freealg 0.7.11__py3-none-any.whl → 0.7.14__py3-none-any.whl

freealg/_algebraic_form/_decompress4.py

@@ -0,0 +1,739 @@
+# SPDX-FileCopyrightText: Copyright 2026, Siavash Ameli <sameli@berkeley.edu>
+# SPDX-License-Identifier: BSD-3-Clause
+# SPDX-FileType: SOURCE
+#
+# This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify it under
+# the terms of the license found in the LICENSE.txt file in the root directory
+# of this source tree.
+
+
+# =======
+# Imports
+# =======
+
+import numpy
+from ._continuation_algebraic import powers
+
+__all__ = ['decompress_newton']
+
+
+
+# ===============
+# eval P partials
+# ===============
+
+def eval_P_partials(z, m, a_coeffs):
+    """
+    Evaluate P(z,m) and its partial derivatives dP/dz and dP/dm.
+
+    This assumes P is represented by `a_coeffs` in the monomial basis
+
+        P(z, m) = sum_{j=0..s} a_j(z) * m^j,
+        a_j(z) = sum_{i=0..deg_z} a_coeffs[i, j] * z^i.
+
+    The function returns P, dP/dz, dP/dm with broadcasting over z and m.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    z : complex or array_like of complex
+        First argument to P.
+    m : complex or array_like of complex
+        Second argument to P. Must be broadcast-compatible with `z`.
+    a_coeffs : ndarray, shape (deg_z+1, s+1)
+        Coefficient matrix for P in the monomial basis.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    P : complex or ndarray of complex
+        Value P(z,m).
+    Pz : complex or ndarray of complex
+        Partial derivative dP/dz evaluated at (z,m).
+    Pm : complex or ndarray of complex
+        Partial derivative dP/dm evaluated at (z,m).
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    For scalar (z,m), this uses Horner evaluation for a_j(z) and then Horner
+    in m. For array inputs, it uses precomputed power tables via `_powers` for
+    simplicity.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        P, Pz, Pm = eval_P_partials(1.0 + 1j, 0.2 + 0.3j, a_coeffs)
+    """
+
+    z = numpy.asarray(z, dtype=complex)
+    m = numpy.asarray(m, dtype=complex)
+
+    deg_z = int(a_coeffs.shape[0] - 1)
+    s = int(a_coeffs.shape[1] - 1)
+
+    if (z.ndim == 0) and (m.ndim == 0):
+        zz = complex(z)
+        mm = complex(m)
+
+        a = numpy.empty(s + 1, dtype=complex)
+        ap = numpy.empty(s + 1, dtype=complex)
+
+        for j in range(s + 1):
+            c = a_coeffs[:, j]
+
+            val = 0.0 + 0.0j
+            for i in range(deg_z, -1, -1):
+                val = val * zz + c[i]
+            a[j] = val
+
+            dval = 0.0 + 0.0j
+            for i in range(deg_z, 0, -1):
+                dval = dval * zz + (i * c[i])
+            ap[j] = dval
+
+        p = a[s]
+        pm = 0.0 + 0.0j
+        for j in range(s - 1, -1, -1):
+            pm = pm * mm + p
+            p = p * mm + a[j]
+
+        pz = ap[s]
+        for j in range(s - 1, -1, -1):
+            pz = pz * mm + ap[j]
+
+        return p, pz, pm
+
+    shp = numpy.broadcast(z, m).shape
+    zz = numpy.broadcast_to(z, shp).ravel()
+    mm = numpy.broadcast_to(m, shp).ravel()
+
+    zp = powers(zz, deg_z)
+    mp = powers(mm, s)
+
+    dzp = numpy.zeros_like(zp)
+    for i in range(1, deg_z + 1):
+        dzp[:, i] = i * zp[:, i - 1]
+
+    P = numpy.zeros(zz.size, dtype=complex)
+    Pz = numpy.zeros(zz.size, dtype=complex)
+    Pm = numpy.zeros(zz.size, dtype=complex)
+
+    for j in range(s + 1):
+        aj = zp @ a_coeffs[:, j]
+        P += aj * mp[:, j]
+
+        ajp = dzp @ a_coeffs[:, j]
+        Pz += ajp * mp[:, j]
+
+        if j >= 1:
+            Pm += (j * aj) * mp[:, j - 1]
+
+    return P.reshape(shp), Pz.reshape(shp), Pm.reshape(shp)
+
+
+# ==========
+# fd solve w
+# ==========
+
+# def fd_solve_w(z, t, a_coeffs, w_init, max_iter=50, tol=1e-12,
+#                armijo=1e-4, min_lam=1e-6, w_min=1e-14):
+#     """
+#     Solve for w = m(t,z) from the implicit FD equation using damped Newton.
