lets-plot 4.6.0rc1__cp39-cp39-macosx_10_15_x86_64.whl

lets_plot/plot/core.py

@@ -0,0 +1,943 @@
+#
+# Copyright (c) 2019. JetBrains s.r.o.
+# Use of this source code is governed by the MIT license that can be found in the LICENSE file.
+#
+import io
+import json
+import os
+from typing import Union
+
+__all__ = ['aes', 'layer']
+
+from lets_plot._global_settings import get_global_bool, has_global_value, FRAGMENTS_ENABLED
+
+
+def aes(x=None, y=None, **kwargs):
+    """
+    Define aesthetic mappings.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    x, y, ... :
+        List of name value pairs giving aesthetics to map to variables.
+        The names for x and y aesthetics are typically omitted because they are so common; all other aesthetics must be named.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    `FeatureSpec`
+        Aesthetic mapping specification.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Generate aesthetic mappings that describe how variables in the data are projected to visual properties
+    (aesthetics) of geometries. This function also standardizes aesthetic names by, for example, converting
+    colour to color.
+
+    Aesthetic mappings are not to be confused with aesthetic settings; the latter are used to set aesthetics to
+    some constant values, e.g. make all points red in the plot. If one wants to make the color of a point
+    depend on the value of a variable, he/she should project this variable to the color aesthetic via
+    aesthetic mapping.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    .. jupyter-execute::
+        :linenos:
+        :emphasize-lines: 10-11
+
+        import numpy as np
+        from lets_plot import *
+        LetsPlot.setup_html()
+        n = 100
+        np.random.seed(42)
+        x = np.random.uniform(-1, 1, size=n)
+        y = 25 * x ** 2 + np.random.normal(size=n)
+        c = np.where(x < 0, '0', '1')
+        ggplot({'x': x, 'y': y, 'c': c}) + \\
+            geom_point(aes('x', 'y', color='y', shape='c', size='x')) + \\
+            geom_smooth(aes(x='x', y='y'), deg=2, size=1)
+
+    |
+
+    .. jupyter-execute::
+        :linenos:
+        :emphasize-lines: 3-4
+
+        from lets_plot import *
+        LetsPlot.setup_html()
+        ggplot() + geom_polygon(aes(x=[0, 1, 2], y=[2, 1, 4]), \\
+                                color='black', alpha=.5, size=1)
+
+    """
+
+    return FeatureSpec('mapping', name=None, x=x, y=y, **kwargs)
+
+
+def layer(geom=None, stat=None, data=None, mapping=None, position=None, **kwargs):
+    """
+    Create a new layer.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    geom : str
+        The geometric object to use to display the data.
+    stat : str, default='identity'
+        The statistical transformation to use on the data for this layer, as a string.
+        Supported transformations: 'identity' (leaves the data unchanged),
+        'count' (count number of points with same x-axis coordinate),
+        'bin' (count number of points with x-axis coordinate in the same bin),
+        'smooth' (perform smoothing - linear default),
+        'density' (compute and draw kernel density estimate).
+    data : dict or Pandas or Polars `DataFrame`
+        The data to be displayed in this layer. If None, the default, the data
+        is inherited from the plot data as specified in the call to ggplot.
+    mapping : `FeatureSpec`
+        Set of aesthetic mappings created by `aes()` function.
+        Aesthetic mappings describe the way that variables in the data are
+        mapped to plot "aesthetics".
+    position : str or `FeatureSpec`
+        Position adjustment.
+        Either a position adjustment name: 'dodge', 'dodgev', 'jitter', 'nudge', 'jitterdodge', 'fill',
+        'stack' or 'identity', or the result of calling a position adjustment function (e.g., `position_dodge()` etc.).
