diff-diff 2.2.0__cp39-cp39-win_amd64.whl

diff_diff/utils.py

@@ -0,0 +1,1484 @@
+"""
+Utility functions for difference-in-differences estimation.
+"""
+
+import warnings
+from dataclasses import dataclass, field
+from typing import Any, Dict, List, Optional, Tuple
+
+import numpy as np
+import pandas as pd
+from scipy import stats
+
+from diff_diff.linalg import compute_robust_vcov as _compute_robust_vcov_linalg
+from diff_diff.linalg import solve_ols as _solve_ols_linalg
+
+# Import Rust backend if available (from _backend to avoid circular imports)
+from diff_diff._backend import (
+    HAS_RUST_BACKEND,
+    _rust_project_simplex,
+    _rust_synthetic_weights,
+)
+
+# Numerical constants for optimization algorithms
+_OPTIMIZATION_MAX_ITER = 1000  # Maximum iterations for weight optimization
+_OPTIMIZATION_TOL = 1e-8  # Convergence tolerance for optimization
+_NUMERICAL_EPS = 1e-10  # Small constant to prevent division by zero
+
+
+def validate_binary(arr: np.ndarray, name: str) -> None:
+    """
+    Validate that an array contains only binary values (0 or 1).
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    arr : np.ndarray
+        Array to validate.
+    name : str
+        Name of the variable (for error messages).
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        If array contains non-binary values.
+    """
+    unique_values = np.unique(arr[~np.isnan(arr)])
+    if not np.all(np.isin(unique_values, [0, 1])):
+        raise ValueError(
+            f"{name} must be binary (0 or 1). "
+            f"Found values: {unique_values}"
+        )
+
+
+def compute_robust_se(
+    X: np.ndarray,
+    residuals: np.ndarray,
+    cluster_ids: Optional[np.ndarray] = None
+) -> np.ndarray:
+    """
+    Compute heteroskedasticity-robust (HC1) or cluster-robust standard errors.
+
+    This function is a thin wrapper around the optimized implementation in
+    diff_diff.linalg for backwards compatibility.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    X : np.ndarray
+        Design matrix of shape (n, k).
+    residuals : np.ndarray
+        Residuals from regression of shape (n,).
+    cluster_ids : np.ndarray, optional
+        Cluster identifiers for cluster-robust SEs.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    np.ndarray
+        Variance-covariance matrix of shape (k, k).
+    """
+    return _compute_robust_vcov_linalg(X, residuals, cluster_ids)
+
+
+def compute_confidence_interval(
+    estimate: float,
+    se: float,
+    alpha: float = 0.05,
+    df: Optional[int] = None
+) -> Tuple[float, float]:
+    """
+    Compute confidence interval for an estimate.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    estimate : float
+        Point estimate.
+    se : float
+        Standard error.
+    alpha : float
+        Significance level (default 0.05 for 95% CI).
+    df : int, optional
+        Degrees of freedom. If None, uses normal distribution.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    tuple
+        (lower_bound, upper_bound) of confidence interval.
+    """
+    if df is not None:
+        critical_value = stats.t.ppf(1 - alpha / 2, df)
+    else:
+        critical_value = stats.norm.ppf(1 - alpha / 2)
+
+    lower = estimate - critical_value * se
+    upper = estimate + critical_value * se
+
+    return (lower, upper)
+
+
+def compute_p_value(t_stat: float, df: Optional[int] = None, two_sided: bool = True) -> float:
+    """
+    Compute p-value for a t-statistic.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    t_stat : float
+        T-statistic.
+    df : int, optional
+        Degrees of freedom. If None, uses normal distribution.
+    two_sided : bool
+        Whether to compute two-sided p-value (default True).
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    float
+        P-value.
+    """
+    if df is not None:
+        p_value = stats.t.sf(np.abs(t_stat), df)
+    else:
+        p_value = stats.norm.sf(np.abs(t_stat))
+
+    if two_sided:
+        p_value *= 2
+
+    return float(p_value)
+
+
+# =============================================================================
+# Wild Cluster Bootstrap
+# =============================================================================
+
+
+@dataclass
+class WildBootstrapResults:
+    """
+    Results from wild cluster bootstrap inference.
+
+    Attributes
+    ----------
+    se : float
+        Bootstrap standard error of the coefficient.
+    p_value : float
+        Bootstrap p-value (two-sided).
+    t_stat_original : float
+        Original t-statistic from the data.
+    ci_lower : float
+        Lower bound of the confidence interval.
+    ci_upper : float
+        Upper bound of the confidence interval.
+    n_clusters : int
+        Number of clusters in the data.
+    n_bootstrap : int
+        Number of bootstrap replications.
+    weight_type : str
+        Type of bootstrap weights used ("rademacher", "webb", or "mammen").
+    alpha : float
+        Significance level used for confidence interval.
+    bootstrap_distribution : np.ndarray, optional
+        Full bootstrap distribution of coefficients (if requested).
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    Cameron, A. C., Gelbach, J. B., & Miller, D. L. (2008).
+    Bootstrap-Based Improvements for Inference with Clustered Errors.
+    The Review of Economics and Statistics, 90(3), 414-427.
+    """
+
+    se: float
+    p_value: float
+    t_stat_original: float
+    ci_lower: float
+    ci_upper: float
+    n_clusters: int
+    n_bootstrap: int
+    weight_type: str
+    alpha: float = 0.05
+    bootstrap_distribution: Optional[np.ndarray] = field(default=None, repr=False)
+
+    def summary(self) -> str:
+        """Generate formatted summary of bootstrap results."""
+        lines = [
+            "Wild Cluster Bootstrap Results",
+            "=" * 40,
+            f"Bootstrap SE:        {self.se:.6f}",
+            f"Bootstrap p-value:   {self.p_value:.4f}",
+            f"Original t-stat:     {self.t_stat_original:.4f}",
+            f"CI ({int((1-self.alpha)*100)}%):           [{self.ci_lower:.6f}, {self.ci_upper:.6f}]",
+            f"Number of clusters:  {self.n_clusters}",
+            f"Bootstrap reps:      {self.n_bootstrap}",
+            f"Weight type:         {self.weight_type}",
+        ]
+        return "\n".join(lines)
+
+    def print_summary(self) -> None:
+        """Print formatted summary to stdout."""
