invrs-opt 0.3.2__py3-none-any.whl → 0.10.3__py3-none-any.whl

invrs_opt/parameterization/gaussian_levelset.py

@@ -0,0 +1,671 @@
+"""Defines Gaussian radial basis function levelset parameterization.
+
+Copyright (c) 2023 The INVRS-IO authors.
+"""
+
+import dataclasses
+from typing import Any, Tuple
+
+import jax
+import jax.numpy as jnp
+import optax  # type: ignore[import-untyped]
+from jax import tree_util
+from totypes import json_utils, symmetry, types
+
+from invrs_opt.parameterization import base, transforms
+
+PyTree = Any
+
+DEFAULT_LENGTH_SCALE_SPACING_FACTOR: float = 2.0
+DEFAULT_LENGTH_SCALE_FWHM_FACTOR: float = 1.0
+DEFAULT_LENGTH_SCALE_CONSTRAINT_FACTOR: float = 1.15
+DEFAULT_SMOOTHING_FACTOR: int = 2
+DEFAULT_LENGTH_SCALE_CONSTRAINT_BETA: float = 0.333
+DEFAULT_LENGTH_SCALE_CONSTRAINT_WEIGHT: float = 1.0
+DEFAULT_CURVATURE_CONSTRAINT_WEIGHT: float = 2.0
+DEFAULT_FIXED_PIXEL_CONSTRAINT_WEIGHT: float = 10.0
+DEFAULT_INIT_STEPS: int = 50
+DEFAULT_INIT_OPTIMIZER: optax.GradientTransformation = optax.adam(1e-1)
+
+
+@dataclasses.dataclass
+class GaussianLevelsetParams(base.ParameterizedDensity2DArray):
+    """Stores parameters for the Gaussian levelset parameterization."""
+
+    latents: "GaussianLevelsetLatents"
+    metadata: "GaussianLevelsetMetadata"
+
+
+@dataclasses.dataclass
+class GaussianLevelsetLatents(base.LatentsBase):
+    """Stores latent parameters for the Gaussian levelset parameterization.
+
+    Attributes:
+        amplitude: Array giving the amplitude of the Gaussian basis function at
+            levelset control points.
+    """
+
+    amplitude: jnp.ndarray
+
+
+@dataclasses.dataclass
+class GaussianLevelsetMetadata(base.MetadataBase):
+    """Stores metadata for the Gaussian levelset parameterization.
+
+    Attributes:
+        length_scale_spacing_factor: The number of levelset control points per unit of
+            minimum length scale (mean of density minimum width and minimum spacing).
+        length_scale_fwhm_factor: The ratio of Gaussian full-width at half-maximum to
+            the minimum length scale.
+        smoothing_factor: For values greater than 1, the density is initially computed
+            at higher resolution and then downsampled, yielding smoother geometries.
+        density_shape: Shape of the density array obtained from the parameters.
+        density_metadata: Metadata for the density array obtained from the parameters.
+    """
+
+    length_scale_spacing_factor: float
+    length_scale_fwhm_factor: float
+    smoothing_factor: int
+    density_shape: Tuple[int, ...]
