passagemath-objects 10.6.41__cp314-cp314t-macosx_13_0_arm64.whl

sage/structure/coerce.pyx

@@ -0,0 +1,2107 @@
+# sage_setup: distribution = sagemath-objects
+r"""
+The coercion model
+
+The coercion model manages how elements of one parent get related to elements
+of another. For example, the integer 2 can canonically be viewed as an element
+of the rational numbers. (The parent of a non-element is its Python type.)
+
+::
+
+    sage: ZZ(2).parent()
+    Integer Ring
+    sage: QQ(2).parent()
+    Rational Field
+
+The most prominent role of the coercion model is to make sense of binary
+operations between elements that have distinct parents. It does this by
+finding a parent where both elements make sense, and doing the operation
+there. For example::
+
+    sage: a = 1/2; a.parent()
+    Rational Field
+    sage: b = ZZ['x'].gen(); b.parent()
+    Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+    sage: a + b
+    x + 1/2
+    sage: (a + b).parent()
+    Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+
+If there is a coercion (see below) from one of the parents to the other,
+the operation is always performed in the codomain of that coercion. Otherwise
+a reasonable attempt to create a new parent with coercion maps from both
+original parents is made. The results of these discoveries are cached.
+On failure, a :exc:`TypeError` is always raised.
+
+Some arithmetic operations (such as multiplication) can indicate an action
+rather than arithmetic in a common parent. For example::
+
+    sage: # needs database_cremona_mini_ellcurve sage.schemes
+    sage: E = EllipticCurve('37a')
+    sage: P = E(0,0)
+    sage: 5*P
+    (1/4 : -5/8 : 1)
+
+where there is action of `\ZZ` on the points of `E` given by the additive
+group law. Parents can specify how they act on or are acted upon by other
+parents.
+
+There are two kinds of ways to get from one parent to another, coercions and
+conversions.
+
+Coercions are canonical (possibly modulo a finite number of
+deterministic choices) morphisms, and the set of all coercions between
+all parents forms a commuting diagram (modulo possibly rounding
+issues). `\ZZ \rightarrow \QQ` is an example of a
+coercion. These are invoked implicitly by the coercion model.
+
+Conversions try to construct an element out of their input if at all possible.
+Examples include sections of coercions, creating an element from a string or
+list, etc. and may fail on some inputs of a given type while succeeding on
+others (i.e. they may not be defined on the whole domain). Conversions are
+always explicitly invoked, and never used by the coercion model to resolve
+binary operations.
+
+For more information on how to specify coercions, conversions, and actions,
+see the documentation for :class:`Parent`.
+"""
+
+# ****************************************************************************
+#       Copyright (C) 2007 Robert Bradshaw <robertwb@math.washington.edu>
+#
+# This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
+# it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
+# the Free Software Foundation, either version 2 of the License, or
+# (at your option) any later version.
+#                  https://www.gnu.org/licenses/
+# ****************************************************************************
+
+from cpython.object cimport (PyTypeObject, PyObject_CallObject,
+                             PyObject_RichCompare, Py_TYPE,
+                             Py_EQ, Py_NE, Py_LT, Py_LE, Py_GT)
+from cpython.weakref cimport PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT, PyWeakref_NewRef
+from libc.string cimport strncmp
+cimport gmpy2
+
+cdef mul, truediv
+from operator import mul, truediv
+
+from sage.structure.richcmp cimport rich_to_bool, revop
+from sage.structure.sage_object cimport SageObject
+from sage.structure.parent cimport Parent_richcmp_element_without_coercion
+from sage.structure.element cimport bin_op_exception, parent, Element
+from sage.structure.coerce_exceptions import CoercionException
+from sage.rings.integer_fake cimport is_Integer
+from sage.categories.map cimport Map
+from sage.categories.morphism import IdentityMorphism
+from sage.categories.action cimport Action, PrecomposedAction
+from sage.sets.pythonclass cimport Set_PythonType
+
+import traceback
+
+from fractions import Fraction
+cdef type FractionType = <type>Fraction
+
+cpdef py_scalar_parent(py_type):
+    """
+    Return the Sage equivalent of the given python type, if one exists.
+    If there is no equivalent, return ``None``.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.structure.coerce import py_scalar_parent
+        sage: py_scalar_parent(int)
+        Integer Ring
+        sage: py_scalar_parent(float)
+        Real Double Field
+        sage: py_scalar_parent(complex)                                                 # needs sage.rings.complex_double
+        Complex Double Field
+        sage: py_scalar_parent(bool)
+        Integer Ring
+        sage: py_scalar_parent(dict),
+        (None,)
+
+        sage: import fractions
+        sage: py_scalar_parent(fractions.Fraction)
+        Rational Field
+
+        sage: # needs numpy
+        sage: import numpy
+        sage: py_scalar_parent(numpy.int16)
+        Integer Ring
+        sage: py_scalar_parent(numpy.int32)
+        Integer Ring
+        sage: py_scalar_parent(numpy.uint64)
+        Integer Ring
+        sage: py_scalar_parent(numpy.double)
+        Real Double Field
+
+        sage: import gmpy2
+        sage: py_scalar_parent(gmpy2.mpz)
+        Integer Ring
+        sage: py_scalar_parent(gmpy2.mpq)
+        Rational Field
+        sage: py_scalar_parent(gmpy2.mpfr)
+        Real Double Field
+        sage: py_scalar_parent(gmpy2.mpc)                                               # needs sage.rings.complex_double
+        Complex Double Field
+
+        sage: # needs mpmath
+        sage: import mpmath
+        sage: py_scalar_parent(mpmath.mpf)
+        Real Double Field
+        sage: py_scalar_parent(mpmath.mpc)                                              # needs sage.rings.complex_double
+        Complex Double Field
+    """
+    if issubclass(py_type, int):
+        import sage.rings.integer_ring
+        return sage.rings.integer_ring.ZZ
+    if py_type is FractionType:
+        import sage.rings.rational_field
+        return sage.rings.rational_field.QQ
+    if issubclass(py_type, float):
+        import sage.rings.real_double
+        return sage.rings.real_double.RDF
+    if issubclass(py_type, complex):
+        import sage.rings.complex_double
+        return sage.rings.complex_double.CDF
+    if is_numpy_type(py_type):
+        import numpy
+        if issubclass(py_type, numpy.integer):
+            import sage.rings.integer_ring
+            return sage.rings.integer_ring.ZZ
+        if issubclass(py_type, numpy.floating):
+            import sage.rings.real_double
+            return sage.rings.real_double.RDF
+        if issubclass(py_type, numpy.complexfloating):
+            import sage.rings.complex_double
+            return sage.rings.complex_double.CDF
+        return None
+    if issubclass(py_type, gmpy2.mpz):
+        import sage.rings.integer_ring
+        return sage.rings.integer_ring.ZZ
+    if issubclass(py_type, gmpy2.mpq):
+        import sage.rings.rational_field
+        return sage.rings.rational_field.QQ
+    if issubclass(py_type, gmpy2.mpfr):
+        import sage.rings.real_double
+        return sage.rings.real_double.RDF
+    if issubclass(py_type, gmpy2.mpc):
+        import sage.rings.complex_double
+        return sage.rings.complex_double.CDF
+    if is_mpmath_type(py_type):
+        import mpmath
+        if issubclass(py_type, mpmath.mpf):
+            from sage.rings.real_double import RDF
+            return RDF
+        if issubclass(py_type, mpmath.mpc):
+            from sage.rings.complex_double import CDF
+            return CDF
+        return None
+    return None
+
+cpdef py_scalar_to_element(x):
+    """
+    Convert ``x`` to a Sage :class:`~sage.structure.element.Element` if possible.