+        print(self.summary())
+
+
+def _generate_rademacher_weights(n_clusters: int, rng: np.random.Generator) -> np.ndarray:
+    """
+    Generate Rademacher weights: +1 or -1 with probability 0.5.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    n_clusters : int
+        Number of clusters.
+    rng : np.random.Generator
+        Random number generator.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    np.ndarray
+        Array of Rademacher weights.
+    """
+    return np.asarray(rng.choice([-1.0, 1.0], size=n_clusters))
+
+
+def _generate_webb_weights(n_clusters: int, rng: np.random.Generator) -> np.ndarray:
+    """
+    Generate Webb's 6-point distribution weights.
+
+    Values: {-sqrt(3/2), -sqrt(2/2), -sqrt(1/2), sqrt(1/2), sqrt(2/2), sqrt(3/2)}
+    with equal probabilities (1/6 each), giving E[w]=0 and Var(w)=1.0.
+
+    This distribution is recommended for very few clusters (G < 10) as it
+    provides better finite-sample properties than Rademacher weights.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    n_clusters : int
+        Number of clusters.
+    rng : np.random.Generator
+        Random number generator.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    np.ndarray
+        Array of Webb weights.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    Webb, M. D. (2014). Reworking wild bootstrap based inference for
+    clustered errors. Queen's Economics Department Working Paper No. 1315.
+
+    Note: Uses equal probabilities (1/6 each) matching R's `did` package,
+    which gives unit variance for consistency with other weight distributions.
+    """
+    values = np.array([
+        -np.sqrt(3 / 2), -np.sqrt(2 / 2), -np.sqrt(1 / 2),
+        np.sqrt(1 / 2), np.sqrt(2 / 2), np.sqrt(3 / 2)
+    ])
+    # Equal probabilities (1/6 each) matching R's did package, giving Var(w) = 1.0
+    return np.asarray(rng.choice(values, size=n_clusters))
+
+
+def _generate_mammen_weights(n_clusters: int, rng: np.random.Generator) -> np.ndarray:
+    """
+    Generate Mammen's two-point distribution weights.
+
+    Values: {-(sqrt(5)-1)/2, (sqrt(5)+1)/2}
+    with probabilities {(sqrt(5)+1)/(2*sqrt(5)), (sqrt(5)-1)/(2*sqrt(5))}.
+
+    This distribution satisfies E[v]=0, E[v^2]=1, E[v^3]=1, which provides
+    asymptotic refinement for skewed error distributions.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    n_clusters : int
+        Number of clusters.
+    rng : np.random.Generator
+        Random number generator.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    np.ndarray
+        Array of Mammen weights.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    Mammen, E. (1993). Bootstrap and Wild Bootstrap for High Dimensional
+    Linear Models. The Annals of Statistics, 21(1), 255-285.
+    """
+    sqrt5 = np.sqrt(5)
+    # Values from Mammen (1993)
+    val1 = -(sqrt5 - 1) / 2  # approximately -0.618
+    val2 = (sqrt5 + 1) / 2   # approximately 1.618 (golden ratio)
+
+    # Probability of val1
+    p1 = (sqrt5 + 1) / (2 * sqrt5)  # approximately 0.724
+
+    return np.asarray(rng.choice([val1, val2], size=n_clusters, p=[p1, 1 - p1]))
+
+
+def wild_bootstrap_se(
+    X: np.ndarray,
+    y: np.ndarray,
+    residuals: np.ndarray,
+    cluster_ids: np.ndarray,
+    coefficient_index: int,
+    n_bootstrap: int = 999,
+    weight_type: str = "rademacher",
+    null_hypothesis: float = 0.0,
+    alpha: float = 0.05,
+    seed: Optional[int] = None,
+    return_distribution: bool = False
+) -> WildBootstrapResults:
+    """
+    Compute wild cluster bootstrap standard errors and p-values.
+
+    Implements the Wild Cluster Residual (WCR) bootstrap procedure from
+    Cameron, Gelbach, and Miller (2008). Uses the restricted residuals
+    approach (imposing H0: coefficient = null_hypothesis) for more accurate
+    p-value computation.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    X : np.ndarray
+        Design matrix of shape (n, k).
+    y : np.ndarray
+        Outcome vector of shape (n,).
+    residuals : np.ndarray
+        OLS residuals from unrestricted regression, shape (n,).
+    cluster_ids : np.ndarray
+        Cluster identifiers of shape (n,).
+    coefficient_index : int
+        Index of the coefficient for which to compute bootstrap inference.
+        For DiD, this is typically 3 (the treatment*post interaction term).
+    n_bootstrap : int, default=999
+        Number of bootstrap replications. Odd numbers are recommended for
+        exact p-value computation.
+    weight_type : str, default="rademacher"
+        Type of bootstrap weights:
+        - "rademacher": +1 or -1 with equal probability (standard choice)
+        - "webb": 6-point distribution (recommended for <10 clusters)
+        - "mammen": Two-point distribution with skewness correction
+    null_hypothesis : float, default=0.0
+        Value of the null hypothesis for p-value computation.
+    alpha : float, default=0.05
+        Significance level for confidence interval.
+    seed : int, optional
+        Random seed for reproducibility. If None (default), results
+        will vary between runs.
+    return_distribution : bool, default=False
+        If True, include full bootstrap distribution in results.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    WildBootstrapResults
+        Dataclass containing bootstrap SE, p-value, confidence interval,
+        and other inference results.
+
+    Raises
+    ------
+    ValueError
+        If weight_type is not recognized or if there are fewer than 2 clusters.
+
+    Warns
+    -----
+    UserWarning
+        If the number of clusters is less than 5, as bootstrap inference
+        may be unreliable.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> from diff_diff.utils import wild_bootstrap_se
+    >>> results = wild_bootstrap_se(
+    ...     X, y, residuals, cluster_ids,
+    ...     coefficient_index=3,  # ATT coefficient
+    ...     n_bootstrap=999,
+    ...     weight_type="rademacher",
+    ...     seed=42
+    ... )
+    >>> print(f"Bootstrap SE: {results.se:.4f}")
+    >>> print(f"Bootstrap p-value: {results.p_value:.4f}")
+
+    References
+    ----------
+    Cameron, A. C., Gelbach, J. B., & Miller, D. L. (2008).
+    Bootstrap-Based Improvements for Inference with Clustered Errors.