+#
+#     We solve in w the equation
+#
+#         F(w) = P(z + alpha/w, tau*w) = 0,
+#
+#     where tau = exp(t) and alpha = 1 - 1/tau.
+#
+#     A backtracking (Armijo) line search is used to stabilize Newton updates.
+#     When Im(z) > 0, the iterate is constrained to remain in the upper
+#     half-plane (Im(w) > 0), enforcing the Herglotz branch.
+#
+#     Parameters
+#     ----------
+#     z : complex
+#         Query point in the complex plane.
+#     t : float
+#         Time parameter (tau = exp(t)).
+#     a_coeffs : ndarray
+#         Coefficients defining P(zeta,y) in the monomial basis.
+#     w_init : complex
+#         Initial guess for w.
+#     max_iter : int, optional
+#         Maximum number of Newton iterations.
+#     tol : float, optional
+#         Residual tolerance on |F(w)|.
+#     armijo : float, optional
+#         Armijo parameter for backtracking sufficient decrease.
+#     min_lam : float, optional
+#         Minimum damping factor allowed in backtracking.
+#     w_min : float, optional
+#         Minimum |w| allowed to avoid singularity in z + alpha/w.
+#
+#     Returns
+#     -------
+#     w : complex
+#         The computed solution (last iterate if not successful).
+#     success : bool
+#         True if convergence criteria were met, False otherwise.
+#
+#     Notes
+#     -----
+#     This function does not choose the correct branch globally by itself; it
+#     relies on a good initialization strategy (e.g. time continuation and/or
+#     x-sweeps) to avoid converging to a different valid root of the implicit
+#     equation.
+#
+#     Examples
+#     --------
+#     .. code-block:: python
+#
+#         w, ok = fd_solve_w(
+#             z=0.5 + 1e-6j, t=2.0, a_coeffs=a_coeffs, w_init=m1_fn(0.5 + 1e-6j),
+#             max_iter=50, tol=1e-12
+#         )
+#     """
+#
+#     z = complex(z)
+#     w = complex(w_init)
+#
+#     tau = float(numpy.exp(t))
+#     alpha = 1.0 - 1.0 / tau
+#
+#     want_pos_imag = (z.imag > 0.0)
+#
+#     for _ in range(max_iter):
+#         if not numpy.isfinite(w.real) or not numpy.isfinite(w.imag):
+#             return w, False
+#         if abs(w) < w_min:
+#             return w, False
+#         if want_pos_imag and (w.imag <= 0.0):
+#             return w, False
+#
+#         zeta = z + alpha / w
+#         y = tau * w
+#
+#         F, Pz, Py = eval_P_partials(zeta, y, a_coeffs)
+#         F = complex(F)
+#         Pz = complex(Pz)
+#         Py = complex(Py)
+#
+#         if abs(F) <= tol:
+#             return w, True
+#
+#         dF = (-alpha / (w * w)) * Pz + tau * Py
+#         if dF == 0.0:
+#             return w, False
+#
+#         step = -F / dF
+#
+#         lam = 1.0
+#         F_abs = abs(F)
+#         ok = False
+#
+#         while lam >= min_lam:
+#             w_new = w + lam * step
+#             if abs(w_new) < w_min:
+#                 lam *= 0.5
+#                 continue
+#             if want_pos_imag and (w_new.imag <= 0.0):
+#                 lam *= 0.5
+#                 continue
+#
+#             zeta_new = z + alpha / w_new
+#             y_new = tau * w_new
+#
+#             F_new = eval_P_partials(zeta_new, y_new, a_coeffs)[0]
+#             F_new = complex(F_new)
+#
+#             if abs(F_new) <= (1.0 - armijo * lam) * F_abs:
+#                 w = w_new
+#                 ok = True
+#                 break
+#
+#             lam *= 0.5
+#
+#         if not ok:
+#             return w, False
+#
+#     F_end = eval_P_partials(z + alpha / w, tau * w, a_coeffs)[0]
+#     return w, (abs(F_end) <= 10.0 * tol)
+
+def fd_solve_w(z, t, a_coeffs, w_init, max_iter=50, tol=1e-12,
+               armijo=1e-4, min_lam=1e-6, w_min=1e-14):
+    """
+    Solve for w = m(t,z) from the implicit FD equation using damped Newton.