+
+    If ``x`` was already an :class:`~sage.structure.element.Element` or if there is no obvious
+    conversion possible, just return ``x`` itself.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.structure.coerce import py_scalar_to_element
+        sage: x = py_scalar_to_element(42)
+        sage: x, parent(x)
+        (42, Integer Ring)
+        sage: x = py_scalar_to_element(int(42))
+        sage: x, parent(x)
+        (42, Integer Ring)
+        sage: x = py_scalar_to_element(float(42))
+        sage: x, parent(x)
+        (42.0, Real Double Field)
+        sage: x = py_scalar_to_element(complex(42))                                     # needs sage.rings.complex_double
+        sage: x, parent(x)                                                              # needs sage.rings.complex_double
+        (42.0, Complex Double Field)
+        sage: py_scalar_to_element('hello')
+        'hello'
+
+        sage: from fractions import Fraction
+        sage: f = Fraction(int(2^100), int(3^100))
+        sage: py_scalar_to_element(f)
+        1267650600228229401496703205376/515377520732011331036461129765621272702107522001
+
+    Note that bools are converted to 0 or 1::
+
+        sage: py_scalar_to_element(False), py_scalar_to_element(True)
+        (0, 1)
+
+    Test gmpy2's types::
+
+        sage: import gmpy2
+        sage: x = py_scalar_to_element(gmpy2.mpz(42))
+        sage: x, parent(x)
+        (42, Integer Ring)
+        sage: x = py_scalar_to_element(gmpy2.mpq('3/4'))
+        sage: x, parent(x)
+        (3/4, Rational Field)
+        sage: x = py_scalar_to_element(gmpy2.mpfr(42.57))
+        sage: x, parent(x)
+        (42.57, Real Double Field)
+        sage: x = py_scalar_to_element(gmpy2.mpc(int(42), int(42)))                     # needs sage.rings.complex_double
+        sage: x, parent(x)                                                              # needs sage.rings.complex_double
+        (42.0 + 42.0*I, Complex Double Field)
+
+    Test compatibility with :func:`py_scalar_parent`::
+
+        sage: from sage.structure.coerce import py_scalar_parent
+        sage: elt = [True, int(42), float(42), complex(42)]
+        sage: for x in elt:                                                             # needs sage.rings.complex_double
+        ....:     assert py_scalar_parent(type(x)) == py_scalar_to_element(x).parent()
+
+        sage: import numpy                                                              # needs numpy
+        sage: elt = [numpy.int8('-12'),  numpy.uint8('143'),                            # needs numpy sage.symbolic
+        ....:        numpy.int16('-33'), numpy.uint16('122'),
+        ....:        numpy.int32('-19'), numpy.uint32('44'),
+        ....:        numpy.int64('-3'),  numpy.uint64('552'),
+        ....:        numpy.float16('-1.23'), numpy.float32('-2.22'),
+        ....:        numpy.float64('-3.412'), numpy.complex64(1.2+I),
+        ....:        numpy.complex128(-2+I)]
+        sage: for x in elt:                                                             # needs numpy sage.symbolic
+        ....:     assert py_scalar_parent(type(x)) == py_scalar_to_element(x).parent()
+
+        sage: elt = [gmpy2.mpz(42), gmpy2.mpq('3/4'),
+        ....:        gmpy2.mpfr(42.57), gmpy2.mpc(int(42), int(42))]
+        sage: for x in elt:                                                             # needs sage.rings.complex_double
+        ....:     assert py_scalar_parent(type(x)) == py_scalar_to_element(x).parent()
+    """
+    if isinstance(x, Element):
+        return x
+    elif isinstance(x, int):
+        from sage.rings.integer import Integer
+        return Integer(x)
+    elif type(x) is FractionType:
+        from sage.rings.rational import Rational
+        return Rational(x)
+    elif isinstance(x, float):
+        from sage.rings.real_double import RDF
+        return RDF(x)
+    elif isinstance(x, complex):
+        from sage.rings.complex_double import CDF
+        return CDF(x)
+    elif is_numpy_type(type(x)):
+        import numpy
+        if isinstance(x, numpy.integer):
+            from sage.rings.integer import Integer
+            return Integer(x)
+        elif isinstance(x, numpy.floating):
+            from sage.rings.real_double import RDF
+            return RDF(x)
+        elif isinstance(x, numpy.complexfloating):
+            from sage.rings.complex_double import CDF
+            return CDF(x)
+        else:
+            return x
+    elif type(x) is gmpy2.mpz:
+            from sage.rings.integer import Integer
+            return Integer(x)
+    elif type(x) is gmpy2.mpq:
+        from sage.rings.rational import Rational
+        return Rational(x)
+    elif type(x) is gmpy2.mpfr:
+        from sage.rings.real_double import RDF
+        return RDF(x)
+    elif type(x) is gmpy2.mpc:
+        from sage.rings.complex_double import CDF
+        return CDF(x)
+    else:
+        return x
+
+
+cpdef bint parent_is_integers(P) except -1:
+    """
+    Check whether the type or parent represents the ring of integers.
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.structure.coerce import parent_is_integers
+        sage: parent_is_integers(int)
+        True
+        sage: parent_is_integers(float)
+        False
+        sage: parent_is_integers(bool)
+        True
+        sage: parent_is_integers(dict)
+        False
+
+        sage: import numpy                                                              # needs numpy
+        sage: parent_is_integers(numpy.int16)                                           # needs numpy
+        True
+        sage: parent_is_integers(numpy.uint64)                                          # needs numpy
+        True
+        sage: parent_is_integers(float)
+        False
+
+        sage: import gmpy2
+        sage: parent_is_integers(gmpy2.mpz)
+        True
+        sage: parent_is_integers(gmpy2.mpq)
+        False
+
+    Ensure (:issue:`27893`) is fixed::
+
+        sage: K.<f> = QQ[]
+        sage: gmpy2.mpz(2) * f
+        2*f
+    """
+    if isinstance(P, type):
+        if issubclass(P, int):
+            return True
+        elif is_numpy_type(P):
+            from numpy import integer
+            return issubclass(P, integer)
+        elif issubclass(P, gmpy2.mpz):
+            return True
+        else:
+            return False
+    else:
+        from sage.rings.integer_ring import ZZ
+        return P is ZZ
+
+
+def parent_is_numerical(P):
+    r"""
+    Test if elements of the parent or type ``P`` can be numerically evaluated
+    as complex numbers (in a canonical way).
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.structure.coerce import parent_is_numerical
+        sage: import gmpy2
+        sage: [parent_is_numerical(R) for R in [QQ, int, complex, gmpy2.mpc]]           # needs sage.rings.complex_double
+        [True, True, True, True]
+        sage: [parent_is_numerical(R) for R in [RR, CC]]                                # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+        [True, True]
+        sage: parent_is_numerical(QuadraticField(-1))                                   # needs sage.rings.number_field
+        True
+        sage: import numpy; parent_is_numerical(numpy.complexfloating)                  # needs numpy
+        True
+        sage: parent_is_numerical(SR)                                                   # needs sage.symbolic
+        False
+        sage: [parent_is_numerical(R) for R in [QQ['x'], QQ[['x']], str]]
+        [False, False, False]
+        sage: [parent_is_numerical(R) for R in [RIF, RBF, CIF, CBF]]                    # needs sage.libs.flint
+        [False, False, False, False]
+    """
+    if not isinstance(P, Parent):
+        P = py_scalar_parent(P)
+        if P is None:
+            return False
+    return P._is_numerical()
+
+
+def parent_is_real_numerical(P):
+    r"""
+    Test if elements of the parent or type ``P`` can be numerically evaluated
+    as real numbers (in a canonical way).
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.structure.coerce import parent_is_real_numerical
+        sage: import gmpy2
+        sage: [parent_is_real_numerical(R) for R in [RR, QQ, ZZ, RLF, int, float, gmpy2.mpq]]
+        [True, True, True, True, True, True, True]
+        sage: parent_is_real_numerical(QuadraticField(2))                               # needs sage.rings.number_field
+        True
+        sage: import numpy; parent_is_real_numerical(numpy.integer)                     # needs numpy
+        True
+        sage: parent_is_real_numerical(QuadraticField(-1))                              # needs sage.rings.number_field
+        False
+        sage: [parent_is_real_numerical(R)                                              # needs numpy
+        ....:  for R in [CC, complex, gmpy2.mpc, numpy.complexfloating]]
+        [False, False, False, False]
+        sage: [parent_is_real_numerical(R) for R in [QQ['x'], QQ[['x']], str]]
+        [False, False, False]
+        sage: parent_is_real_numerical(SR)                                              # needs sage.symbolic
+        False
+        sage: [parent_is_real_numerical(R) for R in [RIF, RBF, CIF, CBF]]               # needs sage.libs.flint
+        [False, False, False, False]
+    """
+    if not isinstance(P, Parent):
+        P = py_scalar_parent(P)
+        if P is None:
+            return False
+    return P._is_real_numerical()
+
+
+cpdef bint is_numpy_type(t) noexcept:
+    """
+    Return ``True`` if and only if `t` is a type whose name starts
+    with ``numpy.``
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: from sage.structure.coerce import is_numpy_type
+
+        sage: # needs numpy
+        sage: import numpy
+        sage: is_numpy_type(numpy.int16)
+        True
+        sage: is_numpy_type(numpy.floating)
+        True
+        sage: is_numpy_type(numpy.ndarray)
+        True
+        sage: is_numpy_type(numpy.matrix)
+        True
+
+        sage: is_numpy_type(int)
+        False
+        sage: is_numpy_type(Integer)
+        False
+        sage: is_numpy_type(Sudoku)                                                     # needs sage.combinat
+        False
+        sage: is_numpy_type(None)
+        False
+
+    TESTS:
+
+    This used to crash Sage (:issue:`20715`)::
+
+        sage: is_numpy_type(object)
+        False
+        sage: 1 + object()
+        Traceback (most recent call last):
+        ...
+        TypeError: unsupported operand parent(s) for +: 'Integer Ring' and
+        '<class 'object'>'
+    """
+    if not isinstance(t, type):
+        return False
+    cdef PyTypeObject* T = <PyTypeObject*>t
+    if strncmp(T.tp_name, "numpy.", 6) == 0:
+        return True
+    # Check base type. This is needed to detect numpy.matrix.