+    density_metadata: base.Density2DMetadata
+
+    def __post_init__(self) -> None:
+        self.density_shape = tuple(self.density_shape)
+
+
+tree_util.register_dataclass(
+    GaussianLevelsetParams,
+    data_fields=["latents", "metadata"],
+    meta_fields=[],
+)
+tree_util.register_dataclass(
+    GaussianLevelsetLatents,
+    data_fields=["amplitude"],
+    meta_fields=[],
+)
+tree_util.register_dataclass(
+    GaussianLevelsetMetadata,
+    data_fields=[
+        "length_scale_spacing_factor",
+        "length_scale_fwhm_factor",
+        "density_metadata",
+    ],
+    meta_fields=["density_shape", "smoothing_factor"],
+)
+json_utils.register_custom_type(GaussianLevelsetParams)
+json_utils.register_custom_type(GaussianLevelsetLatents)
+json_utils.register_custom_type(GaussianLevelsetMetadata)
+
+
+def gaussian_levelset(
+    *,
+    length_scale_spacing_factor: float = DEFAULT_LENGTH_SCALE_SPACING_FACTOR,
+    length_scale_fwhm_factor: float = DEFAULT_LENGTH_SCALE_FWHM_FACTOR,
+    length_scale_constraint_factor: float = DEFAULT_LENGTH_SCALE_CONSTRAINT_FACTOR,
+    smoothing_factor: int = DEFAULT_SMOOTHING_FACTOR,
+    length_scale_constraint_beta: float = DEFAULT_LENGTH_SCALE_CONSTRAINT_BETA,
+    length_scale_constraint_weight: float = DEFAULT_LENGTH_SCALE_CONSTRAINT_WEIGHT,
+    curvature_constraint_weight: float = DEFAULT_CURVATURE_CONSTRAINT_WEIGHT,
+    fixed_pixel_constraint_weight: float = DEFAULT_FIXED_PIXEL_CONSTRAINT_WEIGHT,
+    init_optimizer: optax.GradientTransformation = DEFAULT_INIT_OPTIMIZER,
+    init_steps: int = DEFAULT_INIT_STEPS,
+) -> base.Density2DParameterization:
+    """Defines a levelset parameterization with Gaussian radial basis functions.
+
+    Args:
+        length_scale_spacing_factor: The number of levelset control points per unit of
+            minimum length scale (mean of density minimum width and minimum spacing).
+        length_scale_fwhm_factor: The ratio of Gaussian full-width at half-maximum to
+            the minimum length scale.
+        length_scale_constraint_factor: Multiplies the target length scale in the
+            levelset constraints. A value greater than 1 is pessimistic and drives the
+            solution to have a larger length scale (relative to smaller values).
+        smoothing_factor: For values greater than 1, the density is initially computed
+            at higher resolution and then downsampled, yielding smoother geometries.
+        length_scale_constraint_beta: Controls relaxation of the length scale
+            constraint near the zero level.
+        length_scale_constraint_weight: The weight of the length scale constraint in
+            the overall fabrication constraint peenalty.
+        curvature_constraint_weight: The weight of the curvature constraint.
+        fixed_pixel_constraint_weight: The weight of the fixed pixel constraint.
+        init_optimizer: The optimizer used in the initialization of the levelset
+            parameterization. At initialization, the latent parameters are optimized so
+            that the initial parameters match the binarized initial density.
+        init_steps: The number of optimization steps used in the initialization.
+
+    Returns:
+        The `Density2DParameterization`.
+    """
+
+    def from_density_fn(density: types.Density2DArray) -> GaussianLevelsetParams:
+        """Return level set parameters for the given `density`."""
+        length_scale = (density.minimum_width + density.minimum_spacing) / 2
+        spacing_factor = length_scale_spacing_factor / length_scale
+        shape = density.shape[:-2] + (
+            int(jnp.ceil(density.shape[-2] * spacing_factor)),
+            int(jnp.ceil(density.shape[-1] * spacing_factor)),
+        )
+
+        mid_value = 0.5 * (density.lower_bound + density.upper_bound)
+        value_range = density.upper_bound - density.lower_bound
+        target_array = transforms.apply_fixed_pixels(density).array
+        target_array = (
+            jnp.sign(target_array - mid_value) * 0.5 * value_range + mid_value
+        )
+
+        # Generate the initial amplitude array.
+        amplitude = density.array - (density.upper_bound + density.lower_bound) / 2
+        amplitude = jnp.sign(amplitude)
+        amplitude = transforms.resample(amplitude, shape)
+
+        # If the density is not periodic, ensure there are level set control points
+        # beyond the edge of the density array.