+
+    We solve in w the equation
+
+        F(w) = P(z + alpha/w, tau*w) = 0,
+
+    where tau = exp(t) and alpha = 1 - 1/tau.
+
+    A backtracking (Armijo) line search is used to stabilize Newton updates.
+    When Im(z) > 0, the iterate is constrained to remain in the upper
+    half-plane (Im(w) > 0), enforcing the Herglotz branch.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    z : complex
+        Query point in the complex plane.
+    t : float
+        Time parameter (tau = exp(t)).
+    a_coeffs : ndarray
+        Coefficients defining P(zeta,y) in the monomial basis.
+    w_init : complex
+        Initial guess for w.
+    max_iter : int, optional
+        Maximum number of Newton iterations.
+    tol : float, optional
+        Residual tolerance on |F(w)|.
+    armijo : float, optional
+        Armijo parameter for backtracking sufficient decrease.
+    min_lam : float, optional
+        Minimum damping factor allowed in backtracking.
+    w_min : float, optional
+        Minimum |w| allowed to avoid singularity in z + alpha/w.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    w : complex
+        The computed solution (last iterate if not successful).
+    success : bool
+        True if convergence criteria were met, False otherwise.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    This function does not choose the correct branch globally by itself; it
+    relies on a good initialization strategy (e.g. time continuation and/or
+    x-sweeps) to avoid converging to a different valid root of the implicit
+    equation.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    .. code-block:: python
+
+        w, ok = fd_solve_w(
+            z=0.5 + 1e-6j, t=2.0, a_coeffs=a_coeffs, w_init=m1_fn(0.5 + 1e-6j),
+            max_iter=50, tol=1e-12
+        )
+    """
+
+    z = complex(z)
+    w = complex(w_init)
+
+    tau = float(numpy.exp(t))
+    alpha = 1.0 - 1.0 / tau
+
+    want_pos_imag = (z.imag > 0.0)
+
+    for _ in range(max_iter):
+
+        # ----------------
+
+        # if not numpy.isfinite(w.real) or not numpy.isfinite(w.imag):
+        #     return w, False
+        # if abs(w) < w_min:
+        #     return w, False
+        # if want_pos_imag and (w.imag <= 0.0):
+        #     return w, False
+        #
+        # zeta = z + alpha / w
+        # y = tau * w
+        #
+        # F, Pz, Py = eval_P_partials(zeta, y, a_coeffs)
+        # F = complex(F)
+        # Pz = complex(Pz)
+        # Py = complex(Py)
+        #
+        # if abs(F) <= tol:
+        #     return w, True
+        #
+        # dF = (-alpha / (w * w)) * Pz + tau * Py
+        # if dF == 0.0:
+        #     return w, False
+        #
+        # step = -F / dF
+        #
+        # lam = 1.0
+        # F_abs = abs(F)
+        # ok = False
+        #
+        # while lam >= min_lam:
+        #     w_new = w + lam * step
+        #     if abs(w_new) < w_min:
+        #         lam *= 0.5
+        #         continue
+        #     if want_pos_imag and (w_new.imag <= 0.0):
+        #         lam *= 0.5
+        #         continue
+        #
+        #     zeta_new = z + alpha / w_new
+        #     y_new = tau * w_new
+        #
+        #     F_new = eval_P_partials(zeta_new, y_new, a_coeffs)[0]
+        #     F_new = complex(F_new)
+        #
+        #     if abs(F_new) <= (1.0 - armijo * lam) * F_abs:
+        #         w = w_new
+        #         ok = True
+        #         break
+        #
+        #     lam *= 0.5
+        #
+        # if not ok:
+        #     return w, False
+
+        # ---------------
+
+        # TEST
+
+        # -------------------------
+        # Polynomial root selection
+        # -------------------------
+        # We solve: P(z + alpha/w, tau*w) = 0.