+    The Review of Economics and Statistics, 90(3), 414-427.
+
+    MacKinnon, J. G., & Webb, M. D. (2018). The wild bootstrap for
+    few (treated) clusters. The Econometrics Journal, 21(2), 114-135.
+    """
+    # Validate inputs
+    valid_weight_types = ["rademacher", "webb", "mammen"]
+    if weight_type not in valid_weight_types:
+        raise ValueError(
+            f"weight_type must be one of {valid_weight_types}, got '{weight_type}'"
+        )
+
+    unique_clusters = np.unique(cluster_ids)
+    n_clusters = len(unique_clusters)
+
+    if n_clusters < 2:
+        raise ValueError(
+            f"Wild cluster bootstrap requires at least 2 clusters, got {n_clusters}"
+        )
+
+    if n_clusters < 5:
+        warnings.warn(
+            f"Only {n_clusters} clusters detected. Wild bootstrap inference may be "
+            "unreliable with fewer than 5 clusters. Consider using Webb weights "
+            "(weight_type='webb') for improved finite-sample properties.",
+            UserWarning
+        )
+
+    # Initialize RNG
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(seed)
+
+    # Select weight generator
+    weight_generators = {
+        "rademacher": _generate_rademacher_weights,
+        "webb": _generate_webb_weights,
+        "mammen": _generate_mammen_weights,
+    }
+    generate_weights = weight_generators[weight_type]
+
+    n = X.shape[0]
+
+    # Step 1: Compute original coefficient and cluster-robust SE
+    beta_hat, _, vcov_original = _solve_ols_linalg(
+        X, y, cluster_ids=cluster_ids, return_vcov=True
+    )
+    original_coef = beta_hat[coefficient_index]
+    se_original = np.sqrt(vcov_original[coefficient_index, coefficient_index])
+    t_stat_original = (original_coef - null_hypothesis) / se_original
+
+    # Step 2: Impose null hypothesis (restricted estimation)
+    # Create restricted y: y_restricted = y - X[:, coef_index] * null_hypothesis
+    # This imposes the null that the coefficient equals null_hypothesis
+    y_restricted = y - X[:, coefficient_index] * null_hypothesis
+
+    # Fit restricted model (but we need to drop the column for the restricted coef)
+    # Actually, for WCR bootstrap we keep all columns but impose the null via residuals
+    # Re-estimate with the restricted dependent variable
+    beta_restricted, residuals_restricted, _ = _solve_ols_linalg(
+        X, y_restricted, return_vcov=False
+    )
+
+    # Create cluster-to-observation mapping for efficiency
+    cluster_map = {c: np.where(cluster_ids == c)[0] for c in unique_clusters}
+    cluster_indices = [cluster_map[c] for c in unique_clusters]
+
+    # Step 3: Bootstrap loop
+    bootstrap_t_stats = np.zeros(n_bootstrap)
+    bootstrap_coefs = np.zeros(n_bootstrap)
+
+    for b in range(n_bootstrap):
+        # Generate cluster-level weights
+        cluster_weights = generate_weights(n_clusters, rng)
+
+        # Map cluster weights to observations
+        obs_weights = np.zeros(n)
+        for g, indices in enumerate(cluster_indices):
+            obs_weights[indices] = cluster_weights[g]
+
+        # Construct bootstrap sample: y* = X @ beta_restricted + e_restricted * weights
+        y_star = X @ beta_restricted + residuals_restricted * obs_weights
+
+        # Estimate bootstrap coefficients with cluster-robust SE
+        beta_star, residuals_star, vcov_star = _solve_ols_linalg(
+            X, y_star, cluster_ids=cluster_ids, return_vcov=True
+        )
+        bootstrap_coefs[b] = beta_star[coefficient_index]
+        se_star = np.sqrt(vcov_star[coefficient_index, coefficient_index])
+
+        # Compute bootstrap t-statistic (under null hypothesis)
+        if se_star > 0:
+            bootstrap_t_stats[b] = (beta_star[coefficient_index] - null_hypothesis) / se_star
+        else:
+            bootstrap_t_stats[b] = 0.0
+
+    # Step 4: Compute bootstrap p-value
+    # P-value is proportion of |t*| >= |t_original|
+    p_value = np.mean(np.abs(bootstrap_t_stats) >= np.abs(t_stat_original))
+
+    # Ensure p-value is at least 1/(n_bootstrap+1) to avoid exact zero
+    p_value = float(max(float(p_value), 1 / (n_bootstrap + 1)))
+
+    # Step 5: Compute bootstrap SE and confidence interval
+    # SE from standard deviation of bootstrap coefficient distribution
+    se_bootstrap = float(np.std(bootstrap_coefs, ddof=1))
+
+    # Percentile confidence interval from bootstrap distribution
+    lower_percentile = alpha / 2 * 100
+    upper_percentile = (1 - alpha / 2) * 100
+    ci_lower = float(np.percentile(bootstrap_coefs, lower_percentile))
+    ci_upper = float(np.percentile(bootstrap_coefs, upper_percentile))
+
+    return WildBootstrapResults(
+        se=se_bootstrap,
+        p_value=p_value,
+        t_stat_original=t_stat_original,
+        ci_lower=ci_lower,
+        ci_upper=ci_upper,
+        n_clusters=n_clusters,
+        n_bootstrap=n_bootstrap,
+        weight_type=weight_type,
+        alpha=alpha,
+        bootstrap_distribution=bootstrap_coefs if return_distribution else None
+    )
+
+
+def check_parallel_trends(
+    data: pd.DataFrame,
+    outcome: str,
+    time: str,
+    treatment_group: str,
+    pre_periods: Optional[List[Any]] = None
+) -> Dict[str, Any]:
+    """
+    Perform a simple check for parallel trends assumption.
+
+    This computes the trend (slope) in the outcome variable for both
+    treatment and control groups during pre-treatment periods.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        Panel data.
+    outcome : str
+        Name of outcome variable column.
+    time : str
+        Name of time period column.
+    treatment_group : str
+        Name of treatment group indicator column.
+    pre_periods : list, optional
+        List of pre-treatment time periods. If None, infers from data.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    dict
+        Dictionary with trend statistics and test results.
