deltacat 2.0__py3-none-any.whl → 2.0.0__py3-none-any.whl

deltacat/storage/model/schema.py

@@ -3,21 +3,45 @@ from __future__ import annotations
 
 import logging
 import copy
+import base64
 
 import msgpack
-from typing import Optional, Any, Dict, Union, List, Callable, Tuple
+from typing import Optional, Any, Dict, Union, List, Callable, Tuple, TYPE_CHECKING
 
 import pyarrow as pa
 from pyarrow import ArrowInvalid
+import pandas as pd
+import numpy as np
+
+# Daft DataFrame support - required for core functionality
+import daft
+from daft import DataFrame as DaftDataFrame
 
 from deltacat.constants import BYTES_PER_KIBIBYTE
+from deltacat.exceptions import (
+    SchemaCompatibilityError,
+    SchemaValidationError,
+)
 from deltacat.storage.model.types import (
     SchemaConsistencyType,
     SortOrder,
     NullOrder,
 )
+from deltacat.types.tables import (
+    get_table_length,
+    to_pyarrow,
+    from_pyarrow,
+    get_dataset_type,
+    SchemaEvolutionMode,
+)
+from deltacat.types.media import DatasetType
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from deltacat.storage.model.sort_key import SortKey
+
 from deltacat import logs
 
+
 # PyArrow Field Metadata Key used to set the Field ID when writing to Parquet.
 # See: https://arrow.apache.org/docs/cpp/parquet.html#parquet-field-id
 PARQUET_FIELD_ID_KEY_NAME = b"PARQUET:field_id"
@@ -53,6 +77,52 @@ SUBSCHEMAS_KEY_NAME = b"DELTACAT:subschemas"
 # Apache Iceberg, which sets aside this range for reserved fields
 MAX_FIELD_ID_EXCLUSIVE = 2147483447
 
+
+def _encode_metadata_value(value: Any) -> bytes:
+    """
+    Encode a value for storage in PyArrow field metadata.
+
+    Uses msgpack for efficient serialization, then base64 encoding to ensure
+    UTF-8 compatibility with all Parquet readers (Polars, Daft, etc.).
+
+    Args:
+        value: The value to encode
+
+    Returns:
+        Base64-encoded msgpack bytes that are UTF-8 safe
+    """
+    msgpack_bytes = msgpack.dumps(value)
+    return base64.b64encode(msgpack_bytes)
+
+
+def _decode_metadata_value(encoded_bytes: bytes) -> Any:
+    """
+    Decode a value from PyArrow field metadata.
+
+    Handles both new base64-encoded format and legacy raw msgpack format
+    for backward compatibility.
+
+    Args:
+        encoded_bytes: The encoded bytes from field metadata
+
+    Returns:
+        The decoded value
+
+    Raises:
+        ValueError: If the data cannot be decoded
+    """
+    try:
+        # Try new base64-encoded format first
+        msgpack_bytes = base64.b64decode(encoded_bytes)
+        return msgpack.loads(msgpack_bytes)
+    except Exception:
+        try:
+            # Fall back to legacy raw msgpack format
+            return msgpack.loads(encoded_bytes)
+        except Exception as e:
+            raise ValueError(f"Failed to decode metadata value: {e}") from e
+
+
 # Default name assigned to the base, unnamed single schema when a new named
 # subschema is first added.
 BASE_SCHEMA_NAME = "_base"
@@ -64,6 +134,86 @@ FieldName = str
 NestedFieldName = List[str]
 FieldLocator = Union[FieldName, NestedFieldName, FieldId]
 
+
+class SchemaUpdateOperation(tuple):
+    """
+    Represents a single schema update operation (add, remove, or update field).
+
+    This class inherits from tuple and stores:
+    - operation: str ("add", "remove", "update")
+    - field_locator: Optional[FieldLocator] (name, path, or ID)
+    - field: Optional[Field] (the field data for add/update operations)
+    """
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def add_field(field: Field) -> SchemaUpdateOperation:
+        """Create an operation to add a new field."""
+        return SchemaUpdateOperation(("add", None, field))
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def remove_field(field_locator: FieldLocator) -> SchemaUpdateOperation:
+        """Create an operation to remove an existing field."""
+        return SchemaUpdateOperation(("remove", field_locator, None))
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def update_field(
+        field_locator: FieldLocator, field: Field
+    ) -> SchemaUpdateOperation:
+        """Create an operation to update an existing field."""
+        return SchemaUpdateOperation(("update", field_locator, field))
+
+    @property
+    def operation(self) -> str:
+        """The operation type: 'add', 'remove', or 'update'."""
+        return self[0]
+
+    @property
+    def field_locator(self) -> Optional[FieldLocator]:
+        """The field locator (name, path, or ID)."""
+        return self[1]
+
+    @property
+    def field(self) -> Optional[Field]:
+        """The field data (None for remove operations)."""
+        return self[2]
+
+    def field_locator_matches(self, other_locator: FieldLocator) -> bool:
+        """Check if this operation's field_locator matches the given field_locator."""
+        return SchemaUpdate._field_locators_match(self.field_locator, other_locator)
+
+
+class SchemaUpdateOperations(List[SchemaUpdateOperation]):
+    """
+    A list of schema update operations that can be applied to a schema.
+
+    This class inherits from List[SchemaUpdateOperation] and provides convenience
+    methods for creating and managing schema update operations.
+    """
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def of(operations: List[SchemaUpdateOperation]) -> SchemaUpdateOperations:
+        """Create a SchemaUpdateOperations list from a list of operations."""
+        typed_operations = SchemaUpdateOperations()
+        for operation in operations:
+            if operation is not None and not isinstance(
+                operation, SchemaUpdateOperation
+            ):
+                operation = SchemaUpdateOperation(operation)
+            typed_operations.append(operation)
+        return typed_operations
+
+    def __getitem__(self, item):
+        """Override to ensure items are properly typed as SchemaUpdateOperation."""
+        val = super().__getitem__(item)
+        if val is not None and not isinstance(val, SchemaUpdateOperation):
+            self[item] = val = SchemaUpdateOperation(val)
+        return val
+
+    def __iter__(self):
+        for i in range(len(self)):
+            yield self[i]  # This triggers __getitem__ conversion
+
+
 logger = logs.configure_deltacat_logger(logging.getLogger(__name__))
 
 
@@ -224,6 +374,10 @@ class Field(dict):
     def merge_order(self) -> Optional[MergeOrder]:
         return Field._merge_order(self.arrow)
 
+    @property
+    def is_event_time(self) -> Optional[bool]:
+        return Field._is_event_time(self.arrow)
+
     @property
     def doc(self) -> Optional[str]:
         return Field._doc(self.arrow)
@@ -273,7 +427,7 @@ class Field(dict):
         merge_order = None
         if field.metadata:
             bytes_val = field.metadata.get(FIELD_MERGE_ORDER_KEY_NAME)
-            merge_order = msgpack.loads(bytes_val) if bytes_val else None
+            merge_order = _decode_metadata_value(bytes_val) if bytes_val else None
         return merge_order
 
     @staticmethod
@@ -289,7 +443,7 @@ class Field(dict):
         default = None
         if field.metadata:
             bytes_val = field.metadata.get(FIELD_PAST_DEFAULT_KEY_NAME)
-            default = msgpack.loads(bytes_val) if bytes_val else None
+            default = _decode_metadata_value(bytes_val) if bytes_val else None
         return default
 
     @staticmethod
@@ -297,7 +451,7 @@ class Field(dict):
         default = None
         if field.metadata:
             bytes_val = field.metadata.get(FIELD_FUTURE_DEFAULT_KEY_NAME)
-            default = msgpack.loads(bytes_val) if bytes_val else None
+            default = _decode_metadata_value(bytes_val) if bytes_val else None
         return default
 
     @staticmethod
@@ -309,19 +463,53 @@ class Field(dict):
         return t
 
     @staticmethod
-    def _validate_merge_key(field: pa.Field):
-        if not (pa.types.is_string(field.type) or pa.types.is_primitive(field.type)):
-            raise ValueError(f"Merge key {field} must be a primitive type.")
+    def _validate_merge_key(
+        field: pa.Field, consistency_type: Optional[SchemaConsistencyType] = None
+    ):
+        # Note: large_strings were explicitly allowed for compatibility with PyIceberg Iceberg Schema to PyArrow converter
+        if not (
+            pa.types.is_string(field.type)
+            or pa.types.is_primitive(field.type)
+            or pa.types.is_large_string(field.type)
+        ):
+            raise ValueError(
+                f"Merge key {field} must be a primitive type or large string."
+            )
+
+        # Merge key fields must have VALIDATE consistency type to prevent type promotion
+        if (
+            consistency_type is not None
+            and consistency_type != SchemaConsistencyType.VALIDATE
+        ):
+            raise ValueError(
+                f"Merge key field '{field.name}' must have VALIDATE consistency type, "
+                f"got {consistency_type}. Type promotion is not allowed for merge keys."
+            )
+
         if pa.types.is_floating(field.type):
             raise ValueError(f"Merge key {field} cannot be floating point.")
 
     @staticmethod
-    def _validate_merge_order(field: pa.Field):
+    def _validate_merge_order(
+        field: pa.Field, consistency_type: Optional[SchemaConsistencyType] = None
+    ):
         if not pa.types.is_primitive(field.type):
             raise ValueError(f"Merge order {field} must be a primitive type.")
 
+        # Merge order fields must have VALIDATE consistency type to prevent type promotion
+        if (
+            consistency_type is not None
+            and consistency_type != SchemaConsistencyType.VALIDATE
+        ):
+            raise ValueError(
+                f"Merge order field '{field.name}' must have VALIDATE consistency type, "
+                f"got {consistency_type}. Type promotion is not allowed for merge order fields."
+            )
+
     @staticmethod
-    def _validate_event_time(field: pa.Field):
+    def _validate_event_time(
+        field: pa.Field, consistency_type: Optional[SchemaConsistencyType] = None
+    ):
         if (
             not pa.types.is_integer(field.type)
             and not pa.types.is_floating(field.type)
@@ -329,6 +517,16 @@ class Field(dict):
         ):
             raise ValueError(f"Event time {field} must be numeric or date type.")
 