+        pad_width = ((0, 0),) * (amplitude.ndim - 2)
+        pad_width += ((0, 0),) if density.periodic[0] else ((1, 1),)
+        pad_width += ((0, 0),) if density.periodic[1] else ((1, 1),)
+        amplitude = jnp.pad(amplitude, pad_width, mode="edge")
+
+        latents = GaussianLevelsetLatents(amplitude=amplitude)
+        metadata = GaussianLevelsetMetadata(
+            length_scale_spacing_factor=length_scale_spacing_factor,
+            length_scale_fwhm_factor=length_scale_fwhm_factor,
+            smoothing_factor=smoothing_factor,
+            density_shape=density.shape,
+            density_metadata=base.Density2DMetadata.from_density(density),
+        )
+
+        def step_fn(
+            _: int,
+            params_and_state: Tuple[PyTree, PyTree],
+        ) -> Tuple[PyTree, PyTree]:
+            def loss_fn(latents: GaussianLevelsetLatents) -> jnp.ndarray:
+                params = GaussianLevelsetParams(latents, metadata=metadata)
+                density_from_params = to_density_fn(params, mask_gradient=False)
+                return jnp.mean((density_from_params.array - target_array) ** 2)
+
+            params, state = params_and_state
+            grad = jax.grad(loss_fn)(params)
+            updates, state = init_optimizer.update(grad, params=params, state=state)
+            params = optax.apply_updates(params, updates)
+            return params, state
+
+        state = init_optimizer.init(latents)
+        latents, _ = jax.lax.fori_loop(
+            0, init_steps, body_fun=step_fn, init_val=(latents, state)
+        )
+
+        maxval = jnp.amax(jnp.abs(latents.amplitude), axis=(-2, -1), keepdims=True)
+        latents = dataclasses.replace(latents, amplitude=latents.amplitude / maxval)
+        return GaussianLevelsetParams(latents=latents, metadata=metadata)
+
+    def to_density_fn(
+        params: GaussianLevelsetParams,
+        mask_gradient: bool = True,
+    ) -> types.Density2DArray:
+        """Return a density from the latent parameters."""
+        array = _to_array(params, mask_gradient=mask_gradient, pad_pixels=0)
+
+        example_density = _example_density(params)
+        lb = example_density.lower_bound
+        ub = example_density.upper_bound
+        array = lb + array * (ub - lb)
+        assert array.shape == example_density.shape
+        return dataclasses.replace(example_density, array=array)
+
+    def constraints_fn(
+        params: GaussianLevelsetParams,
+        mask_gradient: bool = True,
+        pad_pixels: int = 2,
+    ) -> jnp.ndarray:
+        """Computes constraints associated with the params."""
+        return analytical_constraints(
+            params=params,
+            length_scale_constraint_factor=length_scale_constraint_factor,
+            length_scale_constraint_beta=length_scale_constraint_beta,
+            length_scale_constraint_weight=length_scale_constraint_weight,
+            curvature_constraint_weight=curvature_constraint_weight,
+            fixed_pixel_constraint_weight=fixed_pixel_constraint_weight,
+            mask_gradient=mask_gradient,
+            pad_pixels=pad_pixels,
+        )
+
+    def update_fn(
+        params: GaussianLevelsetParams,
+        updates: GaussianLevelsetParams,
+        value: jnp.ndarray,
+        step: int,
+    ) -> GaussianLevelsetParams:
+        """Perform updates to `params` required for the given `step`."""
+        del step, value
+        return GaussianLevelsetParams(
+            latents=tree_util.tree_map(
+                lambda a, b: a + b, params.latents, updates.latents
+            ),
+            metadata=params.metadata,
+        )
+
+    return base.Density2DParameterization(
+        to_density=to_density_fn,
+        from_density=from_density_fn,
+        constraints=constraints_fn,
+        update=update_fn,
+    )
+
+
+# -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Functions to obtain arrays from the levelset parameterization.
+# -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+def _example_density(params: GaussianLevelsetParams) -> types.Density2DArray:
+    """Returns an example density with appropriate shape and metadata."""
+    with jax.ensure_compile_time_eval():
+        return types.Density2DArray(
+            array=jnp.zeros(params.metadata.density_shape),
+            **dataclasses.asdict(params.metadata.density_metadata),
+        )
+
+
+def _to_array(
+    params: GaussianLevelsetParams,
+    mask_gradient: bool,
+    pad_pixels: int,
+) -> jnp.ndarray:
+    """Return an array from the parameters.
+
+    The array has a value of `1` where the levelset array is positive, and a value
+    of `-1` elsewhere. The final density array can be obtained by rescaling this array
+    to have the appropriate upper and lower bounds.