+    """
+    if pre_periods is None:
+        # Assume treatment happens at median time period
+        all_periods = sorted(data[time].unique())
+        mid_point = len(all_periods) // 2
+        pre_periods = all_periods[:mid_point]
+
+    pre_data = data[data[time].isin(pre_periods)]
+
+    # Compute trends for each group
+    treated_data = pre_data[pre_data[treatment_group] == 1]
+    control_data = pre_data[pre_data[treatment_group] == 0]
+
+    # Simple linear regression for trends
+    def compute_trend(group_data: pd.DataFrame) -> Tuple[float, float]:
+        time_values = group_data[time].values
+        outcome_values = group_data[outcome].values
+
+        # Normalize time to start at 0
+        time_norm = time_values - time_values.min()
+
+        # Compute slope using least squares
+        n = len(time_norm)
+        if n < 2:
+            return np.nan, np.nan
+
+        mean_t = np.mean(time_norm)
+        mean_y = np.mean(outcome_values)
+
+        # Check for zero variance in time (all same time period)
+        time_var = np.sum((time_norm - mean_t) ** 2)
+        if time_var == 0:
+            return np.nan, np.nan
+
+        slope = np.sum((time_norm - mean_t) * (outcome_values - mean_y)) / time_var
+
+        # Compute standard error of slope
+        y_hat = mean_y + slope * (time_norm - mean_t)
+        residuals = outcome_values - y_hat
+        mse = np.sum(residuals ** 2) / (n - 2)
+        se_slope = np.sqrt(mse / time_var)
+
+        return slope, se_slope
+
+    treated_slope, treated_se = compute_trend(treated_data)
+    control_slope, control_se = compute_trend(control_data)
+
+    # Test for difference in trends
+    slope_diff = treated_slope - control_slope
+    se_diff = np.sqrt(treated_se ** 2 + control_se ** 2)
+    t_stat = slope_diff / se_diff if se_diff > 0 else np.nan
+    p_value = compute_p_value(t_stat) if not np.isnan(t_stat) else np.nan
+
+    return {
+        "treated_trend": treated_slope,
+        "treated_trend_se": treated_se,
+        "control_trend": control_slope,
+        "control_trend_se": control_se,
+        "trend_difference": slope_diff,
+        "trend_difference_se": se_diff,
+        "t_statistic": t_stat,
+        "p_value": p_value,
+        "parallel_trends_plausible": p_value > 0.05 if not np.isnan(p_value) else None,
+    }
+
+
+def check_parallel_trends_robust(
+    data: pd.DataFrame,
+    outcome: str,
+    time: str,
+    treatment_group: str,
+    unit: Optional[str] = None,
+    pre_periods: Optional[List[Any]] = None,
+    n_permutations: int = 1000,
+    seed: Optional[int] = None,
+    wasserstein_threshold: float = 0.2
+) -> Dict[str, Any]:
+    """
+    Perform robust parallel trends testing using distributional comparisons.
+
+    Uses the Wasserstein (Earth Mover's) distance to compare the full
+    distribution of outcome changes between treated and control groups,
+    with permutation-based inference.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        Panel data with repeated observations over time.
+    outcome : str
+        Name of outcome variable column.
+    time : str
+        Name of time period column.
+    treatment_group : str
+        Name of treatment group indicator column (0/1).
+    unit : str, optional
+        Name of unit identifier column. If provided, computes unit-level
+        changes. Otherwise uses observation-level data.
+    pre_periods : list, optional
+        List of pre-treatment time periods. If None, uses first half of periods.
+    n_permutations : int, default=1000
+        Number of permutations for computing p-value.
+    seed : int, optional
+        Random seed for reproducibility.
+    wasserstein_threshold : float, default=0.2
+        Threshold for normalized Wasserstein distance. Values below this
+        threshold (combined with p > 0.05) suggest parallel trends are plausible.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    dict
+        Dictionary containing:
+        - wasserstein_distance: Wasserstein distance between group distributions
+        - wasserstein_p_value: Permutation-based p-value
+        - ks_statistic: Kolmogorov-Smirnov test statistic
+        - ks_p_value: KS test p-value
+        - mean_difference: Difference in mean changes
+        - variance_ratio: Ratio of variances in changes
+        - treated_changes: Array of outcome changes for treated
+        - control_changes: Array of outcome changes for control
+        - parallel_trends_plausible: Boolean assessment
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> results = check_parallel_trends_robust(
+    ...     data, outcome='sales', time='year',
+    ...     treatment_group='treated', unit='firm_id'
+    ... )
+    >>> print(f"Wasserstein distance: {results['wasserstein_distance']:.4f}")
+    >>> print(f"P-value: {results['wasserstein_p_value']:.4f}")
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The Wasserstein distance (Earth Mover's Distance) measures the minimum
+    "cost" of transforming one distribution into another. Unlike simple
+    mean comparisons, it captures differences in the entire distribution
+    shape, making it more robust to non-normal data and heterogeneous effects.
+
+    A small Wasserstein distance and high p-value suggest the distributions
+    of pre-treatment changes are similar, supporting the parallel trends
+    assumption.