+        # Event time fields must have VALIDATE consistency type to prevent type promotion
+        if (
+            consistency_type is not None
+            and consistency_type != SchemaConsistencyType.VALIDATE
+        ):
+            raise ValueError(
+                f"Event time field '{field.name}' must have VALIDATE consistency type, "
+                f"got {consistency_type}. Type promotion is not allowed for event time fields."
+            )
+
     @staticmethod
     def _validate_default(
         default: Optional[Any],
@@ -354,22 +552,31 @@ class Field(dict):
         future_default: Optional[Any],
         consistency_type: Optional[SchemaConsistencyType],
     ) -> pa.Field:
+        # Auto-set future_default to past_default if past_default exists but future_default doesn't
+        if past_default is not None and future_default is None:
+            future_default = past_default
+
+        # Default critical columns (merge key, merge order, event time) to VALIDATE consistency type
+        # to prevent type promotion which could break merge semantics
+        if consistency_type is None and (is_merge_key or merge_order or is_event_time):
+            consistency_type = SchemaConsistencyType.VALIDATE
+
         meta = {}
         if is_merge_key:
-            Field._validate_merge_key(field)
+            Field._validate_merge_key(field, consistency_type)
             meta[FIELD_MERGE_KEY_NAME] = str(is_merge_key)
         if merge_order:
-            Field._validate_merge_order(field)
-            meta[FIELD_MERGE_ORDER_KEY_NAME] = msgpack.dumps(merge_order)
+            Field._validate_merge_order(field, consistency_type)
+            meta[FIELD_MERGE_ORDER_KEY_NAME] = _encode_metadata_value(merge_order)
         if is_event_time:
-            Field._validate_event_time(field)
+            Field._validate_event_time(field, consistency_type)
             meta[FIELD_EVENT_TIME_KEY_NAME] = str(is_event_time)
         if past_default is not None:
             Field._validate_default(past_default, field)
-            meta[FIELD_PAST_DEFAULT_KEY_NAME] = msgpack.dumps(past_default)
+            meta[FIELD_PAST_DEFAULT_KEY_NAME] = _encode_metadata_value(past_default)
         if future_default is not None:
             Field._validate_default(future_default, field)
-            meta[FIELD_FUTURE_DEFAULT_KEY_NAME] = msgpack.dumps(future_default)
+            meta[FIELD_FUTURE_DEFAULT_KEY_NAME] = _encode_metadata_value(future_default)
         if field_id is not None:
             meta[PARQUET_FIELD_ID_KEY_NAME] = str(field_id)
         if doc is not None:
@@ -383,6 +590,217 @@ class Field(dict):
             metadata=meta,
         )
 
+    def validate(
+        self,
+        column_type: pa.DataType,
+    ) -> None:
+        """Validate that data in a column matches this field's type and constraints.
+
+        Args:
+            column_datatype: PyArrow DataType containing the column data to validate
+
+        Raises:
+            ValueError: If data doesn't match field requirements.
+        """
+        # Check if the data type matches the field type
+        if not column_type.equals(self.arrow.type):
+            raise SchemaValidationError(
+                f"Data type mismatch for field '{self.arrow.name}': "
+                f"expected {self.arrow.type}, got {column_type}"
+            )
+
+    def coerce(
+        self,
+        column_data: pa.Array,
+    ) -> pa.Array:
+        """Coerce data in a column to match this field's type.
+
+        Args:
+            column_data: PyArrow Array containing the column data to coerce
+
+        Returns:
+            pa.Array: Coerced data matching this field's type
+
+        Raises:
+            ValueError: If data cannot be coerced to the field type
+        """
+        try:
+            return pa.compute.cast(column_data, self.arrow.type)
+        except (pa.ArrowTypeError, pa.ArrowInvalid) as e:
+            raise SchemaValidationError(
+                f"Cannot coerce data for field '{self.arrow.name}' "
+                f"from {column_data.type} to {self.arrow.type}: {e}"
+            )
+
+    def coerce_daft(
+        self,
+        dataframe: DaftDataFrame,
+        column_name: str,
+        target_type: Optional[pa.DataType] = None,
+    ) -> DaftDataFrame:
+        """Coerce a Daft DataFrame column to match this field's type.
+
+        Args:
+            dataframe: Daft DataFrame containing the column to coerce
+            column_name: Name of the column to coerce
+            target_type: Optional target type to coerce to (defaults to self.arrow.type)
+
+        Returns:
+            DaftDataFrame: DataFrame with the coerced column
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaValidationError: If data cannot be coerced to the field type
+        """
+        target_arrow_type = target_type or self.arrow.type
+        target_daft_type = daft.DataType.from_arrow_type(target_arrow_type)
+
+        try:
+            # Use Daft's cast expression to coerce the column
+            coerced_dataframe = dataframe.with_column(
+                column_name, daft.col(column_name).cast(target_daft_type)
+            )
+            return coerced_dataframe
+        except Exception as e:
+            raise SchemaValidationError(
+                f"Cannot coerce Daft column '{column_name}' for field '{self.arrow.name}' "
+                f"to type {target_arrow_type}: {e}"
+            )
+
+    def promote_type_if_needed(
+        self,
+        column_data: pa.Array,
+    ) -> Tuple[pa.Array, bool]:
+        """Promote field type to accommodate new data when consistency type is NONE.
+        Use PyArrow's unify_schemas to find the most permissive type that can accommodate both
+        the current and new data types.
+
+        Args:
+            column_data: PyArrow Array containing the column data
+
+        Returns:
+            Tuple[pa.Array, bool]: (data, type_was_promoted)
+                - data: Either original data or data cast to promoted type
+                - type_was_promoted: True if field type should be updated
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaValidationError: If column data cannot be promoted to a unified type
+        """
+        current_type = self.arrow.type
+        data_type = column_data.type
+
+        # Early return if types are already compatible
+        if current_type.equals(data_type):
+            return column_data, False
+
+        # Find the promoted type that can accommodate both types
+        promoted_type = self._find_promoted_type(current_type, data_type)
+
+        # Handle type coercion vs promotion
+        if promoted_type.equals(current_type):
+            return self._coerce_to_current_type(column_data, current_type)
+        else:
+            return self._promote_to_new_type(column_data, promoted_type)
+
+    def _coerce_to_current_type(
+        self,
+        column_data: pa.Array,
+        current_type: pa.DataType,
+    ) -> Tuple[pa.Array, bool]:
+        """Try to coerce data to current type without promoting the field type."""
+        try:
+            coerced_data = pa.compute.cast(column_data, current_type)
+            return coerced_data, False
+        except (pa.ArrowTypeError, pa.ArrowInvalid, pa.ArrowNotImplementedError):
+            return column_data, False
+
+    def _promote_to_new_type(
+        self,
+        column_data: pa.Array,
+        promoted_type: pa.DataType,
+    ) -> Tuple[pa.Array, bool]:
+        """Try to cast data to the promoted type."""
+        try:
+            promoted_data = pa.compute.cast(column_data, promoted_type)
+            return promoted_data, True
+        except (pa.ArrowTypeError, pa.ArrowInvalid, pa.ArrowNotImplementedError):
+            # If direct cast fails, the promotion is not valid
+            raise SchemaValidationError(
+                f"Cannot cast data for field '{self.arrow.name}' from type {column_data.type} "
+                f"to promoted type {promoted_type}"
+            )
+
+    def _cast_default_to_promoted_type(
+        self,
+        default_value: Any,
+        promoted_type: pa.DataType,
+    ) -> Optional[Any]:
+        """Cast a default value to match a promoted type.
+
+        Args:
+            default_value: The original default value
+            promoted_type: The new promoted type
+
+        Returns:
+            The default value cast to the promoted type.
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaValidationError: If the default value cannot be cast to the promoted type
+        """
+        if default_value is None:
+            return None
+
+        try:
+            # Create a scalar with the original default value
+            original_scalar = pa.scalar(default_value)
+            # Cast to the promoted type
+            promoted_scalar = pa.compute.cast(original_scalar, promoted_type)
+            # Return the Python value
+            return promoted_scalar.as_py()
+        except (
+            pa.ArrowTypeError,
+            pa.ArrowInvalid,
+            pa.ArrowNotImplementedError,
+            TypeError,
+            ValueError,
+        ):
+            raise SchemaValidationError(
+                f"Cannot cast default value `{default_value}` to promoted type {promoted_type}"
+            )
+
+    def _find_promoted_type(
+        self,
+        current_type: pa.DataType,
+        new_type: pa.DataType,
+    ) -> Optional[pa.DataType]:
+        """Find the most specific type that can accommodate both current and new types
+        using PyArrow's unify_schemas with permissive promotion options.
+
+        Returns:
+            The promoted type.
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaValidationError: If the types cannot be unified.
+        """
+        try:
+            # Create schemas with the same field name but different types
+            schema1 = pa.schema([("field", current_type)])
+            schema2 = pa.schema([("field", new_type)])
+
+            # Use PyArrow's built-in permissive type promotion
+            unified_schema = pa.unify_schemas(
+                [schema1, schema2], promote_options="permissive"
+            )
+
+            # Return the promoted type
+            return unified_schema.field("field").type
+
+        except (pa.ArrowTypeError, pa.ArrowInvalid, pa.ArrowNotImplementedError):
+            # If unification fails, no promotion is possible
+            raise SchemaValidationError(
+                f"Cannot unify types for field '{self.arrow.name}': "
+                f"current type {current_type} incompatible with new data type {new_type}"
+            )
+
 
 SingleSchema = Union[List[Field], pa.Schema]
 MultiSchema = Union[Dict[SchemaName, List[Field]], Dict[SchemaName, pa.Schema]]
@@ -432,6 +850,8 @@ class Schema(dict):
         Returns:
             A new DeltaCAT Schema.
         """
+        if schema_id and schema_id < 0:
+            raise ValueError(f"Schema ID must be non-negative, got {schema_id}")
         # normalize the input as a unified pyarrow schema
         # if the input included multiple subschemas, then also save a mapping
         # from each subschema to its unique field names
@@ -454,6 +874,8 @@ class Schema(dict):
             visit=Schema._populate_fields,
             visitor_dict=visitor_dict,
         )
+        # recalculate max field ID after field population (in case new field IDs were assigned)
+        max_field_id = max(field_ids_to_fields.keys()) if field_ids_to_fields else 0
         if schema.metadata:
             schema_metadata.update(schema.metadata)
         # populate merge keys
@@ -477,7 +899,9 @@ class Schema(dict):
             schema_metadata[SCHEMA_ID_KEY_NAME] = str(schema_id)
         if schema_metadata.get(SCHEMA_ID_KEY_NAME) is None:
             schema_metadata[SCHEMA_ID_KEY_NAME] = str(0)
-        schema_metadata[SUBSCHEMAS_KEY_NAME] = msgpack.dumps(subschema_to_field_ids)
+        schema_metadata[SUBSCHEMAS_KEY_NAME] = _encode_metadata_value(
+            subschema_to_field_ids
+        )
         final_schema = pyarrow_schema.with_metadata(schema_metadata)
         return Schema(
             {
@@ -546,6 +970,32 @@ class Schema(dict):
             schema_id=self.id + 1,
         )
 
+    def update(self, allow_incompatible_changes: bool = False) -> SchemaUpdate:
+        """
+        Create a SchemaUpdate instance for safely evolving this schema.
+
+        This method provides a convenient way to create a SchemaUpdate for this schema
+        without needing to call SchemaUpdate.of() directly.
+
+        Args:
+            allow_incompatible_changes: If True, allows changes that may break
+                backward compatibility. If False (default), raises SchemaCompatibilityError
+                for incompatible changes.
+
+        Returns:
+            A new SchemaUpdate instance configured for this schema
+
+        Example:
+            >>> schema = Schema.of([Field.of(pa.field("id", pa.int64()))])
+            >>> new_field = Field.of(pa.field("name", pa.string()))
+            >>> updated_schema = (schema.update()
+            ...                         .add_field("name", new_field)
+            ...                         .apply())
+        """
+        return SchemaUpdate.of(
+            self, allow_incompatible_changes=allow_incompatible_changes
+        )
+
     def field_id(self, name: Union[FieldName, NestedFieldName]) -> FieldId:
         return Schema._field_name_to_field_id(self.arrow, name)
 
@@ -563,125 +1013,570 @@ class Schema(dict):
         )
         return self.field_ids_to_fields[field_id]
 
-    @property
-    def fields(self) -> List[Field]:
-        field_ids_to_fields = self.field_ids_to_fields
-        return list(field_ids_to_fields.values())
+    def merge_order_sort_keys(self) -> Optional[List[SortKey]]:
+        """Extract sort keys from fields with merge_order defined, or use event_time as fallback.
 
-    @property
-    def merge_keys(self) -> Optional[List[FieldId]]:
-        return self.get("mergeKeys")
+        If explicit merge_order fields are defined, they take precedence.
+        If no merge_order fields are defined but an event_time field exists, use event_time
+        with DESCENDING merge_order (keep latest events by default).
 
-    @property
-    def field_ids_to_fields(self) -> Dict[FieldId, Field]:
-        return self.get("fieldIdsToFields")
+        Note: The sort order is inverted because deduplication keeps the "last" record
+        after sorting. To keep the record with the smallest merge_order value, we need
+        to sort in DESCENDING order so that record appears last.
 
