lxml 6.0.0__cp310-cp310-win_arm64.whl

lxml/etree.pyx

@@ -0,0 +1,3853 @@
+# cython: binding=True
+# cython: auto_pickle=False
+# cython: language_level=3
+
+"""
+The ``lxml.etree`` module implements the extended ElementTree API for XML.
+"""
+
+__docformat__ = "restructuredtext en"
+
+__all__ = [
+    'AttributeBasedElementClassLookup', 'C14NError', 'C14NWriterTarget', 'CDATA',
+    'Comment', 'CommentBase', 'CustomElementClassLookup', 'DEBUG',
+    'DTD', 'DTDError', 'DTDParseError', 'DTDValidateError',
+    'DocumentInvalid', 'ETCompatXMLParser', 'ETXPath', 'Element',
+    'ElementBase', 'ElementClassLookup', 'ElementDefaultClassLookup',
+    'ElementNamespaceClassLookup', 'ElementTree', 'Entity', 'EntityBase',
+    'Error', 'ErrorDomains', 'ErrorLevels', 'ErrorTypes', 'Extension',
+    'FallbackElementClassLookup', 'FunctionNamespace', 'HTML', 'HTMLParser',
+    'ICONV_COMPILED_VERSION',
+    'LIBXML_COMPILED_VERSION', 'LIBXML_VERSION',
+    'LIBXML_FEATURES',
+    'LIBXSLT_COMPILED_VERSION', 'LIBXSLT_VERSION',
+    'LXML_VERSION',
+    'LxmlError', 'LxmlRegistryError', 'LxmlSyntaxError',
+    'NamespaceRegistryError', 'PI', 'PIBase', 'ParseError',
+    'ParserBasedElementClassLookup', 'ParserError', 'ProcessingInstruction',
+    'PyErrorLog', 'PythonElementClassLookup', 'QName', 'RelaxNG',
+    'RelaxNGError', 'RelaxNGErrorTypes', 'RelaxNGParseError',
+    'RelaxNGValidateError', 'Resolver', 'Schematron', 'SchematronError',
+    'SchematronParseError', 'SchematronValidateError', 'SerialisationError',
+    'SubElement', 'TreeBuilder', 'XInclude', 'XIncludeError', 'XML',
+    'XMLDTDID', 'XMLID', 'XMLParser', 'XMLSchema', 'XMLSchemaError',
+    'XMLSchemaParseError', 'XMLSchemaValidateError', 'XMLSyntaxError',
+    'XMLTreeBuilder', 'XPath', 'XPathDocumentEvaluator', 'XPathError',
+    'XPathEvalError', 'XPathEvaluator', 'XPathFunctionError', 'XPathResultError',
+    'XPathSyntaxError', 'XSLT', 'XSLTAccessControl', 'XSLTApplyError',
+    'XSLTError', 'XSLTExtension', 'XSLTExtensionError', 'XSLTParseError',
+    'XSLTSaveError', 'canonicalize',
+    'cleanup_namespaces', 'clear_error_log', 'dump',
+    'fromstring', 'fromstringlist', 'get_default_parser', 'iselement',
+    'iterparse', 'iterwalk', 'parse', 'parseid', 'register_namespace',
+    'set_default_parser', 'set_element_class_lookup', 'strip_attributes',
+    'strip_elements', 'strip_tags', 'tostring', 'tostringlist', 'tounicode',
+    'use_global_python_log'
+    ]
+
+cimport cython
+
+from lxml cimport python
+from lxml.includes cimport tree, config
+from lxml.includes.tree cimport xmlDoc, xmlNode, xmlAttr, xmlNs, _isElement, _getNs
+from lxml.includes.tree cimport const_xmlChar, xmlChar, _xcstr
+from lxml.python cimport _cstr, _isString
+from lxml.includes cimport xpath
+from lxml.includes cimport c14n
+
+# Cython's standard declarations
+cimport cpython.mem
+cimport cpython.ref
+from libc cimport limits, stdio, stdlib
+from libc cimport string as cstring_h   # not to be confused with stdlib 'string'
+from libc.string cimport const_char
+
+cdef object os_path_abspath
+from os.path import abspath as os_path_abspath
+
+cdef object BytesIO, StringIO
+from io import BytesIO, StringIO
+
+cdef object OrderedDict
+from collections import OrderedDict
+
+cdef object _elementpath
+from lxml import _elementpath
+
+cdef object sys
+import sys
+
+cdef object re
+import re
+
+cdef object partial
+from functools import partial
+
+cdef object islice
+from itertools import islice
+
+cdef object ITER_EMPTY = iter(())
+
+cdef object MutableMapping
+from collections.abc import MutableMapping
+
+class _ImmutableMapping(MutableMapping):
+    def __getitem__(self, key):
+        raise KeyError, key
+
+    def __setitem__(self, key, value):
+        raise KeyError, key
+
+    def __delitem__(self, key):
+        raise KeyError, key
+
+    def __contains__(self, key):
+        return False
+
+    def __len__(self):
+        return 0
+
+    def __iter__(self):
+        return ITER_EMPTY
+    iterkeys = itervalues = iteritems = __iter__
+
+cdef object IMMUTABLE_EMPTY_MAPPING = _ImmutableMapping()
+del _ImmutableMapping
+
+
+# the rules
+# ---------
+# any libxml C argument/variable is prefixed with c_
+# any non-public function/class is prefixed with an underscore
+# instance creation is always through factories
+
+# what to do with libxml2/libxslt error messages?
+# 0 : drop
+# 1 : use log
+DEF __DEBUG = 1
+
+# maximum number of lines in the libxml2/xslt log if __DEBUG == 1
+DEF __MAX_LOG_SIZE = 100
+
+# make the compiled-in debug state publicly available
+DEBUG = __DEBUG
+
+# A struct to store a cached qualified tag name+href pair.
+# While we can borrow the c_name from the document dict,
+# PyPy requires us to store a Python reference for the
+# namespace in order to keep the byte buffer alive.
+cdef struct qname:
+    const_xmlChar* c_name
+    python.PyObject* href
+
+# initialize parser (and threading)
+xmlparser.xmlInitParser()
+
+# global per-thread setup
+tree.xmlThrDefIndentTreeOutput(1)
+tree.xmlThrDefLineNumbersDefaultValue(1)
+
+_initThreadLogging()
+
+# filename encoding
+cdef bytes _FILENAME_ENCODING = (sys.getfilesystemencoding() or sys.getdefaultencoding() or 'ascii').encode("UTF-8")
+cdef char* _C_FILENAME_ENCODING = _cstr(_FILENAME_ENCODING)
+
+# set up some default namespace prefixes
+cdef dict _DEFAULT_NAMESPACE_PREFIXES = {
+    b"http://www.w3.org/XML/1998/namespace": b'xml',
+    b"http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml": b"html",
+    b"http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform": b"xsl",
+    b"http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#": b"rdf",
+    b"http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/wsdl/": b"wsdl",
+    # xml schema
+    b"http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema": b"xs",
+    b"http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance": b"xsi",
+    # dublin core
+    b"http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/": b"dc",
+    # objectify
+    b"http://codespeak.net/lxml/objectify/pytype" : b"py",
+}
+
+# To avoid runtime encoding overhead, we keep a Unicode copy
+# of the uri-prefix mapping as (str, str) items view.
+cdef object _DEFAULT_NAMESPACE_PREFIXES_ITEMS = []
+
+cdef _update_default_namespace_prefixes_items():
+    cdef bytes ns, prefix
+    global _DEFAULT_NAMESPACE_PREFIXES_ITEMS
+    _DEFAULT_NAMESPACE_PREFIXES_ITEMS = {
+        ns.decode('utf-8') : prefix.decode('utf-8')
+        for ns, prefix in _DEFAULT_NAMESPACE_PREFIXES.items()
+    }.items()
+
+_update_default_namespace_prefixes_items()
+
+cdef object _check_internal_prefix = re.compile(br"ns\d+$").match
+
+def register_namespace(prefix, uri):
+    """Registers a namespace prefix that newly created Elements in that
+    namespace will use.  The registry is global, and any existing
+    mapping for either the given prefix or the namespace URI will be
+    removed.
+    """
+    prefix_utf, uri_utf = _utf8(prefix), _utf8(uri)
+    if _check_internal_prefix(prefix_utf):
+        raise ValueError("Prefix format reserved for internal use")
+    _tagValidOrRaise(prefix_utf)
+    _uriValidOrRaise(uri_utf)
+    if (uri_utf == b"http://www.w3.org/XML/1998/namespace" and prefix_utf != b'xml'
+            or prefix_utf == b'xml' and uri_utf != b"http://www.w3.org/XML/1998/namespace"):
+        raise ValueError("Cannot change the 'xml' prefix of the XML namespace")
+    for k, v in list(_DEFAULT_NAMESPACE_PREFIXES.items()):
+        if k == uri_utf or v == prefix_utf:
+            del _DEFAULT_NAMESPACE_PREFIXES[k]
+    _DEFAULT_NAMESPACE_PREFIXES[uri_utf] = prefix_utf
+    _update_default_namespace_prefixes_items()
+
+
+# Error superclass for ElementTree compatibility
+cdef class Error(Exception):
+    pass
+
+# module level superclass for all exceptions
+cdef class LxmlError(Error):
+    """Main exception base class for lxml.  All other exceptions inherit from
+    this one.
+    """
+    def __init__(self, message, error_log=None):
+        super(_Error, self).__init__(message)
+        if error_log is None:
+            self.error_log = __copyGlobalErrorLog()
+        else:
+            self.error_log = error_log.copy()
+
+cdef object _Error = Error
+
+
+# superclass for all syntax errors
+class LxmlSyntaxError(LxmlError, SyntaxError):
+    """Base class for all syntax errors.
+    """
+
+cdef class C14NError(LxmlError):
+    """Error during C14N serialisation.
+    """
+
+# version information
+cdef tuple __unpackDottedVersion(version):
+    version_list = []
+    l = (version.decode("ascii").replace('-', '.').split('.') + [0]*4)[:4]
+    for item in l:
+        try:
+            item = int(item)
+        except ValueError:
+            if item.startswith('dev'):
+                count = item[3:]
+                item = -300
+            elif item.startswith('alpha'):
+                count = item[5:]
+                item = -200
+            elif item.startswith('beta'):
+                count = item[4:]
+                item = -100
+            else:
+                count = 0
+            if count:
+                item += int(count)
+        version_list.append(item)
+    return tuple(version_list)
+
+cdef tuple __unpackIntVersion(int c_version, int base=100):
+    return (
+        ((c_version // (base*base)) % base),
+        ((c_version // base)        % base),
+        (c_version                  % base)
+        )
+
+cdef int _LIBXML_VERSION_INT
+try:
+    _LIBXML_VERSION_INT = int(
+        re.match('[0-9]+', (<unsigned char*>tree.xmlParserVersion).decode("ascii")).group(0))
+except Exception:
+    print("Unknown libxml2 version: " + (<unsigned char*>tree.xmlParserVersion).decode("latin1"))
+    _LIBXML_VERSION_INT = 0
+
+LIBXML_VERSION = __unpackIntVersion(_LIBXML_VERSION_INT)
+LIBXML_COMPILED_VERSION = __unpackIntVersion(tree.LIBXML_VERSION)
+LXML_VERSION = __unpackDottedVersion(tree.LXML_VERSION_STRING)
+
+__version__ = tree.LXML_VERSION_STRING.decode("ascii")
+
+cdef extern from *:
+    """
+    #ifdef ZLIB_VERNUM
+      #define __lxml_zlib_version (ZLIB_VERNUM >> 4)
+    #else
+      #define __lxml_zlib_version 0
+    #endif
+    #ifdef _LIBICONV_VERSION
+      #define __lxml_iconv_version (_LIBICONV_VERSION << 8)
+    #else
+      #define __lxml_iconv_version 0
+    #endif
+    """
+    # zlib isn't included automatically by libxml2's headers
+    #long ZLIB_HEX_VERSION "__lxml_zlib_version"
+    long LIBICONV_HEX_VERSION "__lxml_iconv_version"
+
+#ZLIB_COMPILED_VERSION = __unpackIntVersion(ZLIB_HEX_VERSION, base=0x10)
+ICONV_COMPILED_VERSION = __unpackIntVersion(LIBICONV_HEX_VERSION, base=0x100)[:2]
+
+
+cdef extern from "libxml/xmlversion.h":
+    """
+    static const char* const _lxml_lib_features[] = {
+#ifdef LIBXML_HTML_ENABLED
+        "html",
+#endif
+#ifdef LIBXML_FTP_ENABLED
+        "ftp",
+#endif
+#ifdef LIBXML_HTTP_ENABLED
+        "http",
+#endif
+#ifdef LIBXML_CATALOG_ENABLED
+        "catalog",
+#endif
+#ifdef LIBXML_XPATH_ENABLED
+        "xpath",
+#endif
+#ifdef LIBXML_ICONV_ENABLED
+        "iconv",
+#endif
+#ifdef LIBXML_ICU_ENABLED
+        "icu",
+#endif
+#ifdef LIBXML_REGEXP_ENABLED
+        "regexp",
+#endif
+#ifdef LIBXML_SCHEMAS_ENABLED
+        "xmlschema",
+#endif
+#ifdef LIBXML_SCHEMATRON_ENABLED
+        "schematron",
+#endif
+#ifdef LIBXML_ZLIB_ENABLED
+        "zlib",
+#endif
+#ifdef LIBXML_LZMA_ENABLED
+        "lzma",
+#endif
+        0
+    };
+    """
+    const char* const* _LXML_LIB_FEATURES "_lxml_lib_features"
+
+
+cdef set _copy_lib_features():
+    features = set()
+    feature = _LXML_LIB_FEATURES
+    while feature[0]:
+        features.add(feature[0].decode('ASCII'))
+        feature += 1
+    return features
+
+LIBXML_COMPILED_FEATURES = _copy_lib_features()
+LIBXML_FEATURES = {
+    feature_name for feature_id, feature_name in [
+        #XML_WITH_THREAD = 1
+        #XML_WITH_TREE = 2
+        #XML_WITH_OUTPUT = 3
+        #XML_WITH_PUSH = 4
+        #XML_WITH_READER = 5
+        #XML_WITH_PATTERN = 6
+        #XML_WITH_WRITER = 7
+        #XML_WITH_SAX1 = 8
+        (xmlparser.XML_WITH_FTP, "ftp"),  # XML_WITH_FTP = 9
+        (xmlparser.XML_WITH_HTTP, "http"),  # XML_WITH_HTTP = 10
+        #XML_WITH_VALID = 11
+        (xmlparser.XML_WITH_HTML, "html"),  # XML_WITH_HTML = 12
+        #XML_WITH_LEGACY = 13
+        #XML_WITH_C14N = 14
+        (xmlparser.XML_WITH_CATALOG, "catalog"),  # XML_WITH_CATALOG = 15
+        (xmlparser.XML_WITH_XPATH, "xpath"),  # XML_WITH_XPATH = 16
+        #XML_WITH_XPTR = 17
+        #XML_WITH_XINCLUDE = 18
+        (xmlparser.XML_WITH_ICONV, "iconv"),  # XML_WITH_ICONV = 19
+        #XML_WITH_ISO8859X = 20
+        #XML_WITH_UNICODE = 21
+        (xmlparser.XML_WITH_REGEXP, "regexp"),  # XML_WITH_REGEXP = 22
+        #XML_WITH_AUTOMATA = 23
+        #XML_WITH_EXPR = 24
+        (xmlparser.XML_WITH_SCHEMAS, "xmlschema"),  # XML_WITH_SCHEMAS = 25
+        (xmlparser.XML_WITH_SCHEMATRON, "schematron"),  # XML_WITH_SCHEMATRON = 26
+        #XML_WITH_MODULES = 27
+        #XML_WITH_DEBUG = 28
+        #XML_WITH_DEBUG_MEM = 29
+        #XML_WITH_DEBUG_RUN = 30  # unused
+        (xmlparser.XML_WITH_ZLIB, "zlib"),  # XML_WITH_ZLIB = 31
+        (xmlparser.XML_WITH_ICU, "icu"),  # XML_WITH_ICU = 32
+        (xmlparser.XML_WITH_LZMA, "lzma"),  # XML_WITH_LZMA = 33
+    ] if xmlparser.xmlHasFeature(feature_id)
+}
+
+cdef bint HAS_ZLIB_COMPRESSION = xmlparser.xmlHasFeature(xmlparser.XML_WITH_ZLIB)
+
+
+# class for temporary storage of Python references,
+# used e.g. for XPath results
+@cython.final
+@cython.internal
+cdef class _TempStore:
+    cdef list _storage
+    def __init__(self):
+        self._storage = []
+
+    cdef int add(self, obj) except -1:
+        self._storage.append(obj)
+        return 0
+
+    cdef int clear(self) except -1:
+        del self._storage[:]
+        return 0
+
+
+# class for temporarily storing exceptions raised in extensions
+@cython.internal
+cdef class _ExceptionContext:
+    cdef object _exc_info
+    cdef int clear(self) except -1:
+        self._exc_info = None
+        return 0
+
+    cdef void _store_raised(self) noexcept:
+        try:
+            self._exc_info = sys.exc_info()
+        except BaseException as e:
+            self._store_exception(e)
+        finally:
+            return  # and swallow any further exceptions
+
+    cdef int _store_exception(self, exception) except -1:
+        self._exc_info = (exception, None, None)
+        return 0
+
+    cdef bint _has_raised(self) except -1:
+        return self._exc_info is not None
+
+    cdef int _raise_if_stored(self) except -1:
+        if self._exc_info is None:
+            return 0
+        type, value, traceback = self._exc_info
+        self._exc_info = None
+        if value is None and traceback is None:
+            raise type
+        else:
+            raise type, value, traceback
+
+
+# type of a function that steps from node to node
+ctypedef public xmlNode* (*_node_to_node_function)(xmlNode*)
+
+
+################################################################################
+# Include submodules
+
+include "proxy.pxi"        # Proxy handling (element backpointers/memory/etc.)