+
+    Args:
+        params: The parameters from which the density is obtained.
+        mask_gradient: If `True`, the gradient is masked so that it is nonzero only at
+            the borders of features.
+        pad_pixels: A non-negative integer giving the additional pixels to be included
+            beyond the boundaries of the parameterized density.
+
+    Returns:
+        The array.
+    """
+    example_density = _example_density(params)
+    periodic: Tuple[bool, bool] = example_density.periodic
+    phi = _phi_from_params(params=params, pad_pixels=pad_pixels)
+    array = _levelset_threshold(phi=phi, periodic=periodic, mask_gradient=mask_gradient)
+    return _downsample_spatial_dims(array, params.metadata.smoothing_factor)
+
+
+def _phi_from_params(
+    params: GaussianLevelsetParams,
+    pad_pixels: int,
+) -> jnp.ndarray:
+    """Return the levelset function for the given `params`.
+
+    Args:
+        params: The parameters from which the density is obtained.
+        pad_pixels: A non-negative integer giving the additional pixels to be included
+            beyond the boundaries of the parameterized density.
+
+    Returns:
+        The levelset array `phi`.
+    """
+    with jax.ensure_compile_time_eval():
+        example_density = _example_density(params)
+        length_scale = 0.5 * (
+            example_density.minimum_width + example_density.minimum_spacing
+        )
+        fwhm = length_scale * params.metadata.length_scale_fwhm_factor
+        sigma = fwhm / (2 * jnp.sqrt(2 * jnp.log(2)))
+
+        s_factor = params.metadata.smoothing_factor
+        highres_i = (
+            0.5
+            + jnp.arange(
+                s_factor * (-pad_pixels),
+                s_factor * (pad_pixels + example_density.shape[-2]),
+            )
+        ) / s_factor
+        highres_j = (
+            0.5
+            + jnp.arange(
+                s_factor * (-pad_pixels),
+                s_factor * (pad_pixels + example_density.shape[-1]),
+            )
+        ) / s_factor
+
+        # Coordinates for the control points of the Gaussian radial basis functions.
+        levelset_i, levelset_j = _control_point_coords(
+            density_shape=params.metadata.density_shape[-2:],  # type: ignore[arg-type]
+            levelset_shape=(
+                params.latents.amplitude.shape[-2:]  # type: ignore[arg-type]
+            ),
+            periodic=example_density.periodic,
+        )
+
+        # Handle periodicity by replicating control points over a 3x3 supercell.
+        if example_density.periodic[0]:
+            levelset_i = jnp.concatenate(
+                [
+                    levelset_i - example_density.shape[-2],
+                    levelset_i,
+                    levelset_i + example_density.shape[-2],
+                ],
+                axis=-2,
+            )
+            levelset_j = jnp.concatenate([levelset_j] * 3, axis=-2)
+        if example_density.periodic[1]:
+            levelset_i = jnp.concatenate([levelset_i] * 3, axis=-1)
+            levelset_j = jnp.concatenate(
+                [
+                    levelset_j - example_density.shape[-1],
+                    levelset_j,
+                    levelset_j + example_density.shape[-1],
+                ],
+                axis=-1,
+            )
+
+        levelset_i = levelset_i.flatten()
+        levelset_j = levelset_j.flatten()
+
+    amplitude = params.latents.amplitude
+    if example_density.periodic[0]:
+        amplitude = jnp.concat([amplitude] * 3, axis=-2)
+    if example_density.periodic[1]:
+        amplitude = jnp.concat([amplitude] * 3, axis=-1)
+
+    amplitude = amplitude.reshape(amplitude.shape[:-2] + (1, -1))
+
+    # Use a scan operation to compute the array; this lowers memory consumption.
+    def scan_fn(_: Tuple[()], i: jnp.ndarray) -> Tuple[Tuple[()], jnp.ndarray]:
+        distance_sq = (i - levelset_i) ** 2 + (
+            highres_j[:, jnp.newaxis] - levelset_j
+        ) ** 2
+        basis = jnp.exp(-distance_sq / sigma**2)
+        return (), jnp.sum(basis * amplitude, axis=-1)
+
+    _, array = jax.lax.scan(scan_fn, (), xs=highres_i)
+    array = jnp.moveaxis(array, 0, -2)
+
+    assert array.shape[-2] % s_factor == 0
+    assert array.shape[-1] % s_factor == 0
+    array = symmetry.symmetrize(array, tuple(example_density.symmetries))
+    return array
+
+
+# -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Functions to compute constraints.
