biotite 0.41.1__cp311-cp311-macosx_10_16_x86_64.whl

biotite/structure/basepairs.py

@@ -0,0 +1,1415 @@
+# This source code is part of the Biotite package and is distributed
+# under the 3-Clause BSD License. Please see 'LICENSE.rst' for further
+# information.
+
+"""
+This module provides functions for base pair identification.
+"""
+
+__name__ = "biotite.structure"
+__author__ = "Tom David Müller"
+__all__ = ["base_pairs", "map_nucleotide", "base_stacking", "base_pairs_edge",
+           "Edge", "base_pairs_glycosidic_bond", "GlycosidicBond"]
+
+import numpy as np
+import warnings
+from enum import IntEnum
+from .atoms import Atom, array
+from .superimpose import superimpose
+from .filter import filter_nucleotides
+from .celllist import CellList
+from .hbond import hbond
+from .error import IncompleteStructureWarning, UnexpectedStructureWarning, \
+    BadStructureError
+from .util import distance, norm_vector
+from .residues import get_residue_starts_for, get_residue_masks
+from .info.standardize import standardize_order
+from .compare import rmsd
+
+
+def _get_std_adenine():
+    """
+    Get standard base variables for adenine.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    standard_base : AtomArray
+        Standard coordinates nomenclature of the adenine base as
+        :class:`AtomArray` with nomenclature of PDB File Format V3
+    coordinates : tuple (ndarray, ndarray, ndarray, dtype=float)
+        :class:`ndarray` containing the center according to the SCHNaP-
+        paper referenced in the function ``base_pairs``,
+        :class:`ndarray` containing the coordinates of the pyrimidine
+        ring center, :class:`ndarray` containing the coordinates of the
+        imidazole ring center
+    """
+    atom1 =  Atom([-1.291, 4.498, 0.000], atom_name="N9",  res_name="A")
+    atom2 =  Atom([0.024, 4.897, 0.000],  atom_name="C8",  res_name="A")
+    atom3 =  Atom([0.877, 3.902, 0.000],  atom_name="N7",  res_name="A")
+    atom4 =  Atom([0.071, 2.771, 0.000],  atom_name="C5",  res_name="A")
+    atom5 =  Atom([0.369, 1.398, 0.000],  atom_name="C6",  res_name="A")
+    atom6 =  Atom([1.611, 0.909, 0.000],  atom_name="N6",  res_name="A")
+    atom7 =  Atom([-0.668, 0.532, 0.000], atom_name="N1",  res_name="A")
+    atom8 =  Atom([-1.912, 1.023, 0.000], atom_name="C2",  res_name="A")
+    atom9 =  Atom([-2.320, 2.290, 0.000], atom_name="N3",  res_name="A")
+    atom10 = Atom([-1.267, 3.124, 0.000], atom_name="C4",  res_name="A")
+    adenine = array(
+        [atom1, atom2, atom3, atom4, atom5, atom6, atom7, atom8,
+         atom9, atom10]
+    )
+
+    # Get the midpoint between the N1 and C4 atoms
+    midpoint = np.mean([atom7.coord, atom10.coord], axis=-2)
+    # Calculate the coordinates of the aromatic ring centers
+    pyrimidine_center = np.mean(
+        [atom4.coord, atom5.coord, atom7.coord,
+         atom8.coord, atom9.coord, atom10.coord], axis=-2
+    )
+    imidazole_center = np.mean(
+        [atom1.coord, atom2.coord, atom3.coord,
+         atom4.coord, atom10.coord], axis=-2
+    )
+
+    return adenine, (midpoint, pyrimidine_center, imidazole_center)
+
+
+def _get_std_cytosine():
+    """
+    Get standard base variables for cytosine.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+   standard_base : AtomArray
+        Standard coordinates nomenclature of the cytosine base as
+        :class:`AtomArray` with nomenclature of PDB File Format V3
+    coordinates : tuple (ndarray, ndarray, dtype=float)
+        :class:`ndarray` containing the center according to the SCHNaP-
+        paper referenced in the function ``base_pairs``,
+        :class:`ndarray` containing the coordinates of the pyrimidine
+        ring center
+    """
+    atom1 = Atom([-1.285, 4.542, 0.000], atom_name="N1",  res_name="C")
+    atom2 = Atom([-1.472, 3.158, 0.000], atom_name="C2",  res_name="C")
+    atom3 = Atom([-2.628, 2.709, 0.000], atom_name="O2",  res_name="C")
+    atom4 = Atom([-0.391, 2.344, 0.000], atom_name="N3",  res_name="C")
+    atom5 = Atom([0.837, 2.868, 0.000],  atom_name="C4",  res_name="C")
+    atom6 = Atom([1.875, 2.027, 0.000],  atom_name="N4",  res_name="C")
+    atom7 = Atom([1.056, 4.275, 0.000],  atom_name="C5",  res_name="C")
+    atom8 = Atom([-0.023, 5.068, 0.000], atom_name="C6",  res_name="C")
+    cytosine = array(
+        [atom1, atom2, atom3, atom4, atom5, atom6, atom7, atom8]
+    )
+
+    # Get the midpoint between the N3 and C6 atoms
+    midpoint = np.mean([atom4.coord, atom8.coord], axis=-2)
+    # Calculate the coordinates of the aromatic ring center
+    pyrimidine_center = np.mean(
+        [atom1.coord, atom2.coord, atom4.coord,
+         atom5.coord, atom7.coord, atom8.coord], axis=-2
+    )
+
+    return cytosine, (midpoint, pyrimidine_center)
+
+
+def _get_std_guanine():
+    """
+    Get standard base variables for guanine.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    standard_base : AtomArray
+        Standard coordinates nomenclature of the guanine base as
+        :class:`AtomArray` with nomenclature of PDB File Format V3
+    coordinates : tuple (ndarray, ndarray, ndarray, dtype=float)
+        :class:`ndarray` containing the center according to the SCHNaP-
+        paper referenced in the function ''base_pairs'',
+        :class:`ndarray` containing the coordinates of the pyrimidine
+        ring center, :class:`ndarray` containing the coordinates of the
+        imidazole ring center
+    """
+    atom1 =  Atom([-1.289, 4.551, 0.000],  atom_name="N9",  res_name="G")
+    atom2 =  Atom([0.023, 4.962, 0.000],   atom_name="C8",  res_name="G")
+    atom3 =  Atom([0.870, 3.969, 0.000],   atom_name="N7",  res_name="G")
+    atom4 =  Atom([0.071, 2.833, 0.000],   atom_name="C5",  res_name="G")
+    atom5 =  Atom([0.424, 1.460, 0.000],   atom_name="C6",  res_name="G")
+    atom6 =  Atom([1.554, 0.955, 0.000],   atom_name="O6",  res_name="G")
