower
+        sage: construction_tower(MatrixSpace(FractionField(QQ['t']), 2))                # needs sage.modules
+        [(None, Full MatrixSpace of 2 by 2 dense matrices over Fraction Field
+                 of Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Rational Field),
+         (MatrixFunctor, Fraction Field
+                          of Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Rational Field),
+         (FractionField, Univariate Polynomial Ring in t over Rational Field),
+         (Poly[t], Rational Field), (FractionField, Integer Ring)]
+    """
+    tower = [(None, R)]
+    c = R.construction()
+    from sage.structure.parent import Parent
+    while c is not None:
+        f, R = c
+        if not isinstance(f, ConstructionFunctor):
+            f = BlackBoxConstructionFunctor(f)
+        tower.append((f, R))
+        if not isinstance(R, Parent):
+            break
+        c = R.construction()
+    return tower
+
+
+def expand_tower(tower):
+    """
+    An auxiliary function that is used in :func:`pushout`.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``tower`` -- a construction tower as returned by
+      :func:`construction_tower`
+
+    OUTPUT: a new construction tower with all the construction functors expanded
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.categories.pushout import construction_tower, expand_tower
+        sage: construction_tower(QQ['x,y,z'])
+        [(None, Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y, z over Rational Field),
+         (MPoly[x,y,z], Rational Field),
+         (FractionField, Integer Ring)]
+        sage: expand_tower(construction_tower(QQ['x,y,z']))
+        [(None, Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y, z over Rational Field),
+         (MPoly[z], Univariate Polynomial Ring in y
+                     over Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field),
+         (MPoly[y], Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field),
+         (MPoly[x], Rational Field),
+         (FractionField, Integer Ring)]
+    """
+    new_tower = []
+    for f, R in reversed(tower):
+        if f is None:
+            new_tower.append((f, R))
+        else:
+            fs = f.expand()
+            for ff in reversed(fs[1:]):
+                new_tower.append((ff, R))
+                R = ff(R)
+            new_tower.append((fs[0], R))
+    return list(reversed(new_tower))
+
+
+def type_to_parent(P):
+    """
+    An auxiliary function that is used in :func:`pushout`.
+
+    INPUT:
+
+    - ``P`` -- a type
+
+    OUTPUT: a Sage parent structure corresponding to the given type
+
+    TESTS::
+
+        sage: from sage.categories.pushout import type_to_parent
+        sage: type_to_parent(int)
+        Integer Ring
+        sage: type_to_parent(float)
+        Real Double Field
+        sage: type_to_parent(complex)                                                   # needs sage.rings.complex_double
+        Complex Double Field
+        sage: type_to_parent(list)
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        TypeError: not a scalar type
+    """
+    from sage.structure.coerce import py_scalar_parent
+    parent = py_scalar_parent(P)
+    if parent is None:
+        raise TypeError("not a scalar type")
+    return parent