-    @property
-    def arrow(self) -> pa.Schema:
-        return self["arrow"]
+        Returns:
+            List of SortKey objects constructed from fields with merge_order or event_time,
+            or None if neither are defined.
+        """
+        # First priority: explicit merge_order fields
+        fields_with_merge_order = self._get_fields_with_merge_order()
+        if fields_with_merge_order:
+            return self._create_sort_keys_from_merge_order_fields(
+                fields_with_merge_order
+            )
 
-    @property
-    def max_field_id(self) -> FieldId:
-        return self["maxFieldId"]
+        # Second priority: event_time field as default merge_order key
+        event_time_fields = self._get_event_time_fields()
+        if event_time_fields:
+            return self._create_sort_keys_from_event_time_fields(event_time_fields)
 
-    @property
-    def id(self) -> SchemaId:
-        return Schema._schema_id(self.arrow)
+        return None
 
-    @property
-    def subschema(self, name: SchemaName) -> Optional[Schema]:
-        subschemas = self.subschemas
-        return subschemas.get(name) if subschemas else None
+    def _validate_and_coerce_table(
+        self,
+        table: pa.Table,
+        schema_evolution_mode: Optional[SchemaEvolutionMode] = None,
+        default_schema_consistency_type: Optional[SchemaConsistencyType] = None,
+    ) -> Tuple[pa.Table, Schema]:
+        """Validate and coerce a PyArrow table to match this schema's field types and constraints.
 
-    @property
-    def subschemas(self) -> Dict[SchemaName, Schema]:
-        # return cached subschemas first if they exist
-        subschemas = self.get("subschemas")
-        if not subschemas:
-            # retrieve any defined subschemas
-            subschemas_to_field_ids = self.subschemas_to_field_ids
-            # rebuild and return the subschema cache
-            if subschemas_to_field_ids:
-                subschemas = {
-                    schema_name: Schema.of(
-                        schema=pa.schema(
-                            [self.field(field_id).arrow for field_id in field_ids]
-                        ),
-                        schema_id=self.id,
-                        native_object=self.native_object,
-                    )
-                    for schema_name, field_ids in subschemas_to_field_ids.items()
-                }
-                self["subschemas"] = subschemas
-        return subschemas or {}
+        This method now uses SchemaUpdate for safe schema evolution, ensuring all field
+        protection rules and validation are applied consistently.
 
-    @property
-    def subschema_field_ids(self, name: SchemaName) -> Optional[List[FieldId]]:
-        return self.subschemas_to_field_ids.get(name)
+        Args:
+            table: PyArrow Table to validate and coerce
+            schema_evolution_mode: How to handle fields not in schema (MANUAL or AUTO)
+            default_schema_consistency_type: Default consistency type for new fields in AUTO mode
 
-    @property
-    def subschemas_to_field_ids(self) -> Dict[SchemaName, List[FieldId]]:
-        return Schema._subschemas(self.arrow)
+        Returns:
+            Tuple[pa.Table, Schema]: Table with data validated/coerced according to schema consistency types,
+                                    and the (potentially updated) schema
 
-    @property
-    def native_object(self) -> Optional[Any]:
-        return self.get("nativeObject")
+        Raises:
+            SchemaValidationError: If validation fails or coercion is not possible
+            SchemaCompatibilityError: If schema evolution would break compatibility
+        """
+        if not self.field_ids_to_fields:
+            # No fields defined in schema, return original table
+            return table, self
 
-    @staticmethod
-    def _schema_id(schema: pa.Schema) -> SchemaId:
-        schema_id = None
-        if schema.metadata:
-            bytes_val = schema.metadata.get(SCHEMA_ID_KEY_NAME)
-            schema_id = int(bytes_val.decode()) if bytes_val else None
-        return schema_id
+        # Setup
+        field_name_to_field = self._create_field_name_mapping()
+        field_updates = {}  # field_name -> updated_field
+        new_fields = {}  # field_name -> new_field
+        new_columns = []
+        new_schema_fields = []
 
-    @staticmethod
-    def _subschemas(
-        schema: pa.Schema,
-    ) -> Dict[SchemaName, List[FieldId]]:
-        subschemas = None
-        if schema.metadata:
-            bytes_val = schema.metadata.get(SUBSCHEMAS_KEY_NAME)
-            subschemas = msgpack.loads(bytes_val) if bytes_val else None
-        return subschemas
+        # Process each column in the table
+        for column_name in table.column_names:
+            column_data = table.column(column_name)
 
-    @staticmethod
-    def _field_name_to_field_id(
-        schema: pa.Schema,
-        name: Union[FieldName, NestedFieldName],
-    ) -> FieldId:
-        if isinstance(name, str):
-            return Field.of(schema.field(name)).id
-        if isinstance(name, List):
-            if not len(name):
-                raise ValueError(f"Nested field name `{name}` is empty.")
-            field = schema
-            for part in name:
-                field = field[part]
-            return Field.of(field).id
-        raise ValueError(f"Unknown field name type: {type(name)}")
+            (
+                processed_data,
+                schema_field,
+                field_update,
+                new_field,
+            ) = self._process_existing_table_column(
+                column_name,
+                column_data,
+                field_name_to_field,
+                schema_evolution_mode,
+                default_schema_consistency_type,
+            )
 
-    @staticmethod
-    def _visit_fields(
-        current: Union[pa.Schema, pa.Field],
-        visit: Callable,
-        path: NestedFieldName = [],
-        *args,
-        **kwargs,
-    ) -> None:
-        """
-        Recursively visit all fields in a PyArrow schema, including nested
-        fields.
+            new_columns.append(processed_data)
+            new_schema_fields.append(schema_field)
 