+    atom7 =  Atom([-0.700, 0.641, 0.000],  atom_name="N1",  res_name="G")
+    atom8 =  Atom([-1.999, 1.087, 0.000],  atom_name="C2",  res_name="G")
+    atom9 =  Atom([-2.949, 0.139, -0.001], atom_name="N2",  res_name="G")
+    atom10 = Atom([-2.342, 2.364, 0.001],  atom_name="N3",  res_name="G")
+    atom11 = Atom([-1.265, 3.177, 0.000],  atom_name="C4",  res_name="G")
+    guanine = array(
+        [atom1, atom2, atom3, atom4, atom5, atom6, atom7, atom8,
+         atom9, atom10, atom11]
+    )
+
+    # Get the midpoint between the N1 and C4 atoms
+    midpoint = np.mean([atom7.coord, atom11.coord], axis=-2)
+    # Calculate the coordinates of the aromatic ring centers
+    pyrimidine_center = np.mean(
+        [atom4.coord, atom5.coord, atom7.coord,
+         atom8.coord, atom10.coord, atom11.coord], axis=-2
+    )
+    imidazole_center = np.mean(
+        [atom1.coord, atom2.coord, atom3.coord,
+         atom4.coord, atom11.coord], axis=-2
+    )
+
+    return guanine, (midpoint, pyrimidine_center, imidazole_center)
+
+
+def _get_std_thymine():
+    """
+    Get standard base variables for thymine.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    standard_base : AtomArray
+        Standard coordinates nomenclature of the thymine base as
+        :class:`AtomArray` with nomenclature of PDB File Format V3
+    coordinates : tuple (ndarray, ndarray, dtype=float)
+        :class:`ndarray` containing the center according to the SCHNaP-
+        paper referenced in the function ``base_pairs``,
+        :class:`ndarray` containing the coordinates of the pyrimidine
+        ring center
+    """
+    atom1 = Atom([-1.284, 4.500, 0.000], atom_name="N1",  res_name="T")
+    atom2 = Atom([-1.462, 3.135, 0.000], atom_name="C2",  res_name="T")
+    atom3 = Atom([-2.562, 2.608, 0.000], atom_name="O2",  res_name="T")
+    atom4 = Atom([-0.298, 2.407, 0.000], atom_name="N3",  res_name="T")
+    atom5 = Atom([0.994, 2.897, 0.000],  atom_name="C4",  res_name="T")
+    atom6 = Atom([1.944, 2.119, 0.000],  atom_name="O4",  res_name="T")
+    atom7 = Atom([1.106, 4.338, 0.000],  atom_name="C5",  res_name="T")
+    atom8 = Atom([2.466, 4.961, 0.001],  atom_name="C7", res_name="T")
+    atom9 = Atom([-0.024, 5.057, 0.000], atom_name="C6",  res_name="T")
+    thymine = array(
+        [atom1, atom2, atom3, atom4, atom5, atom6, atom7, atom8, atom9]
+    )
+
+    # Get the midpoint between the N3 and C6 atoms
+    midpoint = np.mean([atom4.coord, atom9.coord], axis=-2)
+    # Calculate the coordinates of the aromatic ring center
+    pyrimidine_center = np.mean(
+        [atom1.coord, atom2.coord, atom4.coord,
+         atom5.coord, atom7.coord, atom9.coord], axis=-2
+    )
+
+    return thymine, (midpoint, pyrimidine_center)
+
+
+def _get_std_uracil():
+    """
+    Get standard base variables for uracil.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    standard_base : AtomArray
+        Standard coordinates nomenclature of the uracil base as
+        :class:`AtomArray` with nomenclature of PDB File Format V3
+    coordinates : tuple (ndarray, ndarray, dtype=float)
+        :class:`ndarray` containing the center according to the SCHNaP-
+        paper referenced in the function ``base_pairs``,
+        :class:`ndarray` containing the coordinates of the pyrimidine
+        ring center
+    """
+    atom1 = Atom([-1.284, 4.500, 0.000], atom_name="N1",  res_name="U")
+    atom2 = Atom([-1.462, 3.131, 0.000], atom_name="C2",  res_name="U")
+    atom3 = Atom([-2.563, 2.608, 0.000], atom_name="O2",  res_name="U")
+    atom4 = Atom([-0.302, 2.397, 0.000], atom_name="N3",  res_name="U")
+    atom5 = Atom([0.989, 2.884, 0.000],  atom_name="C4",  res_name="U")
+    atom6 = Atom([1.935, 2.094, -0.001], atom_name="O4",  res_name="U")
+    atom7 = Atom([1.089, 4.311, 0.000],  atom_name="C5",  res_name="U")
+    atom8 = Atom([-0.024, 5.053, 0.000], atom_name="C6",  res_name="U")
+    uracil = array(
+        [atom1, atom2, atom3, atom4, atom5, atom6, atom7, atom8]
+    )
+
+    # Get the midpoint between the N3 and C6 atoms
+    midpoint = np.mean([atom4.coord, atom8.coord], axis=-2)
+    # Calculate the coordinates of the aromatic ring center
+    pyrimidine_center = np.mean(
+        [atom1.coord, atom2.coord, atom4.coord,
+         atom5.coord, atom7.coord, atom8.coord], axis=-2
+    )
+
+    return uracil, (midpoint, pyrimidine_center)
+
+
+_STD_ADENINE, _STD_ADENINE_RING_CENTERS  = _get_std_adenine()
+_STD_CYTOSINE, _STD_CYTOSINE_RING_CENTERS = _get_std_cytosine()
+_STD_GUANINE, _STD_GUANINE_RING_CENTERS = _get_std_guanine()
+_STD_THYMINE, _STD_THYMINE_RING_CENTERS = _get_std_thymine()
+_STD_URACIL, _STD_URACIL_RING_CENTERS = _get_std_uracil()
+
+_ADENINE_CONTAINING_NUCLEOTIDES = ["A", "DA"]
+_THYMINE_CONTAINING_NUCLEOTIDES = ["T", "DT"]
+_CYTOSINE_CONTAINING_NUCLEOTIDES = ["C", "DC"]
+_GUANINE_CONTAINING_NUCLEOTIDES = ["G", "DG"]
+_URACIL_CONTAINING_NUCLEOTIDES = ["U", "DU"]
+_REFERENCE_NUCLEOTIDE_NAMES = (
+    _ADENINE_CONTAINING_NUCLEOTIDES +
+    _THYMINE_CONTAINING_NUCLEOTIDES +
+    _CYTOSINE_CONTAINING_NUCLEOTIDES +
+    _GUANINE_CONTAINING_NUCLEOTIDES +
+    _URACIL_CONTAINING_NUCLEOTIDES
+)
+
+# Atoms that are part of respective base edges according to the
+# Leontis-Westhof nomenclature
+_WATSON_CRICK_EDGE = {
+    "A" : ["N6", "N1"],
+    "G" : ["O6", "N1", "N2"],
+    "U" : ["O4", "N3", "O2"],
+    "T" : ["O4", "N3", "O2"],
+    "C" : ["N4", "N3", "O2"]
+}
+_HOOGSTEEN_EDGE = {
+    "A" : ["N6", "N7"],
+    "G" : ["O6", "N7"],
+    "U" : ["O4"],
+    "T" : ["O4"],
+    "C" : ["N4"]
+}
+_SUGAR_EDGE = {
+    "A" : ["N3", "O2'"],
+    "G" : ["N2", "N3", "O2'"],
+    "U" : ["O2", "O2'"],
+    "T" : ["O2", "O2'"],
+    "C" : ["O2", "O2'"]
+}
+_EDGES = [_WATSON_CRICK_EDGE, _HOOGSTEEN_EDGE, _SUGAR_EDGE]
+
+
+class Edge(IntEnum):
+    """
+    This enum type represents the interacting edge for a given base.