+include "apihelpers.pxi"   # Private helper functions
+include "xmlerror.pxi"     # Error and log handling
+
+
+################################################################################
+# Public Python API
+
+@cython.final
+@cython.freelist(8)
+cdef public class _Document [ type LxmlDocumentType, object LxmlDocument ]:
+    """Internal base class to reference a libxml document.
+
+    When instances of this class are garbage collected, the libxml
+    document is cleaned up.
+    """
+    cdef int _ns_counter
+    cdef bytes _prefix_tail
+    cdef xmlDoc* _c_doc
+    cdef _BaseParser _parser
+
+    def __dealloc__(self):
+        # if there are no more references to the document, it is safe
+        # to clean the whole thing up, as all nodes have a reference to
+        # the document
+        tree.xmlFreeDoc(self._c_doc)
+
+    @cython.final
+    cdef getroot(self):
+        # return an element proxy for the document root
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node
+        c_node = tree.xmlDocGetRootElement(self._c_doc)
+        if c_node is NULL:
+            return None
+        return _elementFactory(self, c_node)
+
+    @cython.final
+    cdef bint hasdoctype(self) noexcept:
+        # DOCTYPE gets parsed into internal subset (xmlDTD*)
+        return self._c_doc is not NULL and self._c_doc.intSubset is not NULL
+
+    @cython.final
+    cdef getdoctype(self):
+        # get doctype info: root tag, public/system ID (or None if not known)
+        cdef tree.xmlDtd* c_dtd
+        cdef xmlNode* c_root_node
+        public_id = None
+        sys_url   = None
+        c_dtd = self._c_doc.intSubset
+        if c_dtd is not NULL:
+            if c_dtd.ExternalID is not NULL:
+                public_id = funicode(c_dtd.ExternalID)
+            if c_dtd.SystemID is not NULL:
+                sys_url = funicode(c_dtd.SystemID)
+        c_dtd = self._c_doc.extSubset
+        if c_dtd is not NULL:
+            if not public_id and c_dtd.ExternalID is not NULL:
+                public_id = funicode(c_dtd.ExternalID)
+            if not sys_url and c_dtd.SystemID is not NULL:
+                sys_url = funicode(c_dtd.SystemID)
+        c_root_node = tree.xmlDocGetRootElement(self._c_doc)
+        if c_root_node is NULL:
+            root_name = None
+        else:
+            root_name = funicode(c_root_node.name)
+        return root_name, public_id, sys_url
+
+    @cython.final
+    cdef getxmlinfo(self):
+        # return XML version and encoding (or None if not known)
+        cdef xmlDoc* c_doc = self._c_doc
+        if c_doc.version is NULL:
+            version = None
+        else:
+            version = funicode(c_doc.version)
+        if c_doc.encoding is NULL:
+            encoding = None
+        else:
+            encoding = funicode(c_doc.encoding)
+        return version, encoding
+
+    @cython.final
+    cdef isstandalone(self):
+        # returns True for "standalone=true",
+        # False for "standalone=false", None if not provided
+        if self._c_doc.standalone == -1:
+            return None
+        else:
+            return <bint>(self._c_doc.standalone == 1)
+
+    @cython.final
+    cdef bytes buildNewPrefix(self):
+        # get a new unique prefix ("nsX") for this document
+        cdef bytes ns
+        if self._ns_counter < len(_PREFIX_CACHE):
+            ns = _PREFIX_CACHE[self._ns_counter]
+        else:
+            ns = python.PyBytes_FromFormat("ns%d", self._ns_counter)
+        if self._prefix_tail is not None:
+            ns += self._prefix_tail
+        self._ns_counter += 1
+        if self._ns_counter < 0:
+            # overflow!
+            self._ns_counter = 0
+            if self._prefix_tail is None:
+                self._prefix_tail = b"A"
+            else:
+                self._prefix_tail += b"A"
+        return ns
+
+    @cython.final
+    cdef xmlNs* _findOrBuildNodeNs(self, xmlNode* c_node,
+                                   const_xmlChar* c_href, const_xmlChar* c_prefix,
+                                   bint is_attribute) except NULL:
+        """Get or create namespace structure for a node.  Reuses the prefix if
+        possible.
+        """
+        cdef xmlNs* c_ns
+        cdef xmlNs* c_doc_ns
+        cdef python.PyObject* dict_result
+        if c_node.type != tree.XML_ELEMENT_NODE:
+            assert c_node.type == tree.XML_ELEMENT_NODE, \
+                "invalid node type %d, expected %d" % (
+                c_node.type, tree.XML_ELEMENT_NODE)
+        # look for existing ns declaration
+        c_ns = _searchNsByHref(c_node, c_href, is_attribute)
+        if c_ns is not NULL:
+            if is_attribute and c_ns.prefix is NULL:
+                # do not put namespaced attributes into the default
+                # namespace as this would break serialisation
+                pass
+            else:
+                return c_ns
+
+        # none found => determine a suitable new prefix
+        if c_prefix is NULL:
+            dict_result = python.PyDict_GetItem(
+                _DEFAULT_NAMESPACE_PREFIXES, <unsigned char*>c_href)
+            if dict_result is not NULL:
+                prefix = <object>dict_result
+            else:
+                prefix = self.buildNewPrefix()
+            c_prefix = _xcstr(prefix)
+
+        # make sure the prefix is not in use already
+        while tree.xmlSearchNs(self._c_doc, c_node, c_prefix) is not NULL:
+            prefix = self.buildNewPrefix()
+            c_prefix = _xcstr(prefix)
+
+        # declare the namespace and return it
+        c_ns = tree.xmlNewNs(c_node, c_href, c_prefix)
+        if c_ns is NULL:
+            raise MemoryError()
+        return c_ns
+
+    @cython.final
+    cdef int _setNodeNs(self, xmlNode* c_node, const_xmlChar* c_href) except -1:
+        "Lookup namespace structure and set it for the node."
+        c_ns = self._findOrBuildNodeNs(c_node, c_href, NULL, 0)
+        tree.xmlSetNs(c_node, c_ns)
+
+
+cdef tuple __initPrefixCache():
+    cdef int i
+    return tuple([ python.PyBytes_FromFormat("ns%d", i)
+                   for i in range(26) ])
+
+cdef tuple _PREFIX_CACHE = __initPrefixCache()
+
+
+cdef _Document _documentFactory(xmlDoc* c_doc, _BaseParser parser):
+    cdef _Document result
+    result = _Document.__new__(_Document)
+    result._c_doc = c_doc
+    result._ns_counter = 0
+    result._prefix_tail = None
+    if parser is None:
+        parser = __GLOBAL_PARSER_CONTEXT.getDefaultParser()
+    result._parser = parser
+    return result
+
+
+cdef object _find_invalid_public_id_characters = re.compile(
+    ur"[^\x20\x0D\x0Aa-zA-Z0-9'()+,./:=?;!*#@$_%-]+").search
+
+
+cdef class DocInfo:
+    "Document information provided by parser and DTD."
+    cdef _Document _doc
+    def __cinit__(self, tree):
+        "Create a DocInfo object for an ElementTree object or root Element."
+        self._doc = _documentOrRaise(tree)
+        root_name, public_id, system_url = self._doc.getdoctype()
+        if not root_name and (public_id or system_url):
+            raise ValueError, "Could not find root node"
+
+    @property
+    def root_name(self):
+        """Returns the name of the root node as defined by the DOCTYPE."""
+        root_name, public_id, system_url = self._doc.getdoctype()
+        return root_name
+
+    @cython.final
+    cdef tree.xmlDtd* _get_c_dtd(self):
+        """"Return the DTD. Create it if it does not yet exist."""
+        cdef xmlDoc* c_doc = self._doc._c_doc
+        cdef xmlNode* c_root_node
+        cdef const_xmlChar* c_name
+
+        if c_doc.intSubset:
+            return c_doc.intSubset
+
+        c_root_node = tree.xmlDocGetRootElement(c_doc)
+        c_name = c_root_node.name if c_root_node else NULL
+        return  tree.xmlCreateIntSubset(c_doc, c_name, NULL, NULL)
+
+    def clear(self):
+        """Removes DOCTYPE and internal subset from the document."""
+        cdef xmlDoc* c_doc = self._doc._c_doc
+        cdef tree.xmlNode* c_dtd = <xmlNode*>c_doc.intSubset
+        if c_dtd is NULL:
+            return
+        tree.xmlUnlinkNode(c_dtd)
+        tree.xmlFreeNode(c_dtd)
+
+    property public_id:
+        """Public ID of the DOCTYPE.
+
+        Mutable.  May be set to a valid string or None.  If a DTD does not
+        exist, setting this variable (even to None) will create one.
+        """
+        def __get__(self):
+            root_name, public_id, system_url = self._doc.getdoctype()
+            return public_id
+
+        def __set__(self, value):
+            cdef xmlChar* c_value = NULL
+            if value is not None:
+                match = _find_invalid_public_id_characters(value)
+                if match:
+                    raise ValueError, f'Invalid character(s) {match.group(0)!r} in public_id.'
+                value = _utf8(value)
+                c_value = tree.xmlStrdup(_xcstr(value))
+                if not c_value:
+                    raise MemoryError()
+
+            c_dtd = self._get_c_dtd()
+            if not c_dtd:
+                tree.xmlFree(c_value)
+                raise MemoryError()
+            if c_dtd.ExternalID:
+                tree.xmlFree(<void*>c_dtd.ExternalID)
+            c_dtd.ExternalID = c_value
+
+    property system_url:
+        """System ID of the DOCTYPE.
+
+        Mutable.  May be set to a valid string or None.  If a DTD does not
+        exist, setting this variable (even to None) will create one.
+        """
+        def __get__(self):
+            root_name, public_id, system_url = self._doc.getdoctype()
+            return system_url
+
+        def __set__(self, value):
+            cdef xmlChar* c_value = NULL
+            if value is not None:
+                bvalue = _utf8(value)
+                # sys_url may be any valid unicode string that can be
+                # enclosed in single quotes or quotes.
+                if b"'" in bvalue and b'"' in bvalue:
+                    raise ValueError(
+                        'System URL may not contain both single (\') and double quotes (").')
+                c_value = tree.xmlStrdup(_xcstr(bvalue))
+                if not c_value:
+                    raise MemoryError()
+
+            c_dtd = self._get_c_dtd()
+            if not c_dtd:
+                tree.xmlFree(c_value)
+                raise MemoryError()
+            if c_dtd.SystemID:
+                tree.xmlFree(<void*>c_dtd.SystemID)
+            c_dtd.SystemID = c_value
+
+    @property
+    def xml_version(self):
+        """Returns the XML version as declared by the document."""
+        xml_version, encoding = self._doc.getxmlinfo()
+        return xml_version
+
+    @property
+    def encoding(self):
+        """Returns the encoding name as declared by the document."""
+        xml_version, encoding = self._doc.getxmlinfo()
+        return encoding
+
+    @property
+    def standalone(self):
+        """Returns the standalone flag as declared by the document.  The possible
+        values are True (``standalone='yes'``), False
+        (``standalone='no'`` or flag not provided in the declaration),
+        and None (unknown or no declaration found).  Note that a
+        normal truth test on this value will always tell if the
+        ``standalone`` flag was set to ``'yes'`` or not.
+        """
+        return self._doc.isstandalone()
+
+    property URL:
+        "The source URL of the document (or None if unknown)."
+        def __get__(self):
+            if self._doc._c_doc.URL is NULL:
+                return None
+            return _decodeFilename(self._doc._c_doc.URL)
+        def __set__(self, url):
+            url = _encodeFilename(url)
+            c_oldurl = self._doc._c_doc.URL
+            if url is None:
+                self._doc._c_doc.URL = NULL
+            else:
+                self._doc._c_doc.URL = tree.xmlStrdup(_xcstr(url))
+            if c_oldurl is not NULL:
+                tree.xmlFree(<void*>c_oldurl)
+
+    @property
+    def doctype(self):
+        """Returns a DOCTYPE declaration string for the document."""
+        root_name, public_id, system_url = self._doc.getdoctype()
+        if system_url:
+            # If '"' in system_url, we must escape it with single
+            # quotes, otherwise escape with double quotes. If url
+            # contains both a single quote and a double quote, XML
+            # standard is being violated.
+            if '"' in system_url:
+                quoted_system_url = f"'{system_url}'"
+            else:
+                quoted_system_url = f'"{system_url}"'
+        if public_id:
+            if system_url:
+                return f'<!DOCTYPE {root_name} PUBLIC "{public_id}" {quoted_system_url}>'
+            else:
+                return f'<!DOCTYPE {root_name} PUBLIC "{public_id}">'
+        elif system_url:
+            return f'<!DOCTYPE {root_name} SYSTEM {quoted_system_url}>'
+        elif self._doc.hasdoctype():
+            return f'<!DOCTYPE {root_name}>'
+        else:
+            return ''
+
+    @property
+    def internalDTD(self):
+        """Returns a DTD validator based on the internal subset of the document."""
+        return _dtdFactory(self._doc._c_doc.intSubset)
+
+    @property
+    def externalDTD(self):
+        """Returns a DTD validator based on the external subset of the document."""
+        return _dtdFactory(self._doc._c_doc.extSubset)
+
+
+@cython.no_gc_clear
+cdef public class _Element [ type LxmlElementType, object LxmlElement ]:
+    """Element class.
+
+    References a document object and a libxml node.
+
+    By pointing to a Document instance, a reference is kept to
+    _Document as long as there is some pointer to a node in it.
+    """
+    cdef _Document _doc
+    cdef xmlNode* _c_node
+    cdef object _tag
+
+    def _init(self):
+        """_init(self)
+
+        Called after object initialisation.  Custom subclasses may override
+        this if they recursively call _init() in the superclasses.
+        """
+
+    @cython.linetrace(False)
+    @cython.profile(False)
+    def __dealloc__(self):
+        #print("trying to free node:", <int>self._c_node)
+        #displayNode(self._c_node, 0)
+        if self._c_node is not NULL:
+            _unregisterProxy(self)
+            attemptDeallocation(self._c_node)
+
+    # MANIPULATORS
+
+    def __setitem__(self, x, value):
+        """__setitem__(self, x, value)
+
+        Replaces the given subelement index or slice.
+        """
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node = NULL
+        cdef xmlNode* c_next
+        cdef xmlDoc* c_source_doc
+        cdef _Element element
+        cdef bint left_to_right
+        cdef Py_ssize_t slicelength = 0, step = 0
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        if value is None:
+            raise ValueError, "cannot assign None"
+        if isinstance(x, slice):
+            # slice assignment
+            _findChildSlice(<slice>x, self._c_node, &c_node, &step, &slicelength)
+            if step > 0:
+                left_to_right = 1
+            else:
+                left_to_right = 0
+                step = -step
+            _replaceSlice(self, c_node, slicelength, step, left_to_right, value)
+            return
+        else:
+            # otherwise: normal item assignment
+            element = value
+            _assertValidNode(element)
+            c_node = _findChild(self._c_node, x)
+            if c_node is NULL:
+                raise IndexError, "list index out of range"
+            c_source_doc = element._c_node.doc
+            c_next = element._c_node.next
+            _removeText(c_node.next)
+            tree.xmlReplaceNode(c_node, element._c_node)
+            _moveTail(c_next, element._c_node)
+            moveNodeToDocument(self._doc, c_source_doc, element._c_node)
+            if not attemptDeallocation(c_node):
+                moveNodeToDocument(self._doc, c_node.doc, c_node)
+
+    def __delitem__(self, x):
+        """__delitem__(self, x)
+
+        Deletes the given subelement or a slice.
