Cython 3.3.0__cp315-cp315-win_amd64.whl

Cython/Compiler/ParseTreeTransforms.py

@@ -0,0 +1,4808 @@
+import cython
+cython.declare(PyrexTypes=object, Naming=object, ExprNodes=object, Nodes=object,
+               Options=object, UtilNodes=object, LetNode=object,
+               LetRefNode=object, TreeFragment=object, EncodedString=object,
+               error=object, warning=object, copy=object, hashlib=object,
+               itemgetter=object)
+
+import copy
+import hashlib
+from operator import itemgetter
+
+from . import Code
+from . import PyrexTypes
+from . import Naming
+from . import ExprNodes
+from . import Nodes
+from . import Options
+from . import Builtin
+from . import Errors
+
+from .Visitor import VisitorTransform, TreeVisitor
+from .Visitor import CythonTransform, EnvTransform, ScopeTrackingTransform
+from .UtilNodes import LetNode, LetRefNode
+from .TreeFragment import TreeFragment
+from .StringEncoding import EncodedString
+from .Errors import error, warning, CompileError, InternalError
+
+
+class SkipDeclarations:
+    """
+    Variable and function declarations can often have a deep tree structure,
+    and yet most transformations don't need to descend to this depth.
+
+    Declaration nodes are removed after AnalyseDeclarationsTransform, so there
+    is no need to use this for transformations after that point.
+    """
+    def visit_CTypeDefNode(self, node):
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CVarDefNode(self, node):
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CDeclaratorNode(self, node):
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CBaseTypeNode(self, node):
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CEnumDefNode(self, node):
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CStructOrUnionDefNode(self, node):
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CppClassNode(self, node):
+        if node.visibility != "extern":
+            # Need to traverse methods.
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+
+class NormalizeTree(CythonTransform):
+    """
+    This transform fixes up a few things after parsing
+    in order to make the parse tree more suitable for
+    transforms.
+
+    a) After parsing, blocks with only one statement will
+    be represented by that statement, not by a StatListNode.
+    When doing transforms this is annoying and inconsistent,
+    as one cannot in general remove a statement in a consistent
+    way and so on. This transform wraps any single statements
+    in a StatListNode containing a single statement.
+
+    b) The PassStatNode is a noop and serves no purpose beyond
+    plugging such one-statement blocks; i.e., once parsed a
+`    "pass" can just as well be represented using an empty
+    StatListNode. This means less special cases to worry about
+    in subsequent transforms (one always checks to see if a
+    StatListNode has no children to see if the block is empty).
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, context):
+        super().__init__(context)
+        self.is_in_statlist = False
+        self.is_in_expr = False
+
+    def visit_ModuleNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        if not isinstance(node.body, Nodes.StatListNode):
+            # This can happen when the body only consists of a single (unused) declaration and no statements.
+            node.body = Nodes.StatListNode(pos=node.pos, stats=[node.body])
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ExprNode(self, node):
+        stacktmp = self.is_in_expr
+        self.is_in_expr = True
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.is_in_expr = stacktmp
+        return node
+
+    def visit_StatNode(self, node, is_listcontainer=False):
+        stacktmp = self.is_in_statlist
+        self.is_in_statlist = is_listcontainer
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.is_in_statlist = stacktmp
+        if not self.is_in_statlist and not self.is_in_expr:
+            return Nodes.StatListNode(pos=node.pos, stats=[node])
+        else:
+            return node
+
+    def visit_StatListNode(self, node):
+        self.is_in_statlist = True
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.is_in_statlist = False
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ParallelAssignmentNode(self, node):
+        return self.visit_StatNode(node, True)
+
+    def visit_CEnumDefNode(self, node):
+        return self.visit_StatNode(node, True)
+
+    def visit_CStructOrUnionDefNode(self, node):
+        return self.visit_StatNode(node, True)
+
+    def visit_ExprStatNode(self, node):
+        """Eliminate useless string literals"""
+        if node.expr.is_string_literal:
+            return Nodes.PassStatNode(node.expr.pos)
+        else:
+            return self.visit_StatNode(node)
+
+    def visit_CDeclaratorNode(self, node):
+        return node
+
+
+class PostParseError(CompileError): pass
+
+# error strings checked by unit tests, so define them
+ERR_CDEF_INCLASS = 'Cannot assign default value to fields in cdef classes, structs or unions'
+ERR_BUF_DEFAULTS = 'Invalid buffer defaults specification (see docs)'
+ERR_INVALID_SPECIALATTR_TYPE = 'Special attributes must not have a type declared'
+class PostParse(ScopeTrackingTransform):
+    """
+    Basic interpretation of the parse tree, as well as validity
+    checking that can be done on a very basic level on the parse
+    tree (while still not being a problem with the basic syntax,
+    as such).