+    if T.tp_base != NULL and strncmp(T.tp_base.tp_name, "numpy.", 6) == 0:
+        return True
+    return False
+
+
+cpdef bint is_mpmath_type(t) noexcept:
+    r"""
+    Check whether the type ``t`` is a type whose name starts with ``mpmath.``
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: # needs mpmath
+        sage: from sage.structure.coerce import is_mpmath_type
+        sage: is_mpmath_type(int)
+        False
+        sage: import mpmath
+        sage: is_mpmath_type(mpmath.mpc(2))
+        False
+        sage: is_mpmath_type(type(mpmath.mpc(2)))
+        True
+        sage: is_mpmath_type(type(mpmath.mpf(2)))
+        True
+    """
+    return isinstance(t, type) and \
+           t.__module__.startswith("mpmath.")
+
+
+cdef class CoercionModel:
+    """
+    See also :mod:`sage.categories.pushout`
+
+    EXAMPLES::
+
+        sage: f = ZZ['t', 'x'].0 + QQ['x'].0 + CyclotomicField(13).gen(); f             # needs sage.rings.number_field
+        t + x + zeta13
+        sage: f.parent()                                                                # needs sage.rings.number_field
+        Multivariate Polynomial Ring in t, x
+         over Cyclotomic Field of order 13 and degree 12
+        sage: ZZ['x','y'].0 + ~Frac(QQ['y']).0
+        (x*y + 1)/y
+        sage: MatrixSpace(ZZ['x'], 2, 2)(2) + ~Frac(QQ['x']).0                          # needs sage.modules
+        [(2*x + 1)/x           0]
+        [          0 (2*x + 1)/x]
+        sage: f = ZZ['x,y,z'].0 + QQ['w,x,z,a'].0; f
+        w + x
+        sage: f.parent()
+        Multivariate Polynomial Ring in w, x, y, z, a over Rational Field
+        sage: ZZ['x,y,z'].0 + ZZ['w,x,z,a'].1
+        2*x
+
+    TESTS:
+
+    Check that :issue:`8426` is fixed (see also :issue:`18076`)::
+
+        sage: import numpy                                                              # needs numpy
+        sage: if int(numpy.version.short_version[0]) > 1:                               # needs numpy
+        ....:     __ = numpy.set_printoptions(legacy="1.25")
+
+        sage: # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+        sage: x = polygen(RR)
+        sage: numpy.float32('1.5') * x                                                  # needs numpy
+        1.50000000000000*x
+        sage: x * numpy.float32('1.5')                                                  # needs numpy
+        1.50000000000000*x
+        sage: p = x**3 + 2*x - 1
+        sage: p(float('1.2'))
+        3.12800000000000
+        sage: p(int('2'))
+        11.0000000000000
+
+    This used to fail (see :issue:`18076`)::
+
+        sage: 1/3 + numpy.int8('12')                                                    # needs numpy
+        37/3
+        sage: -2/3 + numpy.int16('-2')                                                  # needs numpy
+        -8/3
+        sage: 2/5 + numpy.uint8('2')                                                    # needs numpy
+        12/5
+
+    The numpy types do not interact well with the Sage coercion framework. More
+    precisely, if a numpy type is the first operand in a binary operation then
+    this operation is done in numpy. The result is hence a numpy type::
+
+        sage: numpy.uint8('2') + 3                                                      # needs numpy
+        5
+        sage: type(_)                                                                   # needs numpy
+        <class 'numpy.int32'>  # 32-bit
+        <class 'numpy.int64'>  # 64-bit
+
+        sage: numpy.int8('12') + 1/3                                                    # needs numpy
+        12.333333333333334
+        sage: type(_)                                                                   # needs numpy
+        <class 'numpy.float64'>
+
+    AUTHOR:
+
+    - Robert Bradshaw
+    """
+    def __init__(self):
+        """
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.structure.coerce import CoercionModel
+            sage: cm = CoercionModel()
+            sage: x = polygen(ZZ, 'x')
+            sage: K = NumberField(x^2 - 2, 'a')                                         # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: A = cm.get_action(ZZ, K, operator.mul)                                # needs sage.rings.number_field
+            sage: f, g = cm.coercion_maps(QQ, int)
+            sage: f, g = cm.coercion_maps(ZZ, int)
+        """
+        self.reset_cache()
+
+    def reset_cache(self):
+        """
+        Clear the coercion cache.
+
+        This should have no impact on the result of arithmetic operations, as
+        the exact same coercions and actions will be re-discovered when needed.
+
+        It may be useful for debugging, and may also free some memory.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: len(cm.get_cache()[0])    # random
+            42
+            sage: cm.reset_cache()
+            sage: cm.get_cache()
+            ({}, {})
+        """
+        # This MUST be a mapping of tuples, where each
+        # tuple contains at least two elements that are either
+        # None or of type Map.
+        self._coercion_maps = TripleDict()
+        # This MUST be a mapping to actions.
+        self._action_maps = TripleDict()
+        # This is a mapping from Parents to Parents, storing the result of division in the given parent.
+        self._division_parents = TripleDict()
+
+    def get_cache(self):
+        """
+        This returns the current cache of coercion maps and actions, primarily
+        useful for debugging and introspection.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: cm.canonical_coercion(1, 2/3)
+            (1, 2/3)
+            sage: maps, actions = cm.get_cache()
+
+        Now let us see what happens when we do a binary operations with
+        an integer and a rational::
+
+            sage: left_morphism_ref, right_morphism_ref = maps[ZZ, QQ]
+
+        Note that by :issue:`14058` the coercion model only stores a weak
+        reference to the coercion maps in this case::
+
+            sage: left_morphism_ref
+            <weakref at ...; to 'sage.rings.rational.Z_to_Q' at ...>
+
+        Moreover, the weakly referenced coercion map uses only a weak
+        reference to the codomain::
+
+            sage: left_morphism_ref()
+            (map internal to coercion system -- copy before use)
+            Natural morphism:
+              From: Integer Ring
+              To:   Rational Field
+
+        To get an actual valid map, we simply copy the weakly referenced
+        coercion map::
+
+            sage: print(copy(left_morphism_ref()))
+            Natural morphism:
+              From: Integer Ring
+              To:   Rational Field
+            sage: print(right_morphism_ref)
+            None
+
+        We can see that it coerces the left operand from an integer to a
+        rational, and doesn't do anything to the right.
+
+        Now for some actions::
+
+            sage: R.<x> = ZZ['x']
+            sage: 1/2 * x
+            1/2*x
+            sage: maps, actions = cm.get_cache()
+            sage: act = actions[QQ, R, operator.mul]; act
+            Left scalar multiplication by Rational Field
+             on Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+            sage: act.actor()
+            Rational Field
+            sage: act.domain()
+            Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+            sage: act.codomain()
+            Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+            sage: act(1/5, x+10)
+            1/5*x + 2
+        """
+        d1 = {(S, R): mors for (S, R, op), mors in self._coercion_maps.items()}
+        d2 = self._action_maps.copy()
+        return d1, d2
+
+    def record_exceptions(self, bint value=True):
+        r"""
+        Enables (or disables) recording of the exceptions suppressed during
+        arithmetic.
+
+        Each time that record_exceptions is called (either enabling or disabling
+        the record), the exception_stack is cleared.
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: cm.record_exceptions()
+            sage: cm._test_exception_stack()
+            sage: cm.exception_stack()
+            ['Traceback (most recent call last):\n  File "...coerce.pyx", line ...TypeError: just a test']
+            sage: cm.record_exceptions(False)
+            sage: cm._test_exception_stack()
+            sage: cm.exception_stack()
+            []
+        """
+        self._record_exceptions = value
+        self._exceptions_cleared = True
+        self._exception_stack = []
+
+    cpdef _record_exception(self):
+        r"""
+        Push the last exception that occurred onto the stack for later reference,
+        for internal use.
+
+        If the stack has not yet been flagged as cleared, we clear it now (rather
+        than wasting time to do so for successful operations).
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: cm.record_exceptions()
+            sage: 1 + 1/2 + 2  # make sure there aren't any errors hanging around
+            7/2
+            sage: cm.exception_stack()
+            []
+            sage: cm._test_exception_stack()
+            sage: cm.exception_stack()
+            ['Traceback (most recent call last):\n  File "...coerce.pyx", line ...TypeError: just a test']
+
+        The function _test_exception_stack is executing the following code::
+
+            try:
+                raise TypeError("just a test")
+            except TypeError:
+                cm._record_exception()
+        """
+        if not self._record_exceptions:
+            return
+        if not self._exceptions_cleared:
+            self._exception_stack = []
+            self._exceptions_cleared = True
+        self._exception_stack.append(traceback.format_exc().strip())
+
+    def _test_exception_stack(self):
+        r"""
+        A function to test the exception stack.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: cm.record_exceptions()
+            sage: 1 + 1/11 # make sure there aren't any errors hanging around
+            12/11
+            sage: cm.exception_stack()
+            []
+            sage: cm._test_exception_stack()
+            sage: cm.exception_stack()
+            ['Traceback (most recent call last):\n  File "...coerce.pyx", line ...TypeError: just a test']
+        """
+        try:
+            raise TypeError("just a test")
+        except TypeError:
+            self._record_exception()
+
+    def exception_stack(self):
+        r"""
+        Return the list of exceptions that were caught in the course of
+        executing the last binary operation. Useful for diagnosis when
+        user-defined maps or actions raise exceptions that are caught in
+        the course of coercion detection.