+        """
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node = NULL
+        cdef xmlNode* c_next
+        cdef Py_ssize_t step = 0, slicelength = 0
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        if isinstance(x, slice):
+            # slice deletion
+            if _isFullSlice(<slice>x):
+                c_node = self._c_node.children
+                if c_node is not NULL:
+                    if not _isElement(c_node):
+                        c_node = _nextElement(c_node)
+                    while c_node is not NULL:
+                        c_next = _nextElement(c_node)
+                        _removeNode(self._doc, c_node)
+                        c_node = c_next
+            else:
+                _findChildSlice(<slice>x, self._c_node, &c_node, &step, &slicelength)
+                _deleteSlice(self._doc, c_node, slicelength, step)
+        else:
+            # item deletion
+            c_node = _findChild(self._c_node, x)
+            if c_node is NULL:
+                raise IndexError, f"index out of range: {x}"
+            _removeNode(self._doc, c_node)
+
+    def __deepcopy__(self, memo):
+        "__deepcopy__(self, memo)"
+        return self.__copy__()
+
+    def __copy__(self):
+        "__copy__(self)"
+        cdef xmlDoc* c_doc
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node
+        cdef _Document new_doc
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        c_doc = _copyDocRoot(self._doc._c_doc, self._c_node) # recursive
+        new_doc = _documentFactory(c_doc, self._doc._parser)
+        root = new_doc.getroot()
+        if root is not None:
+            return root
+        # Comment/PI
+        c_node = c_doc.children
+        while c_node is not NULL and c_node.type != self._c_node.type:
+            c_node = c_node.next
+        if c_node is NULL:
+            return None
+        return _elementFactory(new_doc, c_node)
+
+    def set(self, key, value):
+        """set(self, key, value)
+
+        Sets an element attribute.
+        In HTML documents (not XML or XHTML), the value None is allowed and creates
+        an attribute without value (just the attribute name).
+        """
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        _setAttributeValue(self, key, value)
+
+    def append(self, _Element element not None):
+        """append(self, element)
+
+        Adds a subelement to the end of this element.
+        """
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        _assertValidNode(element)
+        _appendChild(self, element)
+
+    def addnext(self, _Element element not None):
+        """addnext(self, element)
+
+        Adds the element as a following sibling directly after this
+        element.
+
+        This is normally used to set a processing instruction or comment after
+        the root node of a document.  Note that tail text is automatically
+        discarded when adding at the root level.
+        """
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        _assertValidNode(element)
+        if self._c_node.parent != NULL and not _isElement(self._c_node.parent):
+            if element._c_node.type not in (tree.XML_PI_NODE, tree.XML_COMMENT_NODE):
+                raise TypeError, "Only processing instructions and comments can be siblings of the root element"
+            element.tail = None
+        _appendSibling(self, element)
+
+    def addprevious(self, _Element element not None):
+        """addprevious(self, element)
+
+        Adds the element as a preceding sibling directly before this
+        element.
+
+        This is normally used to set a processing instruction or comment
+        before the root node of a document.  Note that tail text is
+        automatically discarded when adding at the root level.
+        """
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        _assertValidNode(element)
+        if self._c_node.parent != NULL and not _isElement(self._c_node.parent):
+            if element._c_node.type != tree.XML_PI_NODE:
+                if element._c_node.type != tree.XML_COMMENT_NODE:
+                    raise TypeError, "Only processing instructions and comments can be siblings of the root element"
+            element.tail = None
+        _prependSibling(self, element)
+
+    def extend(self, elements):
+        """extend(self, elements)
+
+        Extends the current children by the elements in the iterable.
+        """
+        cdef _Element element
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        for element in elements:
+            if element is None:
+                raise TypeError, "Node must not be None"
+            _assertValidNode(element)
+            _appendChild(self, element)
+
+    def clear(self, bint keep_tail=False):
+        """clear(self, keep_tail=False)
+
+        Resets an element.  This function removes all subelements, clears
+        all attributes and sets the text and tail properties to None.
+
+        Pass ``keep_tail=True`` to leave the tail text untouched.
+        """
+        cdef xmlAttr* c_attr
+        cdef xmlAttr* c_attr_next
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node_next
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        c_node = self._c_node
+        # remove self.text and self.tail
+        _removeText(c_node.children)
+        if not keep_tail:
+            _removeText(c_node.next)
+        # remove all attributes
+        c_attr = c_node.properties
+        if c_attr:
+            c_node.properties = NULL
+            tree.xmlFreePropList(c_attr)
+        # remove all subelements
+        c_node = c_node.children
+        if c_node and not _isElement(c_node):
+            c_node = _nextElement(c_node)
+        while c_node is not NULL:
+            c_node_next = _nextElement(c_node)
+            _removeNode(self._doc, c_node)
+            c_node = c_node_next
+
+    def insert(self, index: int, _Element element not None):
+        """insert(self, index, element)
+
+        Inserts a subelement at the given position in this element
+        """
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node
+        cdef xmlNode* c_next
+        cdef xmlDoc* c_source_doc
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        _assertValidNode(element)
+        c_node = _findChild(self._c_node, index)
+        if c_node is NULL:
+            _appendChild(self, element)
+            return
+        # prevent cycles
+        if _isAncestorOrSame(element._c_node, self._c_node):
+            raise ValueError("cannot append parent to itself")
+        c_source_doc = element._c_node.doc
+        c_next = element._c_node.next
+        tree.xmlAddPrevSibling(c_node, element._c_node)
+        _moveTail(c_next, element._c_node)
+        moveNodeToDocument(self._doc, c_source_doc, element._c_node)
+
+    def remove(self, _Element element not None):
+        """remove(self, element)
+
+        Removes a matching subelement. Unlike the find methods, this
+        method compares elements based on identity, not on tag value
+        or contents.
+        """
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node
+        cdef xmlNode* c_next
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        _assertValidNode(element)
+        c_node = element._c_node
+        if c_node.parent is not self._c_node:
+            raise ValueError, "Element is not a child of this node."
+        c_next = element._c_node.next
+        tree.xmlUnlinkNode(c_node)
+        _moveTail(c_next, c_node)
+        # fix namespace declarations
+        moveNodeToDocument(self._doc, c_node.doc, c_node)
+
+    def replace(self, _Element old_element not None,
+                _Element new_element not None):
+        """replace(self, old_element, new_element)
+
+        Replaces a subelement with the element passed as second argument.
+        """
+        cdef xmlNode* c_old_node
+        cdef xmlNode* c_old_next
+        cdef xmlNode* c_new_node
+        cdef xmlNode* c_new_next
+        cdef xmlDoc* c_source_doc
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        _assertValidNode(old_element)
+        _assertValidNode(new_element)
+        c_old_node = old_element._c_node
+        if c_old_node.parent is not self._c_node:
+            raise ValueError, "Element is not a child of this node."
+        c_new_node = new_element._c_node
+        # prevent cycles
+        if _isAncestorOrSame(c_new_node, self._c_node):
+            raise ValueError("cannot append parent to itself")
+        # replace node
+        c_old_next = c_old_node.next
+        c_new_next = c_new_node.next
+        c_source_doc = c_new_node.doc
+        tree.xmlReplaceNode(c_old_node, c_new_node)
+        _moveTail(c_new_next, c_new_node)
+        _moveTail(c_old_next, c_old_node)
+        moveNodeToDocument(self._doc, c_source_doc, c_new_node)
+        # fix namespace declarations
+        moveNodeToDocument(self._doc, c_old_node.doc, c_old_node)
+
+    # PROPERTIES
+    property tag:
+        """Element tag
+        """
+        def __get__(self):
+            if self._tag is not None:
+                return self._tag
+            _assertValidNode(self)
+            self._tag = _namespacedName(self._c_node)
+            return self._tag
+
+        def __set__(self, value):
+            cdef _BaseParser parser
+            _assertValidNode(self)
+            ns, name = _getNsTag(value)
+            parser = self._doc._parser
+            if parser is not None and parser._for_html:
+                _htmlTagValidOrRaise(name)
+            else:
+                _tagValidOrRaise(name)
+            self._tag = value
+            tree.xmlNodeSetName(self._c_node, _xcstr(name))
+            if ns is None:
+                self._c_node.ns = NULL
+            else:
+                self._doc._setNodeNs(self._c_node, _xcstr(ns))
+
+    @property
+    def attrib(self):
+        """Element attribute dictionary. Where possible, use get(), set(),
+        keys(), values() and items() to access element attributes.
+        """
+        return _Attrib.__new__(_Attrib, self)
+
+    property text:
+        """Text before the first subelement. This is either a string or
+        the value None, if there was no text.
+        """
+        def __get__(self):
+            _assertValidNode(self)
+            return _collectText(self._c_node.children)
+
+        def __set__(self, value):
+            _assertValidNode(self)
+            if isinstance(value, QName):
+                value = _resolveQNameText(self, value).decode('utf8')
+            _setNodeText(self._c_node, value)
+
+        # using 'del el.text' is the wrong thing to do
+        #def __del__(self):
+        #    _setNodeText(self._c_node, None)
+
+    property tail:
+        """Text after this element's end tag, but before the next sibling
+        element's start tag. This is either a string or the value None, if
+        there was no text.
+        """
+        def __get__(self):
+            _assertValidNode(self)
+            return _collectText(self._c_node.next)
+
+        def __set__(self, value):
+            _assertValidNode(self)
+            _setTailText(self._c_node, value)
+
+        # using 'del el.tail' is the wrong thing to do
+        #def __del__(self):
+        #    _setTailText(self._c_node, None)
+
+    # not in ElementTree, read-only
+    @property
+    def prefix(self):
+        """Namespace prefix or None.
+        """
+        if self._c_node.ns is not NULL:
+            if self._c_node.ns.prefix is not NULL:
+                return funicode(self._c_node.ns.prefix)
+        return None
+
+    # not in ElementTree, read-only
+    property sourceline:
+        """Original line number as found by the parser or None if unknown.
+        """
+        def __get__(self):
+            cdef long line
+            _assertValidNode(self)
+            line = tree.xmlGetLineNo(self._c_node)
+            return line if line > 0 else None
+
+        def __set__(self, line):
+            _assertValidNode(self)
+            if line <= 0:
+                self._c_node.line = 0
+            else:
+                self._c_node.line = line
+
+    # not in ElementTree, read-only
+    @property
+    def nsmap(self):
+        """Namespace prefix->URI mapping known in the context of this
+        Element.  This includes all namespace declarations of the
+        parents.
+
+        Note that changing the returned dict has no effect on the Element.
+        """
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        return _build_nsmap(self._c_node)
+
+    # not in ElementTree, read-only
+    property base:
+        """The base URI of the Element (xml:base or HTML base URL).
+        None if the base URI is unknown.
+
+        Note that the value depends on the URL of the document that
+        holds the Element if there is no xml:base attribute on the
+        Element or its ancestors.
+
+        Setting this property will set an xml:base attribute on the
+        Element, regardless of the document type (XML or HTML).
+        """
+        def __get__(self):
+            _assertValidNode(self)
+            c_base = tree.xmlNodeGetBase(self._doc._c_doc, self._c_node)
+            if c_base is NULL:
+                if self._doc._c_doc.URL is NULL:
+                    return None
+                return _decodeFilename(self._doc._c_doc.URL)
+            try:
+                base = _decodeFilename(c_base)
+            finally:
+                tree.xmlFree(c_base)
+            return base
+
+        def __set__(self, url):
+            _assertValidNode(self)
+            if url is None:
+                c_base = <const_xmlChar*>NULL
+            else:
+                url = _encodeFilename(url)
+                c_base = _xcstr(url)
+            tree.xmlNodeSetBase(self._c_node, c_base)
+
+    # ACCESSORS
+    def __repr__(self):
+        "__repr__(self)"
+        return "<Element %s at 0x%x>" % (self.tag, id(self))
+
+    def __getitem__(self, x):
+        """Returns the subelement at the given position or the requested
+        slice.
+        """
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node = NULL
+        cdef Py_ssize_t step = 0, slicelength = 0
+        cdef Py_ssize_t c, i
+        cdef _node_to_node_function next_element
+        cdef list result
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        if isinstance(x, slice):
+            # slicing
+            if _isFullSlice(<slice>x):
+                return _collectChildren(self)
+            _findChildSlice(<slice>x, self._c_node, &c_node, &step, &slicelength)
+            if c_node is NULL:
+                return []
+            if step > 0:
+                next_element = _nextElement
+            else:
+                step = -step
+                next_element = _previousElement
+            result = []
+            c = 0
+            while c_node is not NULL and c < slicelength:
+                result.append(_elementFactory(self._doc, c_node))
+                c += 1
+                for i in range(step):
+                    c_node = next_element(c_node)
+                    if c_node is NULL:
+                        break
+            return result
+        else:
+            # indexing
+            c_node = _findChild(self._c_node, x)
+            if c_node is NULL:
+                raise IndexError, "list index out of range"
+            return _elementFactory(self._doc, c_node)
+
+    def __len__(self):
+        """__len__(self)
+
+        Returns the number of subelements.
+        """
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        return _countElements(self._c_node.children)
+
+    def __bool__(self):
+        """__bool__(self)"""
+        import warnings
+        warnings.warn(
+            "Truth-testing of elements was a source of confusion and will always "
+            "return True in future versions. "
+            "Use specific 'len(elem)' or 'elem is not None' test instead.",
+            FutureWarning
+            )
+        # emulate old behaviour
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        return _hasChild(self._c_node)
+
+    def __contains__(self, element):
+        "__contains__(self, element)"
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        if not isinstance(element, _Element):
+            return 0
+        c_node = (<_Element>element)._c_node
+        return c_node is not NULL and c_node.parent is self._c_node
+
+    def __iter__(self):
+        "__iter__(self)"
+        return ElementChildIterator(self)
+
+    def __reversed__(self):
+        "__reversed__(self)"
+        return ElementChildIterator(self, reversed=True)
+
+    def index(self, child: _Element, start: int = None, stop: int = None):
+        """index(self, child, start=None, stop=None)
+
+        Find the position of the child within the parent.
+
+        This method is not part of the original ElementTree API.
+        """
+        cdef Py_ssize_t k, l
+        cdef Py_ssize_t c_start, c_stop
+        cdef xmlNode* c_child
+        cdef xmlNode* c_start_node
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        _assertValidNode(child)
+        c_child = child._c_node
+        if c_child.parent is not self._c_node:
+            raise ValueError, "Element is not a child of this node."
+
+        # handle the unbounded search straight away (normal case)
+        if stop is None and (start is None or start == 0):
+            k = 0
+            c_child = c_child.prev
+            while c_child is not NULL:
+                if _isElement(c_child):
+                    k += 1
+                c_child = c_child.prev
+            return k
+
+        # check indices
+        if start is None:
+            c_start = 0
+        else:
+            c_start = start
+        if stop is None:
+            c_stop = 0
+        else:
+            c_stop = stop
+            if c_stop == 0 or \
+                   c_start >= c_stop and (c_stop > 0 or c_start < 0):
+                raise ValueError, "list.index(x): x not in slice"
+
+        # for negative slice indices, check slice before searching index
+        if c_start < 0 or c_stop < 0:
+            # start from right, at most up to leftmost(c_start, c_stop)
+            if c_start < c_stop:
+                k = -c_start
+            else:
+                k = -c_stop
+            c_start_node = self._c_node.last
+            l = 1
+            while c_start_node != c_child and l < k:
+                if _isElement(c_start_node):
+                    l += 1
+                c_start_node = c_start_node.prev
+            if c_start_node == c_child:
+                # found! before slice end?
+                if c_stop < 0 and l <= -c_stop:
+                    raise ValueError, "list.index(x): x not in slice"
+            elif c_start < 0:
+                raise ValueError, "list.index(x): x not in slice"
+
+        # now determine the index backwards from child
+        c_child = c_child.prev
+        k = 0
+        if c_stop > 0:
+            # we can optimize: stop after c_stop elements if not found
+            while c_child != NULL and k < c_stop:
+                if _isElement(c_child):
+                    k += 1
+                c_child = c_child.prev
+            if k < c_stop:
+                return k
+        else:
+            # traverse all
+            while c_child != NULL:
+                if _isElement(c_child):
+                    k = k + 1
+                c_child = c_child.prev
+            if c_start > 0:
+                if k >= c_start:
+                    return k
+            else:
+                return k
+        if c_start != 0 or c_stop != 0:
+            raise ValueError, "list.index(x): x not in slice"
+        else:
+            raise ValueError, "list.index(x): x not in list"
+
+    def get(self, key, default=None):
+        """get(self, key, default=None)
+
+        Gets an element attribute.