+
+    Specifically:
+    - Default values to cdef assignments are turned into single
+    assignments following the declaration (everywhere but in class
+    bodies, where they raise a compile error)
+
+    - Interpret some node structures into Python runtime values.
+    Some nodes take compile-time arguments (currently:
+    TemplatedTypeNode[args] and __cythonbufferdefaults__ = {args}),
+    which should be interpreted. This happens in a general way
+    and other steps should be taken to ensure validity.
+
+    Type arguments cannot be interpreted in this way.
+
+    - For __cythonbufferdefaults__ the arguments are checked for
+    validity.
+
+    TemplatedTypeNode has its directives interpreted:
+    Any first positional argument goes into the "dtype" attribute,
+    any "ndim" keyword argument goes into the "ndim" attribute and
+    so on. Also it is checked that the directive combination is valid.
+    - __cythonbufferdefaults__ attributes are parsed and put into the
+    type information.
+
+    Note: Currently Parsing.py does a lot of interpretation and
+    reorganization that can be refactored into this transform
+    if a more pure Abstract Syntax Tree is wanted.
+
+    - Some invalid uses of := assignment expressions are detected
+
+    - Validate that return, continue and break aren't in except*
+    """
+    def __init__(self, context):
+        super().__init__(context)
+        self.specialattribute_handlers = {
+            '__cythonbufferdefaults__' : self.handle_bufferdefaults
+        }
+        self.except_star_validation_tracker = None
+        self.in_pattern_node = False
+
+    def visit_LambdaNode(self, node):
+        # unpack a lambda expression into the corresponding DefNode
+        collector = YieldNodeCollector()
+        collector.visitchildren(node.result_expr)
+        if collector.has_yield or collector.has_await or isinstance(node.result_expr, ExprNodes.YieldExprNode):
+            body = Nodes.ExprStatNode(
+                node.result_expr.pos, expr=node.result_expr)
+        else:
+            body = Nodes.ReturnStatNode(
+                node.result_expr.pos, value=node.result_expr)
+        node.def_node = Nodes.DefNode(
+            node.pos, name=node.name,
+            args=node.args, star_arg=node.star_arg,
+            starstar_arg=node.starstar_arg,
+            body=body, doc=None)
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_GeneratorExpressionNode(self, node):
+        # unpack a generator expression into the corresponding DefNode
+        collector = YieldNodeCollector()
+        collector.visitchildren(node.loop, attrs=None, exclude=["iterator"])
+        node.def_node = Nodes.DefNode(
+            node.pos, name=node.name, doc=None,
+            args=[], star_arg=None, starstar_arg=None,
+            body=node.loop, is_async_def=collector.has_await,
+            is_generator_expression=True)
+        _AssignmentExpressionChecker.do_checks(node.loop, scope_is_class=self.scope_type in ("pyclass", "cclass"))
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ComprehensionNode(self, node):
+        # enforce local scope also in Py2 for async generators (seriously, that's a Py3.6 feature...)
+        if not node.has_local_scope:
+            collector = YieldNodeCollector()
+            collector.visitchildren(node.loop)
+            if collector.has_await:
+                node.has_local_scope = True
+        _AssignmentExpressionChecker.do_checks(node.loop, scope_is_class=self.scope_type in ("pyclass", "cclass"))
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    # cdef variables
+    def handle_bufferdefaults(self, decl):
+        if not isinstance(decl.default, ExprNodes.DictNode):
+            raise PostParseError(decl.pos, ERR_BUF_DEFAULTS)
+        self.scope_node.buffer_defaults_node = decl.default
+        self.scope_node.buffer_defaults_pos = decl.pos
+
+    def visit_CVarDefNode(self, node):
+        # This assumes only plain names and pointers are assignable on
+        # declaration. Also, it makes use of the fact that a cdef decl
+        # must appear before the first use, so we don't have to deal with
+        # "i = 3; cdef int i = i" and can simply move the nodes around.