-        Args:
-            current (pa.Schema or pa.Field): The schema or field to visit.
-            visit (callable): A function that visits the current field.
-            path (NestedFieldName): The current path to the field.
-            *args: Additional args to pass to the visit function.
+            if field_update:
+                field_updates[column_name] = field_update
+            if new_field:
+                new_fields[column_name] = new_field
+
+        # Add any missing fields from schema
+        table_column_names = set(table.column_names)
+        self._add_missing_schema_fields(
+            table, table_column_names, new_columns, new_schema_fields
+        )
+
+        # Apply schema updates if any modifications were made
+        updated_schema = self._apply_schema_updates(field_updates, new_fields)
+
+        return (
+            pa.table(new_columns, schema=pa.schema(new_schema_fields)),
+            updated_schema,
+        )
+
+    def validate_and_coerce_dataset(
+        self,
+        dataset: Union[pa.Table, Any],
+        schema_evolution_mode: Optional[SchemaEvolutionMode] = None,
+        default_schema_consistency_type: Optional[SchemaConsistencyType] = None,
+    ) -> Tuple[Union[pa.Table, Any], Schema]:
+        """Validate and coerce a dataset to match this schema's field types and constraints.
+
+        Args:
+            dataset: Dataset to validate and coerce (PyArrow Table, Daft DataFrame, etc.)
+            schema_evolution_mode: How to handle fields not in schema (MANUAL or AUTO)
+            default_schema_consistency_type: Default consistency type for new fields in AUTO mode
+
+        Returns:
+            Tuple[Dataset, Schema]: Dataset with data validated/coerced according to schema consistency types,
+            and the (potentially updated) schema
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaValidationError: If validation fails or coercion is not possible
+            SchemaCompatibilityError: If schema evolution would break compatibility
+        """
+        # Handle PyArrow tables using existing method
+        if get_dataset_type(dataset) == DatasetType.PYARROW:
+            return self._validate_and_coerce_table(
+                dataset,
+                schema_evolution_mode,
+                default_schema_consistency_type,
+            )
+
+        # Handle Daft DataFrames without collecting to memory
+        if get_dataset_type(dataset) == DatasetType.DAFT:
+            return self._validate_and_coerce_daft_dataframe(
+                dataset,
+                schema_evolution_mode,
+                default_schema_consistency_type,
+            )
+
+        # Handle Ray Datasets by converting to Daft
+        if get_dataset_type(dataset) == DatasetType.RAY_DATASET:
+            daft_dataframe = dataset.to_daft()
+            return self._validate_and_coerce_daft_dataframe(
+                daft_dataframe,
+                schema_evolution_mode,
+                default_schema_consistency_type,
+            )
+
+        # For other types, convert to PyArrow and back
+        # Don't pass schema during conversion as it may contain columns not yet in the dataset
+        pa_table = to_pyarrow(dataset)
+        coerced_table, updated_schema = self._validate_and_coerce_table(
+            pa_table,
+            schema_evolution_mode,
+            default_schema_consistency_type,
+        )
+        return from_pyarrow(coerced_table, get_dataset_type(dataset)), updated_schema
+
+    def coerce(
+        self,
+        dataset: Union[pa.Table, pd.DataFrame, np.ndarray, Any],
+        manifest_entry_schema: Optional[Schema] = None,
+    ) -> Union[pa.Table, pd.DataFrame, np.ndarray, Any]:
+        """Coerce a dataset to match this schema using field type promotion.
+
+        This method processes different dataset types and applies type promotion
+        using the field's promote_type_if_needed method. It handles:
+        - PyArrow Tables
+        - Pandas DataFrames
+        - NumPy arrays (1D and 2D)
+        - Polars DataFrames (if available)
+        - Daft DataFrames (if available)
+        - Other types with to_arrow() method
+
+        For each column, it:
+        - Fields that exist in both dataset and schema: applies type promotion
+        - Fields in dataset but not in schema: preserves as-is
+        - Fields in schema but not in dataset: adds with null or past default values
+        - Reorders columns to match schema order
+
+        Args:
+            dataset: Dataset to coerce to this schema
+            manifest_entry_schema: Original manifest entry schema used to write the dataset.
+
+        Returns:
+            Dataset of the same type, coerced to match this schema.
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaValidationError: If coercion fails
+        """
+        if not self.field_ids_to_fields:
+            # No fields defined in schema, return original dataset
+            return dataset
+
+        # Convert dataset to PyArrow table for processing
+        pa_table = to_pyarrow(
+            dataset,
+            schema=manifest_entry_schema.arrow if manifest_entry_schema else None,
+        )
+
+        # Process columns using field coercion
+        coerced_columns, coerced_fields = self._coerce_table_columns(pa_table)
+
+        # Reorder columns to match schema order
+        reordered_columns, reordered_fields = self._reorder_columns_to_schema(
+            coerced_columns, coerced_fields, pa_table
+        )
+
+        # Create new table with processed columns
+        coerced_table = pa.table(reordered_columns, schema=pa.schema(reordered_fields))
+
+        # Convert back to original dataset type
+        return from_pyarrow(coerced_table, get_dataset_type(dataset))
+
+    def _validate_and_coerce_daft_dataframe(
+        self,
+        dataframe: Any,  # DaftDataFrame type
+        schema_evolution_mode: Optional[SchemaEvolutionMode] = None,
+        default_schema_consistency_type: Optional[SchemaConsistencyType] = None,
+    ) -> Tuple[Any, Schema]:
+        """Validate and coerce a Daft DataFrame without collecting to memory.
+
+        This method processes Daft DataFrames column by column using Daft expressions
+        for validation and coercion, avoiding memory collection.
+
+        Args:
+            dataframe: Daft DataFrame to validate and coerce
+            schema_evolution_mode: How to handle fields not in schema (MANUAL or AUTO)
+            default_schema_consistency_type: Default consistency type for new fields in AUTO mode
+
+        Returns:
+            Tuple[DaftDataFrame, Schema]: Processed DataFrame and updated schema
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaValidationError: If validation fails or coercion is not possible
+            SchemaCompatibilityError: If schema evolution would break compatibility
+        """
+        if not self.field_ids_to_fields:
+            # No fields defined in schema, return original dataframe
+            return dataframe, self
+
+        # Setup
+        field_name_to_field = self._create_field_name_mapping()
+        field_updates = {}  # field_name -> updated_field
+        new_fields = {}  # field_name -> new_field
+        processed_dataframe = dataframe
+
+        # Process each column in the dataframe
+        for column_name in dataframe.column_names:
+            column_type = dataframe.schema()[column_name].dtype.to_arrow_dtype()
+
+            (
+                processed_dataframe,
+                schema_field,
+                field_update,
+                new_field,
+            ) = self._process_existing_daft_column(
+                processed_dataframe,
+                column_name,
+                column_type,
+                field_name_to_field,
+                schema_evolution_mode,
+                default_schema_consistency_type,
+            )
+
+            if field_update:
+                field_updates[column_name] = field_update
+            if new_field:
+                new_fields[column_name] = new_field
+
+        # Add any missing fields from schema
+        dataframe_column_names = set(dataframe.column_names)
+        processed_dataframe = self._add_missing_schema_fields_daft(
+            processed_dataframe, dataframe_column_names
+        )
+
+        # Apply schema updates if any modifications were made
+        updated_schema = self._apply_schema_updates(field_updates, new_fields)
+
+        return processed_dataframe, updated_schema
+
+    def _process_existing_daft_column(
+        self,
+        dataframe: Any,  # DaftDataFrame type
+        column_name: str,
+        column_type: pa.DataType,
+        field_name_to_field: Dict[str, Field],
+        schema_evolution_mode: Optional[SchemaEvolutionMode],
+        default_schema_consistency_type: Optional[SchemaConsistencyType],
+    ) -> Tuple[Any, pa.Field, Optional[Field], Optional[Field]]:
+        """Process a Daft DataFrame column that exists in the dataset.
+
+        Args:
+            dataframe: Daft DataFrame to process
+            column_name: Name of the column to process
+            column_type: PyArrow DataType of the column
+            field_name_to_field: Mapping from field names to Field objects
+            schema_evolution_mode: How to handle fields not in schema
+            default_schema_consistency_type: Default consistency type for new fields
+
+        Returns:
+            Tuple of (processed_dataframe, schema_field, field_update, new_field)
+        """
+        if column_name in field_name_to_field:
+            # Field exists in schema - validate/coerce according to consistency type
+            field = field_name_to_field[column_name]
+
+            if field.consistency_type == SchemaConsistencyType.VALIDATE:
+                field.validate(column_type)
+                return dataframe, field.arrow, None, None
+            elif field.consistency_type == SchemaConsistencyType.COERCE:
+                coerced_dataframe = field.coerce_daft(dataframe, column_name)
+                return coerced_dataframe, field.arrow, None, None
+            else:
+                # NONE or no consistency type - use type promotion
+                return self._handle_daft_type_promotion(
+                    dataframe, column_name, column_type, field
+                )
+        else:
+            # Field not in schema - handle based on evolution mode
+            return self._handle_new_daft_field(
+                dataframe,
+                column_name,
+                column_type,
+                schema_evolution_mode,
+                default_schema_consistency_type,
+            )
+
+    def _handle_daft_type_promotion(
+        self,
+        dataframe: Any,  # DaftDataFrame type
+        column_name: str,
+        column_type: pa.DataType,
+        field: Field,
+    ) -> Tuple[Any, pa.Field, Optional[Field], Optional[Field]]:
+        """Handle type promotion for a Daft column with NONE consistency type."""
+        # Create a dummy array to check type promotion
+        dummy_array = pa.array([None], type=column_type)
+        promoted_data, type_was_promoted = field.promote_type_if_needed(dummy_array)
+
+        if type_was_promoted:
+            # Cast the Daft column to the promoted type
+            promoted_dataframe = field.coerce_daft(
+                dataframe, column_name, promoted_data.type
+            )
+
+            # Cast default values to match the promoted type
+            promoted_past_default = (
+                field._cast_default_to_promoted_type(
+                    field.past_default, promoted_data.type
+                )
+                if field.past_default is not None
+                else None
+            )
+            promoted_future_default = (
+                field._cast_default_to_promoted_type(
+                    field.future_default, promoted_data.type
+                )
+                if field.future_default is not None
+                else None
+            )
+
+            # Create updated field with promoted type
+            promoted_field = pa.field(
+                field.arrow.name,
+                promoted_data.type,
+                field.arrow.nullable,
+                field.arrow.metadata,
+            )
+
+            updated_field = Field.of(
+                promoted_field,
+                field_id=field.id,
+                past_default=promoted_past_default,
+                future_default=promoted_future_default,
+                consistency_type=field.consistency_type,
+                path=field.path,
+                native_object=field.native_object,
+            )
+
+            return promoted_dataframe, promoted_field, updated_field, None
+        else:
+            return dataframe, field.arrow, None, None
+
+    def _handle_new_daft_field(
+        self,
+        dataframe: Any,  # DaftDataFrame type
+        column_name: str,
+        column_type: pa.DataType,
+        schema_evolution_mode: Optional[SchemaEvolutionMode],
+        default_schema_consistency_type: Optional[SchemaConsistencyType],
+    ) -> Tuple[Any, pa.Field, Optional[Field], Optional[Field]]:
+        """Handle a field that's not in the schema for Daft DataFrames."""
+        if schema_evolution_mode == SchemaEvolutionMode.AUTO:
+            # Create new field with default consistency type
+            next_field_id = self.max_field_id + 1
+            new_field = Field.of(
+                field=pa.field(column_name, column_type),
+                field_id=next_field_id,
+                consistency_type=default_schema_consistency_type
+                or SchemaConsistencyType.NONE,
+            )
+            return dataframe, new_field.arrow, None, new_field
+        else:
+            # MANUAL mode or not specified - raise error
+            raise SchemaValidationError(
+                f"Field '{column_name}' is not present in the schema and schema evolution mode is '{schema_evolution_mode}'"
+            )
+
+    def _add_missing_schema_fields_daft(
+        self,
+        dataframe: Any,  # DaftDataFrame type
+        dataframe_column_names: set,
+    ) -> Any:
+        """Add columns for fields that exist in schema but not in Daft DataFrame."""
+        processed_dataframe = dataframe
+
+        for field in self.field_ids_to_fields.values():
+            if field.arrow.name not in dataframe_column_names:
+                # Add column with null values or default value to Daft DataFrame
+                if field.future_default is not None:
+                    # Convert default value to Daft literal
+                    processed_dataframe = processed_dataframe.with_column(
+                        field.arrow.name,
+                        daft.lit(field.future_default).cast(
+                            daft.DataType.from_arrow_type(field.arrow.type)
+                        ),
+                    )
+                elif field.arrow.nullable:
+                    # Add null column
+                    processed_dataframe = processed_dataframe.with_column(
+                        field.arrow.name,
+                        daft.lit(None).cast(
+                            daft.DataType.from_arrow_type(field.arrow.type)
+                        ),
+                    )
+                else:
+                    raise SchemaValidationError(
+                        f"Field '{field.arrow.name}' is required but not present and no future_default is set"
+                    )
+
+        return processed_dataframe
+
+    @property
+    def fields(self) -> List[Field]:
+        field_ids_to_fields = self.field_ids_to_fields
+        return list(field_ids_to_fields.values())
+
+    @property
+    def merge_keys(self) -> Optional[List[FieldId]]:
+        return self.get("mergeKeys")
+
+    @property
+    def field_ids_to_fields(self) -> Dict[FieldId, Field]:
+        return self.get("fieldIdsToFields")
+
+    @property
+    def arrow(self) -> pa.Schema:
+        return self["arrow"]
+
+    @property
+    def max_field_id(self) -> FieldId:
+        return self["maxFieldId"]
+
+    @property
+    def id(self) -> SchemaId:
+        return Schema._schema_id(self.arrow)
+
+    @property
+    def subschema(self, name: SchemaName) -> Optional[Schema]:
+        subschemas = self.subschemas
+        return subschemas.get(name) if subschemas else None
+
+    @property
+    def subschemas(self) -> Dict[SchemaName, Schema]:
+        # return cached subschemas first if they exist
+        subschemas = self.get("subschemas")
+        if not subschemas:
+            # retrieve any defined subschemas
+            subschemas_to_field_ids = self.subschemas_to_field_ids
+            # rebuild and return the subschema cache
+            if subschemas_to_field_ids:
+                subschemas = {
+                    schema_name: Schema.of(
+                        schema=pa.schema(
+                            [self.field(field_id).arrow for field_id in field_ids]
+                        ),
+                        schema_id=self.id,
+                        native_object=self.native_object,
+                    )
+                    for schema_name, field_ids in subschemas_to_field_ids.items()
+                }
+                self["subschemas"] = subschemas
+        return subschemas or {}
+
+    @property
+    def subschema_field_ids(self, name: SchemaName) -> Optional[List[FieldId]]:
+        return self.subschemas_to_field_ids.get(name)
+
+    @property
+    def subschemas_to_field_ids(self) -> Dict[SchemaName, List[FieldId]]:
+        return Schema._subschemas(self.arrow)
+
+    @property
+    def native_object(self) -> Optional[Any]:
+        return self.get("nativeObject")
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _schema_id(schema: pa.Schema) -> SchemaId:
+        schema_id = None
+        if schema.metadata:
+            bytes_val = schema.metadata.get(SCHEMA_ID_KEY_NAME)
+            schema_id = int(bytes_val.decode()) if bytes_val else None
+        return schema_id
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _subschemas(
+        schema: pa.Schema,
+    ) -> Dict[SchemaName, List[FieldId]]:
+        subschemas = None
+        if schema.metadata:
+            bytes_val = schema.metadata.get(SUBSCHEMAS_KEY_NAME)
+            subschemas = _decode_metadata_value(bytes_val) if bytes_val else None
+        return subschemas
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _field_name_to_field_id(
+        schema: pa.Schema,
+        name: Union[FieldName, NestedFieldName],
+    ) -> FieldId:
+        if isinstance(name, str):
+            return Field.of(schema.field(name)).id
+        if isinstance(name, List):
+            if not len(name):
+                raise ValueError(f"Nested field name `{name}` is empty.")
+            field = schema
+            for part in name:
+                field = field[part]
+            return Field.of(field).id
+        raise ValueError(f"Unknown field name type: {type(name)}")
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _visit_fields(
+        current: Union[pa.Schema, pa.Field],
+        visit: Callable,
+        path: Optional[NestedFieldName] = None,
+        *args,
+        **kwargs,
+    ) -> None:
+        """
+        Recursively visit all fields in a PyArrow schema, including nested
+        fields.
+
+        Args:
+            current: The schema or field to visit.
+            visit: A function that visits the current field.
+            path: The current path to the field.
+            *args: Additional args to pass to the visit function.
             **kwargs: Additional keyword args to pass to the visit function.
         Returns:
             None
         """
+        path = [] if path is None else path
         if isinstance(current, pa.Schema):
             for field in current:
                 Schema._visit_fields(
@@ -750,14 +1645,13 @@ class Schema(dict):
         visitor_dict: Dict[str, Any],
     ) -> None:
         field_ids_to_fields = visitor_dict["fieldIdsToFields"]
-        max_field_id = (
-            visitor_dict["maxFieldId"] + len(field_ids_to_fields)
-        ) % MAX_FIELD_ID_EXCLUSIVE
         dc_field = Field.of(field)
         if dc_field is not None and dc_field.id is not None:
             field_id = dc_field.id
         else:
-            field_id = max_field_id
+            field_id = (
+                visitor_dict["maxFieldId"] + len(field_ids_to_fields)
+            ) % MAX_FIELD_ID_EXCLUSIVE
 
         if (dupe := field_ids_to_fields.get(field_id)) is not None:
             raise ValueError(
@@ -846,47 +1740,1421 @@ class Schema(dict):
             return pa.unify_schemas(all_schemas), subschema_to_field_names
         return Schema._to_pyarrow_schema(schema), {}  # SingleSchema
 
-    @staticmethod
-    def _del_subschema(
-        name: SchemaName,
-        subschemas: Dict[SchemaName, Schema],
-    ) -> Dict[SchemaName, Schema]:
-        deleted_subschema = subschemas.pop(name, None)
-        if deleted_subschema is None:
-            raise ValueError(f"Subschema `{name}` does not exist.")
-        return subschemas
+    def _get_fields_with_merge_order(self) -> List[Field]:
+        """Get all fields that have merge_order defined.
 