+        """
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        return _getAttributeValue(self, key, default)
+
+    def keys(self):
+        """keys(self)
+
+        Gets a list of attribute names.  The names are returned in an
+        arbitrary order (just like for an ordinary Python dictionary).
+        """
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        return _collectAttributes(self._c_node, 1)
+
+    def values(self):
+        """values(self)
+
+        Gets element attribute values as a sequence of strings.  The
+        attributes are returned in an arbitrary order.
+        """
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        return _collectAttributes(self._c_node, 2)
+
+    def items(self):
+        """items(self)
+
+        Gets element attributes, as a sequence. The attributes are returned in
+        an arbitrary order.
+        """
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        return _collectAttributes(self._c_node, 3)
+
+    def getchildren(self):
+        """getchildren(self)
+
+        Returns all direct children.  The elements are returned in document
+        order.
+
+        :deprecated: Note that this method has been deprecated as of
+          ElementTree 1.3 and lxml 2.0.  New code should use
+          ``list(element)`` or simply iterate over elements.
+        """
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        return _collectChildren(self)
+
+    def getparent(self):
+        """getparent(self)
+
+        Returns the parent of this element or None for the root element.
+        """
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node
+        #_assertValidNode(self) # not needed
+        c_node = _parentElement(self._c_node)
+        if c_node is NULL:
+            return None
+        return _elementFactory(self._doc, c_node)
+
+    def getnext(self):
+        """getnext(self)
+
+        Returns the following sibling of this element or None.
+        """
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node
+        #_assertValidNode(self) # not needed
+        c_node = _nextElement(self._c_node)
+        if c_node is NULL:
+            return None
+        return _elementFactory(self._doc, c_node)
+
+    def getprevious(self):
+        """getprevious(self)
+
+        Returns the preceding sibling of this element or None.
+        """
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node
+        #_assertValidNode(self) # not needed
+        c_node = _previousElement(self._c_node)
+        if c_node is NULL:
+            return None
+        return _elementFactory(self._doc, c_node)
+
+    def itersiblings(self, tag=None, *tags, preceding=False):
+        """itersiblings(self, tag=None, *tags, preceding=False)
+
+        Iterate over the following or preceding siblings of this element.
+
+        The direction is determined by the 'preceding' keyword which
+        defaults to False, i.e. forward iteration over the following
+        siblings.  When True, the iterator yields the preceding
+        siblings in reverse document order, i.e. starting right before
+        the current element and going backwards.
+
+        Can be restricted to find only elements with specific tags,
+        see `iter`.
+        """
+        if preceding:
+            if self._c_node and not self._c_node.prev:
+                return ITER_EMPTY
+        elif self._c_node and not self._c_node.next:
+            return ITER_EMPTY
+        if tag is not None:
+            tags += (tag,)
+        return SiblingsIterator(self, tags, preceding=preceding)
+
+    def iterancestors(self, tag=None, *tags):
+        """iterancestors(self, tag=None, *tags)
+
+        Iterate over the ancestors of this element (from parent to parent).
+
+        Can be restricted to find only elements with specific tags,
+        see `iter`.
+        """
+        if self._c_node and not self._c_node.parent:
+            return ITER_EMPTY
+        if tag is not None:
+            tags += (tag,)
+        return AncestorsIterator(self, tags)
+
+    def iterdescendants(self, tag=None, *tags):
+        """iterdescendants(self, tag=None, *tags)
+
+        Iterate over the descendants of this element in document order.
+
+        As opposed to ``el.iter()``, this iterator does not yield the element
+        itself.  The returned elements can be restricted to find only elements
+        with specific tags, see `iter`.
+        """
+        if self._c_node and not self._c_node.children:
+            return ITER_EMPTY
+        if tag is not None:
+            tags += (tag,)
+        return ElementDepthFirstIterator(self, tags, inclusive=False)
+
+    def iterchildren(self, tag=None, *tags, reversed=False):
+        """iterchildren(self, tag=None, *tags, reversed=False)
+
+        Iterate over the children of this element.
+
+        As opposed to using normal iteration on this element, the returned
+        elements can be reversed with the 'reversed' keyword and restricted
+        to find only elements with specific tags, see `iter`.
+        """
+        if self._c_node and not self._c_node.children:
+            return ITER_EMPTY
+        if tag is not None:
+            tags += (tag,)
+        return ElementChildIterator(self, tags, reversed=reversed)
+
+    def getroottree(self):
+        """getroottree(self)
+
+        Return an ElementTree for the root node of the document that
+        contains this element.
+
+        This is the same as following element.getparent() up the tree until it
+        returns None (for the root element) and then build an ElementTree for
+        the last parent that was returned."""
+        _assertValidDoc(self._doc)
+        return _elementTreeFactory(self._doc, None)
+
+    def getiterator(self, tag=None, *tags):
+        """getiterator(self, tag=None, *tags)
+
+        Returns a sequence or iterator of all elements in the subtree in
+        document order (depth first pre-order), starting with this
+        element.
+
+        Can be restricted to find only elements with specific tags,
+        see `iter`.
+
+        :deprecated: Note that this method is deprecated as of
+          ElementTree 1.3 and lxml 2.0.  It returns an iterator in
+          lxml, which diverges from the original ElementTree
+          behaviour.  If you want an efficient iterator, use the
+          ``element.iter()`` method instead.  You should only use this
+          method in new code if you require backwards compatibility
+          with older versions of lxml or ElementTree.
+        """
+        if tag is not None:
+            tags += (tag,)
+        return ElementDepthFirstIterator(self, tags)
+
+    def iter(self, tag=None, *tags):
+        """iter(self, tag=None, *tags)
+
+        Iterate over all elements in the subtree in document order (depth
+        first pre-order), starting with this element.
+
+        Can be restricted to find only elements with specific tags:
+        pass ``"{ns}localname"`` as tag. Either or both of ``ns`` and
+        ``localname`` can be ``*`` for a wildcard; ``ns`` can be empty
+        for no namespace. ``"localname"`` is equivalent to ``"{}localname"``
+        (i.e. no namespace) but ``"*"`` is ``"{*}*"`` (any or no namespace),
+        not ``"{}*"``.
+
+        You can also pass the Element, Comment, ProcessingInstruction and
+        Entity factory functions to look only for the specific element type.
+
+        Passing multiple tags (or a sequence of tags) instead of a single tag
+        will let the iterator return all elements matching any of these tags,
+        in document order.
+        """
+        if tag is not None:
+            tags += (tag,)
+        return ElementDepthFirstIterator(self, tags)
+
+    def itertext(self, tag=None, *tags, with_tail=True):
+        """itertext(self, tag=None, *tags, with_tail=True)
+
+        Iterates over the text content of a subtree.
+
+        You can pass tag names to restrict text content to specific elements,
+        see `iter`.
+
+        You can set the ``with_tail`` keyword argument to ``False`` to skip
+        over tail text.
+        """
+        if tag is not None:
+            tags += (tag,)
+        return ElementTextIterator(self, tags, with_tail=with_tail)
+
+    def makeelement(self, _tag, attrib=None, nsmap=None, **_extra):
+        """makeelement(self, _tag, attrib=None, nsmap=None, **_extra)
+
+        Creates a new element associated with the same document.
+        """
+        _assertValidDoc(self._doc)
+        return _makeElement(_tag, NULL, self._doc, None, None, None,
+                            attrib, nsmap, _extra)
+
+    def find(self, path, namespaces=None):
+        """find(self, path, namespaces=None)
+
+        Finds the first matching subelement, by tag name or path.
+
+        The optional ``namespaces`` argument accepts a
+        prefix-to-namespace mapping that allows the usage of XPath
+        prefixes in the path expression.
+        """
+        if isinstance(path, QName):
+            path = (<QName>path).text
+        return _elementpath.find(self, path, namespaces, with_prefixes=not _isHtmlDocument(self))
+
+    def findtext(self, path, default=None, namespaces=None):
+        """findtext(self, path, default=None, namespaces=None)
+
+        Finds text for the first matching subelement, by tag name or path.
+
+        The optional ``namespaces`` argument accepts a
+        prefix-to-namespace mapping that allows the usage of XPath
+        prefixes in the path expression.
+        """
+        if isinstance(path, QName):
+            path = (<QName>path).text
+        return _elementpath.findtext(self, path, default, namespaces, with_prefixes=not _isHtmlDocument(self))
+
+    def findall(self, path, namespaces=None):
+        """findall(self, path, namespaces=None)
+
+        Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or path.
+
+        The optional ``namespaces`` argument accepts a
+        prefix-to-namespace mapping that allows the usage of XPath
+        prefixes in the path expression.
+        """
+        if isinstance(path, QName):
+            path = (<QName>path).text
+        return _elementpath.findall(self, path, namespaces, with_prefixes=not _isHtmlDocument(self))
+
+    def iterfind(self, path, namespaces=None):
+        """iterfind(self, path, namespaces=None)
+
+        Iterates over all matching subelements, by tag name or path.
+
+        The optional ``namespaces`` argument accepts a
+        prefix-to-namespace mapping that allows the usage of XPath
+        prefixes in the path expression.
+        """
+        if isinstance(path, QName):
+            path = (<QName>path).text
+        return _elementpath.iterfind(self, path, namespaces, with_prefixes=not _isHtmlDocument(self))
+
+    def xpath(self, _path, *, namespaces=None, extensions=None,
+              smart_strings=True, **_variables):
+        """xpath(self, _path, namespaces=None, extensions=None, smart_strings=True, **_variables)
+
+        Evaluate an xpath expression using the element as context node.
+        """
+        evaluator = XPathElementEvaluator(self, namespaces=namespaces,
+                                          extensions=extensions,
+                                          smart_strings=smart_strings)
+        return evaluator(_path, **_variables)
+
+    def cssselect(self, expr, *, translator='xml'):
+        """
+        Run the CSS expression on this element and its children,
+        returning a list of the results.
+
+        Equivalent to lxml.cssselect.CSSSelect(expr)(self) -- note
+        that pre-compiling the expression can provide a substantial
+        speedup.
+        """
+        # Do the import here to make the dependency optional.
+        from lxml.cssselect import CSSSelector
+        return CSSSelector(expr, translator=translator)(self)
+
+
+@cython.linetrace(False)
+cdef _Element _elementFactory(_Document doc, xmlNode* c_node):
+    cdef _Element result
+    result = getProxy(c_node)
+    if result is not None:
+        return result
+    if c_node is NULL:
+        return None
+
+    element_class = <type> LOOKUP_ELEMENT_CLASS(
+        ELEMENT_CLASS_LOOKUP_STATE, doc, c_node)
+    if type(element_class) is not type:
+        if not isinstance(element_class, type):
+            raise TypeError(f"Element class is not a type, got {type(element_class)}")
+    if hasProxy(c_node):
+        # prevent re-entry race condition - we just called into Python
+        return getProxy(c_node)
+    result = element_class.__new__(element_class)
+    if hasProxy(c_node):
+        # prevent re-entry race condition - we just called into Python
+        result._c_node = NULL
+        return getProxy(c_node)
+
+    _registerProxy(result, doc, c_node)
+    if element_class is not _Element:
+        result._init()
+    return result
+
+
+@cython.internal
+cdef class __ContentOnlyElement(_Element):
+    cdef int _raiseImmutable(self) except -1:
+        raise TypeError, "this element does not have children or attributes"
+
+    def set(self, key, value):
+        "set(self, key, value)"
+        self._raiseImmutable()
+
+    def append(self, value):
+        "append(self, value)"
+        self._raiseImmutable()
+
+    def insert(self, index, value):
+        "insert(self, index, value)"
+        self._raiseImmutable()
+
+    def __setitem__(self, index, value):
+        "__setitem__(self, index, value)"
+        self._raiseImmutable()
+
+    @property
+    def attrib(self):
+        return IMMUTABLE_EMPTY_MAPPING
+
+    property text:
+        def __get__(self):
+            _assertValidNode(self)
+            return funicodeOrEmpty(self._c_node.content)
+
+        def __set__(self, value):
+            cdef tree.xmlDict* c_dict
+            _assertValidNode(self)
+            if value is None:
+                c_text = <const_xmlChar*>NULL
+            else:
+                value = _utf8(value)
+                c_text = _xcstr(value)
+            tree.xmlNodeSetContent(self._c_node, c_text)
+
+    # ACCESSORS
+    def __getitem__(self, x):
+        "__getitem__(self, x)"
+        if isinstance(x, slice):
+            return []
+        else:
+            raise IndexError, "list index out of range"
+
+    def __len__(self):
+        "__len__(self)"
+        return 0
+
+    def get(self, key, default=None):
+        "get(self, key, default=None)"
+        return None
+
+    def keys(self):
+        "keys(self)"
+        return []
+
+    def items(self):
+        "items(self)"
+        return []
+
+    def values(self):
+        "values(self)"
+        return []
+
+cdef class _Comment(__ContentOnlyElement):
+    @property
+    def tag(self):
+        return Comment
+
+    def __repr__(self):
+        return "<!--%s-->" % self.text
+
+cdef class _ProcessingInstruction(__ContentOnlyElement):
+    @property
+    def tag(self):
+        return ProcessingInstruction
+
+    property target:
+        # not in ElementTree
+        def __get__(self):
+            _assertValidNode(self)
+            return funicode(self._c_node.name)
+
+        def __set__(self, value):
+            _assertValidNode(self)
+            value = _utf8(value)
+            c_text = _xcstr(value)
+            tree.xmlNodeSetName(self._c_node, c_text)
+
+    def __repr__(self):
+        text = self.text
+        if text:
+            return "<?%s %s?>" % (self.target, text)
+        else:
+            return "<?%s?>" % self.target
+
+    def get(self, key, default=None):
+        """get(self, key, default=None)
+
+        Try to parse pseudo-attributes from the text content of the
+        processing instruction, search for one with the given key as
+        name and return its associated value.
+
+        Note that this is only a convenience method for the most
+        common case that all text content is structured in
+        attribute-like name-value pairs with properly quoted values.
+        It is not guaranteed to work for all possible text content.
+        """
+        return self.attrib.get(key, default)
+
+    @property
+    def attrib(self):
+        """Returns a dict containing all pseudo-attributes that can be
+        parsed from the text content of this processing instruction.
+        Note that modifying the dict currently has no effect on the
+        XML node, although this is not guaranteed to stay this way.
+        """
+        return { attr : (value1 or value2)
+                 for attr, value1, value2 in _FIND_PI_ATTRIBUTES(' ' + self.text) }
+
+cdef object _FIND_PI_ATTRIBUTES = re.compile(r'\s+(\w+)\s*=\s*(?:\'([^\']*)\'|"([^"]*)")', re.U).findall
+
+cdef class _Entity(__ContentOnlyElement):
+    @property
+    def tag(self):
+        return Entity
+
+    property name:
+        # not in ElementTree
+        def __get__(self):
+            _assertValidNode(self)
+            return funicode(self._c_node.name)
+
+        def __set__(self, value):
+            _assertValidNode(self)
+            value_utf = _utf8(value)
+            if b'&' in value_utf or b';' in value_utf:
+                raise ValueError, f"Invalid entity name '{value}'"
+            tree.xmlNodeSetName(self._c_node, _xcstr(value_utf))
+
+    @property
+    def text(self):
+        # FIXME: should this be None or '&[VALUE];' or the resolved
+        # entity value ?
+        _assertValidNode(self)
+        return f'&{funicode(self._c_node.name)};'
+
+    def __repr__(self):
+        return "&%s;" % self.name
+
+
+cdef class QName:
+    """QName(text_or_uri_or_element, tag=None)
+
+    QName wrapper for qualified XML names.
+
+    Pass a tag name by itself or a namespace URI and a tag name to
+    create a qualified name.  Alternatively, pass an Element to
+    extract its tag name.  ``None`` as first argument is ignored in
+    order to allow for generic 2-argument usage.
+
+    The ``text`` property holds the qualified name in
+    ``{namespace}tagname`` notation.  The ``namespace`` and
+    ``localname`` properties hold the respective parts of the tag
+    name.
+
+    You can pass QName objects wherever a tag name is expected.  Also,
+    setting Element text from a QName will resolve the namespace prefix
+    on assignment and set a qualified text value.  This is helpful in XML
+    languages like SOAP or XML-Schema that use prefixed tag names in
+    their text content.