+    """
+    INVALID = 0,
+    WATSON_CRICK = 1,
+    HOOGSTEEN = 2,
+    SUGAR = 3
+
+
+class GlycosidicBond(IntEnum):
+    """
+    This enum type represents the relative glycosidic bond orientation
+    for a given base pair.
+    """
+    INVALID = 0
+    CIS = 1,
+    TRANS = 2,
+
+
+def base_pairs_edge(atom_array, base_pairs):
+    """
+    Get the interacting edges for given base pairs in an
+    :class:`AtomArray` according to the Leontis-Westhof nomenclature.
+    :footcite:`Leontis2001`
+
+    The :class:`AtomArray` must contain hydrogens as it relies on
+    :func:`hbond()`.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    atom_array : AtomArray
+        The :class:`AtomArray` containing the bases.
+    base_pairs : ndarray, dtype=int, shape=(n,2)
+        Each row is equivalent to one base pair and contains the first
+        indices of the residues corresponding to each base. The
+        structure of the ``ndarray`` is the same as the output of
+        :func:`base_pairs()`.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    results : ndarray, dtype=uint8, shape=(n,2)
+        The ``ndarray`` has the same dimensions as ``base_pairs``. Each
+        cell corresponds to the interacting edge of the referenced base
+        in ``base_pairs``. The edge type is stored as integer that is
+        interpreted as member of the the :class:`Edge` enum.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    base_pairs
+    base_pairs_glycosidic_bond
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    If a base is not a canonical base (``A``, ``C``, ``G``, ``T``,
+    ``U``) or no hydrogen bonds are found between the bases that conform
+    to the interacting edges described by Leontis and Westhof, 0 is
+    returned (corresponding to ``Edge.INVALID``).
+
+    The edge returned always corresponds to the edge with the most
+    hydrogen bonding interactions.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Compute the interacting base edges for the dna helix with the PDB
+    id 1QXB:
+
+    >>> from os.path import join
+    >>> dna_helix = load_structure(
+    ...     join(path_to_structures, "base_pairs", "1qxb.cif")
+    ... )
+    >>> basepairs = base_pairs(dna_helix)
+    >>> interacting_edges = base_pairs_edge(dna_helix, basepairs)
+    >>> print(interacting_edges)
+    [[1 1]
+     [1 1]
+     [1 1]
+     [1 1]
+     [1 1]
+     [1 1]
+     [1 1]
+     [1 1]
+     [1 1]
+     [1 1]
+     [1 1]
+     [1 1]]
+
+    The resulting integers can be interpreted as :class:`Edge` ``Enum``:
+
+    >>> for interaction in interacting_edges:
+    ...     print(Edge(interaction[0]), Edge(interaction[1]))
+    Edge.WATSON_CRICK Edge.WATSON_CRICK
+    Edge.WATSON_CRICK Edge.WATSON_CRICK
+    Edge.WATSON_CRICK Edge.WATSON_CRICK
+    Edge.WATSON_CRICK Edge.WATSON_CRICK
+    Edge.WATSON_CRICK Edge.WATSON_CRICK
+    Edge.WATSON_CRICK Edge.WATSON_CRICK
+    Edge.WATSON_CRICK Edge.WATSON_CRICK
+    Edge.WATSON_CRICK Edge.WATSON_CRICK
+    Edge.WATSON_CRICK Edge.WATSON_CRICK
+    Edge.WATSON_CRICK Edge.WATSON_CRICK
+    Edge.WATSON_CRICK Edge.WATSON_CRICK
+    Edge.WATSON_CRICK Edge.WATSON_CRICK
+
+    References
+    ----------
+
+    .. footbibliography::
+    """
+    # Result-``ndarray`` matches the dimensions of the input array
+    results = np.zeros_like(base_pairs, dtype='uint8')
+
+    # Get the residue masks for each residue
+    base_pairs_masks = get_residue_masks(atom_array, base_pairs.flatten())
+
+    # Group every two masks together for easy iteration (each 'row' is
+    # respective to a row in ``base_pairs``)
+    base_pairs_masks = base_pairs_masks.reshape(
+        (base_pairs.shape[0], 2, atom_array.shape[0])
+    )
+
+    for i, base_masks in enumerate(base_pairs_masks):
+        # Get the absolute atom count for each edge
+        base_edges = _get_edge_matrix(atom_array, base_masks)
+
+        # Classify the base edges based on the highest number of
+        # matching hydrogen bonded atoms
+        for j, base in enumerate(base_edges):
+            if np.max(base) != 0:
+                results[i, j] = np.argmax(base) + 1
+    return results
+
+
+def _get_edge_matrix(atom_array, base_masks):
+    """
+    Get the number of atoms interacting for each edge as a matrix, where
+    each row corresponds to a base and each column to the number of
+    Watson-Crick-, Hoogsteen- and Sugar-edge interactions respectively.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    atom_array : AtomArray
+        The :class:`AtomArray` containing the bases.
+    base_masks : ndarray, dtype=bool, shape=(2,n)
+        Boolean masks for the interacting bases
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    matrix : ndarray, dtype=int, shape=(2,3)
+        The edge matrix.
+    """
+    # Get the hydrogen bonds between the residues
+    hbonds = hbond(atom_array, base_masks[0], base_masks[1])
+    if len(hbonds) == 0:
+        raise BadStructureError(
+            f"No hydrogen bonds between nucleotides with residue start "
+            f"indices {np.argmax(base_masks[0])} and "
+            f"{np.argmax(base_masks[1])}"
+        )
+    # filter out donor/acceptor heteroatoms and flatten for easy
+    # iteration
+    hbonds = hbonds[:, (0,2)].flatten()
+
+    # ``ndarray`` with one row for each base and the number of
+    # bonded edge heteroatoms as in ``_edge`` as columns
+    matrix = np.zeros((2, 3), dtype='int32')
+
+    # Iterate through the atoms and corresponding atoms indices
+    # that are part of the hydrogen bonds
+    for atom, atom_index in zip(atom_array[hbonds], hbonds):
+
+        if atom.res_name not in _REFERENCE_NUCLEOTIDE_NAMES:
+            continue
+
+        # Iterate over the edge types
+        for edge_type_index, edge_type in enumerate(_EDGES):
+            # Iterate over the two base masks
+            for base_index, base_mask in enumerate(base_masks):
+                # If a donor/acceptor atom name matches a name in
+                # the corresponding edge list increase the tally
+                if (base_mask[atom_index] and
+                    atom.atom_name in edge_type[atom.res_name[-1]]):
+                    matrix[base_index, edge_type_index] += 1
+    return matrix
+
+
+def base_pairs_glycosidic_bond(atom_array, base_pairs):
+    """
+    Calculate the glycosidic bond orientation for given base pairs in an
+    :class:`AtomArray` according to the Leontis-Westhof nomenclature.