+# -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+def analytical_constraints(
+    params: GaussianLevelsetParams,
+    length_scale_constraint_factor: float,
+    length_scale_constraint_beta: float,
+    length_scale_constraint_weight: float,
+    curvature_constraint_weight: float,
+    fixed_pixel_constraint_weight: float,
+    mask_gradient: bool,
+    pad_pixels: int,
+) -> jnp.ndarray:
+    """Computes analytical levelset constraints associated with the params."""
+    length_scale_constraint, curvature_constraint = _levelset_constraints(
+        params,
+        beta=length_scale_constraint_beta,
+        length_scale_constraint_factor=length_scale_constraint_factor,
+        pad_pixels=pad_pixels,
+    )
+    fixed_pixel_constraint = _fixed_pixel_constraint(
+        params,
+        mask_gradient=mask_gradient,
+        pad_pixels=pad_pixels,
+    )
+
+    constraints = jnp.stack(
+        [
+            length_scale_constraint * length_scale_constraint_weight,
+            curvature_constraint * curvature_constraint_weight,
+            fixed_pixel_constraint * fixed_pixel_constraint_weight,
+        ],
+        axis=-1,
+    )
+
+    # Normalize constraints to make them (somewhat) resolution-independent.
+    example_density = _example_density(params)
+    length_scale = 0.5 * (
+        example_density.minimum_spacing + example_density.minimum_width
+    )
+    return constraints / length_scale**2
+
+
+def _fixed_pixel_constraint(
+    params: GaussianLevelsetParams,
+    mask_gradient: bool,
+    pad_pixels: int,
+) -> jnp.ndarray:
+    """Return the fixed pixel constraint array.
+
+    The fixed pixel constraint array is nonzero at locations where the density obtained
+    from `params` differs from fixed pixels.
+
+    Args:
+        params: The parameters from which the density is obtained.
+        mask_gradient: If `True`, the gradient is masked so that it is nonzero only at
+            the borders of features.
+        pad_pixels: The number of pixels added at borders. Values greater than zero
+            help to ensure that sharp features at the borders are avoided.
+
+    Returns:
+        The constraints array.
+    """
+    array = _to_array(params, mask_gradient=mask_gradient, pad_pixels=pad_pixels)
+
+    example_density = _example_density(params)
+    fixed_solid = jnp.zeros(example_density.shape[-2:], dtype=bool)
+    fixed_void = jnp.zeros(example_density.shape[-2:], dtype=bool)
+    if example_density.fixed_solid is not None:
+        fixed_solid = jnp.asarray(example_density.fixed_solid)
+    if example_density.fixed_void is not None:
+        fixed_void = jnp.asarray(example_density.fixed_void)
+
+    pad_width_solid = ((0, 0),) * (fixed_solid.ndim - 2) + (
+        (pad_pixels, pad_pixels),
+        (pad_pixels, pad_pixels),
+    )
+    pad_width_void = ((0, 0),) * (fixed_void.ndim - 2) + (
+        (pad_pixels, pad_pixels),
+        (pad_pixels, pad_pixels),
+    )
+    fixed_solid = jnp.pad(fixed_solid, pad_width_solid, mode="edge")
+    fixed_void = jnp.pad(fixed_void, pad_width_void, mode="edge")
+    fixed = fixed_solid | fixed_void
+    target = jnp.where(fixed_solid, 1, 0)
+
+    return jnp.where(fixed, jnp.abs(array - target), 0.0)
+
+
+def _levelset_constraints(
+    params: GaussianLevelsetParams,
+    beta: float,
+    length_scale_constraint_factor: float,
+    pad_pixels: int,
+) -> Tuple[jnp.ndarray, jnp.ndarray]:
+    """Compute constraints for minimum width, spacing, and radius of curvature.