+        try:
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+            stats = [node]
+            newdecls = []
+            for decl in node.declarators:
+                declbase = decl
+                while isinstance(declbase, (Nodes.CPtrDeclaratorNode, Nodes.CQualifierDeclaratorNode)):
+                    declbase = declbase.base
+                if isinstance(declbase, Nodes.CNameDeclaratorNode):
+                    if declbase.default is not None:
+                        if self.scope_type in ('cclass', 'pyclass', 'struct'):
+                            if isinstance(self.scope_node, Nodes.CClassDefNode):
+                                handler = self.specialattribute_handlers.get(decl.name)
+                                if handler:
+                                    if decl is not declbase:
+                                        raise PostParseError(decl.pos, ERR_INVALID_SPECIALATTR_TYPE)
+                                    handler(decl)
+                                    continue  # Remove declaration
+                            raise PostParseError(decl.pos, ERR_CDEF_INCLASS)
+                        first_assignment = self.scope_type != 'module'
+                        stats.append(Nodes.SingleAssignmentNode(node.pos,
+                            lhs=ExprNodes.NameNode(node.pos, name=declbase.name),
+                            rhs=declbase.default, first=first_assignment,
+                            from_pxd_cvardef=node.in_pxd))
+                        declbase.default = None
+                newdecls.append(decl)
+            node.declarators = newdecls
+            return stats
+        except PostParseError as e:
+            # An error in a cdef clause is ok, simply remove the declaration
+            # and try to move on to report more errors
+            self.context.nonfatal_error(e)
+            return None
+
+    # Split parallel assignments (a,b = b,a) into separate partial
+    # assignments that are executed rhs-first using temps.  This
+    # restructuring must be applied before type analysis so that known
+    # types on rhs and lhs can be matched directly.  It is required in
+    # the case that the types cannot be coerced to a Python type in
+    # order to assign from a tuple.
+
+    def visit_SingleAssignmentNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return self._visit_assignment_node(node, [node.lhs, node.rhs])
+
+    def visit_CascadedAssignmentNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return self._visit_assignment_node(node, node.lhs_list + [node.rhs])
+
+    def _visit_assignment_node(self, node, expr_list):
+        """Flatten parallel assignments into separate single
+        assignments or cascaded assignments.
+        """
+        if sum([ 1 for expr in expr_list
+                 if expr.is_sequence_constructor or expr.is_string_literal ]) < 2:
+            # no parallel assignments => nothing to do
+            return node
+
+        expr_list_list = []
+        flatten_parallel_assignments(expr_list, expr_list_list)
+        temp_refs = []
+        eliminate_rhs_duplicates(expr_list_list, temp_refs)
+
+        nodes = []
+        for expr_list in expr_list_list:
+            lhs_list = expr_list[:-1]
+            rhs = expr_list[-1]
+            if len(lhs_list) == 1:
+                node = Nodes.SingleAssignmentNode(rhs.pos,
+                    lhs = lhs_list[0], rhs = rhs)
+            else:
+                node = Nodes.CascadedAssignmentNode(rhs.pos,
+                    lhs_list = lhs_list, rhs = rhs)
+            nodes.append(node)
+
+        if len(nodes) == 1:
+            assign_node = nodes[0]
+        else:
+            assign_node = Nodes.ParallelAssignmentNode(nodes[0].pos, stats = nodes)
+
+        if temp_refs:
+            duplicates_and_temps = [ (temp.expression, temp)
+                                     for temp in temp_refs ]
+            sort_common_subsequences(duplicates_and_temps)
+            for _, temp_ref in duplicates_and_temps[::-1]:
+                assign_node = LetNode(temp_ref, assign_node)
+
+        return assign_node
+
+    def _flatten_sequence(self, seq, result):
+        for arg in seq.args:
+            if arg.is_sequence_constructor:
+                self._flatten_sequence(arg, result)
+            else:
+                result.append(arg)
+        return result
+
+    def visit_DelStatNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        node.args = self._flatten_sequence(node, [])
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ExceptClauseNode(self, node):
+        if node.is_except_as:
+            # except-as must delete NameNode target at the end
+            del_target = Nodes.DelStatNode(
+                node.pos,
+                args=[ExprNodes.NameNode(
+                    node.target.pos, name=node.target.name)],
+                ignore_nonexisting=True)
+            node.body = Nodes.StatListNode(
+                node.pos,
+                stats=[Nodes.TryFinallyStatNode(
+                    node.pos,
+                    body=node.body,
+                    finally_clause=Nodes.StatListNode(
+                        node.pos,
+                        stats=[del_target]))])
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_AssertStatNode(self, node):
+        """Extract the exception raising into a RaiseStatNode to simplify GIL handling.