+    :footcite:`Leontis2001`
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    atom_array : AtomArray
+        The :class:`AtomArray` containing the bases.
+    base_pairs : ndarray, dtype=int, shape=(n,2)
+        Each row is equivalent to one base pair and contains the first
+        indices of the residues corresponding to each base. The
+        structure of the ``ndarray`` is the same as the output of
+        :func:`base_pairs()`.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    results : ndarray, dtype=edge, shape=(n,)
+        The ``ndarray`` has the same dimensions as ``base_pairs``. Each
+        cell corresponds to the interacting edge of the referenced base
+        in ``base_pairs``.
+        Each row is equivalent to the respective base pair. The
+        glycosidic bond orientation is stored as integer that is
+        interpreted as member of the the :class:`GlycosidicBond` class.
+
+    See Also
+    --------
+    base_pairs
+    base_pairs_edge
+    GlycosidicBond
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The orientation is found using the geometric centers of the bases
+    and the glycosidic bonds as described in :footcite:`Yang2003`.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Compute the glycosidic bond orientations for the dna helix with the
+    PDB ID 1QXB:
+
+    >>> from os.path import join
+    >>> dna_helix = load_structure(
+    ...     join(path_to_structures, "base_pairs", "1qxb.cif")
+    ... )
+    >>> basepairs = base_pairs(dna_helix)
+    >>> orientations = base_pairs_glycosidic_bond(dna_helix, basepairs)
+    >>> print(orientations)
+    [1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1]
+
+    The resulting integers can be interpreted as :class:`GlycosidicBond`
+    ``Enum``:
+
+    >>> for orientation in orientations:
+    ...     print(GlycosidicBond(orientation))
+    GlycosidicBond.CIS
+    GlycosidicBond.CIS
+    GlycosidicBond.CIS
+    GlycosidicBond.CIS
+    GlycosidicBond.CIS
+    GlycosidicBond.CIS
+    GlycosidicBond.CIS
+    GlycosidicBond.CIS
+    GlycosidicBond.CIS
+    GlycosidicBond.CIS
+    GlycosidicBond.CIS
+    GlycosidicBond.CIS
+
+    References
+    ----------
+
+    .. footbibliography::
+    """
+    results = np.zeros(len(base_pairs), dtype='uint8')
+
+    # Get the residue masks for each residue
+    base_pairs_masks = get_residue_masks(atom_array, base_pairs.flatten())
+
+    # Group every two masks together for easy iteration (each 'row' is
+    # respective to a row in ``base_pairs``)
+    base_pairs_masks = base_pairs_masks.reshape(
+        (base_pairs.shape[0], 2, atom_array.shape[0])
+    )
+
+    for i, pair_masks in enumerate(base_pairs_masks):
+
+        # position vectors of each bases geometric center
+        geometric_centers = np.zeros((2, 3))
+        # direction vectors of the glycosidic bonds
+        glycosidic_bonds = np.zeros((2, 3))
+
+        for base_index, base_mask in enumerate(pair_masks):
+            base = atom_array[base_mask]
+            ring_center = _match_base(base, 3)[3:]
+
+            # For Purines the glycosidic bond is between the C1' and the
+            # N9 atoms, for pyrimidines it is between the C1' atom and
+            # the N1 atom
+            if (base.res_name[0] in _ADENINE_CONTAINING_NUCLEOTIDES or
+                base.res_name[0] in _GUANINE_CONTAINING_NUCLEOTIDES):
+
+                geometric_centers[base_index] = (
+                    (ring_center[0] + ring_center[1]) / 2
+                )
+                base_atom = base[base.atom_name == "N9"][0]
+
+            elif (base.res_name[0] in _THYMINE_CONTAINING_NUCLEOTIDES or
+                base.res_name[0] in _URACIL_CONTAINING_NUCLEOTIDES or
+                base.res_name[0] in _CYTOSINE_CONTAINING_NUCLEOTIDES):
+
+                geometric_centers[base_index] = ring_center[0]
+                base_atom = base[base.atom_name == "N1"][0]
+
+            else:
+
+                results[i] = GlycosidicBond.INVALID
+                break
+
+            sugar_atom = base[base.atom_name == "C1'"][0]
+
+            # Calculate the glycosidic bond direction vector
+            glycosidic_bonds[base_index] = sugar_atom.coord - base_atom.coord
+
+        # if the bond is not invalid compute the orientation
+        else:
+            # Calculate the direction vector between the geometric centers
+            geometric_centers_dir = geometric_centers[1] - geometric_centers[0]
+
+            # Check the orientation of the glycosidic bonds
+            if np.dot(
+                np.cross(geometric_centers_dir, glycosidic_bonds[0]),
+                np.cross(geometric_centers_dir, glycosidic_bonds[1])
+            ) < 0:
+
+                results[i] = GlycosidicBond.TRANS
+
+            else:
+
+                results[i] = GlycosidicBond.CIS
+
+    return results
+
+
+def base_stacking(atom_array, min_atoms_per_base=3):
+    """
+    Find pi-stacking interactions between aromatic rings
+    in nucleic acids.
+
+    The presence of base stacking is assumed if the following criteria
+    are met :footcite:`Gabb1996`:
+
+    (i) Distance between aromatic ring centers <=4.5 Å
+
+    (ii) Angle between the ring normal vectors <=23°
+
+    (iii) Angle between normalized distance vector between two ring
+          centers and both bases' normal vectors <=40°
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    atom_array : AtomArray
+        The :class:`AtomArray` to find stacked bases in.