+        # Let y = tau*w. Then alpha/w = alpha*tau/y = (tau - 1)/y.
+        # So we solve in y:
+        #     P(z + beta/y, y) = 0,  beta = tau - 1.
+        # Multiply by y^deg_z to clear denominators and get a polynomial in y.
+
+        a = numpy.asarray(a_coeffs, dtype=numpy.complex128)
+        deg_z = a.shape[0] - 1
+        deg_m = a.shape[1] - 1
+
+        beta = tau - 1.0
+
+        # poly_y[p] stores coeff of y^p after clearing denominators
+        poly_y = numpy.zeros(deg_z + deg_m + 1, dtype=numpy.complex128)
+
+        # Build polynomial: sum_{i,j} a[i,j] (z + beta/y)^i y^j * y^{deg_z}
+        # Expand (z + beta/y)^i = sum_{k=0}^i C(i,k) z^{i-k} (beta/y)^k
+        # Term contributes to power p = deg_z + j - k.
+        from math import comb
+        for i in range(deg_z + 1):
+            for j in range(deg_m + 1):
+                aij = a[i, j]
+                if aij == 0:
+                    continue
+                for k in range(i + 1):
+                    p = deg_z + j - k
+                    poly_y[p] += aij * comb(i, k) * (z ** (i - k)) * (beta ** k)
+
+        # numpy.roots expects highest degree first
+        coeffs = poly_y[::-1]
+
+        # If leading coefficients are ~0, trim (rare but safe)
+        nz_lead = numpy.flatnonzero(numpy.abs(coeffs) > 0)
+        if nz_lead.size == 0:
+            return w, False
+        coeffs = coeffs[nz_lead[0]:]
+
+        roots_y = numpy.roots(coeffs)
+
+        # Pick root with Im(w)>0 (if z in upper half-plane), closest to time seed
+        y_seed = tau * w_init
+        best = None
+        best_score = None
+
+        for y in roots_y:
+            if not numpy.isfinite(y.real) or not numpy.isfinite(y.imag):
+                continue
+
+            w_cand = y / tau
+
+            if want_pos_imag and (w_cand.imag <= 0.0):
+                continue
+
+            if abs(w_cand) < w_min:
+                continue
+
+            # score: stick to time continuation
+            score = abs(y - y_seed)
+
+            if (best_score is None) or (score < best_score):
+                best = w_cand
+                best_score = score
+
+        if best is None:
+            return w, False
+
+        w = complex(best)
+
+        # final residual check
+        F_end = eval_P_partials(z + alpha / w, tau * w, a_coeffs)[0]
+        return w, (abs(F_end) <= 1e3 * tol)
+
+    # -------------------
+
+
+    F_end = eval_P_partials(z + alpha / w, tau * w, a_coeffs)[0]
+    return w, (abs(F_end) <= 10.0 * tol)
+
+
+# ============
+# NEW FUNCTION
+# ============
+
+def fd_candidates_w(z, t, a_coeffs, w_min=1e-14):
+    """
+    Return candidate roots w solving P(z + alpha/w, tau*w)=0 with Im(w)>0 (if Im(z)>0).