+    """
+    # Use local RNG to avoid affecting global random state
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(seed)
+
+    # Identify pre-treatment periods
+    if pre_periods is None:
+        all_periods = sorted(data[time].unique())
+        mid_point = len(all_periods) // 2
+        pre_periods = all_periods[:mid_point]
+
+    pre_data = data[data[time].isin(pre_periods)].copy()
+
+    # Compute outcome changes
+    treated_changes, control_changes = _compute_outcome_changes(
+        pre_data, outcome, time, treatment_group, unit
+    )
+
+    if len(treated_changes) < 2 or len(control_changes) < 2:
+        return {
+            "wasserstein_distance": np.nan,
+            "wasserstein_p_value": np.nan,
+            "ks_statistic": np.nan,
+            "ks_p_value": np.nan,
+            "mean_difference": np.nan,
+            "variance_ratio": np.nan,
+            "treated_changes": treated_changes,
+            "control_changes": control_changes,
+            "parallel_trends_plausible": None,
+            "error": "Insufficient data for comparison",
+        }
+
+    # Compute Wasserstein distance
+    wasserstein_dist = stats.wasserstein_distance(treated_changes, control_changes)
+
+    # Permutation test for Wasserstein distance
+    all_changes = np.concatenate([treated_changes, control_changes])
+    n_treated = len(treated_changes)
+    n_total = len(all_changes)
+
+    permuted_distances = np.zeros(n_permutations)
+    for i in range(n_permutations):
+        perm_idx = rng.permutation(n_total)
+        perm_treated = all_changes[perm_idx[:n_treated]]
+        perm_control = all_changes[perm_idx[n_treated:]]
+        permuted_distances[i] = stats.wasserstein_distance(perm_treated, perm_control)
+
+    # P-value: proportion of permuted distances >= observed
+    wasserstein_p = np.mean(permuted_distances >= wasserstein_dist)
+
+    # Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
+    ks_stat, ks_p = stats.ks_2samp(treated_changes, control_changes)
+
+    # Additional summary statistics
+    mean_diff = np.mean(treated_changes) - np.mean(control_changes)
+    var_treated = np.var(treated_changes, ddof=1)
+    var_control = np.var(control_changes, ddof=1)
+    var_ratio = var_treated / var_control if var_control > 0 else np.nan
+
+    # Normalized Wasserstein (relative to pooled std)
+    pooled_std = np.std(all_changes, ddof=1)
+    wasserstein_normalized = wasserstein_dist / pooled_std if pooled_std > 0 else np.nan
+
+    # Assessment: parallel trends plausible if p-value > 0.05
+    # and normalized Wasserstein is small (below threshold)
+    plausible = bool(
+        wasserstein_p > 0.05 and
+        (wasserstein_normalized < wasserstein_threshold if not np.isnan(wasserstein_normalized) else True)
+    )
+
+    return {
+        "wasserstein_distance": wasserstein_dist,
+        "wasserstein_normalized": wasserstein_normalized,
+        "wasserstein_p_value": wasserstein_p,
+        "ks_statistic": ks_stat,
+        "ks_p_value": ks_p,
+        "mean_difference": mean_diff,
+        "variance_ratio": var_ratio,
+        "n_treated": len(treated_changes),
+        "n_control": len(control_changes),
+        "treated_changes": treated_changes,
+        "control_changes": control_changes,
+        "parallel_trends_plausible": plausible,
+    }
+
+
+def _compute_outcome_changes(
+    data: pd.DataFrame,
+    outcome: str,
+    time: str,
+    treatment_group: str,
+    unit: Optional[str] = None
+) -> Tuple[np.ndarray, np.ndarray]:
+    """
+    Compute period-to-period outcome changes for treated and control groups.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        Panel data.
+    outcome : str
+        Outcome variable column.
+    time : str
+        Time period column.
+    treatment_group : str
+        Treatment group indicator column.
+    unit : str, optional
+        Unit identifier column.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    tuple
+        (treated_changes, control_changes) as numpy arrays.
+    """
+    if unit is not None:
+        # Unit-level changes: compute change for each unit across periods
+        data_sorted = data.sort_values([unit, time])
+        data_sorted["_outcome_change"] = data_sorted.groupby(unit)[outcome].diff()
+
+        # Remove NaN from first period of each unit
+        changes_data = data_sorted.dropna(subset=["_outcome_change"])
+
+        treated_changes = changes_data[
+            changes_data[treatment_group] == 1
+        ]["_outcome_change"].values
+
+        control_changes = changes_data[
+            changes_data[treatment_group] == 0
+        ]["_outcome_change"].values
+    else:
+        # Aggregate changes: compute mean change per period per group
+        treated_data = data[data[treatment_group] == 1]
+        control_data = data[data[treatment_group] == 0]
+
+        # Compute period means
+        treated_means = treated_data.groupby(time)[outcome].mean()
+        control_means = control_data.groupby(time)[outcome].mean()
+
+        # Compute changes between consecutive periods
+        treated_changes = np.diff(treated_means.values)
+        control_changes = np.diff(control_means.values)
+
+    return treated_changes.astype(float), control_changes.astype(float)
+
+
+def equivalence_test_trends(
+    data: pd.DataFrame,
+    outcome: str,
+    time: str,
+    treatment_group: str,
+    unit: Optional[str] = None,
+    pre_periods: Optional[List[Any]] = None,
+    equivalence_margin: Optional[float] = None
+) -> Dict[str, Any]:
+    """
+    Perform equivalence testing (TOST) for parallel trends.
+
+    Tests whether the difference in trends is practically equivalent to zero
+    using Two One-Sided Tests (TOST) procedure.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        Panel data.
+    outcome : str
+        Name of outcome variable column.
+    time : str
+        Name of time period column.
+    treatment_group : str
+        Name of treatment group indicator column.
+    unit : str, optional
+        Name of unit identifier column.
+    pre_periods : list, optional
+        List of pre-treatment time periods.