+    kwargs:
+        Other arguments passed on to layer. These are often aesthetics settings, used to set an aesthetic to a fixed
+        value, like color = "red", fill = "blue", size = 3 or shape = 21. They may also be parameters to the
+        paired geom/stat.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    `LayerSpec`
+        Geom object specification.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    A layer is a combination of data, stat and geom with a potential position adjustment. Usually layers are created
+    using geom_* or stat_* calls but they can be created directly using this function.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    .. jupyter-execute::
+        :linenos:
+        :emphasize-lines: 8
+
+        import numpy as np
+        from lets_plot import *
+        LetsPlot.setup_html()
+        n = 50
+        np.random.seed(42)
+        x = np.random.uniform(-1, 1, size=n)
+        y = 25 * x ** 2 + np.random.normal(size=n)
+        ggplot({'x': x, 'y': y}, aes(x='x', y='y')) + layer(geom='point')
+
+    """
+    # todo: other parameters: inherit.aes = TRUE, subset = NULL, show.legend = NA
+
+    return LayerSpec(**locals())
+
+
+def _filter_none(original: dict) -> dict:
+    return {k: v for k, v in original.items() if v is not None}
+
+
+#
+#  -----------------------------------
+#  Specs
+#
+
+def _specs_to_dict(opts_raw):
+    opts = {}
+    for k, v in opts_raw.items():
+        if isinstance(v, FeatureSpec):
+            opts[k] = v.as_dict()
+        elif isinstance(v, dict):
+            opts[k] = _specs_to_dict(v)
+        else:
+            opts[k] = v
+
+    return _filter_none(opts)
+
+
+class FeatureSpec():
+    """
+    A base class of the plot objects.
+
+    Do not use this class explicitly.
+
+    Instead, you should construct its objects with functions `ggplot()`, `geom_point()`,
+    `position_dodge()`, `scale_x_continuous()` etc.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, kind, name, **kwargs):
+        """Initialize self."""
+        self.kind = kind
+        self.__props = {}
+        if name is not None:
+            self.__props['name'] = name
+        self.__props.update(**kwargs)
+
+    def props(self):
+        return self.__props
+
+    def as_dict(self):
+        """
+        Return the dictionary of all properties of the object with `as_dict()`
+        applied recursively to all subproperties of `FeatureSpec` type.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict
+            Dictionary of properties.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        .. jupyter-execute::
+            :linenos:
+            :emphasize-lines: 4
+
+            from lets_plot import *
+            LetsPlot.setup_html()
+            p = ggplot({'x': [0], 'y': [0]}) + geom_point(aes('x', 'y'))
+            p.as_dict()
+        """
+        return _specs_to_dict(self.props())
+
+    def __str__(self):
+        return json.dumps(self.as_dict(), indent=2)
+
+    def __add__(self, other):
+        if isinstance(other, DummySpec):
+            # nothing
+            return self
+
+        if self.kind in ["plot", "subplots"]:
+            # pass and fail: don't allow to add plot to a feature list.
+            pass
+        elif isinstance(other, FeatureSpec):
+            if other.kind in ["plot", "subplots"]:
+                # pass and fail: don't allow to add plot to a feature list.
+                pass
+            else:
+                arr = FeatureSpecArray(self, other)
+                return arr
+
+        raise TypeError('unsupported operand type(s) for +: {} and {}'
+                        .format(self.__class__, other.__class__))
+
+
+class PlotSpec(FeatureSpec):
+    """
+    A class of the initial plot object.
+
+    Do not use this class explicitly.
+
+    Instead, you should construct its objects with functions `ggplot()`,
+    `corr_plot(...).points().build()` etc.
+    """
+
+    @classmethod
+    def duplicate(cls, other):
+        dup = PlotSpec(data=None, mapping=None,
+                       scales=other.__scales,
+                       layers=other.__layers,
+                       metainfo_list=other.__metainfo_list,
+                       is_livemap=other.__is_livemap,
+                       crs_initialized=other.__crs_initialized,
+                       crs=other.__crs,
+                       )
+        dup.props().update(other.props())
+        return dup
+
+    def __init__(self, data, mapping, scales, layers, metainfo_list=[], is_livemap=False, crs_initialized=False,
+                 crs=None, **kwargs):
+        """Initialize self."""