+    min_atoms_per_base : integer, optional (default: 3)
+        The number of atoms a nucleotides' base must have to be
+        considered a candidate for a stacking interaction.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    stacked_bases : ndarray, dtype=int, shape=(n,2)
+        Each row is equivalent to one pair of stacked bases and
+        contains the indices to the first atom for each one of both
+        paired residues.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    Please note that ring normal vectors are assumed to be equal to the
+    base normal vectors.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Compute the stacking interactions for a DNA-double-helix (PDB ID
+    1BNA):
+
+    >>> from os.path import join
+    >>> dna_helix = load_structure(
+    ...     join(path_to_structures, "base_pairs", "1bna.pdb")
+    ... )
+    >>> stacking_interactions = base_stacking(dna_helix)
+    >>> print(dna_helix[stacking_interactions].res_id)
+    [[ 1  2]
+     [ 2  3]
+     [ 3  4]
+     [ 4  5]
+     [ 5  6]
+     [ 6  7]
+     [ 7  8]
+     [ 8  9]
+     [ 9 10]
+     [11 12]
+     [14 15]
+     [15 16]
+     [16 17]
+     [17 18]
+     [18 19]
+     [19 20]
+     [20 21]
+     [21 22]
+     [22 23]
+     [23 24]]
+
+    References
+    ----------
+
+    .. footbibliography::
+    """
+    # Get the stacking candidates according to a cutoff distance, where
+    # each base is identified as the first index of its respective
+    # residue.
+    # The diameter from the C1'-sugar-atom across a purine base is ~5Å
+    # and the distance between the base centers can be at most 4.5Å.
+    # Thus, accounting for buffer, a cutoff of 15Å between the
+    # nucleotides' C1'-atoms was chosen.
+    c1_mask = filter_nucleotides(atom_array) & (atom_array.atom_name == "C1'")
+    stacking_candidates, _ = _get_proximate_residues(atom_array, c1_mask, 15)
+
+    # Contains the plausible pairs of stacked bases
+    stacked_bases = []
+
+    # Get the residue masks for each residue
+    base_masks = get_residue_masks(atom_array, stacking_candidates.flatten())
+
+    # Group every two masks together for easy iteration (each 'row' is
+    # respective to a row in ``stacking_candidates``)
+    base_masks = base_masks.reshape(
+        (stacking_candidates.shape[0], 2, atom_array.shape[0])
+    )
+
+    for (base1_index, base2_index), (base1_mask, base2_mask) in zip(
+        stacking_candidates, base_masks
+    ):
+        bases = (atom_array[base1_mask], atom_array[base2_mask])
+
+        # A list containing ndarray for each base with transformed
+        # vectors from the standard base reference frame to the
+        # structures' coordinates. The layout is as follows:
+        #
+        # [Origin coordinates]
+        # [Base normal vector]
+        # [SCHNAaP origin coordinates]
+        # [Aromatic Ring Center coordinates]
+        transformed_std_vectors = [None] * 2
+
+        # Generate the data necessary for analysis of each base.
+        for i in range(2):
+            base_tuple = _match_base(bases[i], min_atoms_per_base)
+
+            if(base_tuple is None):
+                break
+
+            transformed_std_vectors[i] = base_tuple
+
+        normal_vectors = np.vstack((transformed_std_vectors[0][1],
+                                    transformed_std_vectors[1][1]))
+        aromatic_ring_centers = [transformed_std_vectors[0][3:],
+                                        transformed_std_vectors[1][3:]]
+
+        # Check if the base pairs are stacked.
+        stacked = _check_base_stacking(aromatic_ring_centers, normal_vectors)
+
+        # If a stacking interaction is found, append the first indices
+        # of the bases´'residues to the output.
+        if stacked:
+            stacked_bases.append((base1_index, base2_index))
+
+    return np.array(stacked_bases)
+
+
+def base_pairs(atom_array, min_atoms_per_base = 3, unique = True):
+    """
+    Use DSSR criteria to find the base pairs in an :class:`AtomArray`.
+
+    The algorithm is able to identify canonical and non-canonical
+    base pairs. between the 5 common bases Adenine, Guanine, Thymine,
+    Cytosine, and Uracil bound to Deoxyribose and Ribose.
+    Each Base is mapped to the 5 common bases Adenine, Guanine, Thymine,
+    Cytosine, and Uracil in a standard reference frame described in
+    :footcite:`Olson2001` using :func:`map_nucleotide()`.
+
+    The DSSR Criteria are as follows :footcite:`Lu2015`:
+
+    (i) Distance between base origins <=15 Å
+
+    (ii) Vertical separation between the base planes <=2.5 Å
+
+    (iii) Angle between the base normal vectors <=65°
+
+    (iv) Absence of stacking between the two bases
+
+    (v) Presence of at least one hydrogen bond involving a base atom
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    atom_array : AtomArray
+        The :class:`AtomArray` to find base pairs in.
+    min_atoms_per_base : integer, optional (default: 3)
+        The number of atoms a nucleotides' base must have to be
+        considered a candidate for a base pair.
+    unique : bool, optional (default: True)
+        If ``True``, each base is assumed to be only paired with one
+        other base. If multiple pairings are plausible, the pairing with
+        the most hydrogen bonds is selected.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    basepairs : ndarray, dtype=int, shape=(n,2)
+        Each row is equivalent to one base pair and contains the first
+        indices of the residues corresponding to each base.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The bases from the standard reference frame described in
+    :footcite:`Olson2001` were modified such that only the base atoms
+    are implemented.
+    Sugar atoms (specifically C1') were disregarded, as nucleosides such
+    as PSU do not posess the usual N-glycosidic linkage, thus leading to
+    inaccurate results.
+
+    The vertical separation is implemented as the scalar
+    projection of the distance vectors between the base origins
+    according to :footcite:`Lu1997` onto the averaged base normal
+    vectors.
+
+    The presence of base stacking is assumed if the following criteria
+    are met :footcite:`Gabb1996`:
+
+    (i) Distance between aromatic ring centers <=4.5 Å
+
+    (ii) Angle between the ring normal vectors <=23°
+
+    (iii) Angle between normalized distance vector between two ring
+          centers and both bases' normal vectors <=40°
+
+    Please note that ring normal vectors are assumed to be equal to the
+    base normal vectors.
+
+    For structures without hydrogens the accuracy of the algorithm is
+    limited as the hydrogen bonds can be only checked be checked for
+    plausibility.
+    A hydrogen bond is considered as plausible if a cutoff of 3.6 Å
+    between N/O atom pairs is met. 3.6Å was chosen as hydrogen bonds are
+    typically 1.5-2.5Å in length. N-H and O-H bonds have a length of
+    1.00Å and 0.96Å respectively. Thus, including some buffer, a 3.6Å
+    cutoff should cover all hydrogen bonds.