+
+    The constraints are based on "Analytical level set fabrication constraints for
+    inverse design," by D. Vercruysse et al. (2019). Constraints are satisfied when
+    they are non-positive.
+
+    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-45026-0
+
+    Args:
+        params: The parameters of the Gaussian levelset.
+        beta: Parameter which relaxes the constraint near the zero-plane.
+        length_scale_constraint_factor: Multiplies the target length scale in the
+            levelset constraints. A value greater than 1 is pessimistic and drives the
+            solution to have a larger length scale (relative to smaller values).
+        pad_pixels: A non-negative integer giving the additional pixels to be included
+            beyond the boundaries of the parameterized density.
+
+    Returns:
+        The minimum length scale and minimum curvature constraint arrays.s
+    """
+    example_density = _example_density(params)
+    minimum_length_scale = 0.5 * (
+        example_density.minimum_width + example_density.minimum_spacing
+    )
+
+    phi, phi_v, phi_vv, inverse_radius = _phi_derivatives_and_inverse_radius(
+        params,
+        pad_pixels=pad_pixels,
+    )
+
+    d = minimum_length_scale * length_scale_constraint_factor
+    denom = jnp.pi / d * jnp.abs(phi) + beta * phi_v
+    denom_safe = jnp.where(jnp.isclose(phi_vv, 0.0), 1.0, denom)
+    length_scale_constraint = jnp.abs(phi_vv) / denom_safe - jnp.pi / d
+
+    curvature_denom_safe = jnp.where(jnp.isclose(phi_v, 0.0), 1.0, phi)
+    curvature_constraint = (
+        jnp.abs(inverse_radius * jnp.arctan(phi_v / curvature_denom_safe)) - jnp.pi / d
+    )
+
+    # Downsample so that constraints shape matches the density shape.
+    factor = params.metadata.smoothing_factor
+    return (
+        _downsample_spatial_dims(length_scale_constraint, factor),
+        _downsample_spatial_dims(curvature_constraint, factor),
+    )
+
+
+def _phi_derivatives_and_inverse_radius(
+    params: GaussianLevelsetParams,
+    pad_pixels: int,
+) -> Tuple[jnp.ndarray, jnp.ndarray, jnp.ndarray, jnp.ndarray]:
+    """Compute the levelset function and its first and second derivatives."""
+
+    phi = _phi_from_params(
+        params=params,
+        pad_pixels=pad_pixels,
+    )
+
+    d = 1 / params.metadata.smoothing_factor
+    phi_x, phi_y = jnp.gradient(phi, d, axis=(-2, -1))
+    phi_xx, phi_yx = jnp.gradient(phi_x, d, axis=(-2, -1))
+    phi_xy, phi_yy = jnp.gradient(phi_y, d, axis=(-2, -1))
+
+    phi_v = _sqrt_safe(phi_x**2 + phi_y**2)
+
+    # Compute "safe" versions of `phi_v` and its square, which are used to
+    # normalize quantities below. These are equal to 1 anywhere `phi_v` is
+    # close to zero, and take their usual values elsewhere.
+    phi_v_near_zero = jnp.isclose(phi_v, 0.0)
+    phi_v_squared_safe = jnp.where(phi_v_near_zero, 1.0, phi_v**2)
+    phi_v_safe = jnp.where(phi_v_near_zero, 1.0, phi_v)
+
+    weight_xx = phi_x**2 / phi_v_squared_safe
+    weight_yy = phi_y**2 / phi_v_squared_safe
+    weight_xy = (phi_x * phi_y) / phi_v_squared_safe
+    phi_vv = weight_xx * phi_xx + weight_xy * (phi_xy + phi_yx) + weight_yy * phi_yy
+
+    qx: jnp.ndarray = jnp.gradient(  # type: ignore[assignment]
+        phi_x / jnp.abs(phi_v_safe), d, axis=-2
+    )
+    qy: jnp.ndarray = jnp.gradient(  # type: ignore[assignment]
+        phi_y / jnp.abs(phi_v_safe), d, axis=-1
+    )
+    inverse_radius = qx + qy
+
+    return phi, phi_v, phi_vv, inverse_radius
+
+
+# -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Helper functions.