+        super().__init__('plot', name=None, data=data, mapping=mapping, **kwargs)
+        self.__scales = list(scales)
+        self.__layers = list(layers)
+        self.__metainfo_list = list(metainfo_list)
+        self.__is_livemap = is_livemap
+        self.__crs_initialized = crs_initialized
+        self.__crs = crs
+
+    def get_plot_shared_data(self):
+        """
+        Extract the data shared by all layers.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        dict or `DataFrame`
+            Object data.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        .. jupyter-execute::
+            :linenos:
+            :emphasize-lines: 5
+
+            from lets_plot import *
+            LetsPlot.setup_html()
+            p = ggplot({'x': [0], 'y': [0]}, aes('x', 'y'))
+            p += geom_point(data={'x': [1], 'y': [1]})
+            p.get_plot_shared_data()
+
+        """
+        # used to evaluate 'completion'
+        return self.props()['data']
+
+    def has_layers(self) -> bool:
+        """
+        Check if the `PlotSpec` object has at least one layer.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        bool
+            True if object has layers.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        .. jupyter-execute::
+            :linenos:
+            :emphasize-lines: 4, 6
+
+            from lets_plot import *
+            LetsPlot.setup_html()
+            p = ggplot()
+            print(p.has_layers())
+            p += geom_point(x=0, y=0)
+            print(p.has_layers())
+
+        """
+        return True if self.__layers else False
+
+    def __add__(self, other):
+        """
+        Allow to add different specs to the `PlotSpec` object.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        .. jupyter-execute::
+            :linenos:
+            :emphasize-lines: 7
+
+            from lets_plot import *
+            LetsPlot.setup_html()
+            p = ggplot({'x': [0, 1, 2], 'y': [0, 1, 2]}, aes('x', 'y'))
+            l = layer('point', mapping=aes(color='x'))
+            s = scale_color_discrete()
+            t = theme(axis_title='blank')
+            p + l + s + t
+
+        """
+        """
+            plot + other_plot -> fail
+            plot + layer -> plot[layers] += layer
+            plot + geom ->  plot[layers] += new layer(geom)
+            plot + scale -> plot[scales] += scale
+            plot + metainfo -> plot[metainfo_list] += metainfo
+            plot + [feature]  -> plot + each feature in []
+            plot + theme + theme -> merged theme
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, PlotSpec):
+            # pass and fail
+            pass
+
+        if isinstance(other, DummySpec):
+            # nothing
+            return self
+
+        elif isinstance(other, FeatureSpec):
+            plot = PlotSpec.duplicate(self)
+            if other.kind == 'layer':
+                if other.props()['geom'] == 'livemap':
+                    plot.__is_livemap = True
+
+                from lets_plot.plot.util import is_geo_data_frame  # local import to break circular reference
+                if is_geo_data_frame(other.props().get('data')) \
+                        or is_geo_data_frame(other.props().get('map')):
+                    if plot.__crs_initialized:
+                        if plot.__crs != other.props().get('use_crs'):
+                            raise ValueError(
+                                'All geoms with map parameter should either use same `use_crs` or not use it at all')
+                    else:
+                        plot.__crs_initialized = True
+                        plot.__crs = other.props().get('use_crs')
+
+                if plot.__is_livemap and plot.__crs is not None:
+                    raise ValueError("livemap doesn't support `use_crs`")
+
+                other.before_append(plot.__is_livemap)
+                plot.__layers.append(other)
+                return plot
+
+            if other.kind == 'scale':
+                plot.__scales.append(other)
+                return plot
+
+            if other.kind == 'theme':
+                new_theme_options = {k: v for k, v in other.props().items() if v is not None}
+                if 'name' in new_theme_options:
+                    # keep the previously specified flavor
+                    if plot.props().get('theme', {}).get('flavor', None) is not None:
+                        new_theme_options.update({'flavor': plot.props()['theme']['flavor']})
+
+                    # pre-configured theme overrides existing theme altogether.
+                    plot.props()['theme'] = new_theme_options
+                else:
+                    # merge themes
+                    old_theme_options = plot.props().get('theme', {})
+                    plot.props()['theme'] = _theme_dicts_merge(old_theme_options, new_theme_options)
+
+                return plot
+
+            if other.kind == 'metainfo':
+                plot.__metainfo_list.append(other)
+                return plot
+
+            if isinstance(other, FeatureSpecArray):
+                for spec in other.elements():
+                    plot = plot.__add__(spec)
+                return plot
+
+            if other.kind == 'guides':
+                existing_options = plot.props().get('guides', {})
+                plot.props()['guides'] = _merge_dicts_recursively(existing_options, other.as_dict())
+                return plot
+
+            if other.kind == 'mapping':  # +aes(..)