+    """
+    cdef readonly unicode text
+    cdef readonly unicode localname
+    cdef readonly unicode namespace
+    def __init__(self, text_or_uri_or_element, tag=None):
+        if text_or_uri_or_element is None:
+            # Allow None as no namespace.
+            text_or_uri_or_element, tag = tag, None
+        if not _isString(text_or_uri_or_element):
+            if isinstance(text_or_uri_or_element, _Element):
+                text_or_uri_or_element = (<_Element>text_or_uri_or_element).tag
+                if not _isString(text_or_uri_or_element):
+                    raise ValueError, f"Invalid input tag of type {type(text_or_uri_or_element)!r}"
+            elif isinstance(text_or_uri_or_element, QName):
+                text_or_uri_or_element = (<QName>text_or_uri_or_element).text
+            elif text_or_uri_or_element is not None:
+                text_or_uri_or_element = unicode(text_or_uri_or_element)
+            else:
+                raise ValueError, f"Invalid input tag of type {type(text_or_uri_or_element)!r}"
+
+        ns_utf, tag_utf = _getNsTag(text_or_uri_or_element)
+        if tag is not None:
+            # either ('ns', 'tag') or ('{ns}oldtag', 'newtag')
+            if ns_utf is None:
+                ns_utf = tag_utf # case 1: namespace ended up as tag name
+            tag_utf = _utf8(tag)
+        _tagValidOrRaise(tag_utf)
+        self.localname = (<bytes>tag_utf).decode('utf8')
+        if ns_utf is None:
+            self.namespace = None
+            self.text = self.localname
+        else:
+            self.namespace = (<bytes>ns_utf).decode('utf8')
+            self.text = "{%s}%s" % (self.namespace, self.localname)
+    def __str__(self):
+        return self.text
+    def __hash__(self):
+        return hash(self.text)
+    def __richcmp__(self, other, int op):
+        try:
+            if type(other) is QName:
+                other = (<QName>other).text
+            elif not isinstance(other, unicode):
+                other = unicode(other)
+        except (ValueError, UnicodeDecodeError):
+            return NotImplemented
+        return python.PyObject_RichCompare(self.text, other, op)
+
+
+cdef public class _ElementTree [ type LxmlElementTreeType,
+                                 object LxmlElementTree ]:
+    cdef _Document _doc
+    cdef _Element _context_node
+
+    # Note that _doc is only used to store the original document if we do not
+    # have a _context_node.  All methods should prefer self._context_node._doc
+    # to honour tree restructuring.  _doc can happily be None!
+
+    @cython.final
+    cdef int _assertHasRoot(self) except -1:
+        """We have to take care here: the document may not have a root node!
+        This can happen if ElementTree() is called without any argument and
+        the caller 'forgets' to call parse() afterwards, so this is a bug in
+        the caller program.
+        """
+        assert self._context_node is not None, \
+               "ElementTree not initialized, missing root"
+        return 0
+
+    def parse(self, source, _BaseParser parser=None, *, base_url=None):
+        """parse(self, source, parser=None, base_url=None)
+
+        Updates self with the content of source and returns its root.
+        """
+        cdef _Document doc = None
+        try:
+            doc = _parseDocument(source, parser, base_url)
+        except _TargetParserResult as result_container:
+            # raises a TypeError if we don't get an _Element
+            self._context_node = result_container.result
+        else:
+            self._context_node = doc.getroot()
+        self._doc = None if self._context_node is not None else doc
+        return self._context_node
+
+    def _setroot(self, _Element root not None):
+        """_setroot(self, root)
+
+        Relocate the ElementTree to a new root node.
+        """
+        _assertValidNode(root)
+        if root._c_node.type != tree.XML_ELEMENT_NODE:
+            raise TypeError, "Only elements can be the root of an ElementTree"
+        self._context_node = root
+        self._doc = None
+
+    def getroot(self):
+        """getroot(self)
+
+        Gets the root element for this tree.
+        """
+        return self._context_node
+
+    def __copy__(self):
+        return _elementTreeFactory(self._doc, self._context_node)
+
+    def __deepcopy__(self, memo):
+        cdef _Element root
+        cdef _Document doc
+        cdef xmlDoc* c_doc
+        if self._context_node is not None:
+            root = self._context_node.__copy__()
+            assert root is not None
+            _assertValidNode(root)
+            _copyNonElementSiblings(self._context_node._c_node, root._c_node)
+            return _elementTreeFactory(None, root)
+        elif self._doc is not None:
+            _assertValidDoc(self._doc)
+            c_doc = tree.xmlCopyDoc(self._doc._c_doc, 1)
+            if c_doc is NULL:
+                raise MemoryError()
+            doc = _documentFactory(c_doc, self._doc._parser)
+            return _elementTreeFactory(doc, None)
+        else:
+            # so what ...
+            return self
+
+    # not in ElementTree
+    @property
+    def docinfo(self) -> DocInfo:
+        """Information about the document provided by parser and DTD."""
+        self._assertHasRoot()
+        return DocInfo(self._context_node._doc)
+
+    # not in ElementTree, read-only
+    @property
+    def parser(self):
+        """The parser that was used to parse the document in this ElementTree.
+        """
+        if self._context_node is not None and \
+               self._context_node._doc is not None:
+            return self._context_node._doc._parser
+        if self._doc is not None:
+            return self._doc._parser
+        return None
+
+    def write(self, file, *, encoding=None, method="xml",
+              bint pretty_print=False, xml_declaration=None, bint with_tail=True,
+              standalone=None, doctype=None, compression=0,
+              bint exclusive=False, inclusive_ns_prefixes=None,
+              bint with_comments=True, bint strip_text=False,
+              docstring=None):
+        """write(self, file, encoding=None, method="xml",
+                  pretty_print=False, xml_declaration=None, with_tail=True,
+                  standalone=None, doctype=None, compression=0,
+                  exclusive=False, inclusive_ns_prefixes=None,
+                  with_comments=True, strip_text=False)
+
+        Write the tree to a filename, file or file-like object.
+
+        Defaults to ASCII encoding and writing a declaration as needed.
+
+        The keyword argument 'method' selects the output method:
+        'xml', 'html', 'text', 'c14n' or 'c14n2'.  Default is 'xml'.
+
+        With ``method="c14n"`` (C14N version 1), the options ``exclusive``,
+        ``with_comments`` and ``inclusive_ns_prefixes`` request exclusive
+        C14N, include comments, and list the inclusive prefixes respectively.
+
+        With ``method="c14n2"`` (C14N version 2), the ``with_comments`` and
+        ``strip_text`` options control the output of comments and text space
+        according to C14N 2.0.
+
+        Passing a boolean value to the ``standalone`` option will
+        output an XML declaration with the corresponding
+        ``standalone`` flag.
+
+        The ``doctype`` option allows passing in a plain string that will
+        be serialised before the XML tree.  Note that passing in non
+        well-formed content here will make the XML output non well-formed.
+        Also, an existing doctype in the document tree will not be removed
+        when serialising an ElementTree instance.
+
+        The ``compression`` option enables GZip compression level 1-9.
+
+        The ``inclusive_ns_prefixes`` should be a list of namespace strings
+        (i.e. ['xs', 'xsi']) that will be promoted to the top-level element
+        during exclusive C14N serialisation.  This parameter is ignored if
+        exclusive mode=False.
+
+        If exclusive=True and no list is provided, a namespace will only be
+        rendered if it is used by the immediate parent or one of its attributes
+        and its prefix and values have not already been rendered by an ancestor
+        of the namespace node's parent element.
+        """
+        cdef bint write_declaration
+        cdef int is_standalone
+
+        self._assertHasRoot()
+        _assertValidNode(self._context_node)
+        if compression is None or compression < 0:
+            compression = 0
+
+        # C14N serialisation
+        if method in ('c14n', 'c14n2'):
+            if encoding is not None:
+                raise ValueError("Cannot specify encoding with C14N")
+            if xml_declaration:
+                raise ValueError("Cannot enable XML declaration in C14N")
+
+            if method == 'c14n':
+                _tofilelikeC14N(file, self._context_node, exclusive, with_comments,
+                                compression, inclusive_ns_prefixes)
+            else:  # c14n2
+                with _open_utf8_file(file, compression=compression) as f:
+                    target = C14NWriterTarget(
+                        f.write, with_comments=with_comments, strip_text=strip_text)
+                    _tree_to_target(self, target)
+            return
+
+        if not with_comments:
+            raise ValueError("Can only discard comments in C14N serialisation")
+        # suppress decl. in default case (purely for ElementTree compatibility)
+        if xml_declaration is not None:
+            write_declaration = xml_declaration
+            if encoding is None:
+                encoding = 'ASCII'
+            else:
+                encoding = encoding.upper()
+        elif encoding is None:
+            encoding = 'ASCII'
+            write_declaration = 0
+        else:
+            encoding = encoding.upper()
+            write_declaration = encoding not in (
+                'US-ASCII', 'ASCII', 'UTF8', 'UTF-8')
+        if standalone is None:
+            is_standalone = -1
+        elif standalone:
+            write_declaration = 1
+            is_standalone = 1
+        else:
+            write_declaration = 1
+            is_standalone = 0
+
+        if docstring is not None and doctype is None:
+            import warnings
+            warnings.warn(
+                "The 'docstring' option is deprecated. Use 'doctype' instead.",
+                DeprecationWarning)
+            doctype = docstring
+
+        _tofilelike(file, self._context_node, encoding, doctype, method,
+                    write_declaration, 1, pretty_print, with_tail,
+                    is_standalone, compression)
+
+    def getpath(self, _Element element not None):
+        """getpath(self, element)
+
+        Returns a structural, absolute XPath expression to find the element.
+
+        For namespaced elements, the expression uses prefixes from the
+        document, which therefore need to be provided in order to make any
+        use of the expression in XPath.
+
+        Also see the method getelementpath(self, element), which returns a
+        self-contained ElementPath expression.
+        """
+        cdef _Document doc
+        cdef _Element root
+        cdef xmlDoc* c_doc
+        _assertValidNode(element)
+        if self._context_node is not None:
+            root = self._context_node
+            doc = root._doc
+        elif self._doc is not None:
+            doc = self._doc
+            root = doc.getroot()
+        else:
+            raise ValueError, "Element is not in this tree."
+        _assertValidDoc(doc)
+        _assertValidNode(root)
+        if element._doc is not doc:
+            raise ValueError, "Element is not in this tree."
+
+        c_doc = _fakeRootDoc(doc._c_doc, root._c_node)
+        c_path = tree.xmlGetNodePath(element._c_node)
+        _destroyFakeDoc(doc._c_doc, c_doc)
+        if c_path is NULL:
+            raise MemoryError()
+        path = funicode(c_path)
+        tree.xmlFree(c_path)
+        return path
+
+    def getelementpath(self, _Element element not None):
+        """getelementpath(self, element)
+
+        Returns a structural, absolute ElementPath expression to find the
+        element.  This path can be used in the .find() method to look up
+        the element, provided that the elements along the path and their
+        list of immediate children were not modified in between.
+
+        ElementPath has the advantage over an XPath expression (as returned
+        by the .getpath() method) that it does not require additional prefix
+        declarations.  It is always self-contained.
+        """
+        cdef _Element root
+        cdef Py_ssize_t count
+        _assertValidNode(element)
+        if element._c_node.type != tree.XML_ELEMENT_NODE:
+            raise ValueError, "input is not an Element"
+        if self._context_node is not None:
+            root = self._context_node
+        elif self._doc is not None:
+            root = self._doc.getroot()
+        else:
+            raise ValueError, "Element is not in this tree"
+        _assertValidNode(root)
+        if element._doc is not root._doc:
+            raise ValueError, "Element is not in this tree"
+
+        path = []
+        c_element = element._c_node
+        while c_element is not root._c_node:
+            c_name = c_element.name
+            c_href = _getNs(c_element)
+            tag = _namespacedNameFromNsName(c_href, c_name)
+            if c_href is NULL:
+                c_href = <const_xmlChar*>b''  # no namespace (NULL is wildcard)
+            # use tag[N] if there are preceding siblings with the same tag
+            count = 0
+            c_node = c_element.prev
+            while c_node is not NULL:
+                if c_node.type == tree.XML_ELEMENT_NODE:
+                    if _tagMatches(c_node, c_href, c_name):
+                        count += 1
+                c_node = c_node.prev
+            if count:
+                tag = f'{tag}[{count+1}]'
+            else:
+                # use tag[1] if there are following siblings with the same tag
+                c_node = c_element.next
+                while c_node is not NULL:
+                    if c_node.type == tree.XML_ELEMENT_NODE:
+                        if _tagMatches(c_node, c_href, c_name):
+                            tag += '[1]'
+                            break
+                    c_node = c_node.next
+
+            path.append(tag)
+            c_element = c_element.parent
+            if c_element is NULL or c_element.type != tree.XML_ELEMENT_NODE:
+                raise ValueError, "Element is not in this tree."
+        if not path:
+            return '.'
+        path.reverse()
+        return '/'.join(path)
+
+    def getiterator(self, tag=None, *tags):
+        """getiterator(self, *tags, tag=None)
+
+        Returns a sequence or iterator of all elements in document order
+        (depth first pre-order), starting with the root element.
+
+        Can be restricted to find only elements with specific tags,
+        see `_Element.iter`.
+
+        :deprecated: Note that this method is deprecated as of
+          ElementTree 1.3 and lxml 2.0.  It returns an iterator in
+          lxml, which diverges from the original ElementTree
+          behaviour.  If you want an efficient iterator, use the
+          ``tree.iter()`` method instead.  You should only use this
+          method in new code if you require backwards compatibility
+          with older versions of lxml or ElementTree.
+        """
+        root = self.getroot()
+        if root is None:
+            return ITER_EMPTY
+        if tag is not None:
+            tags += (tag,)
+        return root.getiterator(*tags)
+
+    def iter(self, tag=None, *tags):
+        """iter(self, tag=None, *tags)
+
+        Creates an iterator for the root element.  The iterator loops over
+        all elements in this tree, in document order.  Note that siblings
+        of the root element (comments or processing instructions) are not
+        returned by the iterator.
+
+        Can be restricted to find only elements with specific tags,
+        see `_Element.iter`.
+        """
+        root = self.getroot()
+        if root is None:
+            return ITER_EMPTY
+        if tag is not None:
+            tags += (tag,)
+        return root.iter(*tags)
+
+    def find(self, path, namespaces=None):
+        """find(self, path, namespaces=None)
+
+        Finds the first toplevel element with given tag.  Same as
+        ``tree.getroot().find(path)``.
+
+        The optional ``namespaces`` argument accepts a
+        prefix-to-namespace mapping that allows the usage of XPath
+        prefixes in the path expression.
+        """
+        self._assertHasRoot()
+        root = self.getroot()
+        if _isString(path):
+            if path[:1] == "/":
+                path = "." + path
+                from warnings import warn
+                warn(
+                    "This search incorrectly ignores the root element, and will be "
+                    "fixed in a future version.  If you rely on the current "
+                    f"behaviour, change it to {path!r}",
+                    FutureWarning, stacklevel=1
+                )
+        return root.find(path, namespaces)
+
+    def findtext(self, path, default=None, namespaces=None):
+        """findtext(self, path, default=None, namespaces=None)
+
+        Finds the text for the first element matching the ElementPath
+        expression.  Same as getroot().findtext(path)
+
+        The optional ``namespaces`` argument accepts a
+        prefix-to-namespace mapping that allows the usage of XPath
+        prefixes in the path expression.
+        """
+        self._assertHasRoot()
+        root = self.getroot()
+        if _isString(path):
+            if path[:1] == "/":
+                path = "." + path
+                from warnings import warn
+                warn(
+                    "This search incorrectly ignores the root element, and will be "
+                    "fixed in a future version.  If you rely on the current "
+                    f"behaviour, change it to {path!r}",
+                    FutureWarning, stacklevel=1
+                )
+        return root.findtext(path, default, namespaces)
+
+    def findall(self, path, namespaces=None):
+        """findall(self, path, namespaces=None)
+
+        Finds all elements matching the ElementPath expression.  Same as
+        getroot().findall(path).
+
+        The optional ``namespaces`` argument accepts a
+        prefix-to-namespace mapping that allows the usage of XPath
+        prefixes in the path expression.
+        """
+        self._assertHasRoot()
+        root = self.getroot()
+        if _isString(path):
+            if path[:1] == "/":
+                path = "." + path
+                from warnings import warn
+                warn(
+                    "This search incorrectly ignores the root element, and will be "
+                    "fixed in a future version.  If you rely on the current "
+                    f"behaviour, change it to {path!r}",
+                    FutureWarning, stacklevel=1
+                )
+        return root.findall(path, namespaces)
+
+    def iterfind(self, path, namespaces=None):
+        """iterfind(self, path, namespaces=None)
+
+        Iterates over all elements matching the ElementPath expression.