+    equivalence_margin : float, optional
+        The margin for equivalence (delta). If None, uses 0.5 * pooled SD
+        of outcome changes as a default.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    dict
+        Dictionary containing:
+        - mean_difference: Difference in mean changes
+        - equivalence_margin: The margin used
+        - lower_p_value: P-value for lower bound test
+        - upper_p_value: P-value for upper bound test
+        - tost_p_value: Maximum of the two p-values
+        - equivalent: Boolean indicating equivalence at alpha=0.05
+    """
+    # Get pre-treatment periods
+    if pre_periods is None:
+        all_periods = sorted(data[time].unique())
+        mid_point = len(all_periods) // 2
+        pre_periods = all_periods[:mid_point]
+
+    pre_data = data[data[time].isin(pre_periods)].copy()
+
+    # Compute outcome changes
+    treated_changes, control_changes = _compute_outcome_changes(
+        pre_data, outcome, time, treatment_group, unit
+    )
+
+    # Need at least 2 observations per group to compute variance
+    # and at least 3 total for meaningful df calculation
+    if len(treated_changes) < 2 or len(control_changes) < 2:
+        return {
+            "mean_difference": np.nan,
+            "se_difference": np.nan,
+            "equivalence_margin": np.nan,
+            "lower_t_stat": np.nan,
+            "upper_t_stat": np.nan,
+            "lower_p_value": np.nan,
+            "upper_p_value": np.nan,
+            "tost_p_value": np.nan,
+            "degrees_of_freedom": np.nan,
+            "equivalent": None,
+            "error": "Insufficient data (need at least 2 observations per group)",
+        }
+
+    # Compute statistics
+    var_t = np.var(treated_changes, ddof=1)
+    var_c = np.var(control_changes, ddof=1)
+    n_t = len(treated_changes)
+    n_c = len(control_changes)
+
+    mean_diff = np.mean(treated_changes) - np.mean(control_changes)
+
+    # Handle zero variance case
+    if var_t == 0 and var_c == 0:
+        return {
+            "mean_difference": mean_diff,
+            "se_difference": 0.0,
+            "equivalence_margin": np.nan,
+            "lower_t_stat": np.nan,
+            "upper_t_stat": np.nan,
+            "lower_p_value": np.nan,
+            "upper_p_value": np.nan,
+            "tost_p_value": np.nan,
+            "degrees_of_freedom": np.nan,
+            "equivalent": None,
+            "error": "Zero variance in both groups - cannot perform t-test",
+        }
+
+    se_diff = np.sqrt(var_t / n_t + var_c / n_c)
+
+    # Handle zero SE case (cannot divide by zero in t-stat calculation)
+    if se_diff == 0:
+        return {
+            "mean_difference": mean_diff,
+            "se_difference": 0.0,
+            "equivalence_margin": np.nan,
+            "lower_t_stat": np.nan,
+            "upper_t_stat": np.nan,
+            "lower_p_value": np.nan,
+            "upper_p_value": np.nan,
+            "tost_p_value": np.nan,
+            "degrees_of_freedom": np.nan,
+            "equivalent": None,
+            "error": "Zero standard error - cannot perform t-test",
+        }
+
+    # Set equivalence margin if not provided
+    if equivalence_margin is None:
+        pooled_changes = np.concatenate([treated_changes, control_changes])
+        equivalence_margin = 0.5 * np.std(pooled_changes, ddof=1)
+
+    # Degrees of freedom (Welch-Satterthwaite approximation)
+    # Guard against division by zero when one group has zero variance
+    numerator = (var_t/n_t + var_c/n_c)**2
+    denom_t = (var_t/n_t)**2/(n_t-1) if var_t > 0 else 0
+    denom_c = (var_c/n_c)**2/(n_c-1) if var_c > 0 else 0
+    denominator = denom_t + denom_c
+
+    if denominator == 0:
+        # Fall back to minimum of n_t-1 and n_c-1 when one variance is zero
+        df = min(n_t - 1, n_c - 1)
+    else:
+        df = numerator / denominator
+
+    # TOST: Two one-sided tests
+    # Test 1: H0: diff <= -margin vs H1: diff > -margin
+    t_lower = (mean_diff - (-equivalence_margin)) / se_diff
+    p_lower = stats.t.sf(t_lower, df)
+
+    # Test 2: H0: diff >= margin vs H1: diff < margin
+    t_upper = (mean_diff - equivalence_margin) / se_diff
+    p_upper = stats.t.cdf(t_upper, df)
+
+    # TOST p-value is the maximum of the two
+    tost_p = max(p_lower, p_upper)
+
+    return {
+        "mean_difference": mean_diff,
+        "se_difference": se_diff,
+        "equivalence_margin": equivalence_margin,
+        "lower_t_stat": t_lower,
+        "upper_t_stat": t_upper,
+        "lower_p_value": p_lower,
+        "upper_p_value": p_upper,
+        "tost_p_value": tost_p,
+        "degrees_of_freedom": df,
+        "equivalent": bool(tost_p < 0.05),
+    }
+
+
+def compute_synthetic_weights(
+    Y_control: np.ndarray,
+    Y_treated: np.ndarray,
+    lambda_reg: float = 0.0,
+    min_weight: float = 1e-6
+) -> np.ndarray:
+    """
+    Compute synthetic control unit weights using constrained optimization.
+
+    Finds weights ω that minimize the squared difference between the
+    weighted average of control unit outcomes and the treated unit outcomes
+    during pre-treatment periods.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    Y_control : np.ndarray
+        Control unit outcomes matrix of shape (n_pre_periods, n_control_units).
+        Each column is a control unit, each row is a pre-treatment period.
+    Y_treated : np.ndarray
+        Treated unit mean outcomes of shape (n_pre_periods,).
+        Average across treated units for each pre-treatment period.
+    lambda_reg : float, default=0.0
+        L2 regularization parameter. Larger values shrink weights toward
+        uniform (1/n_control). Helps prevent overfitting when n_pre < n_control.
+    min_weight : float, default=1e-6
+        Minimum weight threshold. Weights below this are set to zero.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    np.ndarray
+        Unit weights of shape (n_control_units,) that sum to 1.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Solves the quadratic program:
+
+        min_ω ||Y_treated - Y_control @ ω||² + λ||ω - 1/n||²
+        s.t. ω >= 0, sum(ω) = 1
+
+    Uses a simplified coordinate descent approach with projection onto simplex.
+    """
+    n_pre, n_control = Y_control.shape
+
+    if n_control == 0:
+        return np.asarray([])
+
+    if n_control == 1:
+        return np.asarray([1.0])
+
+    # Use Rust backend if available
+    if HAS_RUST_BACKEND:
+        Y_control = np.ascontiguousarray(Y_control, dtype=np.float64)
+        Y_treated = np.ascontiguousarray(Y_treated, dtype=np.float64)
+        weights = _rust_synthetic_weights(
+            Y_control, Y_treated, lambda_reg,
+            _OPTIMIZATION_MAX_ITER, _OPTIMIZATION_TOL
+        )
+    else:
+        # Fallback to NumPy implementation
+        weights = _compute_synthetic_weights_numpy(Y_control, Y_treated, lambda_reg)
+
+    # Set small weights to zero for interpretability
+    weights[weights < min_weight] = 0
+    if np.sum(weights) > 0:
+        weights = weights / np.sum(weights)
+    else:
+        # Fallback to uniform if all weights are zeroed
+        weights = np.ones(n_control) / n_control
+
+    return np.asarray(weights)
+
+
+def _compute_synthetic_weights_numpy(
+    Y_control: np.ndarray,
+    Y_treated: np.ndarray,
+    lambda_reg: float = 0.0,
+) -> np.ndarray:
+    """NumPy fallback implementation of compute_synthetic_weights."""