+        """
+        if node.exception is None:
+            node.exception = Nodes.RaiseStatNode(
+                node.pos,
+                exc_type=ExprNodes.NameNode(node.pos, name=EncodedString("AssertionError")),
+                exc_value=node.value,
+                exc_tb=None,
+                cause=None,
+                builtin_exc_name="AssertionError",
+                wrap_tuple_value=True,
+            )
+            node.value = None
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def _track_node_for_except_star_validation(self, node):
+        old_validation_tracker = self.except_star_validation_tracker
+        self.except_star_validation_tracker = node
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.except_star_validation_tracker = old_validation_tracker
+        return node
+
+    def visit_LoopNode(self, node):
+        return self._track_node_for_except_star_validation(node)
+
+    def visit_FuncDefNode(self, node):
+        old_validation_tracker = self.except_star_validation_tracker
+        self.except_star_validation_tracker = node
+        node = super(PostParse, self).visit_FuncDefNode(node)
+        self.except_star_validation_tracker = old_validation_tracker
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ExceptStarChainNode(self, node):
+        return self._track_node_for_except_star_validation(node)
+
+    def _validate_break_return_continue_in_except_star(self, node):
+        if isinstance(self.except_star_validation_tracker, Nodes.ExceptStarChainNode):
+            # error message copied from Python 3.11
+            raise PostParseError(node.pos, "'break', 'continue' and 'return' cannot appear in an except* block")
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ReturnStatNode(self, node):
+        return self._validate_break_return_continue_in_except_star(node)
+
+    def visit_BreakStatNode(self, node):
+        return self._validate_break_return_continue_in_except_star(node)
+
+    def visit_ContinueStatNode(self, node):
+        return self._validate_break_return_continue_in_except_star(node)
+
+    def visit_ErrorNode(self, node):
+        error(node.pos, node.what)
+        return None
+
+    def visit_MatchCaseNode(self, node):
+        node.validate_targets()
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_MatchNode(self, node):
+        node.validate_irrefutable()
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_PatternNode(self, node):
+        in_pattern_node, self.in_pattern_node = self.in_pattern_node, True
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.in_pattern_node = in_pattern_node
+        return node
+
+    def visit_JoinedStrNode(self, node):
+        if self.in_pattern_node:
+            error(node.pos, "f-strings are not accepted for pattern matching")
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_DefNode(self, node):
+        if (self.scope_type == "cclass" and
+                node.name in ["__getreadbuffer__", "__getwritebuffer__", "__getsegcount__", "__getcharbuffer__"]):
+            warning(node.pos, f"'{node.name}' relates to the old Python 2 buffer protocol "
+                    "and is no longer used.", 2)
+            return None  # drop the node - the arguments are invalid for a def node
+        return self.visit_FuncDefNode(node)
+
+
+class _AssignmentExpressionTargetNameFinder(TreeVisitor):
+    def __init__(self):
+        super().__init__()
+        self.target_names = {}
+
+    def find_target_names(self, target):
+        if target.is_name:
+            return [target.name]
+        elif target.is_sequence_constructor:
+            names = []
+            for arg in target.args:
+                names.extend(self.find_target_names(arg))
+            return names
+        # other targets are possible, but it isn't necessary to investigate them here
+        return []
+
+    def visit_ForInStatNode(self, node):
+        self.target_names[node] = tuple(self.find_target_names(node.target))
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+
+    def visit_ComprehensionNode(self, node):
+        pass  # don't recurse into nested comprehensions
+
+    def visit_LambdaNode(self, node):