+                existing_spec = plot.props().get('mapping', aes())
+                merged_mapping = {**existing_spec.as_dict(), **other.as_dict()}
+                plot.props()['mapping'] = aes(**merged_mapping)
+                return plot
+
+            # add feature to properties
+            plot.props()[other.kind] = other
+            return plot
+
+        return super().__add__(other)
+
+    def as_dict(self):
+        d = super().as_dict()
+        d['kind'] = self.kind
+        d['scales'] = [scale.as_dict() for scale in self.__scales]
+        d['layers'] = [layer.as_dict() for layer in self.__layers]
+        d['metainfo_list'] = [metainfo.as_dict() for metainfo in self.__metainfo_list]
+        return d
+
+    def __str__(self):
+        result = ['plot']
+        result.extend('{}: {}'.format(k, v)
+                      for k, v in self.props().items())
+
+        result.append('scales [{}]'.format(len(self.__scales)))
+        for scale in self.__scales:
+            result.append(str(scale))
+            result.append('-' * 34)
+
+        result.append('layers [{}]'.format(len(self.__layers)))
+        for layer in self.__layers:
+            result.append(str(layer))
+            result.append('-' * 34)
+
+        result.append('metainfo_list [{}]'.format(len(self.__metainfo_list)))
+        for metainfo in self.__metainfo_list:
+            result.append(str(metainfo))
+            result.append('-' * 34)
+
+        result.append('')  # for trailing \n
+        return '\n'.join(result)
+
+    def _repr_html_(self):
+        # Special method discovered and invoked by IPython.display.display.
+        from ..frontend_context._configuration import _as_html
+        return _as_html(self.as_dict())
+
+    def show(self):
+        """
+        Draw a plot.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        .. jupyter-execute::
+            :linenos:
+            :emphasize-lines: 4
+
+            from lets_plot import *
+            LetsPlot.setup_html()
+            p = ggplot() + geom_point(x=0, y=0)
+            p.show()
+
+        """
+        from ..frontend_context._configuration import _display_plot
+        _display_plot(self)
+
+    def to_svg(self, path=None) -> str:
+        """
+        Export the plot in SVG format.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        self : `PlotSpec`
+            Plot specification to export.
+        path : str, file-like object, default=None
+            Сan be either a string specifying a file path or a file-like object.
+            If a string is provided, the result will be exported to the file at that path.
+            If a file-like object is provided, the result will be exported to that object.
+            If None is provided, the result will be returned as a string.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        str
+            Absolute pathname of created file,
+            SVG content as a string or None if a file-like object is provided.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        .. jupyter-execute::
+            :linenos:
+            :emphasize-lines: 9
+
+            import numpy as np
+            import io
+            from lets_plot import *
+            from IPython import display
+            LetsPlot.setup_html()
+            x = np.random.randint(10, size=100)
+            p = ggplot({'x': x}, aes(x='x')) + geom_bar()
+            file_like = io.BytesIO()
+            p.to_svg(file_like)
+            display.SVG(file_like.getvalue())
+        """
+        return _to_svg(self, path)
+
+    def to_html(self, path=None, iframe: bool = None) -> str:
+        """
+        Export the plot in HTML format.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        self : `PlotSpec`
+            Plot specification to export.
+        path : str, file-like object, default=None
+            Сan be either a string specifying a file path or a file-like object.
+            If a string is provided, the result will be exported to the file at that path.
+            If a file-like object is provided, the result will be exported to that object.
+            If None is provided, the result will be returned as a string.
+        iframe : bool, default=False
+            Whether to wrap HTML page into a iFrame.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        str
+            Absolute pathname of created file,
+            HTML content as a string or None if a file-like object is provided.
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        .. jupyter-execute::
+            :linenos:
+            :emphasize-lines: 8
+
+            import numpy as np
+            import io
+            from lets_plot import *
+            LetsPlot.setup_html()
+            x = np.random.randint(10, size=100)
+            p = ggplot({'x': x}, aes(x='x')) + geom_bar()
+            file_like = io.BytesIO()
+            p.to_html(file_like)
+        """
+        return _to_html(self, path, iframe)
+
+    def to_png(self, path, scale: float = None, w=None, h=None, unit=None, dpi=None) -> str:
+        """
+        Export a plot to a file or to a file-like object in PNG format.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        self : `PlotSpec`
+            Plot specification to export.
+        path : str, file-like object
+            Сan be either a string specifying a file path or a file-like object.