-    @staticmethod
-    def _add_subschema(
-        name: SchemaName,
-        schema: SingleSchema,
-        subschemas: Dict[SchemaName, Schema],
-    ) -> Dict[SchemaName, Schema]:
-        Schema._validate_schema_name(name)
-        if name == BASE_SCHEMA_NAME:
-            raise ValueError(
-                f"Cannot add subschema with reserved name: {BASE_SCHEMA_NAME}"
+        Returns:
+            List of fields with merge_order defined, or empty list if none
+        """
+        return [field for field in self.fields if field.merge_order is not None]
+
+    def _create_sort_keys_from_merge_order_fields(
+        self, fields_with_merge_order: List[Field]
+    ) -> List[SortKey]:
+        """Create sort keys from fields with explicit merge_order.
+
+        Args:
+            fields_with_merge_order: List of fields with merge_order defined
+
+        Returns:
+            List of SortKey objects with inverted sort order for deduplication
+        """
+        from deltacat.storage.model.sort_key import SortKey
+
+        sort_keys = []
+        for field in fields_with_merge_order:
+            merge_order = field.merge_order
+            desired_sort_order = merge_order[0]
+
+            # Invert the sort order because deduplication keeps the "last" record
+            # ASCENDING merge_order (keep smallest) → DESCENDING sort (smallest appears last)
+            # DESCENDING merge_order (keep largest) → ASCENDING sort (largest appears last)
+            if desired_sort_order == SortOrder.ASCENDING:
+                actual_sort_order = SortOrder.DESCENDING
+            else:
+                actual_sort_order = SortOrder.ASCENDING
+
+            sort_key = SortKey.of(
+                key=[field.arrow.name],
+                sort_order=actual_sort_order,
+                null_order=merge_order[1],  # NullOrder (AT_START/AT_END)
             )
-        if name in subschemas:
-            raise ValueError(f"Subschema `{name}` already exists.")
-        for key, val in subschemas.items():
-            subschemas[key] = val.arrow
-        subschemas[name] = schema
-        return subschemas
+            sort_keys.append(sort_key)
+        return sort_keys
 
+    def _get_event_time_fields(self) -> List[Field]:
+        """Get all fields marked as event_time.
 
-class SchemaList(List[Schema]):
-    @staticmethod
-    def of(items: List[Schema]) -> SchemaList:
-        typed_items = SchemaList()
-        for item in items:
-            if item is not None and not isinstance(item, Schema):
-                item = Schema(item)
-            typed_items.append(item)
-        return typed_items
+        Returns:
+            List of event_time fields, or empty list if none
+        """
+        return [field for field in self.fields if field.is_event_time]
 