+        pass  # don't recurse into nested lambdas/generator expressions
+
+    def visit_Node(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+
+
+class _AssignmentExpressionChecker(TreeVisitor):
+    """
+    Enforces rules on AssignmentExpressions within generator expressions and comprehensions
+    """
+    def __init__(self, loop_node, scope_is_class):
+        super().__init__()
+
+        target_name_finder = _AssignmentExpressionTargetNameFinder()
+        target_name_finder.visit(loop_node)
+        self.target_names_dict = target_name_finder.target_names
+        self.in_iterator = False
+        self.in_nested_generator = False
+        self.scope_is_class = scope_is_class
+        self.current_target_names = ()
+        self.all_target_names = set()
+        for names in self.target_names_dict.values():
+            self.all_target_names.update(names)
+
+    def _reset_state(self):
+        old_state = (self.in_iterator, self.in_nested_generator, self.scope_is_class, self.all_target_names, self.current_target_names)
+        # note: not resetting self.in_iterator here, see visit_LambdaNode() below
+        self.in_nested_generator = False
+        self.scope_is_class = False
+        self.current_target_names = ()
+        self.all_target_names = set()
+        return old_state
+
+    def _set_state(self, old_state):
+        self.in_iterator, self.in_nested_generator, self.scope_is_class, self.all_target_names, self.current_target_names = old_state
+
+    @classmethod
+    def do_checks(cls, loop_node, scope_is_class):
+        checker = cls(loop_node, scope_is_class)
+        checker.visit(loop_node)
+
+    def visit_ForInStatNode(self, node):
+        if self.in_nested_generator:
+            self.visitchildren(node)  # once nested, don't do anything special
+            return
+
+        current_target_names = self.current_target_names
+        target_name = self.target_names_dict.get(node, None)
+        if target_name:
+            self.current_target_names += target_name
+
+        self.in_iterator = True
+        self.visit(node.iterator)
+        self.in_iterator = False
+        self.visitchildren(node, exclude=("iterator",))
+
+        self.current_target_names = current_target_names
+
+    def visit_AssignmentExpressionNode(self, node):
+        if self.in_iterator:
+            error(node.pos, "assignment expression cannot be used in a comprehension iterable expression")
+        if self.scope_is_class:
+            error(node.pos, "assignment expression within a comprehension cannot be used in a class body")
+        if node.target_name in self.current_target_names:
+            error(node.pos, "assignment expression cannot rebind comprehension iteration variable '%s'" %
+                  node.target_name)
+        elif node.target_name in self.all_target_names:
+            error(node.pos, "comprehension inner loop cannot rebind assignment expression target '%s'" %
+                  node.target_name)
+
+    def visit_LambdaNode(self, node):
+        # Don't reset "in_iterator" - an assignment expression in a lambda in an
+        # iterator is explicitly tested by the Python testcases and banned.
+        old_state = self._reset_state()
+        # the lambda node's "def_node" is not set up at this point, so we need to recurse into it explicitly.
+        self.visit(node.result_expr)
+        self._set_state(old_state)
+
+    def visit_ComprehensionNode(self, node):
+        in_nested_generator = self.in_nested_generator
+        self.in_nested_generator = True
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.in_nested_generator = in_nested_generator
+
+    def visit_GeneratorExpressionNode(self, node):
+        in_nested_generator = self.in_nested_generator
+        self.in_nested_generator = True
+        # def_node isn't set up yet, so we need to visit the loop directly.
+        self.visit(node.loop)
+        self.in_nested_generator = in_nested_generator
+
+    def visit_Node(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+
+
+def eliminate_rhs_duplicates(expr_list_list, ref_node_sequence):
+    """Replace rhs items by LetRefNodes if they appear more than once.