+            If a string is provided, the result will be exported to the file at that path.
+            If a file-like object is provided, the result will be exported to that object.
+        scale : float
+            Scaling factor for raster output. Default value is 2.0.
+        w : float, default=None
+            Width of the output image in units.
+            Only applicable when exporting to PNG or PDF.
+        h : float, default=None
+            Height of the output image in units.
+            Only applicable when exporting to PNG or PDF.
+        unit : {'in', 'cm', 'mm'}, default=None
+            Unit of the output image. One of: 'in', 'cm', 'mm'.
+            Only applicable when exporting to PNG or PDF.
+        dpi : int, default=None
+            Resolution in dots per inch.
+            Only applicable when exporting to PNG or PDF.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        str
+            Absolute pathname of created file or None if a file-like object is provided.
+
+        Notes
+        -----
+        Export to PNG file uses the CairoSVG library.
+        CairoSVG is free and distributed under the LGPL-3.0 license.
+        For more details visit: https://cairosvg.org/documentation/
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        .. jupyter-execute::
+            :linenos:
+            :emphasize-lines: 9
+
+            import numpy as np
+            import io
+            from lets_plot import *
+            from IPython import display
+            LetsPlot.setup_html()
+            x = np.random.randint(10, size=100)
+            p = ggplot({'x': x}, aes(x='x')) + geom_bar()
+            file_like = io.BytesIO()
+            p.to_png(file_like)
+            display.Image(file_like.getvalue())
+        """
+        return _export_as_raster(self, path, scale, 'png', w=w, h=h, unit=unit, dpi=dpi)
+
+    def to_pdf(self, path, scale: float = None, w=None, h=None, unit=None, dpi=None) -> str:
+        """
+        Export a plot to a file or to a file-like object in PDF format.
+
+        Parameters
+        ----------
+        self : `PlotSpec`
+            Plot specification to export.
+        path : str, file-like object
+            Сan be either a string specifying a file path or a file-like object.
+            If a string is provided, the result will be exported to the file at that path.
+            If a file-like object is provided, the result will be exported to that object.
+        scale : float
+            Scaling factor for raster output. Default value is 2.0.
+        w : float, default=None
+            Width of the output image in units.
+            Only applicable when exporting to PNG or PDF.
+        h : float, default=None
+            Height of the output image in units.
+            Only applicable when exporting to PNG or PDF.
+        unit : {'in', 'cm', 'mm'}, default=None
+            Unit of the output image. One of: 'in', 'cm', 'mm'.
+            Only applicable when exporting to PNG or PDF.
+        dpi : int, default=None
+            Resolution in dots per inch.
+            Only applicable when exporting to PNG or PDF.
+
+        Returns
+        -------
+        str
+            Absolute pathname of created file or None if a file-like object is provided.
+
+        Notes
+        -----
+        Export to PDF file uses the CairoSVG library.
+        CairoSVG is free and distributed under the LGPL-3.0 license.
+        For more details visit: https://cairosvg.org/documentation/
+
+        Examples
+        --------
+        .. jupyter-execute::
+            :linenos:
+            :emphasize-lines: 13
+
+            import numpy as np
+            import io
+            import os
+            from lets_plot import *
+            from IPython import display
+            LetsPlot.setup_html()
+            n = 60
+            np.random.seed(42)
+            x = np.random.choice(list('abcde'), size=n)
+            y = np.random.normal(size=n)
+            p = ggplot({'x': x, 'y': y}, aes(x='x', y='y')) + geom_jitter()
+            file_like = io.BytesIO()
+            p.to_pdf(file_like)
+        """
+        return _export_as_raster(self, path, scale, 'pdf', w=w, h=h, unit=unit, dpi=dpi)
+
+
+class LayerSpec(FeatureSpec):
+    """
+    A class of the plot layer object.
+
+    Do not use this class explicitly.
+
+    Instead, you should construct its objects with functions `geom_point()`,
+    `geom_contour()`, `geom_boxplot()`, `geom_text()` etc.
+    """
+
+    __own_features = ['geom', 'stat', 'mapping', 'position']
+
+    @classmethod
+    def duplicate(cls, other):
+        # A shallow copy!