+
+        If all went well, this should be the empty list. If things aren't
+        happening as you expect, this is a good place to check. See also
+        :func:`coercion_traceback`.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: cm.record_exceptions()
+            sage: 1/2 + 2
+            5/2
+            sage: cm.exception_stack()
+            []
+            sage: 1/2 + GF(3)(2)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: unsupported operand parent(s) for +:
+            'Rational Field' and 'Finite Field of size 3'
+
+        Now see what the actual problem was::
+
+            sage: import traceback
+            sage: cm.exception_stack()
+            ['Traceback (most recent call last):...', 'Traceback (most recent call last):...']
+            sage: print(cm.exception_stack()[-1])
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: no common canonical parent for objects with parents:
+            'Rational Field' and 'Finite Field of size 3'
+
+        This is typically accessed via the :func:`coercion_traceback` function.
+
+        ::
+
+            sage: coercion_traceback()
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: no common canonical parent for objects with parents:
+            'Rational Field' and 'Finite Field of size 3'
+        """
+        if not self._exceptions_cleared:
+            self._exception_stack = []
+            self._exceptions_cleared = True
+        return self._exception_stack
+
+    def explain(self, xp, yp, op=mul, int verbosity=2):
+        """
+        This function can be used to understand what coercions will happen
+        for an arithmetic operation between xp and yp (which may be either
+        elements or parents). If the parent of the result can be determined
+        then it will be returned.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+
+            sage: cm.explain(ZZ, ZZ)
+            Identical parents, arithmetic performed immediately.
+            Result lives in Integer Ring
+            Integer Ring
+
+            sage: cm.explain(QQ, int)
+            Coercion on right operand via
+                Native morphism:
+                  From: Set of Python objects of class 'int'
+                  To:   Rational Field
+            Arithmetic performed after coercions.
+            Result lives in Rational Field
+            Rational Field
+
+            sage: R = ZZ['x']
+            sage: cm.explain(R, QQ)
+            Action discovered.
+                Right scalar multiplication by Rational Field
+                 on Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+            Result lives in Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+            Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+
+            sage: cm.explain(ZZ['x'], QQ, operator.add)
+            Coercion on left operand via
+                Ring morphism:
+                  From: Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+                  To:   Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+                  Defn: Induced from base ring by
+                        Natural morphism:
+                          From: Integer Ring
+                          To:   Rational Field
+            Coercion on right operand via
+                Polynomial base injection morphism:
+                  From: Rational Field
+                  To:   Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+            Arithmetic performed after coercions.
+            Result lives in Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+            Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+
+        Sometimes with non-sage types there is not enough information to deduce
+        what will actually happen::
+
+            sage: R100 = RealField(100)                                                 # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+            sage: cm.explain(R100, float, operator.add)                                 # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+            Right operand is numeric, will attempt coercion in both directions.
+            Unknown result parent.
+            sage: parent(R100(1) + float(1))                                            # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+            <class 'float'>
+            sage: cm.explain(QQ, float, operator.add)
+            Right operand is numeric, will attempt coercion in both directions.
+            Unknown result parent.
+            sage: parent(QQ(1) + float(1))
+            <class 'float'>
+
+        Special care is taken to deal with division::
+
+            sage: cm.explain(ZZ, ZZ, operator.truediv)
+            Identical parents, arithmetic performed immediately.
+            Result lives in Rational Field
+            Rational Field
+
+            sage: ZZx = ZZ['x']
+            sage: QQx = QQ['x']
+            sage: cm.explain(ZZx, QQx, operator.truediv)
+            Coercion on left operand via
+                Ring morphism:
+                  From: Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+                  To:   Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+                  Defn: Induced from base ring by
+                        Natural morphism:
+                          From: Integer Ring
+                          To:   Rational Field
+            Arithmetic performed after coercions.
+            Result lives in Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+            Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+
+            sage: cm.explain(int, ZZ, operator.truediv)
+            Coercion on left operand via
+                Native morphism:
+                  From: Set of Python objects of class 'int'
+                  To:   Integer Ring
+            Arithmetic performed after coercions.
+            Result lives in Rational Field
+            Rational Field
+
+            sage: cm.explain(ZZx, ZZ, operator.truediv)
+            Action discovered.
+                Right inverse action by Rational Field
+                 on Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+                with precomposition on right by Natural morphism:
+                  From: Integer Ring
+                  To:   Rational Field
+            Result lives in Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+            Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+           This function is accurate only in so far as :meth:`analyse` is kept
+           in sync with the :meth:`bin_op` and
+           :meth:`canonical_coercion` which are kept separate for
+           maximal efficiency.
+        """
+        all, res = self.analyse(xp, yp, op)
+        indent = " " * 4
+        if verbosity >= 2:
+            print("\n".join(s if isinstance(s, str)
+                            else (indent + repr(s).replace("\n", "\n" + indent))
+                            for s in all))
+        elif verbosity >= 1:
+            print("\n".join(s for s in all if isinstance(s, str)))
+        if verbosity >= 1:
+            if res is None:
+                print("Unknown result parent.")
+            else:
+                print("Result lives in {}".format(res))
+        return res
+
+    cpdef analyse(self, xp, yp, op=mul):
+        """
+        Emulate the process of doing arithmetic between xp and yp, returning
+        a list of steps and the parent that the result will live in.
+
+        The :meth:`explain` method is easier to use, but if one wants access to
+        the actual morphism and action objects (rather than their string
+        representations), then this is the function to use.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: GF7 = GF(7)
+            sage: steps, res = cm.analyse(GF7, ZZ)
+            sage: steps
+            ['Coercion on right operand via',
+             Natural morphism:
+              From: Integer Ring
+              To:   Finite Field of size 7,
+             'Arithmetic performed after coercions.']
+            sage: res
+            Finite Field of size 7
+            sage: f = steps[1]; type(f)
+            <class 'sage.rings.finite_rings.integer_mod.Integer_to_IntegerMod'>
+            sage: f(100)
+            2
+        """
+        self._exceptions_cleared = False
+        res = None
+        if not isinstance(xp, type) and not isinstance(xp, Parent):
+            xp = parent(xp)
+        if not isinstance(yp, type) and not isinstance(yp, Parent):
+            yp = parent(yp)
+
+        all = []
+        if xp is yp:
+            all.append("Identical parents, arithmetic performed immediately." % xp)
+            if op is truediv and isinstance(xp, Parent):
+                xp = self.division_parent(xp)
+            return all, xp
+        if xp == yp:
+            all.append("Equal but distinct parents.")
+
+        action = self.get_action(xp, yp, op)
+        if action is not None:
+            all.append("Action discovered.")
+            all.append(action)
+            return all, action.codomain()
+
+        homs = self.discover_coercion(xp, yp)
+        if homs is not None:
+            x_mor, y_mor = homs
+            if x_mor is not None:
+                x_mor = x_mor.__copy__()
+                all.append("Coercion on left operand via")
+                all.append(x_mor)
+                res = x_mor.codomain()
+            if y_mor is not None:
+                y_mor = y_mor.__copy__()
+                all.append("Coercion on right operand via")
+                all.append(y_mor)
+                if res is not None and res is not y_mor.codomain():
+                    raise RuntimeError("BUG in coercion model: codomains not equal", x_mor, y_mor)
+                res = y_mor.codomain()
+            all.append("Arithmetic performed after coercions.")
+            if op is truediv and isinstance(res, Parent):
+                res = self.division_parent(res)
+            return all, res
+
+        if isinstance(yp, Parent) and xp in [int, float, complex, bool]:
+            mor = yp._internal_coerce_map_from(xp)
+            if mor is not None:
+                mor = mor.__copy__()
+                all.append("Coercion on numeric left operand via")
+                all.append(mor)
+                if op is truediv and isinstance(yp, Parent):
+                    yp = self.division_parent(yp)
+                return all, yp
+            all.append("Left operand is numeric, will attempt coercion in both directions.")
+        elif type(xp) is type:
+            all.append("Left operand is not Sage element, will try _sage_.")
+
+        if isinstance(xp, Parent) and yp in [int, float, complex, bool]:
+            mor = xp._internal_coerce_map_from(yp)
+            if mor is not None:
+                mor = mor.__copy__()
+                all.append("Coercion on numeric right operand via")
+                all.append(mor)
+                if op is truediv and isinstance(xp, Parent):
+                    xp = self.division_parent(xp)
+                return all, xp
+            all.append("Right operand is numeric, will attempt coercion in both directions.")
+        elif type(yp) is type:
+            all.append("Right operand is not Sage element, will try _sage_.")
+
+        return all, None
+
+    def common_parent(self, *args):
+        """
+        Compute a common parent for all the inputs.