+    n_pre, n_control = Y_control.shape
+
+    # Initialize with uniform weights
+    weights = np.ones(n_control) / n_control
+
+    # Precompute matrices for optimization
+    # Objective: ||Y_treated - Y_control @ w||^2 + lambda * ||w - w_uniform||^2
+    # = w' @ (Y_control' @ Y_control + lambda * I) @ w - 2 * (Y_control' @ Y_treated + lambda * w_uniform)' @ w + const
+    YtY = Y_control.T @ Y_control
+    YtT = Y_control.T @ Y_treated
+    w_uniform = np.ones(n_control) / n_control
+
+    # Add regularization
+    H = YtY + lambda_reg * np.eye(n_control)
+    f = YtT + lambda_reg * w_uniform
+
+    # Solve with projected gradient descent
+    # Project onto probability simplex
+    step_size = 1.0 / (np.linalg.norm(H, 2) + _NUMERICAL_EPS)
+
+    for _ in range(_OPTIMIZATION_MAX_ITER):
+        weights_old = weights.copy()
+
+        # Gradient step: minimize ||Y - Y_control @ w||^2
+        grad = H @ weights - f
+        weights = weights - step_size * grad
+
+        # Project onto simplex (sum to 1, non-negative)
+        weights = _project_simplex(weights)
+
+        # Check convergence
+        if np.linalg.norm(weights - weights_old) < _OPTIMIZATION_TOL:
+            break
+
+    return weights
+
+
+def _project_simplex(v: np.ndarray) -> np.ndarray:
+    """
+    Project vector onto probability simplex (sum to 1, non-negative).
+
+    Uses the algorithm from Duchi et al. (2008).
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    v : np.ndarray
+        Vector to project.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    np.ndarray
+        Projected vector on the simplex.
+    """
+    n = len(v)
+    if n == 0:
+        return v
+
+    # Sort in descending order
+    u = np.sort(v)[::-1]
+
+    # Find the threshold
+    cssv = np.cumsum(u)
+    rho = np.where(u > (cssv - 1) / np.arange(1, n + 1))[0]
+
+    if len(rho) == 0:
+        # All elements are negative or zero
+        rho_val = 0
+    else:
+        rho_val = rho[-1]
+
+    theta = (cssv[rho_val] - 1) / (rho_val + 1)
+
+    return np.asarray(np.maximum(v - theta, 0))
+
+
+def compute_time_weights(
+    Y_control: np.ndarray,
+    Y_treated: np.ndarray,
+    zeta: float = 1.0
+) -> np.ndarray:
+    """
+    Compute time weights for synthetic DiD.
+
+    Time weights emphasize pre-treatment periods where the outcome
+    is more informative for constructing the synthetic control.
+    Based on the SDID approach from Arkhangelsky et al. (2021).
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    Y_control : np.ndarray
+        Control unit outcomes of shape (n_pre_periods, n_control_units).
+    Y_treated : np.ndarray
+        Treated unit mean outcomes of shape (n_pre_periods,).
+    zeta : float, default=1.0
+        Regularization parameter for time weights. Higher values
+        give more uniform weights.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    np.ndarray
+        Time weights of shape (n_pre_periods,) that sum to 1.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The time weights help interpolate between DiD (uniform weights)
+    and synthetic control (weights concentrated on similar periods).
+    """
+    n_pre = len(Y_treated)
+
+    if n_pre <= 1:
+        return np.asarray(np.ones(n_pre))
+
+    # Compute mean control outcomes per period
+    control_means = np.mean(Y_control, axis=1)
+
+    # Compute differences from treated
+    diffs = np.abs(Y_treated - control_means)
+
+    # Inverse weighting: periods with smaller differences get higher weight
+    # Add regularization to prevent extreme weights
+    inv_diffs = 1.0 / (diffs + zeta * np.std(diffs) + _NUMERICAL_EPS)
+
+    # Normalize to sum to 1
+    weights = inv_diffs / np.sum(inv_diffs)
+
+    return np.asarray(weights)
+
+
+def compute_sdid_estimator(
+    Y_pre_control: np.ndarray,
+    Y_post_control: np.ndarray,
+    Y_pre_treated: np.ndarray,
+    Y_post_treated: np.ndarray,
+    unit_weights: np.ndarray,
+    time_weights: np.ndarray
+) -> float:
+    """
+    Compute the Synthetic DiD estimator.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    Y_pre_control : np.ndarray
+        Control outcomes in pre-treatment periods, shape (n_pre, n_control).
+    Y_post_control : np.ndarray
+        Control outcomes in post-treatment periods, shape (n_post, n_control).
+    Y_pre_treated : np.ndarray
+        Treated unit outcomes in pre-treatment periods, shape (n_pre,).
+    Y_post_treated : np.ndarray
+        Treated unit outcomes in post-treatment periods, shape (n_post,).
+    unit_weights : np.ndarray
+        Weights for control units, shape (n_control,).
+    time_weights : np.ndarray
+        Weights for pre-treatment periods, shape (n_pre,).
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    float
+        The synthetic DiD treatment effect estimate.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The SDID estimator is:
+
+        τ̂ = (Ȳ_treated,post - Σ_t λ_t * Y_treated,t)
+            - Σ_j ω_j * (Ȳ_j,post - Σ_t λ_t * Y_j,t)
+
+    Where:
+    - ω_j are unit weights
+    - λ_t are time weights
+    - Ȳ denotes average over post periods
+    """
+    # Weighted pre-treatment averages
+    weighted_pre_control = time_weights @ Y_pre_control  # shape: (n_control,)
+    weighted_pre_treated = time_weights @ Y_pre_treated  # scalar
+
+    # Post-treatment averages
+    mean_post_control = np.mean(Y_post_control, axis=0)  # shape: (n_control,)
+    mean_post_treated = np.mean(Y_post_treated)  # scalar
+
+    # DiD for treated: post - weighted pre
+    did_treated = mean_post_treated - weighted_pre_treated
+
+    # Weighted DiD for controls: sum over j of omega_j * (post_j - weighted_pre_j)
+    did_control = unit_weights @ (mean_post_control - weighted_pre_control)
+
+    # SDID estimator
+    tau = did_treated - did_control
+
+    return float(tau)
+
+
+def compute_placebo_effects(
+    Y_pre_control: np.ndarray,
+    Y_post_control: np.ndarray,
+    Y_pre_treated: np.ndarray,
+    unit_weights: np.ndarray,
+    time_weights: np.ndarray,
+    control_unit_ids: List[Any],
+    n_placebo: Optional[int] = None
+) -> np.ndarray:
+    """
+    Compute placebo treatment effects by treating each control as treated.