+
+    Examples
+    --------
+    Compute the base pairs for the structure with the PDB ID 1QXB:
+
+    >>> from os.path import join
+    >>> dna_helix = load_structure(
+    ...     join(path_to_structures, "base_pairs", "1qxb.cif")
+    ... )
+    >>> basepairs = base_pairs(dna_helix)
+    >>> print(dna_helix[basepairs].res_name)
+    [['DC' 'DG']
+     ['DG' 'DC']
+     ['DC' 'DG']
+     ['DG' 'DC']
+     ['DA' 'DT']
+     ['DA' 'DT']
+     ['DT' 'DA']
+     ['DT' 'DA']
+     ['DC' 'DG']
+     ['DG' 'DC']
+     ['DC' 'DG']
+     ['DG' 'DC']]
+
+    References
+    ----------
+
+    .. footbibliography::
+    """
+
+    # Get the nucleotides for the given atom_array
+    nucleotides_boolean = filter_nucleotides(atom_array)
+
+    # Disregard the phosphate-backbone
+    non_phosphate_boolean = (
+        ~ np.isin(
+            atom_array.atom_name,
+            ["O5'", "P", "OP1", "OP2", "OP3", "HOP2", "HOP3"]
+        )
+    )
+
+    # Combine the two boolean masks
+    boolean_mask = nucleotides_boolean & non_phosphate_boolean
+
+    # Get only nucleosides
+    nucleosides = atom_array[boolean_mask]
+
+
+    # Get the base pair candidates according to a N/O cutoff distance,
+    # where each base is identified as the first index of its respective
+    # residue
+    n_o_mask = np.isin(nucleosides.element, ["N", "O"])
+    basepair_candidates, n_o_matches = _get_proximate_residues(
+        nucleosides, n_o_mask, 3.6
+    )
+
+    # Contains the plausible base pairs
+    basepairs = []
+    # Contains the number of hydrogens for each plausible base pair
+    basepairs_hbonds = []
+
+    # Get the residue masks for each residue
+    base_masks = get_residue_masks(nucleosides, basepair_candidates.flatten())
+
+    # Group every two masks together for easy iteration (each 'row' is
+    # respective to a row in ``basepair_candidates``)
+    base_masks = base_masks.reshape(
+        (basepair_candidates.shape[0], 2, nucleosides.shape[0])
+    )
+
+    for (base1_index, base2_index), (base1_mask, base2_mask), n_o_pairs in zip(
+        basepair_candidates, base_masks, n_o_matches
+    ):
+        base1 = nucleosides[base1_mask]
+        base2 = nucleosides[base2_mask]
+
+        hbonds =  _check_dssr_criteria(
+            (base1, base2), min_atoms_per_base, unique
+        )
+
+        # If no hydrogens are present use the number N/O pairs to
+        # decide between multiple pairing possibilities.
+
+        if hbonds is None:
+            # Each N/O-pair is detected twice. Thus, the number of
+            # matches must be divided by two.
+            hbonds = n_o_pairs/2
+        if hbonds != -1:
+            basepairs.append((base1_index, base2_index))
+            if unique:
+                basepairs_hbonds.append(hbonds)
+
+    basepair_array = np.array(basepairs)
+
+    if unique:
+        # Contains all non-unique base pairs that are flagged to be
+        # removed
+        to_remove = []
+
+        # Get all bases that have non-unique pairing interactions
+        base_indices, occurrences = np.unique(basepairs, return_counts=True)
+        for base_index, occurrence in zip(base_indices, occurrences):
+            if(occurrence > 1):
+                # Write the non-unique base pairs to a dictionary as
+                # 'index: number of hydrogen bonds'
+                remove_candidates = {}
+                for i, row in enumerate(
+                    np.asarray(basepair_array == base_index)
+                ):
+                    if(np.any(row)):
+                        remove_candidates[i] = basepairs_hbonds[i]
+                # Flag all non-unique base pairs for removal except the
+                # one that has the most hydrogen bonds
+                del remove_candidates[
+                    max(remove_candidates, key=remove_candidates.get)
+                ]
+                to_remove += list(remove_candidates.keys())
+        # Remove all flagged base pairs from the output `ndarray`
+        basepair_array = np.delete(basepair_array, to_remove, axis=0)
+
+    # Remap values to original atom array
+    if len(basepair_array) > 0:
+        basepair_array = np.where(boolean_mask)[0][basepair_array]
+        for i, row in enumerate(basepair_array):
+            basepair_array[i] = get_residue_starts_for(atom_array, row)
+    return basepair_array
+
+
+def _check_dssr_criteria(basepair, min_atoms_per_base, unique):
+    """
+    Check the DSSR criteria of a potential base pair.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    basepair : tuple (AtomArray, AtomArray)
+        The two bases to check the criteria for as :class:`AtomArray`.
+    min_atoms_per_base : int
+        The number of atoms a nucleotides' base must have to be
+        considered a candidate for a base pair.
+    unique : bool
+        If ``True``, the shortest hydrogen bond length between the bases
+        is calculated for plausible base pairs.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    satisfied : int
+        `> 0` if the base pair satisfies the criteria and `-1`,
+        if it does not.
+        If unique is ``True``, the number of hydrogen bonds is
+        returned for plausible base pairs.
+    """
+
+    # A list containing ndarray for each base with transformed
+    # vectors from the standard base reference frame to the structures'
+    # coordinates. The layout is as follows:
+    #
+    # [Origin coordinates]
+    # [Base normal vector]
+    # [SCHNAaP origin coordinates]
+    # [Aromatic Ring Center coordinates]
+    transformed_std_vectors = [None] * 2
+
+    # Generate the data necessary for analysis of each base.
+    for i in range(2):
+        transformed_std_vectors[i] = _match_base(
+            basepair[i], min_atoms_per_base
+        )
+
+        if(transformed_std_vectors[i] is None):
+            return -1
+
+    origins = np.vstack((transformed_std_vectors[0][0],
+                         transformed_std_vectors[1][0]))
+    normal_vectors = np.vstack((transformed_std_vectors[0][1],
+                                transformed_std_vectors[1][1]))
+    schnaap_origins = np.vstack((transformed_std_vectors[0][2],
+                                 transformed_std_vectors[1][2]))
+    aromatic_ring_centers = [transformed_std_vectors[0][3:],
+                                       transformed_std_vectors[1][3:]]
+
+    # Criterion 1: Distance between orgins <=15 Å
+    if not (distance(origins[0], origins[1]) <= 15):
+        return -1
+
+    # Criterion 2: Vertical separation <=2.5 Å
+    #
+    # Average the base normal vectors. If the angle between the vectors
+    # is >=90°, flip one vector before averaging
+    mean_normal_vector = (
+        normal_vectors[0] + (normal_vectors[1] * np.sign(np.dot(
+            normal_vectors[0], normal_vectors[1]
+        )))
+    ) / 2
+    norm_vector(mean_normal_vector)
+    # Calculate the distance vector between the two SCHNAaP origins
+    origin_distance_vector = schnaap_origins[1] - schnaap_origins[0]
+
+    # The scalar projection of the distance vector between the two
+    # origins onto the averaged normal vectors is the vertical
+    # seperation
+    if not abs(np.dot(origin_distance_vector, mean_normal_vector)) <= 2.5:
+        return -1
+
+    # Criterion 3: Angle between normal vectors <=65°
+    if not (np.arccos(np.dot(normal_vectors[0], normal_vectors[1]))
+            >= ((115*np.pi)/180)):
+        return -1
+
+    # Criterion 4: Absence of stacking
+    if _check_base_stacking(aromatic_ring_centers, normal_vectors):
+        return -1
+
+    # Criterion 5: Presence of at least one hydrogen bond
+    #
+    # Check if both bases came with hydrogens.