+# -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+def _control_point_coords(
+    density_shape: Tuple[int, int],
+    levelset_shape: Tuple[int, int],
+    periodic: Tuple[bool, bool],
+) -> Tuple[jnp.ndarray, jnp.ndarray]:
+    """Returns the control point coordinates."""
+    # If the levelset is periodic along any axis, the first and last control
+    # points along that axis lie outside the bounds of the density.
+    offset_i = 0.5 if periodic[0] else -0.5
+    offset_j = 0.5 if periodic[1] else -0.5
+    range_i = levelset_shape[-2] - (0 if periodic[0] else 2)
+    range_j = levelset_shape[-1] - (0 if periodic[1] else 2)
+
+    factor_i = density_shape[-2] / range_i
+    factor_j = density_shape[-1] / range_j
+    levelset_i, levelset_j = jnp.meshgrid(
+        (offset_i + jnp.arange(levelset_shape[-2])) * factor_i,
+        (offset_j + jnp.arange(levelset_shape[-1])) * factor_j,
+        indexing="ij",
+    )
+    return levelset_i, levelset_j
+
+
+def _sqrt_safe(x: jnp.ndarray) -> jnp.ndarray:
+    """Compute square root while avoiding `nan` gradients near zero."""
+    x_near_zero = jnp.isclose(x, 0.0)
+    x_safe = jnp.where(x_near_zero, 1, x)
+    return jnp.where(x_near_zero, 0.0, jnp.sqrt(x_safe))
+
+
+def _levelset_threshold(
+    phi: jnp.ndarray,
+    periodic: Tuple[bool, bool],
+    mask_gradient: bool,
+) -> jnp.ndarray:
+    """Thresholds a level set function `phi`."""
+    if mask_gradient:
+        interface = _interface_pixels(phi, periodic)
+        phi = jnp.where(interface, phi, jax.lax.stop_gradient(phi))
+    thresholded = (phi > 0).astype(float) + (phi - jax.lax.stop_gradient(phi))
+    return thresholded
+
+
+def _interface_pixels(phi: jnp.ndarray, periodic: Tuple[bool, bool]) -> jnp.ndarray:
+    """Identifies interface pixels of a level set function `phi`."""
+    batch_shape = phi.shape[:-2]
+    phi = phi.reshape((-1,) + phi.shape[-2:])
+
+    pad_mode = (
+        "wrap" if periodic[0] else "edge",
+        "wrap" if periodic[1] else "edge",
+    )
+    pad_width = ((1, 1), (1, 1))
+
+    kernel = jnp.asarray([[0, 1, 0], [1, 0, 1], [0, 1, 0]], dtype=float)
+
+    solid = phi > 0
+    void = ~solid
+
+    solid_padded = transforms.pad2d(solid, pad_width, pad_mode)
+    num_solid_adjacent = transforms.conv(
+        x=solid_padded[:, jnp.newaxis, :, :].astype(float),
+        kernel=kernel[jnp.newaxis, jnp.newaxis, :, :],
+        padding="VALID",
+    )
+    num_solid_adjacent = jnp.squeeze(num_solid_adjacent, axis=1)
+
+    void_padded = transforms.pad2d(void, pad_width, pad_mode)
+    num_void_adjacent = transforms.conv(
+        x=void_padded[:, jnp.newaxis, :, :].astype(float),
+        kernel=kernel[jnp.newaxis, jnp.newaxis, :, :],
+        padding="VALID",
+    )
+    num_void_adjacent = jnp.squeeze(num_void_adjacent, axis=1)
+
+    interface = solid & (num_void_adjacent > 0) | void & (num_solid_adjacent > 0)
+
+    return interface.reshape(batch_shape + interface.shape[-2:])
+
+
+def _downsample_spatial_dims(x: jnp.ndarray, downsample_factor: int) -> jnp.ndarray:
+    """Downsamples the two trailing axes of `x` by `downsample_factor`."""
+    shape = x.shape[:-2] + (
+        x.shape[-2] // downsample_factor,
+        x.shape[-1] // downsample_factor,
+    )
+    return transforms.box_downsample(x, shape)