+        Same as getroot().iterfind(path).
+
+        The optional ``namespaces`` argument accepts a
+        prefix-to-namespace mapping that allows the usage of XPath
+        prefixes in the path expression.
+        """
+        self._assertHasRoot()
+        root = self.getroot()
+        if _isString(path):
+            if path[:1] == "/":
+                path = "." + path
+                from warnings import warn
+                warn(
+                    "This search incorrectly ignores the root element, and will be "
+                    "fixed in a future version.  If you rely on the current "
+                    f"behaviour, change it to {path!r}",
+                    FutureWarning, stacklevel=1
+                )
+        return root.iterfind(path, namespaces)
+
+    def xpath(self, _path, *, namespaces=None, extensions=None,
+              smart_strings=True, **_variables):
+        """xpath(self, _path, namespaces=None, extensions=None, smart_strings=True, **_variables)
+
+        XPath evaluate in context of document.
+
+        ``namespaces`` is an optional dictionary with prefix to namespace URI
+        mappings, used by XPath.  ``extensions`` defines additional extension
+        functions.
+
+        Returns a list (nodeset), or bool, float or string.
+
+        In case of a list result, return Element for element nodes,
+        string for text and attribute values.
+
+        Note: if you are going to apply multiple XPath expressions
+        against the same document, it is more efficient to use
+        XPathEvaluator directly.
+        """
+        self._assertHasRoot()
+        evaluator = XPathDocumentEvaluator(self, namespaces=namespaces,
+                                           extensions=extensions,
+                                           smart_strings=smart_strings)
+        return evaluator(_path, **_variables)
+
+    def xslt(self, _xslt, extensions=None, access_control=None, **_kw):
+        """xslt(self, _xslt, extensions=None, access_control=None, **_kw)
+
+        Transform this document using other document.
+
+        xslt is a tree that should be XSLT
+        keyword parameters are XSLT transformation parameters.
+
+        Returns the transformed tree.
+
+        Note: if you are going to apply the same XSLT stylesheet against
+        multiple documents, it is more efficient to use the XSLT
+        class directly.
+        """
+        self._assertHasRoot()
+        style = XSLT(_xslt, extensions=extensions,
+                     access_control=access_control)
+        return style(self, **_kw)
+
+    def relaxng(self, relaxng):
+        """relaxng(self, relaxng)
+
+        Validate this document using other document.
+
+        The relaxng argument is a tree that should contain a Relax NG schema.
+
+        Returns True or False, depending on whether validation
+        succeeded.
+
+        Note: if you are going to apply the same Relax NG schema against
+        multiple documents, it is more efficient to use the RelaxNG
+        class directly.
+        """
+        self._assertHasRoot()
+        schema = RelaxNG(relaxng)
+        return schema.validate(self)
+
+    def xmlschema(self, xmlschema):
+        """xmlschema(self, xmlschema)
+
+        Validate this document using other document.
+
+        The xmlschema argument is a tree that should contain an XML Schema.
+
+        Returns True or False, depending on whether validation
+        succeeded.
+
+        Note: If you are going to apply the same XML Schema against
+        multiple documents, it is more efficient to use the XMLSchema
+        class directly.
+        """
+        self._assertHasRoot()
+        schema = XMLSchema(xmlschema)
+        return schema.validate(self)
+
+    def xinclude(self):
+        """xinclude(self)
+
+        Process the XInclude nodes in this document and include the
+        referenced XML fragments.
+
+        There is support for loading files through the file system, HTTP and
+        FTP.
+
+        Note that XInclude does not support custom resolvers in Python space
+        due to restrictions of libxml2 <= 2.6.29.
+        """
+        self._assertHasRoot()
+        XInclude()(self._context_node)
+
+    def write_c14n(self, file, *, bint exclusive=False, bint with_comments=True,
+                   compression=0, inclusive_ns_prefixes=None):
+        """write_c14n(self, file, exclusive=False, with_comments=True,
+                       compression=0, inclusive_ns_prefixes=None)
+
+        C14N write of document. Always writes UTF-8.
+
+        The ``compression`` option enables GZip compression level 1-9.
+
+        The ``inclusive_ns_prefixes`` should be a list of namespace strings
+        (i.e. ['xs', 'xsi']) that will be promoted to the top-level element
+        during exclusive C14N serialisation.  This parameter is ignored if
+        exclusive mode=False.
+
+        If exclusive=True and no list is provided, a namespace will only be
+        rendered if it is used by the immediate parent or one of its attributes
+        and its prefix and values have not already been rendered by an ancestor
+        of the namespace node's parent element.
+
+        NOTE: This method is deprecated as of lxml 4.4 and will be removed in a
+        future release.  Use ``.write(f, method="c14n")`` instead.
+        """
+        self._assertHasRoot()
+        _assertValidNode(self._context_node)
+        if compression is None or compression < 0:
+            compression = 0
+
+        _tofilelikeC14N(file, self._context_node, exclusive, with_comments,
+                        compression, inclusive_ns_prefixes)
+
+cdef _ElementTree _elementTreeFactory(_Document doc, _Element context_node):
+    return _newElementTree(doc, context_node, _ElementTree)
+
+cdef _ElementTree _newElementTree(_Document doc, _Element context_node,
+                                  object baseclass):
+    cdef _ElementTree result
+    result = baseclass()
+    if context_node is None and doc is not None:
+        context_node = doc.getroot()
+    if context_node is None:
+        _assertValidDoc(doc)
+        result._doc = doc
+    else:
+        _assertValidNode(context_node)
+    result._context_node = context_node
+    return result
+
+
+@cython.final
+@cython.freelist(16)
+cdef class _Attrib:
+    """A dict-like proxy for the ``Element.attrib`` property.
+    """
+    cdef _Element _element
+    def __cinit__(self, _Element element not None):
+        _assertValidNode(element)
+        self._element = element
+
+    # MANIPULATORS
+    def __setitem__(self, key, value):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        _setAttributeValue(self._element, key, value)
+
+    def __delitem__(self, key):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        _delAttribute(self._element, key)
+
+    def update(self, sequence_or_dict):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        if isinstance(sequence_or_dict, (dict, _Attrib)):
+            sequence_or_dict = sequence_or_dict.items()
+        for key, value in sequence_or_dict:
+            _setAttributeValue(self._element, key, value)
+
+    def pop(self, key, *default):
+        if len(default) > 1:
+            raise TypeError, f"pop expected at most 2 arguments, got {len(default)+1}"
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        result = _getAttributeValue(self._element, key, None)
+        if result is None:
+            if not default:
+                raise KeyError, key
+            result = default[0]
+        else:
+            _delAttribute(self._element, key)
+        return result
+
+    def clear(self):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        c_attrs = self._element._c_node.properties
+        if c_attrs:
+            self._element._c_node.properties = NULL
+            tree.xmlFreePropList(c_attrs)
+
+    # ACCESSORS
+    def __repr__(self):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        return repr(dict( _collectAttributes(self._element._c_node, 3) ))
+
+    def __copy__(self):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        return dict(_collectAttributes(self._element._c_node, 3))
+
+    def __deepcopy__(self, memo):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        return dict(_collectAttributes(self._element._c_node, 3))
+
+    def __getitem__(self, key):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        result = _getAttributeValue(self._element, key, None)
+        if result is None:
+            raise KeyError, key
+        return result
+
+    def __bool__(self):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        cdef xmlAttr* c_attr = self._element._c_node.properties
+        while c_attr is not NULL:
+            if c_attr.type == tree.XML_ATTRIBUTE_NODE:
+                return 1
+            c_attr = c_attr.next
+        return 0
+
+    def __len__(self):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        cdef xmlAttr* c_attr = self._element._c_node.properties
+        cdef Py_ssize_t c = 0
+        while c_attr is not NULL:
+            if c_attr.type == tree.XML_ATTRIBUTE_NODE:
+                c += 1
+            c_attr = c_attr.next
+        return c
+
+    def get(self, key, default=None):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        return _getAttributeValue(self._element, key, default)
+
+    def keys(self):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        return _collectAttributes(self._element._c_node, 1)
+
+    def __iter__(self):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        return iter(_collectAttributes(self._element._c_node, 1))
+
+    def iterkeys(self):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        return iter(_collectAttributes(self._element._c_node, 1))
+
+    def values(self):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        return _collectAttributes(self._element._c_node, 2)
+
+    def itervalues(self):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        return iter(_collectAttributes(self._element._c_node, 2))
+
+    def items(self):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        return _collectAttributes(self._element._c_node, 3)
+
+    def iteritems(self):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        return iter(_collectAttributes(self._element._c_node, 3))
+
+    def has_key(self, key):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        return key in self
+
+    def __contains__(self, key):
+        _assertValidNode(self._element)
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node
+        ns, tag = _getNsTag(key)
+        c_node = self._element._c_node
+        c_href = <const_xmlChar*>NULL if ns is None else _xcstr(ns)
+        return 1 if tree.xmlHasNsProp(c_node, _xcstr(tag), c_href) else 0
+
+    def __richcmp__(self, other, int op):
+        try:
+            one = dict(self.items())
+            if not isinstance(other, dict):
+                other = dict(other)
+        except (TypeError, ValueError):
+            return NotImplemented
+        return python.PyObject_RichCompare(one, other, op)
+
+MutableMapping.register(_Attrib)
+
+
+@cython.final
+@cython.internal
+cdef class _AttribIterator:
+    """Attribute iterator - for internal use only!
+    """
+    # XML attributes must not be removed while running!
+    cdef _Element _node
+    cdef xmlAttr* _c_attr
+    cdef int _keysvalues # 1 - keys, 2 - values, 3 - items (key, value)
+    def __iter__(self):
+        return self
+
+    def __next__(self):
+        cdef xmlAttr* c_attr
+        if self._node is None:
+            raise StopIteration
+        c_attr = self._c_attr
+        while c_attr is not NULL and c_attr.type != tree.XML_ATTRIBUTE_NODE:
+            c_attr = c_attr.next
+        if c_attr is NULL:
+            self._node = None
+            raise StopIteration
+
+        self._c_attr = c_attr.next
+        if self._keysvalues == 1:
+            return _namespacedName(<xmlNode*>c_attr)
+        elif self._keysvalues == 2:
+            return _attributeValue(self._node._c_node, c_attr)
+        else:
+            return (_namespacedName(<xmlNode*>c_attr),
+                    _attributeValue(self._node._c_node, c_attr))
+
+cdef object _attributeIteratorFactory(_Element element, int keysvalues):
+    cdef _AttribIterator attribs
+    if element._c_node.properties is NULL:
+        return ITER_EMPTY
+    attribs = _AttribIterator()
+    attribs._node = element
+    attribs._c_attr = element._c_node.properties
+    attribs._keysvalues = keysvalues
+    return attribs
+
+
+cdef public class _ElementTagMatcher [ object LxmlElementTagMatcher,
+                                       type LxmlElementTagMatcherType ]:
+    """
+    Dead but public. :)
+    """
+    cdef object _pystrings
+    cdef int _node_type
+    cdef char* _href
+    cdef char* _name
+    cdef _initTagMatch(self, tag):
+        self._href = NULL
+        self._name = NULL
+        if tag is None:
+            self._node_type = 0
+        elif tag is Comment:
+            self._node_type = tree.XML_COMMENT_NODE
+        elif tag is ProcessingInstruction:
+            self._node_type = tree.XML_PI_NODE
+        elif tag is Entity:
+            self._node_type = tree.XML_ENTITY_REF_NODE
+        elif tag is Element:
+            self._node_type = tree.XML_ELEMENT_NODE
+        else:
+            self._node_type = tree.XML_ELEMENT_NODE
+            self._pystrings = _getNsTag(tag)
+            if self._pystrings[0] is not None:
+                self._href = _cstr(self._pystrings[0])
+            self._name = _cstr(self._pystrings[1])
+            if self._name[0] == c'*' and self._name[1] == c'\0':
+                self._name = NULL
+
+cdef public class _ElementIterator(_ElementTagMatcher) [
+    object LxmlElementIterator, type LxmlElementIteratorType ]:
+    """
+    Dead but public. :)
+    """
+    # we keep Python references here to control GC
+    cdef _Element _node
+    cdef _node_to_node_function _next_element
+    def __iter__(self):
+        return self
+
+    cdef void _storeNext(self, _Element node):
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node
+        c_node = self._next_element(node._c_node)
+        while c_node is not NULL and \
+                  self._node_type != 0 and \
+                  (<tree.xmlElementType>self._node_type != c_node.type or
+                   not _tagMatches(c_node, <const_xmlChar*>self._href, <const_xmlChar*>self._name)):
+            c_node = self._next_element(c_node)
+        if c_node is NULL:
+            self._node = None
+        else:
+            # Python ref:
+            self._node = _elementFactory(node._doc, c_node)
+
+    def __next__(self):
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node
+        cdef _Element current_node
+        if self._node is None:
+            raise StopIteration
+        # Python ref:
+        current_node = self._node
+        self._storeNext(current_node)
+        return current_node
+
+@cython.final
+@cython.internal
+cdef class _MultiTagMatcher:
+    """
+    Match an xmlNode against a list of tags.
+    """
+    cdef list _py_tags
+    cdef qname* _cached_tags
+    cdef size_t _tag_count
+    cdef size_t _cached_size
+    cdef _Document _cached_doc
+    cdef int _node_types
+
+    def __cinit__(self, tags):
+        self._py_tags = []
+        self.initTagMatch(tags)
+
+    def __dealloc__(self):
+        self._clear()
+
+    cdef bint rejectsAll(self) noexcept:
+        return not self._tag_count and not self._node_types
+
+    cdef bint rejectsAllAttributes(self) noexcept:
+        return not self._tag_count
+
+    cdef bint matchesType(self, int node_type) noexcept:
+        if node_type == tree.XML_ELEMENT_NODE and self._tag_count:
+            return True
+        return self._node_types & (1 << node_type)
+
+    cdef void _clear(self) noexcept:
+        cdef size_t i, count
+        count = self._tag_count
+        self._tag_count = 0
+        if self._cached_tags:
+            for i in range(count):
+                cpython.ref.Py_XDECREF(self._cached_tags[i].href)
+            python.lxml_free(self._cached_tags)
+            self._cached_tags = NULL
+
+    cdef initTagMatch(self, tags):
+        self._cached_doc = None
+        del self._py_tags[:]
+        self._clear()
+        if tags is None or tags == ():
+            # no selection in tags argument => match anything
+            self._node_types = (
+                1 << tree.XML_COMMENT_NODE |
+                1 << tree.XML_PI_NODE |
+                1 << tree.XML_ENTITY_REF_NODE |
+                1 << tree.XML_ELEMENT_NODE)
+        else:
+            self._node_types = 0
+            self._storeTags(tags, set())
+
+    cdef _storeTags(self, tag, set seen):
+        if tag is Comment:
+            self._node_types |= 1 << tree.XML_COMMENT_NODE
+        elif tag is ProcessingInstruction:
+            self._node_types |= 1 << tree.XML_PI_NODE
+        elif tag is Entity:
+            self._node_types |= 1 << tree.XML_ENTITY_REF_NODE
+        elif tag is Element:
+            self._node_types |= 1 << tree.XML_ELEMENT_NODE
+        elif python._isString(tag):
+            if tag in seen:
+                return
+            seen.add(tag)
+            if tag in ('*', '{*}*'):
+                self._node_types |= 1 << tree.XML_ELEMENT_NODE
+            else:
+                href, name = _getNsTag(tag)
+                if name == b'*':
+                    name = None
+                if href is None:
+                    href = b''  # no namespace
+                elif href == b'*':
+                    href = None  # wildcard: any namespace, including none
+                self._py_tags.append((href, name))
+        elif isinstance(tag, QName):
+            self._storeTags(tag.text, seen)
+        else:
+            # support a sequence of tags
+            for item in tag:
+                self._storeTags(item, seen)
+
+    cdef inline int cacheTags(self, _Document doc, bint force_into_dict=False) except -1:
+        """
+        Look up the tag names in the doc dict to enable string pointer comparisons.