+
+        It's essentially an `n`-ary canonical coercion except it can
+        operate on parents rather than just elements.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``args`` -- set of elements and/or parents
+
+        OUTPUT:
+
+        A :class:`Parent` into which each input should coerce, or raises a
+        :exc:`TypeError` if no such :class:`Parent` can be found.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: cm.common_parent(ZZ, QQ)
+            Rational Field
+            sage: cm.common_parent(ZZ, QQ, RR)                                          # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+            Real Field with 53 bits of precision
+            sage: ZZT = ZZ[['T']]
+            sage: QQT = QQ['T']
+            sage: cm.common_parent(ZZT, QQT, RDF)
+            Power Series Ring in T over Real Double Field
+            sage: cm.common_parent(4r, 5r)
+            <class 'int'>
+            sage: cm.common_parent(int, float, ZZ)
+            <class 'float'>
+            sage: real_fields = [RealField(prec) for prec in [10,20..100]]              # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+            sage: cm.common_parent(*real_fields)                                        # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+            Real Field with 10 bits of precision
+
+        There are some cases where the ordering does matter, but if a parent
+        can be found it is always the same::
+
+            sage: QQxy = QQ['x,y']
+            sage: QQyz = QQ['y,z']
+            sage: cm.common_parent(QQxy, QQyz) == cm.common_parent(QQyz, QQxy)
+            True
+            sage: QQzt = QQ['z,t']
+            sage: cm.common_parent(QQxy, QQyz, QQzt)
+            Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y, z, t over Rational Field
+            sage: cm.common_parent(QQxy, QQzt, QQyz)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: no common canonical parent for objects with parents:
+            'Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y over Rational Field' and
+            'Multivariate Polynomial Ring in z, t over Rational Field'
+        """
+        base = None
+        for x in args:
+            if not isinstance(x, Parent) and not isinstance(x, type):
+                x = parent(x)
+            if base is None:
+                base = x
+            if isinstance(base, Parent) and (<Parent>base).has_coerce_map_from(x):
+                continue
+            elif isinstance(x, Parent) and (<Parent>x).has_coerce_map_from(base):
+                base = x
+            else:
+                a = base.an_element() if isinstance(base, Parent) else base(1)
+                b = x.an_element() if isinstance(x, Parent) else x(1)
+                base = parent(self.canonical_coercion(a, b)[0])
+        return base
+
+    cpdef division_parent(self, Parent P):
+        r"""
+        Deduces where the result of division in ``P`` lies by
+        calculating the inverse of ``P.one()`` or ``P.an_element()``.
+
+        The result is cached.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: cm.division_parent(ZZ)
+            Rational Field
+            sage: cm.division_parent(QQ)
+            Rational Field
+            sage: ZZx = ZZ['x']
+            sage: cm.division_parent(ZZx)
+            Fraction Field of Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+            sage: K = GF(41)
+            sage: cm.division_parent(K)
+            Finite Field of size 41
+            sage: Zmod100 = Integers(100)
+            sage: cm.division_parent(Zmod100)
+            Ring of integers modulo 100
+            sage: S5 = SymmetricGroup(5)                                                # needs sage.groups
+            sage: cm.division_parent(S5)                                                # needs sage.groups
+            Symmetric group of order 5! as a permutation group
+        """
+        try:
+            return self._division_parents.get(P, None, None)
+        except KeyError:
+            pass
+        try:
+            ret = parent(~P.one())
+        except Exception:
+            self._record_exception()
+            ret = parent(~P.an_element())
+        self._division_parents.set(P, None, None, ret)
+        return ret
+
+    cpdef bin_op(self, x, y, op):
+        """
+        Execute the operation ``op`` on `x` and `y`.
+
+        It first looks for an action
+        corresponding to ``op``, and failing that, it tries to coerce `x` and `y`
+        into a common parent and calls ``op`` on them.
+
+        If it cannot make sense of the operation, a :exc:`TypeError` is raised.
+
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``x`` -- the left operand
+
+        - ``y`` -- the right operand
+
+        - ``op`` -- a python function taking 2 arguments
+
+          .. NOTE::
+
+             ``op`` is often an arithmetic operation, but need not be so.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: cm.bin_op(1/2, 5, operator.mul)
+            5/2
+
+        The operator can be any callable::
+
+            sage: R.<x> = ZZ['x']
+            sage: cm.bin_op(x^2 - 1, x + 1, gcd)
+            x + 1
+
+        Actions are detected and performed::
+
+            sage: M = matrix(ZZ, 2, 2, range(4))                                        # needs sage.modules
+            sage: V = vector(ZZ, [5,7])                                                 # needs sage.modules
+            sage: cm.bin_op(M, V, operator.mul)                                         # needs sage.modules
+            (7, 31)
+
+        TESTS::
+
+            sage: class Foo():
+            ....:     def __rmul__(self, left):
+            ....:         return 'hello'
+            sage: H = Foo()
+            sage: print(int(3)*H)
+            hello
+            sage: print(Integer(3)*H)
+            hello
+            sage: print(H*3)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: unsupported operand parent(s) for *: '<class '__main__.Foo'>' and 'Integer Ring'
+
+            sage: class Nonsense():
+            ....:     def __init__(self, s):
+            ....:         self.s = s
+            ....:     def __repr__(self):
+            ....:         return self.s
+            ....:     def __mul__(self, x):
+            ....:         return Nonsense(self.s + chr(x%256))
+            ....:     __add__ = __mul__
+            ....:     def __rmul__(self, x):
+            ....:         return Nonsense(chr(x%256) + self.s)
+            ....:     __radd__ = __rmul__
+            sage: a = Nonsense('blahblah')
+            sage: a*80
+            blahblahP
+            sage: 80*a
+            Pblahblah
+            sage: a+80
+            blahblahP
+            sage: 80+a
+            Pblahblah
+        """
+        self._exceptions_cleared = False
+
+        # If parents are equal, we can just call op()
+        xp = parent(x)
+        yp = parent(y)
+        if xp is yp:
+            return op(x,y)
+
+        # Actions take preference over common-parent coercions
+        try:
+            action = self._action_maps.get(xp, yp, op)
+        except KeyError:
+            action = self.get_action(xp, yp, op, x, y)
+        if action is not None:
+            if (<Action>action)._is_left:
+                return (<Action>action)._act_(x, y)
+            else:
+                return (<Action>action)._act_(y, x)
+
+        # Now coerce to a common parent and do the operation there
+        try:
+            xy = self.canonical_coercion(x, y)
+        except TypeError:
+            self._record_exception()
+        else:
+            return PyObject_CallObject(op, xy)
+
+        if op is mul:
+            # elements may also act on non-elements
+            # (e.g. sequences or parents)
+            if not isinstance(y, Element) or not isinstance(x, Element):
+                try:
+                    if hasattr(x, '_act_on_'):
+                        res = x._act_on_(y, True)
+                        if res is not None: return res
+                except CoercionException:
+                    self._record_exception()
+
+                try:
+                    if hasattr(x, '_acted_upon_'):
+                        res = x._acted_upon_(y, True)
+                        if res is not None: return res
+                except CoercionException:
+                    self._record_exception()
+
+                try:
+                    if hasattr(y, '_act_on_'):
+                        res = y._act_on_(x, False)
+                        if res is not None: return res
+                except CoercionException:
+                    self._record_exception()
+
+                try:
+                    if hasattr(y, '_acted_upon_'):
+                        res = y._acted_upon_(x, False)
+                        if res is not None: return res
+                except CoercionException:
+                    self._record_exception()
+
+        if not isinstance(y, Element):
+            op_name = op.__name__
+            mul_method = getattr(y, '__r%s__' % op_name, None)
+            if mul_method is not None:
+                res = mul_method(x)
+                if res is not None and res is not NotImplemented:
+                    return res
+
+        # We should really include the underlying error.
+        # This causes so much headache.
+        raise bin_op_exception(op, x, y)
+
+    cpdef canonical_coercion(self, x, y):
+        r"""
+        Given two elements `x` and `y`, with parents `S` and `R` respectively,
+        find a common parent `Z` such that there are coercions
+        `f: S \to Z` and `g: R \to Z` and return `f(x), g(y)`,
+        which will have the same parent.