+        return LayerSpec(**other.props())
+
+    def __init__(self, **kwargs):
+        super().__init__('layer', name=None, **kwargs)
+
+    def before_append(self, is_livemap):
+        from .util import normalize_map_join, is_geo_data_frame, auto_join_geo_names, geo_data_frame_to_crs, \
+            get_geo_data_frame_meta
+        from lets_plot.geo_data_internals.utils import is_geocoder
+
+        name = self.props()['geom']
+        map_join = self.props().get('map_join')
+        map = self.props().get('map')
+        map_data_meta = None
+
+        if map_join is None and map is None:
+            return
+
+        map_join = normalize_map_join(map_join)
+
+        if is_geocoder(map):
+            if is_livemap and get_global_bool(FRAGMENTS_ENABLED) if has_global_value(FRAGMENTS_ENABLED) else False:
+                map = map.get_geocodes()
+                map_join = auto_join_geo_names(map_join, map)
+                map_data_meta = {'georeference': {}}
+            else:
+                # Fetch proper GeoDataFrame. Further processing is the same as if map was a GDF.
+                if name in ['point', 'pie', 'text', 'label', 'livemap']:
+                    map = map.get_centroids()
+                elif name in ['map', 'polygon']:
+                    map = map.get_boundaries()
+                elif name in ['rect']:
+                    map = map.get_limits()
+                else:
+                    raise ValueError("Geocoding doesn't provide geometries for geom_{}".format(name))
+
+        if is_geo_data_frame(map):
+            # map = geo_data_frame_to_crs(map, self.props().get('use_crs'))
+            use_crs = self.props().get('use_crs')
+            if use_crs != "provided":
+                map = geo_data_frame_to_crs(map, use_crs)
+            map_join = auto_join_geo_names(map_join, map)
+            map_data_meta = get_geo_data_frame_meta(map)
+
+        if map_join is not None:
+            self.props()['map_join'] = map_join
+
+        if map is not None:
+            self.props()['map'] = map
+
+        if map_data_meta is not None:
+            self.props()['map_data_meta'] = map_data_meta
+
+    def get_plot_layer_data(self):
+        # used to evaluate 'completion'
+        return self.props()['data']
+
+    def __add__(self, other):
+        if isinstance(other, DummySpec):
+            # nothing
+            return self
+
+        """
+            layer + own_feature -> layer[feature] = feature
+            layer + other -> default
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, FeatureSpec):
+            if other.kind in LayerSpec.__own_features:
+                l = LayerSpec.duplicate(self)
+                l.props()[other.kind] = other
+                return l
+
+        return super().__add__(other)
+
+
+class FeatureSpecArray(FeatureSpec):
+    def __init__(self, *features):
+        super().__init__('feature-list', name=None)
+        self.__elements = []
+        self._flatten(list(features), self.__elements)
+
+    def __len__(self):
+        return len(self.__elements)
+
+    def __iter__(self):
+        return self.__elements.__iter__()
+
+    def __getitem__(self, item):
+        return self.__elements[item]
+
+    def elements(self):
+        return self.__elements
+
+    def as_dict(self):
+        elements = [{e.kind: e.as_dict()} for e in self.__elements]
+        return {'feature-list': elements}
+
+    def __add__(self, other):
+        if isinstance(other, DummySpec):
+            # nothing
+            return self
+
+        """
+            array + other_feature -> [my_elements, other]
+            array + other_array -> [my_elements, other_elements]
+            layer + ? -> fail
+        """
+        if isinstance(other, FeatureSpec):
+            if isinstance(other, FeatureSpecArray):
+                return FeatureSpecArray(*self.__elements, *other.__elements)
+
+            elif other.kind != 'plot':
+                return FeatureSpecArray(*self.__elements, other)
+
+        return super().__add__(other)
+
+    def _flatten(self, features, out):
+        for feature in features:
+            if isinstance(feature, FeatureSpecArray):
+                self._flatten(feature.elements(), out)
+            else:
+                out.append(feature)
+
+
+class DummySpec(FeatureSpec):
+    def __init__(self):
+        super().__init__('dummy', name=None)
+
+    def as_dict(self):
+        return {'dummy-feature': True}
+
+    def __add__(self, other):
+        return other
+
+
+def _generate_data(size):
+    """ For testing reasons only """
+    # return FeatureSpec('dummy', name=None, data='x' * size)
+    return PlotSpec(data='x' * size, mapping=None, scales=[], layers=[])
+
+
+def _merge_dicts_recursively(d1, d2):
+    merged = d1.copy()
+    for key, value in d2.items():
+        if isinstance(value, dict) and isinstance(merged.get(key), dict):
+            merged[key] = _merge_dicts_recursively(merged[key], value)
+        else:
+            merged[key] = value
+    return merged
+
+
+def _theme_dicts_merge(x, y):
+    """
+    Simple values in `y` override values in `x`.