+        """
+        cdef size_t dict_size = tree.xmlDictSize(doc._c_doc.dict)
+        if doc is self._cached_doc and dict_size == self._cached_size:
+            # doc and dict didn't change => names already cached
+            return 0
+        self._tag_count = 0
+        if not self._py_tags:
+            self._cached_doc = doc
+            self._cached_size = dict_size
+            return 0
+        if not self._cached_tags:
+            self._cached_tags = <qname*>python.lxml_malloc(len(self._py_tags), sizeof(qname))
+            if not self._cached_tags:
+                self._cached_doc = None
+                raise MemoryError()
+        self._tag_count = <size_t>_mapTagsToQnameMatchArray(
+            doc._c_doc, self._py_tags, self._cached_tags, force_into_dict)
+        self._cached_doc = doc
+        self._cached_size = dict_size
+        return 0
+
+    cdef inline bint matches(self, xmlNode* c_node) noexcept:
+        cdef qname* c_qname
+        if self._node_types & (1 << c_node.type):
+            return True
+        elif c_node.type == tree.XML_ELEMENT_NODE:
+            for c_qname in self._cached_tags[:self._tag_count]:
+                if _tagMatchesExactly(c_node, c_qname):
+                    return True
+        return False
+
+    cdef inline bint matchesNsTag(self, const_xmlChar* c_href,
+                                  const_xmlChar* c_name) noexcept:
+        cdef qname* c_qname
+        if self._node_types & (1 << tree.XML_ELEMENT_NODE):
+            return True
+        for c_qname in self._cached_tags[:self._tag_count]:
+            if _nsTagMatchesExactly(c_href, c_name, c_qname):
+                return True
+        return False
+
+    cdef inline bint matchesAttribute(self, xmlAttr* c_attr) noexcept:
+        """Attribute matches differ from Element matches in that they do
+        not care about node types.
+        """
+        cdef qname* c_qname
+        for c_qname in self._cached_tags[:self._tag_count]:
+            if _tagMatchesExactly(<xmlNode*>c_attr, c_qname):
+                return True
+        return False
+
+cdef class _ElementMatchIterator:
+    cdef _Element _node
+    cdef _node_to_node_function _next_element
+    cdef _MultiTagMatcher _matcher
+
+    @cython.final
+    cdef _initTagMatcher(self, tags):
+        self._matcher = _MultiTagMatcher.__new__(_MultiTagMatcher, tags)
+
+    def __iter__(self):
+        return self
+
+    @cython.final
+    cdef int _storeNext(self, _Element node) except -1:
+        self._matcher.cacheTags(node._doc)
+        c_node = self._next_element(node._c_node)
+        while c_node is not NULL and not self._matcher.matches(c_node):
+            c_node = self._next_element(c_node)
+        # store Python ref to next node to make sure it's kept alive
+        self._node = _elementFactory(node._doc, c_node) if c_node is not NULL else None
+        return 0
+
+    def __next__(self):
+        cdef _Element current_node = self._node
+        if current_node is None:
+            raise StopIteration
+        self._storeNext(current_node)
+        return current_node
+
+cdef class ElementChildIterator(_ElementMatchIterator):
+    """ElementChildIterator(self, node, tag=None, reversed=False)
+    Iterates over the children of an element.
+    """
+    def __cinit__(self, _Element node not None, tag=None, *, bint reversed=False):
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node
+        _assertValidNode(node)
+        self._initTagMatcher(tag)
+        if reversed:
+            c_node = _findChildBackwards(node._c_node, 0)
+            self._next_element = _previousElement
+        else:
+            c_node = _findChildForwards(node._c_node, 0)
+            self._next_element = _nextElement
+        self._matcher.cacheTags(node._doc)
+        while c_node is not NULL and not self._matcher.matches(c_node):
+            c_node = self._next_element(c_node)
+        # store Python ref to next node to make sure it's kept alive
+        self._node = _elementFactory(node._doc, c_node) if c_node is not NULL else None
+
+cdef class SiblingsIterator(_ElementMatchIterator):
+    """SiblingsIterator(self, node, tag=None, preceding=False)
+    Iterates over the siblings of an element.
+
+    You can pass the boolean keyword ``preceding`` to specify the direction.
+    """
+    def __cinit__(self, _Element node not None, tag=None, *, bint preceding=False):
+        _assertValidNode(node)
+        self._initTagMatcher(tag)
+        if preceding:
+            self._next_element = _previousElement
+        else:
+            self._next_element = _nextElement
+        self._storeNext(node)
+
+cdef class AncestorsIterator(_ElementMatchIterator):
+    """AncestorsIterator(self, node, tag=None)
+    Iterates over the ancestors of an element (from parent to parent).
+    """
+    def __cinit__(self, _Element node not None, tag=None):
+        _assertValidNode(node)
+        self._initTagMatcher(tag)
+        self._next_element = _parentElement
+        self._storeNext(node)
+
+cdef class ElementDepthFirstIterator:
+    """ElementDepthFirstIterator(self, node, tag=None, inclusive=True)
+    Iterates over an element and its sub-elements in document order (depth
+    first pre-order).
+
+    Note that this also includes comments, entities and processing
+    instructions.  To filter them out, check if the ``tag`` property
+    of the returned element is a string (i.e. not None and not a
+    factory function), or pass the ``Element`` factory for the ``tag``
+    argument to receive only Elements.
+
+    If the optional ``tag`` argument is not None, the iterator returns only
+    the elements that match the respective name and namespace.
+
+    The optional boolean argument 'inclusive' defaults to True and can be set
+    to False to exclude the start element itself.
+
+    Note that the behaviour of this iterator is completely undefined if the
+    tree it traverses is modified during iteration.
+    """
+    # we keep Python references here to control GC
+    # keep the next Element after the one we return, and the (s)top node
+    cdef _Element _next_node
+    cdef _Element _top_node
+    cdef _MultiTagMatcher _matcher
+    def __cinit__(self, _Element node not None, tag=None, *, bint inclusive=True):
+        _assertValidNode(node)
+        self._top_node  = node
+        self._next_node = node
+        self._matcher = _MultiTagMatcher.__new__(_MultiTagMatcher, tag)
+        self._matcher.cacheTags(node._doc)
+        if not inclusive or not self._matcher.matches(node._c_node):
+            # find start node (this cannot raise StopIteration, self._next_node != None)
+            next(self)
+
+    def __iter__(self):
+        return self
+
+    def __next__(self):
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node
+        cdef _Element current_node = self._next_node
+        if current_node is None:
+            raise StopIteration
+        c_node = current_node._c_node
+        self._matcher.cacheTags(current_node._doc)
+        if not self._matcher._tag_count:
+            # no tag name was found in the dict => not in document either
+            # try to match by node type
+            c_node = self._nextNodeAnyTag(c_node)
+        else:
+            c_node = self._nextNodeMatchTag(c_node)
+        if c_node is NULL:
+            self._next_node = None
+        else:
+            self._next_node = _elementFactory(current_node._doc, c_node)
+        return current_node
+
+    @cython.final
+    cdef xmlNode* _nextNodeAnyTag(self, xmlNode* c_node) noexcept:
+        cdef int node_types = self._matcher._node_types
+        if not node_types:
+            return NULL
+        tree.BEGIN_FOR_EACH_ELEMENT_FROM(self._top_node._c_node, c_node, 0)
+        if node_types & (1 << c_node.type):
+            return c_node
+        tree.END_FOR_EACH_ELEMENT_FROM(c_node)
+        return NULL
+
+    @cython.final
+    cdef xmlNode* _nextNodeMatchTag(self, xmlNode* c_node) noexcept:
+        tree.BEGIN_FOR_EACH_ELEMENT_FROM(self._top_node._c_node, c_node, 0)
+        if self._matcher.matches(c_node):
+            return c_node
+        tree.END_FOR_EACH_ELEMENT_FROM(c_node)
+        return NULL
+
+
+cdef class ElementTextIterator:
+    """ElementTextIterator(self, element, tag=None, with_tail=True)
+    Iterates over the text content of a subtree.
+
+    You can pass the ``tag`` keyword argument to restrict text content to a
+    specific tag name.
+
+    You can set the ``with_tail`` keyword argument to ``False`` to skip over
+    tail text (e.g. if you know that it's only whitespace from pretty-printing).
+    """
+    cdef object _events
+    cdef _Element _start_element
+    def __cinit__(self, _Element element not None, tag=None, *, bint with_tail=True):
+        _assertValidNode(element)
+        if with_tail:
+            events = ("start", "comment", "pi", "end")
+        else:
+            events = ("start",)
+        self._start_element = element
+        self._events = iterwalk(element, events=events, tag=tag)
+
+    def __iter__(self):
+        return self
+
+    def __next__(self):
+        cdef _Element element
+        result = None
+        while result is None:
+            event, element = next(self._events)  # raises StopIteration
+            if event == "start":
+                result = element.text
+            elif element is not self._start_element:
+                result = element.tail
+        return result
+
+
+cdef xmlNode* _createElement(xmlDoc* c_doc, object name_utf) except NULL:
+    cdef xmlNode* c_node
+    c_node = tree.xmlNewDocNode(c_doc, NULL, _xcstr(name_utf), NULL)
+    return c_node
+
+cdef xmlNode* _createComment(xmlDoc* c_doc, const_xmlChar* text) noexcept:
+    cdef xmlNode* c_node
+    c_node = tree.xmlNewDocComment(c_doc, text)
+    return c_node
+
+cdef xmlNode* _createPI(xmlDoc* c_doc, const_xmlChar* target, const_xmlChar* text) noexcept:
+    cdef xmlNode* c_node
+    c_node = tree.xmlNewDocPI(c_doc, target, text)
+    return c_node
+
+cdef xmlNode* _createEntity(xmlDoc* c_doc, const_xmlChar* name) noexcept:
+    cdef xmlNode* c_node
+    c_node = tree.xmlNewReference(c_doc, name)
+    return c_node
+
+# module-level API for ElementTree
+
+from abc import ABC
+
+class Element(ABC):
+    """Element(_tag, attrib=None, nsmap=None, **_extra)
+
+    Element factory, as a class.
+
+    An instance of this class is an object implementing the
+    Element interface.
+
+    >>> element = Element("test")
+    >>> type(element)
+    <class 'lxml.etree._Element'>
+    >>> isinstance(element, Element)
+    True
+    >>> issubclass(_Element, Element)
+    True
+
+    Also look at the `_Element.makeelement()` and
+    `_BaseParser.makeelement()` methods, which provide a faster way to
+    create an Element within a specific document or parser context.
+    """
+    def __new__(cls, _tag, attrib=None, nsmap=None, **_extra):
+          return _makeElement(_tag, NULL, None, None, None, None,
+                              attrib, nsmap, _extra)
+
+# Register _Element as a virtual subclass of Element
+Element.register(_Element)
+
+
+def Comment(text=None):
+    """Comment(text=None)
+
+    Comment element factory. This factory function creates a special element that will
+    be serialized as an XML comment.
+    """
+    cdef _Document doc
+    cdef xmlNode*  c_node
+    cdef xmlDoc*   c_doc
+
+    if text is None:
+        text = b''
+    else:
+        text = _utf8(text)
+        if b'--' in text or text.endswith(b'-'):
+            raise ValueError("Comment may not contain '--' or end with '-'")
+
+    c_doc = _newXMLDoc()
+    doc = _documentFactory(c_doc, None)
+    c_node = _createComment(c_doc, _xcstr(text))
+    tree.xmlAddChild(<xmlNode*>c_doc, c_node)
+    return _elementFactory(doc, c_node)
+
+
+def ProcessingInstruction(target, text=None):
+    """ProcessingInstruction(target, text=None)
+
+    ProcessingInstruction element factory. This factory function creates a
+    special element that will be serialized as an XML processing instruction.
+    """
+    cdef _Document doc
+    cdef xmlNode*  c_node
+    cdef xmlDoc*   c_doc
+
+    target = _utf8(target)
+    _tagValidOrRaise(target)
+    if target.lower() == b'xml':
+        raise ValueError, f"Invalid PI name '{target}'"
+
+    if text is None:
+        text = b''
+    else:
+        text = _utf8(text)
+        if b'?>' in text:
+            raise ValueError, "PI text must not contain '?>'"
+
+    c_doc = _newXMLDoc()
+    doc = _documentFactory(c_doc, None)
+    c_node = _createPI(c_doc, _xcstr(target), _xcstr(text))
+    tree.xmlAddChild(<xmlNode*>c_doc, c_node)
+    return _elementFactory(doc, c_node)
+
+PI = ProcessingInstruction
+
+
+cdef class CDATA:
+    """CDATA(data)
+
+    CDATA factory.  This factory creates an opaque data object that
+    can be used to set Element text.  The usual way to use it is::
+
+        >>> el = Element('content')
+        >>> el.text = CDATA('a string')
+
+        >>> print(el.text)
+        a string
+        >>> print(tostring(el, encoding="unicode"))
+        <content><![CDATA[a string]]></content>
+    """
+    cdef bytes _utf8_data
+    def __cinit__(self, data):
+        self._utf8_data = _utf8(data)
+
+
+def Entity(name):
+    """Entity(name)
+
+    Entity factory.  This factory function creates a special element
+    that will be serialized as an XML entity reference or character
+    reference.  Note, however, that entities will not be automatically
+    declared in the document.  A document that uses entity references
+    requires a DTD to define the entities.
+    """
+    cdef _Document doc
+    cdef xmlNode*  c_node
+    cdef xmlDoc*   c_doc
+    name_utf = _utf8(name)
+    c_name = _xcstr(name_utf)
+    if c_name[0] == c'#':
+        if not _characterReferenceIsValid(c_name + 1):
+            raise ValueError, f"Invalid character reference: '{name}'"
+    elif not _xmlNameIsValid(c_name):
+        raise ValueError, f"Invalid entity reference: '{name}'"
+    c_doc = _newXMLDoc()
+    doc = _documentFactory(c_doc, None)
+    c_node = _createEntity(c_doc, c_name)
+    tree.xmlAddChild(<xmlNode*>c_doc, c_node)
+    return _elementFactory(doc, c_node)
+
+
+def SubElement(_Element _parent not None, _tag,
+               attrib=None, nsmap=None, **_extra):
+    """SubElement(_parent, _tag, attrib=None, nsmap=None, **_extra)
+
+    Subelement factory.  This function creates an element instance, and
+    appends it to an existing element.
+    """
+    return _makeSubElement(_parent, _tag, None, None, attrib, nsmap, _extra)
+
+from typing import Generic, TypeVar
+
+T = TypeVar("T")
+
+class ElementTree(ABC, Generic[T]):
+    def __new__(cls, _Element element=None, *, file=None, _BaseParser parser=None):
+        """ElementTree(element=None, file=None, parser=None)
+
+        ElementTree wrapper class.
+        """
+        cdef xmlNode* c_next
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node
+        cdef xmlNode* c_node_copy
+        cdef xmlDoc*  c_doc
+        cdef _ElementTree etree
+        cdef _Document doc
+
+        if element is not None:
+            doc  = element._doc
+        elif file is not None:
+            try:
+                doc = _parseDocument(file, parser, None)
+            except _TargetParserResult as result_container:
+                return result_container.result
+        else:
+            c_doc = _newXMLDoc()
+            doc = _documentFactory(c_doc, parser)
+
+        return _elementTreeFactory(doc, element)
+
+# Register _ElementTree as a virtual subclass of ElementTree
+ElementTree.register(_ElementTree)
+
+# Remove "ABC" and typing helpers from module dict
+del ABC, Generic, TypeVar, T
+
+def HTML(text, _BaseParser parser=None, *, base_url=None):
+    """HTML(text, parser=None, base_url=None)
+
+    Parses an HTML document from a string constant.  Returns the root
+    node (or the result returned by a parser target).  This function
+    can be used to embed "HTML literals" in Python code.
+
+    To override the parser with a different ``HTMLParser`` you can pass it to
+    the ``parser`` keyword argument.
+
+    The ``base_url`` keyword argument allows to set the original base URL of
+    the document to support relative Paths when looking up external entities
+    (DTD, XInclude, ...).
+    """
+    cdef _Document doc
+    if parser is None:
+        parser = __GLOBAL_PARSER_CONTEXT.getDefaultParser()
+        if not isinstance(parser, HTMLParser):
+            parser = __DEFAULT_HTML_PARSER
+    try:
+        doc = _parseMemoryDocument(text, base_url, parser)
+        return doc.getroot()
+    except _TargetParserResult as result_container:
+        return result_container.result
+
+
+def XML(text, _BaseParser parser=None, *, base_url=None):
+    """XML(text, parser=None, base_url=None)
+
+    Parses an XML document or fragment from a string constant.
+    Returns the root node (or the result returned by a parser target).
+    This function can be used to embed "XML literals" in Python code,
+    like in
+
+       >>> root = XML("<root><test/></root>")
+       >>> print(root.tag)
+       root
+
+    To override the parser with a different ``XMLParser`` you can pass it to
+    the ``parser`` keyword argument.
+
+    The ``base_url`` keyword argument allows to set the original base URL of
+    the document to support relative Paths when looking up external entities
+    (DTD, XInclude, ...).