+    if (("H" in basepair[0].element)
+        and ("H" in basepair[1].element)):
+        # For Structures that contain hydrogens, check for their
+        # presence directly.
+        #
+        # Generate input atom array for ``hbond``
+        potential_basepair = basepair[0] + basepair[1]
+
+        # Get the number of hydrogen bonds
+        bonds = len(hbond(
+            potential_basepair,
+            np.ones_like(potential_basepair, dtype=bool),
+            np.ones_like(potential_basepair, dtype=bool)
+        ))
+
+        if bonds > 0:
+            return bonds
+        return -1
+
+    else:
+        # If the structure does not contain hydrogens return None
+        return None
+
+
+def _check_base_stacking(aromatic_ring_centers, normal_vectors):
+    """
+    Check for base stacking between two bases.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    aromatic_ring_centers : list [ndarray, ndarray]
+        A list with the aromatic ring center coordinates as
+        :class:`ndarray`. Each row represents a ring center.
+    normal_vectors : ndarray shape=(2, 3)
+        The normal vectors of the bases.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    base_stacking : bool
+        ``True`` if base stacking is detected and ``False`` if not
+    """
+
+    # Contains the normalized distance vectors between ring centers less
+    # than 4.5 Å apart.
+    normalized_distance_vectors = []
+
+    # Criterion 1: Distance between aromatic ring centers <=4.5 Å
+    wrong_distance = True
+    for ring_center1 in aromatic_ring_centers[0]:
+        for ring_center2 in aromatic_ring_centers[1]:
+            if (distance(ring_center1, ring_center2) <= 4.5):
+                wrong_distance = False
+                normalized_distance_vectors.append(ring_center2 - ring_center1)
+                norm_vector(normalized_distance_vectors[-1])
+    if wrong_distance:
+        return False
+
+    # Criterion 2: Angle between normal vectors or its supplement <=23°
+    normal_vectors_angle = np.rad2deg(
+        np.arccos(np.dot(normal_vectors[0], normal_vectors[1]))
+    )
+    if (normal_vectors_angle >= 23) and (normal_vectors_angle <= 157):
+        return False
+
+    # Criterion 3: Angle between one normalized distance vector and
+    # each of the bases' normal vector or supplement <=40°
+    for normal_vector in normal_vectors:
+        for normalized_dist_vector in normalized_distance_vectors:
+            dist_normal_vector_angle = np.rad2deg(
+                np.arccos(np.dot(normal_vector, normalized_dist_vector))
+            )
+            if ((dist_normal_vector_angle >= 40) and
+                (dist_normal_vector_angle <= 140)):
+                return False
+
+    return True
+
+
+def _match_base(nucleotide, min_atoms_per_base):
+    """
+    Match the nucleotide to a corresponding standard base reference
+    frame.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    nucleotide : AtomArray
+        The nucleotide to be matched to a standard base.
+    min_atoms_per_base : integer
+        The number of atoms a base must have to be considered a
+        candidate for a base pair.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    vectors : ndarray, dtype=float, shape=(n,3)
+        Transformed standard vectors, origin coordinates, base normal
+        vector, aromatic ring center coordinates.
+    """
+
+    # Standard vectors containing the origin and the base normal vectors
+    vectors = np.array([[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 1]], dtype=float)
+
+    # Map the nucleotide to a reference base
+    one_letter_code, _ = map_nucleotide(nucleotide, min_atoms_per_base)
+
+    if one_letter_code is None:
+        return None
+
+    if (one_letter_code == 'A'):
+        std_base = _STD_ADENINE
+        std_ring_centers = _STD_ADENINE_RING_CENTERS
+    elif (one_letter_code == 'T'):
+        std_base = _STD_THYMINE
+        std_ring_centers = _STD_THYMINE_RING_CENTERS
+    elif (one_letter_code == 'C'):
+        std_base = _STD_CYTOSINE
+        std_ring_centers = _STD_CYTOSINE_RING_CENTERS
+    elif (one_letter_code == 'G'):
+        std_base = _STD_GUANINE
+        std_ring_centers = _STD_GUANINE_RING_CENTERS
+    elif (one_letter_code == 'U'):
+        std_base = _STD_URACIL
+        std_ring_centers = _STD_URACIL_RING_CENTERS
+
+    # Add the ring centers to the array of vectors to be transformed.
+    vectors = np.vstack((vectors, std_ring_centers))
+
+    # Select the matching atoms of the nucleotide and the standard base
+    nucleotide_matched = nucleotide[
+        np.isin(nucleotide.atom_name, std_base.atom_name)
+    ]
+    std_base_matched = std_base[
+        np.isin(std_base.atom_name, nucleotide.atom_name)
+    ]
+    # Ensure the nucleotide does not contain duplicate atom names
+    _, unique_indices = np.unique(
+        nucleotide_matched.atom_name, return_index=True
+    )
+    nucleotide_matched = nucleotide_matched[unique_indices]
+    # Only continue if minimum number of matching atoms is reached
+    if len(nucleotide_matched) < min_atoms_per_base:
+        warnings.warn(
+            f"Nucleotide with res_id {nucleotide.res_id[0]} and "
+            f"chain_id {nucleotide.chain_id[0]} has less than 3 base "
+            f"atoms, unable to check for base pair.",
+            IncompleteStructureWarning
+        )
+        return None
+    # Reorder the atoms of the nucleotide to obtain the standard RCSB
+    # PDB atom order.
+    nucleotide_matched = nucleotide_matched[
+        standardize_order(nucleotide_matched)
+    ]
+
+    # Match the selected std_base to the base.
+    _, transformation = superimpose(nucleotide_matched, std_base_matched)
+    vectors = transformation.apply(vectors)
+    # Normalize the base-normal-vector
+    vectors[1,:] = vectors[1,:]-vectors[0,:]
+    norm_vector(vectors[1,:])
+
+    return vectors
+
+
+def map_nucleotide(residue, min_atoms_per_base=3, rmsd_cutoff=0.28):
+    """
+    Map a nucleotide to one of the 5 common bases Adenine, Guanine,
+    Thymine, Cytosine, and Uracil. If one of those bases bound to
+    Deoxyribose and Ribose is detected as input, the corresponding one-
+    letter-code (``A``, ``G``, ``T``, ``C``, ``U``) is returned.
+
+    If a different nucleotide is given, it is mapped to the best
+    fitting base using the algorithm described below.
+
+    (i) The number of matching atom names with the reference bases is
+        counted. If the number of matching atoms with all reference
+        bases is less than the specified `min_atoms_per_base`
+        (default 3) the nucleotide cannot be mapped and ``None`` is
+        returned.