+    If values in `y` and `x` both are dictionaries, then they are merged.
+    """
+    overlapping_keys = x.keys() & y.keys()
+    z = {k: {**x[k], **y[k]} for k in overlapping_keys if type(x[k]) is dict and type(y[k]) is dict}
+    return {**x, **y, **z}
+
+
+def _to_svg(spec, path) -> Union[str, None]:
+    from .. import _kbridge as kbr
+
+    svg = kbr._generate_svg(spec.as_dict())
+    if path is None:
+        return svg
+    elif isinstance(path, str):
+        abspath = _makedirs(path)
+        with io.open(abspath, mode="w", encoding="utf-8") as f:
+            f.write(svg)
+            return abspath
+    else:
+        path.write(svg.encode())
+        return None
+
+
+def _to_html(spec, path, iframe: bool) -> Union[str, None]:
+    if iframe is None:
+        iframe = False
+
+    from .. import _kbridge as kbr
+    html_page = kbr._generate_static_html_page(spec.as_dict(), iframe)
+
+    if path is None:
+        return html_page
+    elif isinstance(path, str):
+        abspath = _makedirs(path)
+        with io.open(abspath, mode="w", encoding="utf-8") as f:
+            f.write(html_page)
+            return abspath
+    else:
+        path.write(html_page.encode())
+        return None
+
+
+def _export_as_raster(spec, path, scale: float, export_format: str, w=None, h=None, unit=None, dpi=None) -> Union[
+    str, None]:
+    try:
+        import cairosvg
+    except ImportError:
+        import sys
+        print("\n"
+              "To export Lets-Plot figure to a PNG or PDF file please install CairoSVG library"
+              "to your Python environment.\n"
+              "CairoSVG is free and distributed under the LGPL-3.0 license.\n"
+              "For more details visit: https://cairosvg.org/documentation/\n", file=sys.stderr)
+        return None
+
+    if export_format.lower() == 'png':
+        export_function = cairosvg.svg2png
+    elif export_format.lower() == 'pdf':
+        export_function = cairosvg.svg2pdf
+    else:
+        raise ValueError("Unknown export format: {}".format(export_format))
+
+    from .. import _kbridge
+    # Use SVG image-rendering style as Cairo doesn't support CSS image-rendering style,
+    svg = _kbridge._generate_svg(spec.as_dict(), use_css_pixelated_image_rendering=False)
+
+    if isinstance(path, str):
+        abspath = _makedirs(path)
+        result = abspath
+    else:
+        result = None  # file-like object is provided. No path to return.
+
+    if any(it is not None for it in [w, h, unit, dpi]):
+        if w is None or h is None or unit is None or dpi is None:
+            raise ValueError("w, h, unit, and dpi must all be specified")
+
+        w, h = _to_inches(w, unit) * dpi, _to_inches(h, unit) * dpi
+        export_function(bytestring=svg, write_to=path, dpi=dpi, output_width=w, output_height=h)
+    else:
+        scale = scale if scale is not None else 2.0
+        export_function(bytestring=svg, write_to=path, scale=scale)
+
+    return result
+
+
+def _makedirs(path: str) -> str:
+    """Return absolute path to a file after creating all directories in the path."""
+    abspath = os.path.abspath(path)
+    dirname = os.path.dirname(abspath)
+    if dirname and not os.path.exists(dirname):
+        os.makedirs(dirname)
+    return abspath
+
+
+def _to_inches(size, size_unit):
+    if size_unit is None:
+        raise ValueError("Unit must be specified")
+
+    if size_unit == 'in':
+        inches = size
+    elif size_unit == 'cm':
+        inches = size / 2.54
+    elif size_unit == 'mm':
+        inches = size / 25.4
+    else:
+        raise ValueError("Unknown unit: {}. Expected one of: 'in', 'cm', 'mm'".format(size_unit))
+
+    return inches