+    """
+    z = complex(z)
+    tau = float(numpy.exp(t))
+    alpha = 1.0 - 1.0 / tau
+    want_pos_imag = (z.imag > 0.0)
+
+    a = numpy.asarray(a_coeffs, dtype=numpy.complex128)
+    deg_z = a.shape[0] - 1
+    deg_m = a.shape[1] - 1
+
+    beta = tau - 1.0  # since alpha/w = (tau-1)/(tau*w) = beta / y with y=tau*w
+
+    poly_y = numpy.zeros(deg_z + deg_m + 1, dtype=numpy.complex128)
+
+    from math import comb
+    for i in range(deg_z + 1):
+        for j in range(deg_m + 1):
+            aij = a[i, j]
+            if aij == 0:
+                continue
+            for k in range(i + 1):
+                p = deg_z + j - k
+                poly_y[p] += aij * comb(i, k) * (z ** (i - k)) * (beta ** k)
+
+    coeffs = poly_y[::-1]
+    nz_lead = numpy.flatnonzero(numpy.abs(coeffs) > 0)
+    if nz_lead.size == 0:
+        return []
+
+    coeffs = coeffs[nz_lead[0]:]
+    roots_y = numpy.roots(coeffs)
+
+    cands = []
+    for y in roots_y:
+        if not numpy.isfinite(y.real) or not numpy.isfinite(y.imag):
+            continue
+        w = y / tau
+        if abs(w) < w_min:
+            continue
+        if want_pos_imag and (w.imag <= 0.0):
+            continue
+        # residual filter (optional but helps)
+        # -------------
+        # TEST
+        # F = eval_P_partials(z + alpha / w, tau * w, a_coeffs)[0]
+        # if abs(F) < 1e-6:
+        #     cands.append(complex(w))
+        # ---------------
+        # TEST
+        cands.append(complex(w))
+        # ------------------
+
+    return cands
+
+
+# =================
+# decompress newton
+# =================
+
+def decompress_newton(z_list, t_grid, a_coeffs, w0_list=None,
+                      dt_max=0.1, sweep=True, time_rel_tol=5.0,
+                      active_imag_eps=None, sweep_pad=20,
+                      max_iter=50, tol=1e-12, armijo=1e-4,
+                      min_lam=1e-6, w_min=1e-14,
+                      viterbi_opt=None):
+    """
+    Evolve w = m(t,z) on a fixed z grid and time grid using FD.
+
+    This implementation uses a global 1D Viterbi/DP branch-tracker along the
+    spatial grid at every time step to avoid local root mis-selection (multi-bulk
+    stability). The inputs sweep/time_rel_tol/active_imag_eps/sweep_pad are kept
+    for backward compatibility but are ignored by the Viterbi tracker.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    z_list : array_like of complex
+        Query points z (typically x + 1j*eta with eta > 0), ordered along x.
+    t_grid : array_like of float
+        Strictly increasing time grid.
+    a_coeffs : ndarray
+        Coefficients defining P(z,m) in the monomial basis.
+    w0_list : array_like of complex
+        Initial values w(t0,z) at t_grid[0].
+
+    viterbi_opt : dict or None
+        Options for the Viterbi tracker. Keys (all optional):
+            lam_space : float (default 1.0)
+            lam_time  : float (default 0.25)
+            lam_im    : float (default 1e3)   penalty = lam_im / max(|Im(w)|, eps)
+            tol_im    : float (default 1e-12) Herglotz sign tolerance
+            edge_k    : int   (default 3)     # of points at each end with asym penalty
+            lam_asym  : float (default 0.2)   penalty = lam_asym * |z*w + 1|
+            refine_newton : bool (default True) refine chosen path with fd_solve_w
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    W : ndarray, shape (len(t_grid), len(z_list))
+        Evolved values w(t,z).
+    ok : ndarray of bool, same shape as W
+        Convergence flags from the accepted solve at each point.
+    """
+
+    z_list = numpy.asarray(z_list, dtype=complex).ravel()
+    t_grid = numpy.asarray(t_grid, dtype=float).ravel()
+    nt = t_grid.size
+    nz = z_list.size
+
+    if w0_list is None:
+        raise ValueError("w0_list must be provided (initial m(z) at t_grid[0]).")
+
+    w0_list = numpy.asarray(w0_list, dtype=complex).ravel()
+    if w0_list.size != nz:
+        raise ValueError("w0_list must have the same size as z_list.")