-    def __getitem__(self, item):
-        val = super().__getitem__(item)
-        if val is not None and not isinstance(val, Schema):
-            self[item] = val = Schema(val)
-        return val
+    def _create_sort_keys_from_event_time_fields(
+        self, event_time_fields: List[Field]
+    ) -> List:
+        """Create sort keys from event_time fields with default DESCENDING merge_order.
+
+        Args:
+            event_time_fields: List of event_time fields
+
+        Returns:
+            List of SortKey objects with ASCENDING sort order (inverted from DESCENDING merge_order)
+        """
+        from deltacat.storage.model.sort_key import SortKey
+
+        sort_keys = []
+        for field in event_time_fields:
+            sort_key = SortKey.of(
+                key=[field.arrow.name],
+                sort_order=SortOrder.ASCENDING,  # Inverted: DESCENDING merge_order → ASCENDING sort
+                null_order=NullOrder.AT_END,
+            )
+            sort_keys.append(sort_key)
+        return sort_keys
+
+    def _create_field_name_mapping(self) -> Dict[str, Field]:
+        """Create a mapping from field names to Field objects."""
+        field_name_to_field = {}
+        for field in self.field_ids_to_fields.values():
+            field_name_to_field[field.arrow.name] = field
+        return field_name_to_field
+
+    def _process_existing_table_column(
+        self,
+        column_name: str,
+        column_data: pa.Array,
+        field_name_to_field: Dict[str, Field],
+        schema_evolution_mode: Optional[SchemaEvolutionMode],
+        default_schema_consistency_type: Optional[SchemaConsistencyType],
+    ) -> Tuple[pa.Array, pa.Field, Optional[Field], Optional[Field]]:
+        """Process a column that exists in the table.
+
+        Returns:
+            Tuple of (processed_column_data, schema_field, field_update, new_field)
+        """
+        if column_name in field_name_to_field:
+            # Field exists in schema - validate/coerce according to consistency type
+            field = field_name_to_field[column_name]
+
+            if field.consistency_type == SchemaConsistencyType.VALIDATE:
+                field.validate(column_data.type)
+                return column_data, field.arrow, None, None
+            elif field.consistency_type == SchemaConsistencyType.COERCE:
+                coerced_data = field.coerce(column_data)
+                return coerced_data, field.arrow, None, None
+            else:
+                # NONE or no consistency type - use type promotion
+                return self._handle_type_promotion(column_name, column_data, field)
+        else:
+            # Field not in schema - handle based on evolution mode
+            return self._handle_new_field(
+                column_name,
+                column_data,
+                schema_evolution_mode,
+                default_schema_consistency_type,
+            )
+
+    def _handle_type_promotion(
+        self, column_name: str, column_data: pa.Array, field: Field
+    ) -> Tuple[pa.Array, pa.Field, Optional[Field], Optional[Field]]:
+        """Handle type promotion for a field with NONE consistency type."""
+        promoted_data, type_was_promoted = field.promote_type_if_needed(column_data)
+
+        if type_was_promoted:
+            # Cast default values to match the promoted type
+            promoted_past_default = (
+                field._cast_default_to_promoted_type(
+                    field.past_default, promoted_data.type
+                )
+                if field.past_default is not None
+                else None
+            )
+
+            promoted_future_default = (
+                field._cast_default_to_promoted_type(
+                    field.future_default, promoted_data.type
+                )
+                if field.future_default is not None
+                else None
+            )
+
+            # Create updated field with same properties but new type and cast defaults
+            promoted_field = pa.field(
+                field.arrow.name,
+                promoted_data.type,
+                nullable=field.arrow.nullable,
+                metadata=field.arrow.metadata,
+            )
+
+            updated_field = Field.of(
+                promoted_field,
+                field_id=field.id,
+                is_merge_key=field.is_merge_key,
+                merge_order=field.merge_order,
+                is_event_time=field.is_event_time,
+                doc=field.doc,
+                past_default=promoted_past_default,
+                future_default=promoted_future_default,
+                consistency_type=field.consistency_type,
+                path=field.path,
+                native_object=field.native_object,
+            )
+
+            return promoted_data, promoted_field, updated_field, None
+        else:
+            return promoted_data, field.arrow, None, None
+
+    def _handle_new_field(
+        self,
+        column_name: str,
+        column_data: pa.Array,
+        schema_evolution_mode: Optional[SchemaEvolutionMode],
+        default_schema_consistency_type: Optional[SchemaConsistencyType],
+    ) -> Tuple[pa.Array, pa.Field, Optional[Field], Optional[Field]]:
+        """Handle a field that's not in the schema."""
+        if schema_evolution_mode == SchemaEvolutionMode.AUTO:
+            # Create new field with default consistency type
+            next_field_id = self.max_field_id + 1
+            new_field = Field.of(
+                pa.field(column_name, column_data.type, nullable=True),
+                field_id=next_field_id,
+                consistency_type=default_schema_consistency_type
+                or SchemaConsistencyType.NONE,
+            )
+            return column_data, new_field.arrow, None, new_field
+        else:
+            # MANUAL mode or disabled - raise error
+            raise SchemaValidationError(
+                f"Field '{column_name}' is not present in the schema and schema evolution mode is '{schema_evolution_mode}'"
+            )
+
+    def _add_missing_schema_fields(
+        self,
+        table: pa.Table,
+        table_column_names: set,
+        new_columns: List[pa.Array],
+        new_schema_fields: List[pa.Field],
+    ) -> None:
+        """Add columns for fields that exist in schema but not in table."""
+        for field in self.field_ids_to_fields.values():
+            if field.arrow.name not in table_column_names:
+                # Use future_default if available, otherwise check if nullable
+                if field.future_default is not None:
+                    # Create column with future_default value
+                    default_array = pa.array(
+                        [field.future_default] * get_table_length(table),
+                        type=field.arrow.type,
+                    )
+                    new_columns.append(default_array)
+                elif field.arrow.nullable:
+                    # Backfill with nulls if field is nullable
+                    null_column = pa.nulls(
+                        get_table_length(table), type=field.arrow.type
+                    )
+                    new_columns.append(null_column)
+                else:
+                    # Field is not nullable and no future_default - error
+                    raise SchemaValidationError(
+                        f"Field '{field.arrow.name}' is required but not present and no future_default is set"
+                    )
+                new_schema_fields.append(field.arrow)
+
+    def _apply_schema_updates(
+        self, field_updates: Dict[str, Field], new_fields: Dict[str, Field]
+    ) -> Schema:
+        """Apply collected schema updates and return the updated schema."""
+        if not field_updates and not new_fields:
+            return self
+
+        # Initialize schema update with allow_incompatible_changes=True for type promotion
+        schema_update = self.update(allow_incompatible_changes=True)
+
+        # Apply field updates
+        for field_name, updated_field in field_updates.items():
+            schema_update = schema_update._update_field(field_name, updated_field)
+
+        # Apply new fields
+        for field_name, new_field in new_fields.items():
+            schema_update = schema_update.add_field(new_field)
+
+        # Apply all updates
+        return schema_update.apply()
+
+    def _process_existing_columns_for_coercion(
+        self, pa_table: pa.Table, field_name_to_field: Dict[str, Field]
+    ) -> Tuple[List[pa.Array], List[pa.Field]]:
+        """Process columns that exist in the table for coercion.
+
+        Args:
+            pa_table: PyArrow table to process
+            field_name_to_field: Mapping from field names to Field objects
+
+        Returns:
+            Tuple of (processed columns, corresponding fields)
+        """
+        new_columns = []
+        new_schema_fields = []
+
+        for column_name in pa_table.column_names:
+            column_data = pa_table.column(column_name)
+
+            if column_name in field_name_to_field:
+                # Field exists in target schema - use promote_type_if_needed for coercion
+                field = field_name_to_field[column_name]
+                promoted_data, _ = field.promote_type_if_needed(column_data)
+                new_columns.append(promoted_data)
+                new_schema_fields.append(field.arrow)
+            else:
+                # Field not in target schema - preserve as-is
+                new_columns.append(column_data)
+                new_schema_fields.append(pa.field(column_name, column_data.type))
+
+        return new_columns, new_schema_fields
+
+    def _add_missing_fields_for_coercion(
+        self,
+        pa_table: pa.Table,
+        field_name_to_field: Dict[str, Field],
+        existing_columns: List[pa.Array],
+        existing_fields: List[pa.Field],
+    ) -> Tuple[List[pa.Array], List[pa.Field]]:
+        """Add columns for fields that exist in schema but not in table.
+
+        Args:
+            pa_table: Original PyArrow table
+            field_name_to_field: Mapping from field names to Field objects
+            existing_columns: Columns already processed
+            existing_fields: Fields already processed
+
+        Returns:
+            Tuple of (all columns including added ones, all corresponding fields)
+        """
+        all_columns = existing_columns.copy()
+        all_fields = existing_fields.copy()
+
+        # Add any missing fields from target schema with null values or past_default values
+        target_field_names = {
+            field.arrow.name for field in self.field_ids_to_fields.values()
+        }
+        table_field_names = set(pa_table.column_names)
+
+        for field_name in target_field_names - table_field_names:
+            field = field_name_to_field[field_name]
+
+            # Check if field has past_default value and use it instead of nulls
+            if field.past_default is not None:
+                # Create array filled with past_default value
+                default_column = pa.array(
+                    [field.past_default] * get_table_length(pa_table),
+                    type=field.arrow.type,
+                )
+                all_columns.append(default_column)
+            else:
+                # Use null values as before
+                null_column = pa.nulls(
+                    get_table_length(pa_table), type=field.arrow.type
+                )
+                all_columns.append(null_column)
+
+            all_fields.append(field.arrow)
+
+        return all_columns, all_fields
+
+    def _coerce_table_columns(
+        self, pa_table: pa.Table
+    ) -> Tuple[List[pa.Array], List[pa.Field]]:
+        """Process table columns using field coercion and add missing fields.
+
+        Args:
+            pa_table: PyArrow table to process
+
+        Returns:
+            Tuple of (list of coerced columns, list of corresponding fields)
+        """
+        # Create mapping from field names to Field objects
+        field_name_to_field = self._create_field_name_mapping()
+
+        # Process existing columns in the table
+        (
+            processed_columns,
+            processed_fields,
+        ) = self._process_existing_columns_for_coercion(pa_table, field_name_to_field)
+
+        # Add any missing fields from target schema
+        all_columns, all_fields = self._add_missing_fields_for_coercion(
+            pa_table, field_name_to_field, processed_columns, processed_fields
+        )
+
+        return all_columns, all_fields
+
+    def _reorder_columns_to_schema(
+        self, columns: List[pa.Array], fields: List[pa.Field], original_table: pa.Table
+    ) -> Tuple[List[pa.Array], List[pa.Field]]:
+        """Reorder columns to match schema order, preserving extra fields.
+
+        Args:
+            columns: List of processed columns
+            fields: List of corresponding field schemas
+            original_table: Original table for field name ordering
+
+        Returns:
+            Tuple of (reordered columns, reordered fields)
+        """
+        # Reorder columns to match schema order
+        reordered_columns = []
+        reordered_fields = []
+        schema_field_names = [
+            field.arrow.name for field in self.field_ids_to_fields.values()
+        ]
+
+        # Add schema fields in schema order
+        for field_name in schema_field_names:
+            for i, field in enumerate(fields):
+                if field.name == field_name:
+                    reordered_columns.append(columns[i])
+                    reordered_fields.append(field)
+                    break
+
+        # Add any extra fields that aren't in schema (preserve original order)
+        target_field_names = set(schema_field_names)
+        table_field_names = set(original_table.column_names)
+        extra_field_names = table_field_names - target_field_names
+
+        for field_name in original_table.column_names:
+            if field_name in extra_field_names:
+                for i, field in enumerate(fields):
+                    if field.name == field_name:
+                        reordered_columns.append(columns[i])
+                        reordered_fields.append(field)
+                        break
+
+        return reordered_columns, reordered_fields
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _del_subschema(
+        name: SchemaName,
+        subschemas: Dict[SchemaName, Schema],
+    ) -> Dict[SchemaName, Schema]:
+        deleted_subschema = subschemas.pop(name, None)
+        if deleted_subschema is None:
+            raise ValueError(f"Subschema `{name}` does not exist.")
+        return subschemas
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _add_subschema(
+        name: SchemaName,
+        schema: SingleSchema,
+        subschemas: Dict[SchemaName, Schema],
+    ) -> Dict[SchemaName, Schema]:
+        Schema._validate_schema_name(name)
+        if name == BASE_SCHEMA_NAME:
+            raise ValueError(
+                f"Cannot add subschema with reserved name: {BASE_SCHEMA_NAME}"
+            )
+        if name in subschemas:
+            raise ValueError(f"Subschema `{name}` already exists.")
+        for key, val in subschemas.items():
+            subschemas[key] = val.arrow
+        subschemas[name] = schema
+        return subschemas
+
+
+class SchemaList(List[Schema]):
+    @staticmethod
+    def of(items: List[Schema]) -> SchemaList:
+        typed_items = SchemaList()
+        for item in items:
+            if item is not None and not isinstance(item, Schema):
+                item = Schema(item)
+            typed_items.append(item)
+        return typed_items
+
+    def __getitem__(self, item):
+        val = super().__getitem__(item)
+        if val is not None and not isinstance(val, Schema):
+            self[item] = val = Schema(val)
+        return val
+
+    def __iter__(self):
+        for i in range(len(self)):
+            yield self[i]  # This triggers __getitem__ conversion
+
+
+class SchemaUpdate(dict):
+    """
+    Provides safe schema evolution capabilities for DeltaCAT schemas.
+
+    SchemaUpdate allows users to:
+    1. Add new fields to a schema
+    2. Remove existing fields from a schema
+    3. Update existing fields with compatible changes
+    4. Validate schema compatibility to prevent breaking existing dataset consumers
+
+    The class enforces backward compatibility by default to ensure that table
+    consumer jobs writtten using PyArrow, Pandas, Polars, Ray Data, Daft, and other
+    dataset types continue to work after schema changes.
+
+    Example:
+        Using Schema.update():
+        >>> schema = Schema.of([Field.of(pa.field("id", pa.int64()))])
+        >>> new_field = Field.of(pa.field("name", pa.string()))
+        >>> updated_schema = (schema.update()
+        ...                         .add_field("name", new_field)
+        ...                         .apply())
+
+        Using SchemaUpdate.of():
+        >>> schema = Schema.of([Field.of(pa.field("id", pa.int64()))])
+        >>> update = SchemaUpdate.of(schema)
+        >>> new_field = Field.of(pa.field("name", pa.string()))
+        >>> updated_schema = update.add_field("name", new_field).apply()
+    """
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def of(
+        base_schema: Schema, allow_incompatible_changes: bool = False
+    ) -> SchemaUpdate:
+        """
+        Create a SchemaUpdate for the given base schema.
+
+        Args:
+            base_schema: The original schema to update
+            allow_incompatible_changes: If True, allows changes that may break
+                backward compatibility. If False (default), raises SchemaCompatibilityError
+                for incompatible changes.
+
+        Returns:
+            A new SchemaUpdate instance
+        """
+        return SchemaUpdate(
+            {
+                "baseSchema": base_schema,
+                "allowIncompatibleChanges": allow_incompatible_changes,
+                "operations": SchemaUpdateOperations.of([]),
+            }
+        )
+
+    @property
+    def base_schema(self) -> Schema:
+        """Get the base schema being updated."""
+        return self["baseSchema"]
+
+    @base_schema.setter
+    def base_schema(self, value: Schema) -> None:
+        """Set the base schema being updated."""
+        self["baseSchema"] = value
+
+    @property