+    """
+    cdef _Document doc
+    if parser is None:
+        parser = __GLOBAL_PARSER_CONTEXT.getDefaultParser()
+        if not isinstance(parser, XMLParser):
+            parser = __DEFAULT_XML_PARSER
+    try:
+        doc = _parseMemoryDocument(text, base_url, parser)
+        return doc.getroot()
+    except _TargetParserResult as result_container:
+        return result_container.result
+
+
+def fromstring(text, _BaseParser parser=None, *, base_url=None):
+    """fromstring(text, parser=None, base_url=None)
+
+    Parses an XML document or fragment from a string.  Returns the
+    root node (or the result returned by a parser target).
+
+    To override the default parser with a different parser you can pass it to
+    the ``parser`` keyword argument.
+
+    The ``base_url`` keyword argument allows to set the original base URL of
+    the document to support relative Paths when looking up external entities
+    (DTD, XInclude, ...).
+    """
+    cdef _Document doc
+    try:
+        doc = _parseMemoryDocument(text, base_url, parser)
+        return doc.getroot()
+    except _TargetParserResult as result_container:
+        return result_container.result
+
+
+def fromstringlist(strings, _BaseParser parser=None):
+    """fromstringlist(strings, parser=None)
+
+    Parses an XML document from a sequence of strings.  Returns the
+    root node (or the result returned by a parser target).
+
+    To override the default parser with a different parser you can pass it to
+    the ``parser`` keyword argument.
+    """
+    cdef _Document doc
+    if isinstance(strings, (bytes, unicode)):
+        raise ValueError("passing a single string into fromstringlist() is not"
+                         " efficient, use fromstring() instead")
+    if parser is None:
+        parser = __GLOBAL_PARSER_CONTEXT.getDefaultParser()
+    feed = parser.feed
+    for data in strings:
+        feed(data)
+    return parser.close()
+
+
+def iselement(element):
+    """iselement(element)
+
+    Checks if an object appears to be a valid element object.
+    """
+    return isinstance(element, _Element) and (<_Element>element)._c_node is not NULL
+
+
+def indent(tree, space="  ", *, Py_ssize_t level=0):
+    """indent(tree, space="  ", level=0)
+
+    Indent an XML document by inserting newlines and indentation space
+    after elements.
+
+    *tree* is the ElementTree or Element to modify.  The (root) element
+    itself will not be changed, but the tail text of all elements in its
+    subtree will be adapted.
+
+    *space* is the whitespace to insert for each indentation level, two
+    space characters by default.
+
+    *level* is the initial indentation level. Setting this to a higher
+    value than 0 can be used for indenting subtrees that are more deeply
+    nested inside of a document.
+    """
+    root = _rootNodeOrRaise(tree)
+    if level < 0:
+        raise ValueError(f"Initial indentation level must be >= 0, got {level}")
+    if _hasChild(root._c_node):
+        space = _utf8(space)
+        indent = b"\n" + level * space
+        _indent_children(root._c_node, 1, space, [indent, indent + space])
+
+
+cdef int _indent_children(xmlNode* c_node, Py_ssize_t level, bytes one_space, list indentations) except -1:
+    # Reuse indentation strings for speed.
+    if len(indentations) <= level:
+        indentations.append(indentations[-1] + one_space)
+
+    # Start a new indentation level for the first child.
+    child_indentation = indentations[level]
+    if not _hasNonWhitespaceText(c_node):
+        _setNodeText(c_node, child_indentation)
+
+    # Recursively indent all children.
+    cdef xmlNode* c_child = _findChildForwards(c_node, 0)
+    while c_child is not NULL:
+        if _hasChild(c_child):
+            _indent_children(c_child, level+1, one_space, indentations)
+        c_next_child = _nextElement(c_child)
+        if not _hasNonWhitespaceTail(c_child):
+            if c_next_child is NULL:
+                # Dedent after the last child.
+                child_indentation = indentations[level-1]
+            _setTailText(c_child, child_indentation)
+        c_child = c_next_child
+    return 0
+
+
+def dump(_Element elem not None, *, bint pretty_print=True, bint with_tail=True):
+    """dump(elem, pretty_print=True, with_tail=True)
+
+    Writes an element tree or element structure to sys.stdout. This function
+    should be used for debugging only.
+    """
+    xml = tostring(elem, pretty_print=pretty_print, with_tail=with_tail, encoding='unicode')
+    if not pretty_print:
+        xml += '\n'
+    sys.stdout.write(xml)
+
+
+def tostring(element_or_tree, *, encoding=None, method="xml",
+             xml_declaration=None, bint pretty_print=False, bint with_tail=True,
+             standalone=None, doctype=None,
+             # method='c14n'
+             bint exclusive=False, inclusive_ns_prefixes=None,
+             # method='c14n2'
+             bint with_comments=True, bint strip_text=False,
+             ):
+    """tostring(element_or_tree, encoding=None, method="xml",
+                 xml_declaration=None, pretty_print=False, with_tail=True,
+                 standalone=None, doctype=None,
+                 exclusive=False, inclusive_ns_prefixes=None,
+                 with_comments=True, strip_text=False,
+                 )
+
+    Serialize an element to an encoded string representation of its XML
+    tree.
+
+    Defaults to ASCII encoding without XML declaration.  This
+    behaviour can be configured with the keyword arguments 'encoding'
+    (string) and 'xml_declaration' (bool).  Note that changing the
+    encoding to a non UTF-8 compatible encoding will enable a
+    declaration by default.
+
+    You can also serialise to a Unicode string without declaration by
+    passing the name ``'unicode'`` as encoding (or the ``str`` function
+    in Py3 or ``unicode`` in Py2).  This changes the return value from
+    a byte string to an unencoded unicode string.
+
+    The keyword argument 'pretty_print' (bool) enables formatted XML.
+
+    The keyword argument 'method' selects the output method: 'xml',
+    'html', plain 'text' (text content without tags), 'c14n' or 'c14n2'.
+    Default is 'xml'.
+
+    With ``method="c14n"`` (C14N version 1), the options ``exclusive``,
+    ``with_comments`` and ``inclusive_ns_prefixes`` request exclusive
+    C14N, include comments, and list the inclusive prefixes respectively.
+
+    With ``method="c14n2"`` (C14N version 2), the ``with_comments`` and
+    ``strip_text`` options control the output of comments and text space
+    according to C14N 2.0.
+
+    Passing a boolean value to the ``standalone`` option will output
+    an XML declaration with the corresponding ``standalone`` flag.
+
+    The ``doctype`` option allows passing in a plain string that will
+    be serialised before the XML tree.  Note that passing in non
+    well-formed content here will make the XML output non well-formed.
+    Also, an existing doctype in the document tree will not be removed
+    when serialising an ElementTree instance.
+
+    You can prevent the tail text of the element from being serialised
+    by passing the boolean ``with_tail`` option.  This has no impact
+    on the tail text of children, which will always be serialised.
+    """
+    cdef bint write_declaration
+    cdef int is_standalone
+    # C14N serialisation
+    if method in ('c14n', 'c14n2'):
+        if encoding is not None:
+            raise ValueError("Cannot specify encoding with C14N")
+        if xml_declaration:
+            raise ValueError("Cannot enable XML declaration in C14N")
+        if method == 'c14n':
+            return _tostringC14N(element_or_tree, exclusive, with_comments, inclusive_ns_prefixes)
+        else:
+            out = BytesIO()
+            target = C14NWriterTarget(
+                utf8_writer(out).write,
+                with_comments=with_comments, strip_text=strip_text)
+            _tree_to_target(element_or_tree, target)
+            return out.getvalue()
+    if not with_comments:
+        raise ValueError("Can only discard comments in C14N serialisation")
+    if strip_text:
+        raise ValueError("Can only strip text in C14N 2.0 serialisation")
+    if encoding is unicode or (encoding is not None and encoding.lower() == 'unicode'):
+        if xml_declaration:
+            raise ValueError, \
+                "Serialisation to unicode must not request an XML declaration"
+        write_declaration = 0
+        encoding = unicode
+    elif xml_declaration is None:
+        # by default, write an XML declaration only for non-standard encodings
+        write_declaration = encoding is not None and encoding.upper() not in \
+                            ('ASCII', 'UTF-8', 'UTF8', 'US-ASCII')
+    else:
+        write_declaration = xml_declaration
+    if encoding is None:
+        encoding = 'ASCII'
+    if standalone is None:
+        is_standalone = -1
+    elif standalone:
+        write_declaration = 1
+        is_standalone = 1
+    else:
+        write_declaration = 1
+        is_standalone = 0
+
+    if isinstance(element_or_tree, _Element):
+        return _tostring(<_Element>element_or_tree, encoding, doctype, method,
+                         write_declaration, 0, pretty_print, with_tail,
+                         is_standalone)
+    elif isinstance(element_or_tree, _ElementTree):
+        return _tostring((<_ElementTree>element_or_tree)._context_node,
+                         encoding, doctype, method, write_declaration, 1,
+                         pretty_print, with_tail, is_standalone)
+    else:
+        raise TypeError, f"Type '{python._fqtypename(element_or_tree).decode('utf8')}' cannot be serialized."
+
+
+
+def tostringlist(element_or_tree, *args, **kwargs):
+    """tostringlist(element_or_tree, *args, **kwargs)
+
+    Serialize an element to an encoded string representation of its XML
+    tree, stored in a list of partial strings.
+
+    This is purely for ElementTree 1.3 compatibility.  The result is a
+    single string wrapped in a list.
+    """
+    return [tostring(element_or_tree, *args, **kwargs)]
+
+
+def tounicode(element_or_tree, *, method="xml", bint pretty_print=False,
+              bint with_tail=True, doctype=None):
+    """tounicode(element_or_tree, method="xml", pretty_print=False,
+                  with_tail=True, doctype=None)
+
+    Serialize an element to the Python unicode representation of its XML
+    tree.
+
+    :deprecated: use ``tostring(el, encoding='unicode')`` instead.
+
+    Note that the result does not carry an XML encoding declaration and is
+    therefore not necessarily suited for serialization to byte streams without
+    further treatment.
+
+    The boolean keyword argument 'pretty_print' enables formatted XML.
+
+    The keyword argument 'method' selects the output method: 'xml',
+    'html' or plain 'text'.
+
+    You can prevent the tail text of the element from being serialised
+    by passing the boolean ``with_tail`` option.  This has no impact
+    on the tail text of children, which will always be serialised.
+    """
+    if isinstance(element_or_tree, _Element):
+        return _tostring(<_Element>element_or_tree, unicode, doctype, method,
+                          0, 0, pretty_print, with_tail, -1)
+    elif isinstance(element_or_tree, _ElementTree):
+        return _tostring((<_ElementTree>element_or_tree)._context_node,
+                         unicode, doctype, method, 0, 1, pretty_print,
+                         with_tail, -1)
+    else:
+        raise TypeError, f"Type '{type(element_or_tree)}' cannot be serialized."
+
+
+def parse(source, _BaseParser parser=None, *, base_url=None):
+    """parse(source, parser=None, base_url=None)
+
+    Return an ElementTree object loaded with source elements.  If no parser
+    is provided as second argument, the default parser is used.
+
+    The ``source`` can be any of the following:
+
+    - a file name/path
+    - a file object
+    - a file-like object
+    - a URL using the HTTP or FTP protocol
+
+    To parse from a string, use the ``fromstring()`` function instead.
+
+    Note that it is generally faster to parse from a file path or URL
+    than from an open file object or file-like object.  Transparent
+    decompression from gzip compressed sources is supported (unless
+    explicitly disabled in libxml2).
+
+    The ``base_url`` keyword allows setting a URL for the document
+    when parsing from a file-like object.  This is needed when looking
+    up external entities (DTD, XInclude, ...) with relative paths.
+    """
+    cdef _Document doc
+    try:
+        doc = _parseDocument(source, parser, base_url)
+        return _elementTreeFactory(doc, None)
+    except _TargetParserResult as result_container:
+        return result_container.result
+
+
+def adopt_external_document(capsule, _BaseParser parser=None):
+    """adopt_external_document(capsule, parser=None)
+
+    Unpack a libxml2 document pointer from a PyCapsule and wrap it in an
+    lxml ElementTree object.
+
+    This allows external libraries to build XML/HTML trees using libxml2
+    and then pass them efficiently into lxml for further processing.
+
+    If a ``parser`` is provided, it will be used for configuring the
+    lxml document.  No parsing will be done.
+
+    The capsule must have the name ``"libxml2:xmlDoc"`` and its pointer
+    value must reference a correct libxml2 document of type ``xmlDoc*``.
+    The creator of the capsule must take care to correctly clean up the
+    document using an appropriate capsule destructor.  By default, the
+    libxml2 document will be copied to let lxml safely own the memory
+    of the internal tree that it uses.
+
+    If the capsule context is non-NULL, it must point to a C string that
+    can be compared using ``strcmp()``.  If the context string equals
+    ``"destructor:xmlFreeDoc"``, the libxml2 document will not be copied
+    but the capsule invalidated instead by clearing its destructor and
+    name.  That way, lxml takes ownership of the libxml2 document in memory
+    without creating a copy first, and the capsule destructor will not be
+    called.  The document will then eventually be cleaned up by lxml using
+    the libxml2 API function ``xmlFreeDoc()`` once it is no longer used.
+
+    If no copy is made, later modifications of the tree outside of lxml
+    should not be attempted after transferring the ownership.
+    """
+    cdef xmlDoc* c_doc
+    cdef bint is_owned = False
+    c_doc = <xmlDoc*> python.lxml_unpack_xmldoc_capsule(capsule, &is_owned)
+    doc = _adoptForeignDoc(c_doc, parser, is_owned)
+    return _elementTreeFactory(doc, None)
+
+
+################################################################################
+# Include submodules
+
+include "readonlytree.pxi" # Read-only implementation of Element proxies
+include "classlookup.pxi"  # Element class lookup mechanisms
+include "nsclasses.pxi"    # Namespace implementation and registry
+include "docloader.pxi"    # Support for custom document loaders
+include "parser.pxi"       # XML and HTML parsers
+include "saxparser.pxi"    # SAX-like Parser interface and tree builder
+include "parsertarget.pxi" # ET Parser target
+include "serializer.pxi"   # XML output functions
+include "iterparse.pxi"    # incremental XML parsing
+include "xmlid.pxi"        # XMLID and IDDict
+include "xinclude.pxi"     # XInclude
+include "cleanup.pxi"      # Cleanup and recursive element removal functions
+
+
+################################################################################
+# Include submodules for XPath and XSLT
+
+include "extensions.pxi"   # XPath/XSLT extension functions
+include "xpath.pxi"        # XPath evaluation
+include "xslt.pxi"         # XSL transformations
+include "xsltext.pxi"      # XSL extension elements
+
+
+################################################################################
+# Validation
+
+cdef class DocumentInvalid(LxmlError):
+    """Validation error.
+
+    Raised by all document validators when their ``assertValid(tree)``
+    method fails.
+    """
+
+
+cdef class _Validator:
+    "Base class for XML validators."
+    cdef _ErrorLog _error_log
+    def __cinit__(self):
+        self._error_log = _ErrorLog()
+
+    def validate(self, etree):
+        """validate(self, etree)
+
+        Validate the document using this schema.
+
+        Returns true if document is valid, false if not.
+        """
+        return self(etree)
+
+    def assertValid(self, etree):
+        """assertValid(self, etree)
+
+        Raises `DocumentInvalid` if the document does not comply with the schema.
+        """
+        if not self(etree):
+            raise DocumentInvalid(self._error_log._buildExceptionMessage(
+                    "Document does not comply with schema"),
+                                  self._error_log)
+
+    def assert_(self, etree):
+        """assert_(self, etree)
+
+        Raises `AssertionError` if the document does not comply with the schema.
+        """
+        if not self(etree):
+            raise AssertionError, self._error_log._buildExceptionMessage(
+                "Document does not comply with schema")
+
+    cpdef _append_log_message(self, int domain, int type, int level, int line,
+                              message, filename):
+        self._error_log._receiveGeneric(domain, type, level, line, message,
+                                        filename)
+
+    cpdef _clear_error_log(self):
+        self._error_log.clear()
+
+    @property
+    def error_log(self):
+        """The log of validation errors and warnings."""
+        assert self._error_log is not None, "XPath evaluator not initialised"
+        return self._error_log.copy()
+
+include "dtd.pxi"        # DTD
+include "relaxng.pxi"    # RelaxNG
+include "xmlschema.pxi"  # XMLSchema
+include "schematron.pxi" # Schematron (requires libxml2 2.6.21+)
+
+################################################################################
+# Public C API
+
+include "public-api.pxi"
+
+################################################################################
+# Other stuff
+
+include "debug.pxi"