+
+        Raises a type error if no such `Z` can be found.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: cm.canonical_coercion(mod(2, 10), 17)
+            (2, 7)
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: x, y = cm.canonical_coercion(1/2, matrix(ZZ, 2, 2, range(4)))
+            sage: x
+            [1/2   0]
+            [  0 1/2]
+            sage: y
+            [0 1]
+            [2 3]
+            sage: parent(x) is parent(y)
+            True
+
+        There is some support for non-Sage datatypes as well::
+
+            sage: x, y = cm.canonical_coercion(int(5), 10)
+            sage: type(x), type(y)
+            (<class 'sage.rings.integer.Integer'>, <class 'sage.rings.integer.Integer'>)
+
+            sage: x, y = cm.canonical_coercion(int(5), complex(3))
+            sage: type(x), type(y)
+            (<class 'complex'>, <class 'complex'>)
+
+            sage: class MyClass:
+            ....:     def _sage_(self):
+            ....:         return 13
+            sage: a, b = cm.canonical_coercion(MyClass(), 1/3)
+            sage: a, b
+            (13, 1/3)
+            sage: type(a)
+            <class 'sage.rings.rational.Rational'>
+
+        We also make an exception for 0, even if `\ZZ` does not map in::
+
+            sage: canonical_coercion(vector([1, 2, 3]), 0)                              # needs sage.modules
+            ((1, 2, 3), (0, 0, 0))
+            sage: canonical_coercion(GF(5)(0), float(0))
+            (0, 0)
+        """
+        xp = parent(x)
+        yp = parent(y)
+        if xp is yp:
+            return x,y
+
+        cdef Element x_elt, y_elt
+        coercions = self.coercion_maps(xp, yp)
+        if coercions is not None:
+            x_map, y_map = coercions
+            if x_map is not None:
+                x_elt = (<Map>x_map)._call_(x)
+            else:
+                x_elt = x
+            if y_map is not None:
+                y_elt = (<Map>y_map)._call_(y)
+            else:
+                y_elt = y
+            if x_elt is None:
+                raise RuntimeError("BUG in map, returned None %s %s %s" % (x, type(x_map), x_map))
+            elif y_elt is None:
+                raise RuntimeError("BUG in map, returned None %s %s %s" % (y, type(y_map), y_map))
+            if x_elt._parent is y_elt._parent:
+                # We must verify this as otherwise we are prone to
+                # getting into an infinite loop in c, and the above
+                # maps may be written by (imperfect) users.
+                return x_elt,y_elt
+            elif x_elt._parent == y_elt._parent:
+                # TODO: Non-uniqueness of parents strikes again!
+                y_elt = parent(x_elt)(y_elt)
+                if x_elt._parent is y_elt._parent:
+                    return x_elt,y_elt
+            self._coercion_error(x, x_map, x_elt, y, y_map, y_elt)
+
+        cdef bint x_numeric = isinstance(x, (int, float, complex))
+        cdef bint y_numeric = isinstance(y, (int, float, complex))
+
+        if not x_numeric and is_numpy_type(type(x)):
+            import numpy
+            x_numeric = isinstance(x, numpy.number)
+        if not y_numeric and is_numpy_type(type(y)):
+            import numpy
+            y_numeric = isinstance(y, numpy.number)
+
+        if x_numeric and y_numeric:
+            ty = type(x + y)
+            return ty(x), ty(y)
+
+        # Now handle the native python + sage object cases
+        # that were not taken care of above.
+        elif x_numeric:
+            try:
+                sage_parent = py_scalar_parent(type(x))
+                if sage_parent is None or sage_parent.has_coerce_map_from(yp):
+                    return x, x.__class__(y)
+                else:
+                    return self.canonical_coercion(sage_parent(x), y)
+            except (TypeError, ValueError):
+                self._record_exception()
+
+        elif y_numeric:
+            try:
+                sage_parent = py_scalar_parent(type(y))
+                if sage_parent is None or sage_parent.has_coerce_map_from(xp):
+                    return y.__class__(x), y
+                else:
+                    return self.canonical_coercion(x, sage_parent(y))
+            except (TypeError, ValueError):
+                self._record_exception()
+
+        # See if the non-objects define a _sage_ method.
+        if not isinstance(x, SageObject) or not isinstance(y, SageObject):
+            try:
+                x = x._sage_()
+                y = y._sage_()
+            except AttributeError:
+                self._record_exception()
+            else:
+                return self.canonical_coercion(x, y)
+
+        # Allow coercion of 0 even if no coercion from Z
+        if (x_numeric or is_Integer(x)) and not x and type(yp) is not type:
+            try:
+                return yp(0), y
+            except Exception:
+                self._record_exception()
+
+        if (y_numeric or is_Integer(y)) and not y and type(xp) is not type:
+            try:
+                return x, xp(0)
+            except Exception:
+                self._record_exception()
+
+        raise TypeError("no common canonical parent for objects with parents: '%s' and '%s'" % (xp, yp))
+
+    cpdef coercion_maps(self, R, S):
+        r"""
+        Give two parents `R` and `S`, return a pair of coercion maps
+        `f: R \rightarrow Z` and `g: S \rightarrow Z` , if such a `Z`
+        can be found.
+
+        In the (common) case that `R=Z` or `S=Z` then ``None`` is returned
+        for `f` or `g` respectively rather than constructing (and subsequently
+        calling) the identity morphism.
+
+        If no suitable `f, g` can be found, a single ``None`` is returned.
+        This result is cached.
+
+        .. NOTE::
+
+            By :issue:`14711`, coerce maps should be copied when using them
+            outside of the coercion system, because they may become defunct
+            by garbage collection.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: f, g = cm.coercion_maps(ZZ, QQ)
+            sage: print(copy(f))
+            Natural morphism:
+              From: Integer Ring
+              To:   Rational Field
+            sage: print(g)
+            None
+
+            sage: ZZx = ZZ['x']
+            sage: f, g = cm.coercion_maps(ZZx, QQ)
+            sage: print(f)
+            (map internal to coercion system -- copy before use)
+            Ring morphism:
+              From: Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+              To:   Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+            sage: print(g)
+            (map internal to coercion system -- copy before use)
+            Polynomial base injection morphism:
+              From: Rational Field
+              To:   Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+
+            sage: K = GF(7)
+            sage: cm.coercion_maps(QQ, K) is None
+            True
+
+        Note that to break symmetry, if there is a coercion map in both
+        directions, the parent on the left is used::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.modules
+            sage: V = QQ^3
+            sage: W = V.__class__(QQ, 3)
+            sage: V == W
+            True
+            sage: V is W
+            False
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: cm.coercion_maps(V, W)
+            (None,
+             (map internal to coercion system -- copy before use)
+             Coercion map:
+               From: Vector space of dimension 3 over Rational Field
+               To:   Vector space of dimension 3 over Rational Field)
+            sage: cm.coercion_maps(W, V)
+            (None,
+             (map internal to coercion system -- copy before use)
+             Coercion map:
+               From: Vector space of dimension 3 over Rational Field
+               To:   Vector space of dimension 3 over Rational Field)
+            sage: v = V([1,2,3])
+            sage: w = W([1,2,3])
+            sage: parent(v + w) is V
+            True
+            sage: parent(w + v) is W
+            True
+
+        TESTS:
+
+        We check that with :issue:`14058`, parents are still eligible for
+        garbage collection after being involved in binary operations::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.libs.pari
+            sage: import gc
+            sage: T = type(GF(2))
+            sage: gc.collect()  # random
+            852
+            sage: N0 = len(list(o for o in gc.get_objects() if type(o) is T))
+            sage: L = [ZZ(1) + GF(p)(1) for p in prime_range(2, 50)]
+            sage: N1 = len(list(o for o in gc.get_objects() if type(o) is T))
+            sage: N1 > N0
+            True
+            sage: del L
+            sage: gc.collect()  # random
+            3939
+            sage: N2 = len(list(o for o in gc.get_objects() if type(o) is T))
+            sage: N2 - N0
+            0
+        """
+        try:
+            refs = self._coercion_maps.get(R, S, None)
+            if refs is None:
+                return None
+            R_map_ref, S_map_ref = refs
+            if R_map_ref is None:
+                S_map = <object>PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(S_map_ref)
+                if S_map is not None:
+                    return None, S_map
+            elif S_map_ref is None:
+                R_map = <object>PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(R_map_ref)
+                if R_map is not None:
+                    return R_map, None
+            else:
+                R_map = <object>PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(R_map_ref)
+                S_map = <object>PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(S_map_ref)
+                if R_map is not None and S_map is not None:
+                    return R_map, S_map
+        except KeyError:
+            pass
+        homs = self.discover_coercion(R, S)
+        if 0:
+            # This breaks too many things that are going to change
+            # in the new coercion model anyways.
+            # COERCE TODO: Enable it then.
+            homs = self.verify_coercion_maps(R, S, homs)
+        else:
+            if homs is not None:
+                x_map, y_map = homs
+                if x_map is not None and not isinstance(x_map, Map):
+                    raise RuntimeError("BUG in coercion model: coerce_map_from must return a Map")
+                if y_map is not None and not isinstance(y_map, Map):
+                    raise RuntimeError("BUG in coercion model: coerce_map_from must return a Map")
+        if homs is None:
+            refs = None
+            swap = None
+        else:
+            R_map, S_map = homs
+            R_map_ref = None if R_map is None else PyWeakref_NewRef(R_map, None)
+            S_map_ref = None if S_map is None else PyWeakref_NewRef(S_map, None)
+            refs = R_map_ref, S_map_ref
+            if R_map is None and isinstance(S, Parent) and (<Parent>S).has_coerce_map_from(R):
+                swap = None, PyWeakref_NewRef((<Parent>S).coerce_map_from(R), None)
+            else:
+                swap = S_map_ref, R_map_ref
+        self._coercion_maps.set(R, S, None, refs)
+        self._coercion_maps.set(S, R, None, swap)
+        return homs
+
+    cpdef verify_coercion_maps(self, R, S, homs, bint fix=False):
+        """
+        Make sure this is a valid pair of homomorphisms from `R` and `S` to a common parent.