+    def allow_incompatible_changes(self) -> bool:
+        """Get whether incompatible changes are allowed."""
+        return self["allowIncompatibleChanges"]
+
+    @allow_incompatible_changes.setter
+    def allow_incompatible_changes(self, value: bool) -> None:
+        """Set whether incompatible changes are allowed."""
+        self["allowIncompatibleChanges"] = value
+
+    @property
+    def operations(self) -> SchemaUpdateOperations:
+        """Get the list of pending operations."""
+        return self["operations"]
+
+    @operations.setter
+    def operations(self, value: SchemaUpdateOperations) -> None:
+        """Set the list of pending operations."""
+        self["operations"] = value
+
+    def add_field(
+        self,
+        new_field: Field,
+    ) -> SchemaUpdate:
+        """
+        Add a new field to the schema.
+
+        Args:
+            field_locator: Location identifier for the new field (name, nested path, or ID)
+            new_field: The Field object to add
+
+        Returns:
+            Self for method chaining
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaCompatibilityError: If field already exists or addition would break compatibility
+        """
+        self.operations.append(SchemaUpdateOperation.add_field(new_field))
+        return self
+
+    def remove_field(self, field_locator: FieldLocator) -> SchemaUpdate:
+        """
+        Remove an existing field from the schema.
+
+        Args:
+            field_locator: Location identifier for the field to remove
+
+        Returns:
+            Self for method chaining
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaCompatibilityError: If field doesn't exist or removal would break compatibility
+        """
+        self.operations.append(SchemaUpdateOperation.remove_field(field_locator))
+        return self
+
+    def rename_field(
+        self,
+        field_locator: FieldLocator,
+        new_name: str,
+    ) -> SchemaUpdate:
+        """
+        Rename an existing field while keeping all other properties the same.
+
+        Args:
+            field_locator: Location identifier for the field to rename
+            new_name: The new name for the field
+
+        Returns:
+            Self for method chaining
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaCompatibilityError: If field doesn't exist or rename would break compatibility
+        """
+        # Get the existing field
+        existing_field = self._get_existing_field(field_locator)
+
+        # Create a deep copy of the field
+        updated_field = copy.deepcopy(existing_field)
+
+        # Update only the arrow field name
+        updated_field["arrow"] = pa.field(
+            new_name,
+            existing_field.arrow.type,
+            nullable=existing_field.arrow.nullable,
+            metadata=existing_field.arrow.metadata,
+        )
+
+        return self._update_field(field_locator, updated_field)
+
+    def update_field_type(
+        self, field_locator: FieldLocator, new_type: pa.DataType
+    ) -> SchemaUpdate:
+        """
+        Update the PyArrow data type of an existing field while keeping all other properties the same.
+
+        Args:
+            field_locator: Location identifier for the field to update
+            new_type: The new PyArrow data type for the field
+
+        Returns:
+            Self for method chaining
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaCompatibilityError: If field doesn't exist or type change would break compatibility
+        """
+        # Get the existing field
+        existing_field = self._get_existing_field(field_locator)
+
+        # Create a deep copy of the field
+        updated_field = copy.deepcopy(existing_field)
+
+        # Update only the arrow field type
+        updated_field["arrow"] = pa.field(
+            existing_field.arrow.name,
+            new_type,
+            nullable=existing_field.arrow.nullable,
+            metadata=existing_field.arrow.metadata,
+        )
+
+        return self._update_field(field_locator, updated_field)
+
+    def update_field_doc(
+        self,
+        field_locator: FieldLocator,
+        new_doc: Optional[str],
+    ) -> SchemaUpdate:
+        """
+        Update the documentation of an existing field while keeping all other properties the same.
+
+        Args:
+            field_locator: Location identifier for the field to update
+            new_doc: The new documentation string for the field
+
+        Returns:
+            Self for method chaining
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaCompatibilityError: If field doesn't exist
+        """
+        # Get the existing field
+        existing_field = self._get_existing_field(field_locator)
+
+        # Create a deep copy of the field
+        updated_field = copy.deepcopy(existing_field)
+
+        # Update the arrow field metadata to set/remove doc
+        new_metadata = copy.deepcopy(existing_field.arrow.metadata)
+        new_metadata.pop(FIELD_DOC_KEY_NAME, None)
+        if new_doc is not None:
+            new_metadata[FIELD_DOC_KEY_NAME] = new_doc
+
+        updated_field["arrow"] = pa.field(
+            existing_field.arrow.name,
+            existing_field.arrow.type,
+            nullable=existing_field.arrow.nullable,
+            metadata=new_metadata if new_metadata else None,
+        )
+
+        return self._update_field(field_locator, updated_field)
+
+    def update_field_nullability(
+        self, field_locator: FieldLocator, nullable: bool
+    ) -> SchemaUpdate:
+        """
+        Update the nullability of an existing field while keeping all other properties the same.
+
+        Args:
+            field_locator: Location identifier for the field to update
+            nullable: Whether the field should allow null values
+
+        Returns:
+            Self for method chaining
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaCompatibilityError: If field doesn't exist or nullability change would break compatibility
+        """
+        # Get the existing field
+        existing_field = self._get_existing_field(field_locator)
+
+        # Create a deep copy of the field
+        updated_field = copy.deepcopy(existing_field)
+
+        # Update only the arrow field nullability
+        updated_field["arrow"] = pa.field(
+            existing_field.arrow.name,
+            existing_field.arrow.type,
+            nullable=nullable,
+            metadata=existing_field.arrow.metadata,
+        )
+
+        return self._update_field(field_locator, updated_field)
+
+    def update_field_consistency_type(
+        self,
+        field_locator: FieldLocator,
+        consistency_type: Optional[SchemaConsistencyType],
+    ) -> SchemaUpdate:
+        """
+        Update the schema consistency type of an existing field while keeping all other properties the same.
+
+        Args:
+            field_locator: Location identifier for the field to update
+            consistency_type: The new schema consistency type for the field
+
+        Returns:
+            Self for method chaining
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaCompatibilityError: If field doesn't exist
+        """
+        # Get the existing field
+        existing_field = self._get_existing_field(field_locator)
+
+        # Create a deep copy of the field
+        updated_field = copy.deepcopy(existing_field)
+
+        # Update the arrow field metadata to set/remove consistency type
+        new_metadata = copy.deepcopy(existing_field.arrow.metadata)
+        new_metadata.pop(FIELD_CONSISTENCY_TYPE_KEY_NAME, None)
+
+        if consistency_type is not None:
+            new_metadata[FIELD_CONSISTENCY_TYPE_KEY_NAME] = consistency_type.value
+
+        updated_field["arrow"] = pa.field(
+            existing_field.arrow.name,
+            existing_field.arrow.type,
+            nullable=existing_field.arrow.nullable,
+            metadata=new_metadata if new_metadata else None,
+        )
+
+        return self._update_field(field_locator, updated_field)
+
+    def update_field_future_default(
+        self, field_locator: FieldLocator, future_default: Optional[Any]
+    ) -> SchemaUpdate:
+        """
+        Update the future default value of an existing field while keeping all other properties the same.
+        The future default is validated to ensure it's compatible with the field's data type.
+
+        Args:
+            field_locator: Location identifier for the field to update
+            future_default: The new future default value for the field
+
+        Returns:
+            Self for method chaining
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaCompatibilityError: If field doesn't exist
+            ValueError: If future_default is not compatible with the field's data type
+        """
+        # Get the existing field
+        existing_field = self._get_existing_field(field_locator)
+
+        # Validate that the future_default is compatible with the field's type
+        if future_default is not None:
+            self._validate_default_value(existing_field.arrow.type, future_default)
+
+        # Create a deep copy of the field
+        updated_field = copy.deepcopy(existing_field)
+
+        # Update the arrow field metadata to set/remove future default
+        new_metadata = copy.deepcopy(existing_field.arrow.metadata)
+        new_metadata.pop(FIELD_FUTURE_DEFAULT_KEY_NAME, None)
+
+        if future_default is not None:
+            new_metadata[FIELD_FUTURE_DEFAULT_KEY_NAME] = _encode_metadata_value(
+                future_default
+            )
+
+        updated_field["arrow"] = pa.field(
+            existing_field.arrow.name,
+            existing_field.arrow.type,
+            nullable=existing_field.arrow.nullable,
+            metadata=new_metadata if new_metadata else None,
+        )
+
+        return self._update_field(field_locator, updated_field)
+
+    def _update_field(
+        self, field_locator: FieldLocator, updated_field: Field
+    ) -> SchemaUpdate:
+        """
+        Update an existing field with compatible changes. This is the protected method
+        that handles the general case of field updates.
+
+        Args:
+            field_locator: Location identifier for the field to update
+            updated_field: The new Field object to replace the existing field
+
+        Returns:
+            Self for method chaining
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaCompatibilityError: If field doesn't exist or update would break compatibility
+        """
+        self.operations.append(
+            SchemaUpdateOperation.update_field(field_locator, updated_field)
+        )
+        return self
+
+    def _get_existing_field(self, field_locator: FieldLocator) -> Field:
+        """
+        Helper method to retrieve an existing field, accounting for pending operations.
+
+        Args:
+            field_locator: Location identifier for the field to retrieve
+
+        Returns:
+            The existing Field object (with any pending updates applied)
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaCompatibilityError: If field doesn't exist
+        """
+        field_name = self._get_field_name(field_locator)
+        # Search for the field in the base schema
+        base_field = None
+        for field in self.base_schema.fields:
+            field_field_name = field.path[0] if field.path else f"field_{field.id}"
+            if field_field_name == field_name:
+                base_field = field
+                break
+
+        if base_field is None:
+            # Field not found
+            raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                f"Field '{field_name}' does not exist in schema", field_locator
+            )
+
+        # Apply any pending operations that affect this field to get the current state
+        current_field = copy.deepcopy(base_field)
+
+        for operation in self.operations:
+            if operation.field_locator_matches(field_locator):
+                # Apply this operation to get the cumulative state
+                current_field = operation.field
+
+        return current_field
+
+    def _validate_default_value(
+        self, arrow_type: pa.DataType, default_value: Any
+    ) -> None:
+        """
+        Helper method to validate that a default value is compatible with a PyArrow data type.
+
+        Args:
+            arrow_type: The PyArrow data type to validate against
+            default_value: The default value to validate
+
+        Raises:
+            ValueError: If the default value is not compatible with the data type
+        """
+        try:
+            # Try to create a PyArrow array with the default value to validate compatibility
+            pa.array([default_value], type=arrow_type)
+        except (pa.ArrowInvalid, pa.ArrowTypeError, TypeError, ValueError) as e:
+            raise ValueError(
+                f"Default value {default_value} is not compatible with type {arrow_type}: {e}"
+            )
+
+    def apply(self) -> Schema:
+        """
+        Apply all pending operations and return the updated schema.
+
+        Returns:
+            New Schema object with all updates applied
+
+        Raises:
+            SchemaCompatibilityError: If any operation would break backward compatibility
+                and allow_incompatible_changes is False
+        """
+        # Start with a copy of the base schema
+        updated_fields = list(self.base_schema.fields)
+        field_name_to_index = {
+            field.path[0] if field.path else f"field_{field.id}": i
+            for i, field in enumerate(updated_fields)
+        }
+
+        # Track next available field ID for new fields during schema evolution
+        next_available_field_id = self.base_schema.max_field_id + 1
+        if next_available_field_id >= MAX_FIELD_ID_EXCLUSIVE:
+            # Just raise an error instead of wrapping to 0, since this
+            # breaks our guarantee of unique field IDs across schema
+            # evolution history (e.g., we may overflow on a schema with IDs
+            # 0-1MM or 2, 10, etc. already assigned).
+            raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                f"Schema Field ID overflow: {next_available_field_id} >= {MAX_FIELD_ID_EXCLUSIVE}",
+            )
+
+        # Validate no conflicting operations before applying
+        self._validate_no_conflicting_operations()
+
+        # Apply operations in order
+        for operation in self.operations:
+            if operation.operation == "add":
+                next_available_field_id = self._apply_add_field(
+                    updated_fields,
+                    field_name_to_index,
+                    operation.field,
+                    next_available_field_id,
+                )
+            elif operation.operation == "remove":
+                self._apply_remove_field(
+                    updated_fields,
+                    field_name_to_index,
+                    operation.field_locator,
+                )
+            elif operation.operation == "update":
+                self._apply_update_field(
+                    updated_fields,
+                    field_name_to_index,
+                    operation.field_locator,
+                    operation.field,
+                )
+
+        # Create new schema from updated fields with incremented schema ID
+        new_schema = Schema.of(updated_fields, schema_id=self.base_schema.id + 1)
+
+        # Ensure max_field_id never decreases, even when fields are removed
+        # This prevents field ID reuse across schema evolution history
+        if new_schema.max_field_id < self.base_schema.max_field_id:
+            new_schema["maxFieldId"] = self.base_schema.max_field_id
+
+        return new_schema
+
+    def _validate_no_conflicting_operations(self) -> None:
+        """Validate that operations don't conflict with each other."""
+        field_operations = {}  # field_name -> set of operations
+
+        for operation in self.operations:
+            field_name = None
+
+            if operation.operation == "add" and operation.field:
+                field_name = operation.field.arrow.name
+            elif (
+                operation.operation in ("remove", "update") and operation.field_locator
+            ):
+                # Extract field name from locator
+                if isinstance(operation.field_locator, str):
+                    field_name = operation.field_locator
+                elif hasattr(operation.field_locator, "name"):
+                    field_name = operation.field_locator.name
+                elif (
+                    isinstance(operation.field_locator, list)
+                    and operation.field_locator
+                ):
+                    field_name = operation.field_locator[0]
+
+            if field_name:
+                if field_name not in field_operations:
+                    field_operations[field_name] = set()
+                field_operations[field_name].add(operation.operation)
+
+        # Check for conflicting operations on same field
+        for field_name, operations in field_operations.items():
+            if len(operations) > 1:
+                unique_ops = set(operations)
+                # Allow multiple update operations on same field (they are cumulative)
+                if unique_ops == {"update"}:
+                    continue  # Multiple updates on same field are allowed
+                # Any other combination is conflicting
+                message_suffix = f"Cannot perform {', '.join(sorted(unique_ops))} operations on the same field"
+
+                raise ValueError(
+                    f"Conflicting operations detected on field '{field_name}': {sorted(operations)}. "
+                    f"{message_suffix}."
+                )
+
+    def _apply_add_field(
+        self,
+        fields: List[Field],
+        field_name_to_index: Dict[str, int],
+        new_field: Field,
+        next_available_field_id: int,
+    ) -> int:
+        """Apply add field operation with compatibility validation.
+
+        Args:
+            fields: List of existing fields to append to
+            field_name_to_index: Mapping of field names to indices
+            new_field: The field to add (user-specified field_id will be ignored)
+            next_available_field_id: The next available field ID to assign
+
+        Returns:
+            The next available field ID for subsequent operations
+        """
+        field_name = new_field.arrow.name
+
+        # Check if field already exists
+        if field_name in field_name_to_index:
+            raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                f"Field '{field_name}' already exists in schema",
+            )
+
+        # Validate compatibility for new field
+        if not self.allow_incompatible_changes:
+            self._validate_add_field_compatibility(new_field)
+
+        # For add operations, ignore user-specified field ID and auto-assign
+        auto_assigned_field_id = next_available_field_id
+
+        # Create a copy of the field with auto-assigned field ID and correct path
+        field_with_auto_id = Field.of(
+            new_field.arrow,
+            field_id=auto_assigned_field_id,
+            is_merge_key=new_field.is_merge_key,
+            merge_order=new_field.merge_order,
+            is_event_time=new_field.is_event_time,
+            doc=new_field.doc,
+            past_default=new_field.past_default,
+            future_default=new_field.future_default,
+            consistency_type=new_field.consistency_type,
+            path=[field_name],
+            native_object=new_field.native_object,
+        )
+
+        # Add the field
+        fields.append(field_with_auto_id)
+        field_name_to_index[field_name] = len(fields) - 1
+
+        # Return next available field ID
+        return next_available_field_id + 1
+
+    def _apply_remove_field(
+        self,
+        fields: List[Field],
+        field_name_to_index: Dict[str, int],
+        field_locator: FieldLocator,
+    ) -> None:
+        """Apply remove field operation with compatibility validation."""
+        field_name = self._get_field_name(field_locator)
+
+        # Check if field exists
+        if field_name not in field_name_to_index:
+            raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                f"Field '{field_name}' does not exist in schema", field_locator
+            )
+
+        # Validate compatibility for field removal
+        if not self.allow_incompatible_changes:
+            field_index = field_name_to_index[field_name]
+            self._validate_remove_field_compatibility(
+                fields[field_index], field_locator
+            )
+
+        # Remove the field
+        field_index = field_name_to_index[field_name]
+        fields.pop(field_index)
+
+        # Update indices
+        del field_name_to_index[field_name]
+        for name, index in field_name_to_index.items():
+            if index > field_index:
+                field_name_to_index[name] = index - 1
+
+    def _apply_update_field(
+        self,
+        fields: List[Field],
+        field_name_to_index: Dict[str, int],
+        field_locator: FieldLocator,
+        updated_field: Field,
+    ) -> None:
+        """Apply update field operation with compatibility validation."""
+        field_name = self._get_field_name(field_locator)
+
+        # Check if field exists
+        if field_name not in field_name_to_index:
+            raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                f"Field '{field_name}' does not exist in schema", field_locator
+            )
+
+        field_index = field_name_to_index[field_name]
+        old_field = fields[field_index]
+
+        # Validate compatibility for field update
+        if not self.allow_incompatible_changes:
+            self._validate_update_field_compatibility(
+                old_field, updated_field, field_locator
+            )
+
+        # Get the new field name from the updated field
+        new_field_name = updated_field.arrow.name
+
+        # Create a copy of the updated field with the correct path
+        field_with_path = Field.of(
+            updated_field.arrow,
+            field_id=updated_field.id,
+            is_merge_key=updated_field.is_merge_key,
+            merge_order=updated_field.merge_order,
+            is_event_time=updated_field.is_event_time,
+            doc=updated_field.doc,
+            past_default=updated_field.past_default,
+            future_default=updated_field.future_default,
+            consistency_type=updated_field.consistency_type,
+            path=[new_field_name],
+            native_object=updated_field.native_object,
+        )
+
+        # Update the field
+        fields[field_index] = field_with_path
+
+        # If field name changed (rename), update the mapping
+        if field_name != new_field_name:
+            del field_name_to_index[field_name]
+            field_name_to_index[new_field_name] = field_index
+
+    def _get_field_name(self, field_locator: FieldLocator) -> str:
+        """Extract field name from various field locator types."""
+        if isinstance(field_locator, str):
+            return field_locator
+        elif isinstance(field_locator, list):
+            return field_locator[0] if field_locator else ""
+        elif isinstance(field_locator, int):
+            # For field ID, try to find the corresponding field
+            try:
+                field = self.base_schema.field(field_locator)
+                return field.path[0] if field.path else f"field_{field_locator}"
+            except Exception:
+                return f"field_{field_locator}"
+        else:
+            raise ValueError(f"Invalid field locator type: {type(field_locator)}")
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _field_locators_match(locator1: FieldLocator, locator2: FieldLocator) -> bool:
+        """Check if two field locators refer to the same field."""
+        # For simplicity, convert both to string names and compare
+        # This works because we primarily use field names in our operations
+        if isinstance(locator1, str) and isinstance(locator2, str):
+            return locator1 == locator2
+        elif isinstance(locator1, list) and isinstance(locator2, list):
+            return locator1 == locator2
+        elif isinstance(locator1, int) and isinstance(locator2, int):
+            return locator1 == locator2
+        else:
+            # Convert to strings and compare (this is a simplified approach)
+            str1 = (
+                locator1
+                if isinstance(locator1, str)
+                else (
+                    locator1[0]
+                    if isinstance(locator1, list) and locator1
+                    else str(locator1)
+                )
+            )
+            str2 = (
+                locator2
+                if isinstance(locator2, str)
+                else (
+                    locator2[0]
+                    if isinstance(locator2, list) and locator2
+                    else str(locator2)
+                )
+            )
+            return str1 == str2
+
+    def _validate_add_field_compatibility(self, new_field: Field) -> None:
+        """Validate that adding a new field won't break compatibility."""
+        field_name = new_field.arrow.name
+        arrow_field = new_field.arrow
+
+        # Check if field is nullable or has default values
+        is_nullable = arrow_field.nullable
+        has_past_default = new_field.past_default is not None
+        has_future_default = new_field.future_default is not None
+
+        if not (is_nullable or has_past_default or has_future_default):
+            raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                f"Adding non-nullable field '{field_name}' without "
+                f"default values would break compatibility with existing data",
+            )
+
+    def _validate_remove_field_compatibility(
+        self, field: Field, field_locator: FieldLocator
+    ) -> None:
+        """Validate that removing a field won't break compatibility."""
+        field_name = self._get_field_name(field_locator)
+
+        # Check for protected field types that should never be removed
+        if field.is_merge_key:
+            raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                f"Cannot remove merge key field '{field_name}'. "
+                f"Merge keys are critical for data integrity and cannot be removed.",
+                field_locator,
+            )
+
+        if field.merge_order is not None:
+            raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                f"Cannot remove merge order field '{field_name}'. "
+                f"Fields with merge_order are critical for data ordering and cannot be removed.",
+                field_locator,
+            )
+
+        if field.is_event_time:
+            raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                f"Cannot remove event time field '{field_name}'. "
+                f"Event time fields are critical for temporal operations and cannot be removed.",
+                field_locator,
+            )
+
+        # Removing fields generally breaks compatibility for consumers expecting them
+        raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+            f"Removing field '{field_name}' would break compatibility with existing consumers. "
+            f"Set allow_incompatible_changes=True to force removal.",
+            field_locator,
+        )
+
+    def _validate_update_field_compatibility(
+        self, old_field: Field, new_field: Field, field_locator: FieldLocator
+    ) -> None:
+        """Validate that updating a field won't break compatibility."""
+        old_arrow = old_field.arrow
+        new_arrow = new_field.arrow
+        field_name = self._get_field_name(field_locator)
+
+        # Protect critical field attributes that should never be changed
+        if old_field.is_merge_key != new_field.is_merge_key:
+            raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                f"Cannot change merge key status for field '{field_name}'. "
+                f"Merge key designation is critical for data integrity and cannot be modified.",
+                field_locator,
+            )
+
+        if old_field.merge_order != new_field.merge_order:
+            raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                f"Cannot change merge order for field '{field_name}'. "
+                f"Merge order is critical for data consistency and cannot be modified.",
+                field_locator,
+            )
+
+        if old_field.is_event_time != new_field.is_event_time:
+            raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                f"Cannot change event time status for field '{field_name}'. "
+                f"Event time designation is critical for temporal operations and cannot be modified.",
+                field_locator,
+            )
+
+        # Validate schema consistency type evolution rules
+        self._validate_consistency_type_evolution(old_field, new_field, field_locator)
+
+        # Protect past_default immutability
+        if old_field.past_default != new_field.past_default:
+            raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                f"Cannot change past_default for field '{field_name}'. "
+                f"The past_default value is immutable once set to maintain data consistency.",
+                field_locator,
+            )
+
+        # Check for duplicate field IDs (if field ID is being changed)
+        if old_field.id != new_field.id and new_field.id is not None:
+            existing_field_ids = {
+                f.id
+                for f in self.base_schema.fields
+                if f.id is not None and f != old_field
+            }
+            if new_field.id in existing_field_ids:
+                raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                    f"Cannot update field '{field_name}' to use duplicate field ID {new_field.id}. "
+                    f"Field IDs must be unique across all fields in the schema.",
+                    field_locator,
+                )
+
+        # Check data type compatibility
+        if not self._is_type_compatible(old_arrow.type, new_arrow.type):
+            raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                f"Cannot change field '{field_name}' from {old_arrow.type} to {new_arrow.type}. "
+                f"This change would break compatibility with PyArrow, Pandas, Polars, Ray Data, and Daft.",
+                field_locator,
+            )
+
+        # Check nullability - making a field non-nullable is incompatible
+        if old_arrow.nullable and not new_arrow.nullable:
+            # Only allow if we have past/future defaults to fill null values
+            has_past_default = new_field.past_default is not None
+            has_future_default = new_field.future_default is not None
+
+            if not (has_past_default and has_future_default):
+                raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                    f"Cannot make nullable field '{field_name}' non-nullable without "
+                    f"providing both past_default and future_default values",
+                    field_locator,
+                )
+
+    def _validate_consistency_type_evolution(
+        self, old_field: Field, new_field: Field, field_locator: FieldLocator
+    ) -> None:
+        """
+        Validate schema consistency type evolution rules.
+
+        Allowed transitions:
+        - COERCE -> VALIDATE
+        - VALIDATE -> COERCE
+        - COERCE -> NONE
+        - VALIDATE -> NONE
+
+        Forbidden transitions:
+        - NONE -> COERCE
+        - NONE -> VALIDATE
+        """
+        old_type = old_field.consistency_type
+        new_type = new_field.consistency_type
+        field_name = self._get_field_name(field_locator)
+
+        # If types are the same, no validation needed
+        if old_type == new_type:
+            return
+
+        # Handle None values (treat as no consistency type set)
+        if old_type is None and new_type is None:
+            return
+
+        # Allow transitions from any type to NONE (relaxing constraints)
+        if new_type == SchemaConsistencyType.NONE or new_type is None:
+            return
+
+        # Allow transitions between COERCE and VALIDATE (bidirectional)
+        if old_type in (
+            SchemaConsistencyType.COERCE,
+            SchemaConsistencyType.VALIDATE,
+        ) and new_type in (
+            SchemaConsistencyType.COERCE,
+            SchemaConsistencyType.VALIDATE,
+        ):
+            return
+
+        # Allow transitions from None to COERCE or VALIDATE (adding constraints)
+        if old_type is None and new_type in (
+            SchemaConsistencyType.COERCE,
+            SchemaConsistencyType.VALIDATE,
+        ):
+            return
+
+        # Forbid transitions from NONE to COERCE or VALIDATE (tightening constraints)
+        if old_type == SchemaConsistencyType.NONE and new_type in (
+            SchemaConsistencyType.COERCE,
+            SchemaConsistencyType.VALIDATE,
+        ):
+            raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+                f"Cannot change consistency type for field '{field_name}' from {old_type.value} to {new_type.value}. "
+                f"Transitioning from NONE to {new_type.value} would tighten validation constraints "
+                f"and potentially break existing data processing.",
+                field_locator,
+            )
+
+        # If we get here, it's an unexpected combination
+        raise SchemaCompatibilityError(
+            f"Invalid consistency type transition for field '{field_name}' from "
+            f"{old_type.value if old_type else 'None'} to {new_type.value if new_type else 'None'}.",
+            field_locator,
+        )
+
+    def _is_type_compatible(self, old_type: pa.DataType, new_type: pa.DataType) -> bool:
+        """
+        Check if changing from old_type to new_type is backward compatible.
+
+        Compatible changes include:
+        - Same type
+        - Widening numeric types (int32 -> int64, float32 -> float64)
+        - Making string/binary types longer
+        - Adding fields to struct types
+        - Making list/map value types more permissive
+        """
+        # Same type is always compatible
+        if old_type.equals(new_type):
+            return True
+
+        # Numeric type widening
+        if pa.types.is_integer(old_type) and pa.types.is_integer(new_type):
+            # Check bit width and signedness using string representation
+            old_signed = "int" in str(old_type) and "uint" not in str(old_type)
+            new_signed = "int" in str(new_type) and "uint" not in str(new_type)
+            return new_type.bit_width >= old_type.bit_width and old_signed == new_signed
+
+        if pa.types.is_floating(old_type) and pa.types.is_floating(new_type):
+            return new_type.bit_width >= old_type.bit_width
+
+        # Integer to float promotion
+        if pa.types.is_integer(old_type) and pa.types.is_floating(new_type):
+            return True
+
+        # String/binary type compatibility
+        if pa.types.is_string(old_type) and pa.types.is_string(new_type):
+            return True
+        if pa.types.is_binary(old_type) and pa.types.is_binary(new_type):
+            return True
+
+        # Struct type compatibility (new fields can be added)
+        if pa.types.is_struct(old_type) and pa.types.is_struct(new_type):
+            old_names = {field.name for field in old_type}
+            new_names = {field.name for field in new_type}
+
+            # All old fields must exist in new type
+            if not old_names.issubset(new_names):
+                return False
+
+            # Check compatibility of common fields
+            for old_field in old_type:
+                new_field = new_type.field(old_field.name)
+                if not self._is_type_compatible(old_field.type, new_field.type):
+                    return False
+
+            return True
+
+        # List type compatibility
+        if pa.types.is_list(old_type) and pa.types.is_list(new_type):
+            return self._is_type_compatible(old_type.value_type, new_type.value_type)
+
+        # Map type compatibility
+        if pa.types.is_map(old_type) and pa.types.is_map(new_type):
+            return self._is_type_compatible(
+                old_type.key_type, new_type.key_type
+            ) and self._is_type_compatible(old_type.item_type, new_type.item_type)
+
+        # Default: types are incompatible
+        return False