+
+    if nt == 0:
+        return numpy.empty((0, nz), dtype=complex), numpy.empty((0, nz), dtype=bool)
+
+    # Viterbi options
+    opt = {} if viterbi_opt is None else dict(viterbi_opt)
+    lam_space = float(opt.get('lam_space', 1.0))
+    lam_time = float(opt.get('lam_time', 0.25))
+    lam_im = float(opt.get('lam_im', 1.0e3))
+    tol_im = float(opt.get('tol_im', 1.0e-12))
+    edge_k = int(opt.get('edge_k', 3))
+    lam_asym = float(opt.get('lam_asym', 0.2))
+    refine_newton = bool(opt.get('refine_newton', True))
+
+    W = numpy.empty((nt, nz), dtype=complex)
+    ok = numpy.zeros((nt, nz), dtype=bool)
+
+    W[0, :] = w0_list
+    ok[0, :] = True
+    w_prev = W[0, :].copy()
+
+    # -----------------
+    # helper: candidates
+    # -----------------
+
+    def _candidates(iz, t):
+        cands = fd_candidates_w(z_list[iz], t, a_coeffs, w_min=w_min)
+        if len(cands) == 0:
+            # fallback: carry previous value as a candidate
+            return [complex(w_prev[iz])]
+        return cands
+
+    # -------------------------
+    # helper: unary / transition
+    # -------------------------
+
+    def _want_pos_imag(z):
+        return (complex(z).imag > 0.0)
+
+    def _herglotz_ok(w, z):
+        z = complex(z)
+        w = complex(w)
+        if not _want_pos_imag(z):
+            return True
+        return (w.imag > -tol_im)
+
+    def _unary_cost(w, iz, t):
+        # penalize wrong sign heavily
+        if not _herglotz_ok(w, z_list[iz]):
+            return 1.0e30
+
+        # time continuity
+        wt = complex(w_prev[iz])
+        c = lam_time * (abs(w - wt) ** 2)
+
+        # discourage tiny-imag traps (safe substitute for any global Im-reward)
+        im = abs(w.imag)
+        c += lam_im / max(im, 1e-16)
+
+        # asymptotic anchor only near ends
+        if edge_k > 0 and (iz < edge_k or iz >= nz - edge_k):
+            z = complex(z_list[iz])
+            c += lam_asym * abs(z * w + 1.0)
+
+        return c
+
+    def _trans_cost(w_left, w_right):
+        return lam_space * (abs(w_right - w_left) ** 2)
+
+    # -------------
+    # time evolution
+    # -------------
+
+    for it in range(1, nt):
+        t = float(t_grid[it])
+
+        # build candidates list per spatial index
+        C = []
+        for iz in range(nz):
+            C.append(_candidates(iz, t))
+
+        # DP tables with variable state sizes
+        dp = []
+        prev_idx = []
+
+        # init
+        c0 = C[0]
+        dp0 = numpy.array([_unary_cost(w, 0, t) for w in c0], dtype=float)
+        dp.append(dp0)
+        prev_idx.append(numpy.full(dp0.size, -1, dtype=int))
+
+        # forward pass
+        for iz in range(1, nz):
+            ci = C[iz]
+            dp_i = numpy.full(len(ci), numpy.inf, dtype=float)
+            prev_i = numpy.full(len(ci), -1, dtype=int)
+
+            dp_prev = dp[iz - 1]
+            c_prev = C[iz - 1]
+
+            for j, wj in enumerate(ci):
+                u = _unary_cost(wj, iz, t)
+
+                best = numpy.inf
+                best_k = -1
+                for k, wk in enumerate(c_prev):
+                    val = dp_prev[k] + _trans_cost(wk, wj)
+                    if val < best:
+                        best = val
+                        best_k = k
+
+                dp_i[j] = u + best
+                prev_i[j] = best_k
+
+            dp.append(dp_i)
+            prev_idx.append(prev_i)
+
+        # backtrack
+        w_row = numpy.empty(nz, dtype=complex)
+        ok_row = numpy.zeros(nz, dtype=bool)
+
+        j = int(numpy.argmin(dp[-1]))
+        w_row[-1] = complex(C[-1][j])
+
+        for iz in range(nz - 1, 0, -1):
+            j = int(prev_idx[iz][j])
+            if j < 0:
+                j = 0
+            w_row[iz - 1] = complex(C[iz - 1][j])
+
+        # optional Newton refinement on chosen path
+        if refine_newton:
+            for iz in range(nz):
+                w_sol, success = fd_solve_w(
+                    z_list[iz], t, a_coeffs, w_row[iz],
+                    max_iter=max_iter, tol=tol, armijo=armijo,
+                    min_lam=min_lam, w_min=w_min)
+                w_row[iz] = w_sol
+                ok_row[iz] = success
+        else:
+            ok_row[:] = True
+
+        W[it, :] = w_row
+        ok[it, :] = ok_row
+        w_prev = w_row
+
+    return W, ok