+        This function is used to protect the user against buggy parents.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: homs = QQ.coerce_map_from(ZZ), None
+            sage: cm.verify_coercion_maps(ZZ, QQ, homs) == homs
+            True
+            sage: homs = QQ.coerce_map_from(ZZ), RR.coerce_map_from(QQ)
+            sage: cm.verify_coercion_maps(ZZ, QQ, homs) == homs
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            RuntimeError: ('BUG in coercion model, codomains must be identical',
+            Natural morphism:
+              From: Integer Ring
+              To:   Rational Field,
+            Generic map:
+              From: Rational Field
+              To:   Real Field with 53 bits of precision)
+        """
+        if homs is None:
+            return None
+        cdef Map R_map, S_map
+        R_map, S_map = homs
+        if isinstance(R, type):
+            R = Set_PythonType(R)
+        elif isinstance(S, type):
+            S = Set_PythonType(S)
+        if R_map is None:
+            R_map = IdentityMorphism(R)
+        elif S_map is None:
+            S_map = IdentityMorphism(S)
+        # Make sure the domains are correct
+        if R_map.domain() is not R:
+            if fix:
+                connecting = R_map.domain()._internal_coerce_map_from(R)
+                if connecting is not None:
+                    R_map = R_map * connecting
+            if R_map.domain() is not R:
+                raise RuntimeError("BUG in coercion model, left domain must be original parent", R, R_map)
+        if S_map is not None and S_map.domain() is not S:
+            if fix:
+                connecting = S_map.domain()._internal_coerce_map_from(S)
+                if connecting is not None:
+                    S_map = S_map * connecting
+            if S_map.domain() is not S:
+                raise RuntimeError("BUG in coercion model, right domain must be original parent", S, S_map)
+        # Make sure the codomains are correct
+        if R_map.codomain() is not S_map.codomain():
+            if fix:
+                connecting = R_map.codomain()._internal_coerce_map_from(S_map.codomain())
+                if connecting is not None:
+                    S_map = connecting * S_map
+                else:
+                    connecting = S_map.codomain()._internal_coerce_map_from(R_map.codomain())
+                    if connecting is not None:
+                        R_map = connecting * R_map
+            if R_map.codomain() is not S_map.codomain():
+                raise RuntimeError("BUG in coercion model, codomains must be identical", R_map, S_map)
+        if isinstance(R_map, IdentityMorphism):
+            R_map = None
+        elif isinstance(S_map, IdentityMorphism):
+            S_map = None
+        return R_map, S_map
+
+    cpdef discover_coercion(self, R, S):
+        """
+        This actually implements the finding of coercion maps as described in
+        the :meth:`coercion_maps` method.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+
+        If R is S, then two identity morphisms suffice::
+
+            sage: cm.discover_coercion(SR, SR)                                          # needs sage.symbolic
+            (None, None)
+
+        If there is a coercion map either direction, use that::
+
+            sage: cm.discover_coercion(ZZ, QQ)
+            ((map internal to coercion system -- copy before use)
+            Natural morphism:
+              From: Integer Ring
+              To:   Rational Field, None)
+            sage: cm.discover_coercion(RR, QQ)                                          # needs sage.rings.real_mpfr
+            (None, (map internal to coercion system -- copy before use)
+             Generic map:
+              From: Rational Field
+              To:   Real Field with 53 bits of precision)
+
+        Otherwise, try and compute an appropriate cover::
+
+            sage: ZZxy = ZZ['x,y']
+            sage: cm.discover_coercion(ZZxy, RDF)
+            ((map internal to coercion system -- copy before use)
+            Call morphism:
+              From: Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y over Integer Ring
+              To:   Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y over Real Double Field,
+             (map internal to coercion system -- copy before use)
+             Polynomial base injection morphism:
+              From: Real Double Field
+              To:   Multivariate Polynomial Ring in x, y over Real Double Field)
+
+        Sometimes there is a reasonable "cover," but no canonical coercion::
+
+            sage: sage.categories.pushout.pushout(QQ, QQ^3)                             # needs sage.modules
+            Vector space of dimension 3 over Rational Field
+            sage: print(cm.discover_coercion(QQ, QQ^3))                                 # needs sage.modules
+            None
+        """
+        if R is S:
+            return None, None
+
+        # See if there is a natural coercion from R to S
+        if isinstance(R, Parent):
+            mor = (<Parent>R)._internal_coerce_map_from(S)
+            if mor is not None:
+                return None, mor
+
+        # See if there is a natural coercion from S to R
+        if isinstance(S, Parent):
+            mor = (<Parent>S)._internal_coerce_map_from(R)
+            if mor is not None:
+                return mor, None
+
+        # Try base extending
+        if isinstance(R, Parent) and isinstance(S, Parent):
+            from sage.categories.pushout import pushout
+            try:
+                Z = pushout(R, S)
+                coerce_R = Z._internal_coerce_map_from(R)
+                coerce_S = Z._internal_coerce_map_from(S)
+                if coerce_R is None:
+                    raise TypeError("No coercion from %s to pushout %s" % (R, Z))
+                if coerce_S is None:
+                    raise TypeError("No coercion from %s to pushout %s" % (S, Z))
+                return coerce_R, coerce_S
+            except Exception:
+                self._record_exception()
+
+        return None
+
+    cpdef get_action(self, R, S, op=mul, r=None, s=None):
+        """
+        Get the action of R on S or S on R associated to the operation op.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: ZZx = ZZ['x']
+            sage: cm.get_action(ZZx, ZZ, operator.mul)
+            Right scalar multiplication by Integer Ring
+             on Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+            sage: cm.get_action(ZZx, QQ, operator.mul)
+            Right scalar multiplication by Rational Field
+             on Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+            sage: QQx = QQ['x']
+            sage: cm.get_action(QQx, int, operator.mul)
+            Right scalar multiplication by Integer Ring
+             on Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+            with precomposition on right by Native morphism:
+              From: Set of Python objects of class 'int'
+              To:   Integer Ring
+
+            sage: A = cm.get_action(QQx, ZZ, operator.truediv); A
+            Right inverse action by Rational Field
+             on Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Rational Field
+            with precomposition on right by Natural morphism:
+              From: Integer Ring
+              To:   Rational Field
+            sage: x = QQx.gen()
+            sage: A(x+10, 5)
+            1/5*x + 2
+        """
+        try:
+            return self._action_maps.get(R, S, op)
+        except KeyError:
+            pass
+        action = self.discover_action(R, S, op, r, s)
+        action = self.verify_action(action, R, S, op)
+        self._action_maps.set(R, S, op, action)
+        return action
+
+    cpdef verify_action(self, action, R, S, op, bint fix=True):
+        r"""
+        Verify that ``action`` takes an element of R on the left and S
+        on the right, raising an error if not.