+
+    (ii) The bases with maximum number of matching atoms are selected
+         and superimposed with each reference. The base with lowest RMSD
+         is chosen. If the RMSD is more than the specified
+         `rmsd_cutoff` (default 0.28) the nucleotide cannot be mapped
+         and ``None`` is returned.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    residue : AtomArray
+        The nucleotide to be mapped.
+    min_atoms_per_base : int, optional (default: 3)
+        The number of atoms the residue must have in common with the
+        reference.
+    rmsd_cutoff : float, optional (default: 0.28)
+        The maximum RSMD that is allowed for a mapping to occur.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    one_letter_code : str
+        The one-letter-code of the mapped base. ``None`` if no base can
+        be mapped.
+    exact_match : bool
+        Wether or not the residue name exactly matches one of the common
+        bases, i.e. the ``res_name`` of the input `residue` is one of
+        ``A``, ``G``, ``T``, ``C``, ``U``, ``DA``, ``DG``, ``DT``,
+        ``DC`` or ``DU``.
+
+    Notes
+    -----
+    The default RMSD cutoff was chosen according to :footcite:`Lu2015`,
+    where the same cutoff is used to detect if a given base is a
+    nucleotide, by superimposing the base ring atoms onto a reference
+    structure.
+
+    References
+    ----------
+
+    .. footbibliography::
+    """
+    # Check if the residue is a 'standard' nucleotide
+    if residue.res_name[0] in _REFERENCE_NUCLEOTIDE_NAMES:
+        return residue.res_name[0][-1], True
+
+    # List of the standard bases for easy iteration
+    std_base_list = [
+        _STD_ADENINE, _STD_THYMINE, _STD_CYTOSINE, _STD_GUANINE,
+        _STD_URACIL
+    ]
+
+    # The number of matched atoms for each 'standard' base
+    matched_atom_no = [
+        np.sum(np.isin(ref_base.atom_name, residue.atom_name))
+        for ref_base in std_base_list
+    ]
+
+    if np.max(matched_atom_no) < min_atoms_per_base:
+        warnings.warn(
+            f"Base with res_id {residue.res_id[0]} and chain_id "
+            f"{residue.chain_id[0]} has an overlap with the reference "
+            f"bases which is less than {min_atoms_per_base} atoms. "
+            f"Unable to map nucleotide.",
+            IncompleteStructureWarning
+        )
+        return None, False
+
+    # The one letter code of the best matching reference base
+    best_base = None
+
+    # Iterate through the reference bases with the maximum number of
+    # matching atoms
+    for ref_base in np.array(std_base_list, dtype='object')[
+        np.array(matched_atom_no) == np.max(matched_atom_no)
+    ]:
+        # Copy the residue as the res_name property of the ``AtomArray``
+        # has to be modified for later function calls.
+        nuc = residue.copy()
+
+        # Select the matching atoms of the nucleotide and the reference
+        # base
+        nuc = nuc[
+            np.isin(nuc.atom_name, ref_base.atom_name)
+        ]
+        ref_base_matched = ref_base[
+            np.isin(ref_base.atom_name, nuc.atom_name)
+        ]
+
+        # Set the res_name property to the same as the reference base.
+        # This is a requirement for ``standardize_order``
+        nuc.res_name = ref_base_matched.res_name
+        # Reorder the atoms of the nucleotide to obtain the standard
+        # RCSB PDB atom order. If a residue contains multiple atoms with
+        # the same ``atom_name`` an exception is thrown by
+        # ``standardize_order``. The exception is caught and the
+        # selected reference is disregarded
+        try:
+            nuc = nuc[standardize_order(nuc)]
+        except Exception:
+            continue
+
+        # Superimpose the nucleotide to the reference base
+        fitted, _ = superimpose(ref_base_matched, nuc)
+
+        # If the RMSD is lower than the specified cutoff or better than
+        # a previous found reference, the current reference is selected
+        # as best base
+        if(rmsd(fitted, ref_base_matched) < rmsd_cutoff):
+            rmsd_cutoff = rmsd(fitted, ref_base_matched)
+            best_base = ref_base_matched.res_name[0][-1]
+
+    if best_base is None:
+        warnings.warn(
+            f"Base Type {residue.res_name[0]} not supported. ",
+            UnexpectedStructureWarning
+        )
+        return None
+
+    return best_base, False
+
+
+def _get_proximate_residues(atom_array, boolean_mask, cutoff):
+    """
+    Filter for residue pairs based on the distance between selected
+    atoms.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    atom_array : AtomArray, shape=(n,)
+        The :class:`AtomArray`` to find basepair candidates in.
+    boolean_mask : ndarray, dtype=bool, shape=(n,)
+        The selection of atoms.
+    cutoff : integer
+        The maximum distance between the atoms of the two residues.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    pairs : ndarray, dtype=int, shape=(n,2)
+        Contains the basepair candidates. Each row is equivalent to one
+        potential basepair. bases are represented as the first indices
+        of their corresponding residues.
+    count : ndarray, dtype=int, shape=(n,)
+        The number of atom pairs between the residues within the
+        specified cutoff
+    """
+
+    # Get the indices of the atoms that are within the maximum cutoff
+    # of each other
+    indices = CellList(
+        atom_array, cutoff, selection=boolean_mask
+    ).get_atoms(atom_array.coord[boolean_mask], cutoff)
+
+    # Loop through the indices of potential partners
+    pairs = []
+    for candidate, partners in zip(np.argwhere(boolean_mask)[:, 0], indices):
+        for partner in partners:
+            if partner != -1:
+                pairs.append((candidate, partner))
+
+    # Get the residue starts for the indices of the candidate/partner
+    # indices.
+    pairs = np.array(pairs)
+    basepair_candidates_shape = pairs.shape
+    pairs = get_residue_starts_for(
+        atom_array, pairs.flatten()
+    ).reshape(basepair_candidates_shape)
+
+    # Remove candidates where the pairs are from the same residue
+    pairs = np.delete(
+        pairs, np.where(
+            pairs[:,0] == pairs[:,1]
+        ), axis=0
+    )
+    # Sort the residue starts for each pair
+    for i, candidate in enumerate(pairs):
+        pairs[i] = sorted(candidate)
+    # Make sure each pair is only listed once, count the occurrences
+    pairs, count = np.unique(pairs, axis=0, return_counts=True)
+
+    return pairs, count
+
+
+def _filter_atom_type(atom_array, atom_names):
+    """
+    Get all atoms with specified atom names.
+
+    Parameters
+    ----------
+    atom_array : AtomArray
+        The :class:`AtomArray` to filter.
+    atom_names : array_like
+        The desired atom names.
+
+    Returns
+    -------
+    filter : ndarray, dtype=bool
+        This array is ``True`` for all indices in the :class:`AtomArray`
+        , where the atom has the desired atom names.
+    """
+    return (np.isin(atom_array.atom_name, atom_names)
+            & (atom_array.res_id != -1))