+
+    Used for inference in synthetic DiD when bootstrap is not appropriate.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    Y_pre_control : np.ndarray
+        Control outcomes in pre-treatment periods, shape (n_pre, n_control).
+    Y_post_control : np.ndarray
+        Control outcomes in post-treatment periods, shape (n_post, n_control).
+    Y_pre_treated : np.ndarray
+        Treated outcomes in pre-treatment periods, shape (n_pre,).
+    unit_weights : np.ndarray
+        Unit weights, shape (n_control,).
+    time_weights : np.ndarray
+        Time weights, shape (n_pre,).
+    control_unit_ids : list
+        List of control unit identifiers.
+    n_placebo : int, optional
+        Number of placebo tests. If None, uses all control units.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    np.ndarray
+        Array of placebo treatment effects.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    For each control unit j, we pretend it was treated and compute
+    the SDID estimate using the remaining controls. The distribution
+    of these placebo effects provides a reference for inference.
+    """
+    n_pre, n_control = Y_pre_control.shape
+
+    if n_placebo is None:
+        n_placebo = n_control
+
+    placebo_effects = []
+
+    for j in range(min(n_placebo, n_control)):
+        # Treat unit j as the "treated" unit
+        Y_pre_placebo_treated = Y_pre_control[:, j]
+        Y_post_placebo_treated = Y_post_control[:, j]
+
+        # Use remaining units as controls
+        remaining_idx = [i for i in range(n_control) if i != j]
+
+        if len(remaining_idx) == 0:
+            continue
+
+        Y_pre_remaining = Y_pre_control[:, remaining_idx]
+        Y_post_remaining = Y_post_control[:, remaining_idx]
+
+        # Recompute weights for remaining controls
+        remaining_weights = compute_synthetic_weights(
+            Y_pre_remaining,
+            Y_pre_placebo_treated
+        )
+
+        # Compute placebo effect
+        placebo_tau = compute_sdid_estimator(
+            Y_pre_remaining,
+            Y_post_remaining,
+            Y_pre_placebo_treated,
+            Y_post_placebo_treated,
+            remaining_weights,
+            time_weights
+        )
+
+        placebo_effects.append(placebo_tau)
+
+    return np.asarray(placebo_effects)
+
+
+def demean_by_group(
+    data: pd.DataFrame,
+    variables: List[str],
+    group_var: str,
+    inplace: bool = False,
+    suffix: str = "",
+) -> Tuple[pd.DataFrame, int]:
+    """
+    Demean variables by a grouping variable (one-way within transformation).
+
+    For each variable, computes: x_ig - mean(x_g) where g is the group.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        DataFrame containing the variables to demean.
+    variables : list of str
+        Column names to demean.
+    group_var : str
+        Column name for the grouping variable.
+    inplace : bool, default False
+        If True, modifies the original columns. If False, leaves original
+        columns unchanged (demeaning is still applied to return value).
+    suffix : str, default ""
+        Suffix to add to demeaned column names (only used when inplace=False
+        and you want to keep both original and demeaned columns).
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        DataFrame with demeaned variables.
+    n_effects : int
+        Number of absorbed fixed effects (nunique - 1).
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> df, n_fe = demean_by_group(df, ['y', 'x1', 'x2'], 'unit')
+    >>> # df['y'], df['x1'], df['x2'] are now demeaned by unit
+    """
+    if not inplace:
+        data = data.copy()
+
+    # Count fixed effects (categories - 1 for identification)
+    n_effects = data[group_var].nunique() - 1
+
+    # Cache the groupby object for efficiency
+    grouper = data.groupby(group_var, sort=False)
+
+    for var in variables:
+        col_name = var if not suffix else f"{var}{suffix}"
+        group_means = grouper[var].transform("mean")
+        data[col_name] = data[var] - group_means
+
+    return data, n_effects
+
+
+def within_transform(
+    data: pd.DataFrame,
+    variables: List[str],
+    unit: str,
+    time: str,
+    inplace: bool = False,
+    suffix: str = "_demeaned",
+) -> pd.DataFrame:
+    """
+    Apply two-way within transformation to remove unit and time fixed effects.
+
+    Computes: y_it - y_i. - y_.t + y_.. for each variable.
+
+    This is the standard fixed effects transformation for panel data that
+    removes both unit-specific and time-specific effects.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    data : pd.DataFrame
+        Panel data containing the variables to transform.
+    variables : list of str
+        Column names to transform.
+    unit : str
+        Column name for unit identifier.
+    time : str
+        Column name for time period identifier.
+    inplace : bool, default False
+        If True, modifies the original columns. If False, creates new columns
+        with the specified suffix.
+    suffix : str, default "_demeaned"
+        Suffix for new column names when inplace=False.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pd.DataFrame
+        DataFrame with within-transformed variables.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The within transformation removes variation that is constant within units
+    (unit fixed effects) and constant within time periods (time fixed effects).
+    The resulting estimates are equivalent to including unit and time dummies
+    but is computationally more efficient for large panels.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    >>> df = within_transform(df, ['y', 'x'], 'unit_id', 'year')
+    >>> # df now has 'y_demeaned' and 'x_demeaned' columns
+    """
+    if not inplace:
+        data = data.copy()
+
+    # Cache groupby objects for efficiency
+    unit_grouper = data.groupby(unit, sort=False)
+    time_grouper = data.groupby(time, sort=False)
+
+    if inplace:
+        # Modify columns in place
+        for var in variables:
+            unit_means = unit_grouper[var].transform("mean")
+            time_means = time_grouper[var].transform("mean")
+            grand_mean = data[var].mean()
+            data[var] = data[var] - unit_means - time_means + grand_mean
+    else:
+        # Build all demeaned columns at once to avoid DataFrame fragmentation
+        demeaned_data = {}
+        for var in variables:
+            unit_means = unit_grouper[var].transform("mean")
+            time_means = time_grouper[var].transform("mean")
+            grand_mean = data[var].mean()
+            demeaned_data[f"{var}{suffix}"] = (
+                data[var] - unit_means - time_means + grand_mean
+            ).values
+
+        # Add all columns at once
+        demeaned_df = pd.DataFrame(demeaned_data, index=data.index)
+        data = pd.concat([data, demeaned_df], axis=1)
+
+    return data