+
+        This is used for consistency checking in the coercion model.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: R.<x> = ZZ['x']
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: cm.verify_action(R.get_action(QQ), R, QQ, operator.mul)
+            Right scalar multiplication by Rational Field
+             on Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+            sage: cm.verify_action(R.get_action(QQ), RDF, R, operator.mul)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            RuntimeError: There is a BUG in the coercion model:
+                Action found for R <built-in function mul> S does not have the correct domains
+                R = Real Double Field
+                S = Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+                (should be Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring, Rational Field)
+                action = Right scalar multiplication by Rational Field
+                         on Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+                (<class 'sage.structure.coerce_actions.RightModuleAction'>)
+        """
+        if action is None:
+            return action
+        cdef bint ok = True
+        try:
+            if action.left_domain() is not R:
+                ok &= isinstance(R, type) and action.left_domain()._type is R
+            if action.right_domain() is not S:
+                ok &= isinstance(S, type) and action.right_domain()._type is S
+        except AttributeError:
+            ok = False
+        if not ok:
+            if isinstance(R, type):
+                R = Set_PythonType(R)
+            if isinstance(S, type):
+                S = Set_PythonType(S)
+
+            # Non-unique parents
+            if fix and action.left_domain() is not R and action.left_domain() == R:
+                action = PrecomposedAction(action, action.left_domain()._internal_coerce_map_from(R), None)
+            if fix and action.right_domain() is not S and action.right_domain() == S:
+                action = PrecomposedAction(action, None, action.right_domain()._internal_coerce_map_from(S))
+
+            if action.left_domain() is not R or action.right_domain() is not S:
+                raise RuntimeError("""There is a BUG in the coercion model:
+                Action found for R %s S does not have the correct domains
+                R = %s
+                S = %s
+                (should be %s, %s)
+                action = %s (%s)
+                """ % (op, R, S, action.left_domain(), action.right_domain(), action, type(action)))
+
+        return action
+
+    cpdef discover_action(self, R, S, op, r=None, s=None):
+        """
+        INPUT:
+
+        - ``R`` -- the left :class:`Parent` (or type)
+        - ``S`` -- the right :class:`Parent` (or type)
+        - ``op`` -- the operand, typically an element of the :mod:`operator` module
+        - ``r`` -- (optional) element of `R`
+        - ``s`` -- (optional) element of `S`
+
+        OUTPUT: an action `A` such that `s` ``op`` `r` is given by `A(s,r)`
+
+        The steps taken are illustrated below.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: P.<x> = ZZ['x']
+            sage: P.get_action(ZZ)
+            Right scalar multiplication by Integer Ring on
+             Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+            sage: ZZ.get_action(P) is None
+            True
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+
+        If `R` or `S` is a :class:`Parent`, ask it for an action by/on `R`::
+
+            sage: cm.discover_action(ZZ, P, operator.mul)
+            Left scalar multiplication by Integer Ring on
+             Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+
+        If `R` or `S` a type, recursively call :meth:`get_action`
+        with the Sage versions of `R` and/or `S`::
+
+            sage: cm.discover_action(P, int, operator.mul)
+            Right scalar multiplication by Integer Ring on
+             Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+             with precomposition on right by Native morphism:
+              From: Set of Python objects of class 'int'
+              To:   Integer Ring
+
+        If ``op`` is division, look for action on ``right`` by inverse::
+
+            sage: cm.discover_action(P, ZZ, operator.truediv)
+            Right inverse action by Rational Field on
+             Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Integer Ring
+            with precomposition on right by Natural morphism:
+              From: Integer Ring
+              To:   Rational Field
+
+        Check that :issue:`17740` is fixed::
+
+            sage: R = GF(5)['x']
+            sage: cm.discover_action(R, ZZ, operator.truediv)
+            Right inverse action by Finite Field of size 5
+             on Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Finite Field of size 5
+            with precomposition on right by Natural morphism:
+              From: Integer Ring
+              To:   Finite Field of size 5
+            sage: cm.bin_op(R.gen(), 7, operator.truediv).parent()
+            Univariate Polynomial Ring in x over Finite Field of size 5
+
+        Check that :issue:`18221` is fixed::
+
+            sage: # needs sage.combinat sage.modules
+            sage: F.<x> = FreeAlgebra(QQ)
+            sage: x / 2
+            1/2*x
+            sage: cm.discover_action(F, ZZ, operator.truediv)
+            Right inverse action by Rational Field on
+             Free Algebra on 1 generator (x,) over Rational Field
+             with precomposition on right by Natural morphism:
+              From: Integer Ring
+              To:   Rational Field
+        """
+        if isinstance(R, Parent):
+            action = (<Parent>R).get_action(S, op, True, r, s)
+            if action is not None:
+                return action
+
+        if isinstance(S, Parent):
+            action = (<Parent>S).get_action(R, op, False, s, r)
+            if action is not None:
+                return action
+
+        if type(R) is type:
+            sageR = py_scalar_parent(R)
+            if sageR is not None:
+                action = self.get_action(sageR, S, op, s=s)
+                if action is not None:
+                    return PrecomposedAction(action, sageR._internal_coerce_map_from(R), None)
+
+        if type(S) is type:
+            sageS = py_scalar_parent(S)
+            if sageS is not None:
+                action = self.get_action(R, sageS, op, r=r)
+                if action is not None:
+                    return PrecomposedAction(action, None, sageS._internal_coerce_map_from(S))
+
+        if op is truediv:
+            # Division on right is the same acting on right by inverse, if it is so defined.
+            right_mul = None
+            try:
+                right_mul = self.get_action(R, S, mul)
+            except NotImplementedError:
+                self._record_exception()
+
+            if right_mul is not None and not right_mul.is_left():
+                try:
+                    action = ~right_mul
+                    if action.right_domain() != S:
+                        action = PrecomposedAction(action, None,
+                                                   action.right_domain()._internal_coerce_map_from(S))
+                    return action
+                except TypeError: # action may not be invertible
+                    self._record_exception()
+
+            # It's possible an action is defined on the fraction field itself.
+            try:
+                K = S._pseudo_fraction_field()
+            except AttributeError:
+                pass
+            else:
+                if K is not S:
+                    try:
+                        right_mul = self.get_action(R, K, mul)
+                    except NotImplementedError:
+                        self._record_exception()
+
+                    if right_mul is not None and not right_mul.is_left():
+                        try:
+                            return PrecomposedAction(~right_mul, None, K.coerce_map_from(S))
+                        except TypeError: # action may not be invertible
+                            self._record_exception()
+
+        return None
+
+    cpdef richcmp(self, x, y, int op):
+        """
+        Given two arbitrary objects ``x`` and ``y``, coerce them to
+        a common parent and compare them using rich comparison operator
+        ``op``.
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: from sage.structure.element import get_coercion_model
+            sage: from sage.structure.richcmp import op_LT, op_LE, op_EQ, op_NE, op_GT, op_GE
+            sage: richcmp = get_coercion_model().richcmp
+            sage: richcmp(None, None, op_EQ)
+            True
+            sage: richcmp(None, 1, op_LT)
+            True
+            sage: richcmp("hello", None, op_LE)
+            False
+            sage: richcmp(-1, 1, op_GE)
+            False
+            sage: richcmp(int(1), float(2), op_GE)
+            False
+
+        If there is no coercion, we only support ``==`` and ``!=``::
+
+            sage: x = QQ.one(); y = GF(2).one()
+            sage: richcmp(x, y, op_EQ)
+            False
+            sage: richcmp(x, y, op_NE)
+            True
+            sage: richcmp(x, y, op_GT)
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            TypeError: unsupported operand parent(s) for >:
+            'Rational Field' and 'Finite Field of size 2'
+
+        We support non-Sage types with the usual Python convention::
+
+            sage: class AlwaysEqual():
+            ....:     def __eq__(self, other):
+            ....:         return True
+            sage: x = AlwaysEqual()
+            sage: x == 1
+            True
+            sage: 1 == x
+            True
+        """
+        # Some very special cases
+        if x is None or x is Ellipsis:
+            return rich_to_bool(op, 0 if x is y else -1)
+        if y is None or y is Ellipsis:
+            return rich_to_bool(op, 0 if x is y else 1)
+
+        cdef bint y_is_Element = isinstance(y, Element)
+
+        # Check for manual __richcmp__ override (only on y since
+        # x.__richcmp__ would already have been called)
+        if y_is_Element:
+            if (<Element>y)._parent.get_flag(Parent_richcmp_element_without_coercion):
+                return Py_TYPE(y).tp_richcompare(y, x, revop(op))
+
+        # Coerce to a common parent
+        try:
+            x, y = self.canonical_coercion(x, y)
+        except (TypeError, NotImplementedError):
+            pass
+        else:
+            # The common parent should not be one which explicitly
+            # asked to *not* use coercion for comparisons.
+            assert not (isinstance(x, Element) and
+                (<Element>x)._parent.get_flag(Parent_richcmp_element_without_coercion))
+            return PyObject_RichCompare(x, y, op)
+
+        # Comparing with coercion didn't work, try something else.
+
+        # Try y.__richcmp__(x, revop) where revop is the reversed
+        # operation (<= becomes >=).
+        # This only makes sense when y is not a Sage Element, otherwise
+        # we would end up trying the same coercion again.
+        if not y_is_Element and Py_TYPE(y).tp_richcompare:
+            res = Py_TYPE(y).tp_richcompare(y, x, revop(op))
+            if res is not NotImplemented:
+                return res
+
+        # At this point, we have 2 objects which cannot be coerced to
+        # a common parent. So we assume that they are not equal.
+        if op == Py_EQ:
+            return False
+        if op == Py_NE:
+            return True
+
+        # It does not make sense to compare x and y with an inequality,
+        # so we raise an exception.
+        if op == Py_LT:
+            raise bin_op_exception('<', x, y)
+        elif op == Py_LE:
+            raise bin_op_exception('<=', x, y)
+        elif op == Py_GT:
+            raise bin_op_exception('>', x, y)
+        else:
+            raise bin_op_exception('>=', x, y)
+
+    def _coercion_error(self, x, x_map, x_elt, y, y_map, y_elt):
+        """
+        This function is only called when someone has incorrectly implemented
+        a user-defined part of the coercion system (usually, a morphism).
+
+        EXAMPLES::
+
+            sage: cm = sage.structure.element.get_coercion_model()
+            sage: cm._coercion_error('a', 'f', 'f(a)', 'b', 'g', 'g(b)')
+            Traceback (most recent call last):
+            ...
+            RuntimeError: There is a bug in the coercion code in Sage.
+            Both x (='f(a)') and y (='g(b)') are supposed to have identical parents but they don't.
+            In fact, x has parent '<class 'str'>'
+            whereas y has parent '<class 'str'>'
+            Original elements 'a' (parent <class 'str'>) and 'b' (parent <class 'str'>) and maps
+            <class 'str'> 'f'
+            <class 'str'> 'g'
+        """
+        raise RuntimeError("""There is a bug in the coercion code in Sage.
+Both x (=%r) and y (=%r) are supposed to have identical parents but they don't.
+In fact, x has parent '%s'
+whereas y has parent '%s'
+Original elements %r (parent %s) and %r (parent %s) and maps
+%s %r
+%s %r""" % (x_elt, y_elt, parent(x_elt), parent(y_elt),
+            x, parent(x), y, parent(y),
+            type(x_map), x_map, type(y_map), y_map))
+
+
+coercion_model = CoercionModel()