+    Creates a sequence of LetRefNodes that set up the required temps
+    and appends them to ref_node_sequence.  The input list is modified
+    in-place.
+    """
+    seen_nodes = set()
+    ref_nodes = {}
+    def find_duplicates(node):
+        if node.is_literal or node.is_name:
+            # no need to replace those; can't include attributes here
+            # as their access is not necessarily side-effect free
+            return
+        if node in seen_nodes:
+            if node not in ref_nodes:
+                ref_node = LetRefNode(node)
+                ref_nodes[node] = ref_node
+                ref_node_sequence.append(ref_node)
+        else:
+            seen_nodes.add(node)
+            if node.is_sequence_constructor:
+                for item in node.args:
+                    find_duplicates(item)
+
+    for expr_list in expr_list_list:
+        rhs = expr_list[-1]
+        find_duplicates(rhs)
+    if not ref_nodes:
+        return
+
+    def substitute_nodes(node):
+        if node in ref_nodes:
+            return ref_nodes[node]
+        elif node.is_sequence_constructor:
+            node.args = list(map(substitute_nodes, node.args))
+        return node
+
+    # replace nodes inside of the common subexpressions
+    for node in ref_nodes:
+        if node.is_sequence_constructor:
+            node.args = list(map(substitute_nodes, node.args))
+
+    # replace common subexpressions on all rhs items
+    for expr_list in expr_list_list:
+        expr_list[-1] = substitute_nodes(expr_list[-1])
+
+def sort_common_subsequences(items):
+    """Sort items/subsequences so that all items and subsequences that
+    an item contains appear before the item itself.  This is needed
+    because each rhs item must only be evaluated once, so its value
+    must be evaluated first and then reused when packing sequences
+    that contain it.
+
+    This implies a partial order, and the sort must be stable to
+    preserve the original order as much as possible, so we use a
+    simple insertion sort (which is very fast for short sequences, the
+    normal case in practice).
+    """
+    def contains(seq, x):
+        for item in seq:
+            if item is x:
+                return True
+            elif item.is_sequence_constructor and contains(item.args, x):
+                return True
+        return False
+    def lower_than(a,b):
+        return b.is_sequence_constructor and contains(b.args, a)
+
+    for pos, item in enumerate(items):
+        key = item[1]  # the ResultRefNode which has already been injected into the sequences
+        new_pos = pos
+        for i in range(pos-1, -1, -1):
+            if lower_than(key, items[i][0]):
+                new_pos = i
+        if new_pos != pos:
+            for i in range(pos, new_pos, -1):
+                items[i] = items[i-1]
+            items[new_pos] = item
+
+
+def unpack_string_to_character_literals(literal):
+    chars = []
+    pos = literal.pos
+    stype = literal.__class__
+    sval = literal.value
+    sval_type = sval.__class__
+    for char in sval:
+        cval = sval_type(char)
+        chars.append(stype(pos, value=cval))
+    return chars
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def flatten_parallel_assignments(input: list, output: list):
+    #  The input is a list of expression nodes, representing the LHSs
+    #  and RHS of one (possibly cascaded) assignment statement.  For
+    #  sequence constructors, rearranges the matching parts of both
+    #  sides into a list of equivalent assignments between the
+    #  individual elements.  This transformation is applied
+    #  recursively, so that nested structures get matched as well.
+    rhs = input[-1]
+    if (not (rhs.is_sequence_constructor or isinstance(rhs, ExprNodes.UnicodeNode))
+            or not sum([lhs.is_sequence_constructor for lhs in input[:-1]])):
+        output.append(input)
+        return
+
+    complete_assignments = []
+
+    if rhs.is_sequence_constructor:
+        rhs_args = rhs.args
+    elif rhs.is_string_literal:
+        rhs_args = unpack_string_to_character_literals(rhs)
+
+    starred_targets: cython.Py_ssize_t
+    lhs_size: cython.Py_ssize_t
+    rhs_size: cython.Py_ssize_t = len(rhs_args)
+    lhs_targets = [[] for _ in range(rhs_size)]
+    starred_assignments = []
+
+    for lhs in input[:-1]:
+        if not lhs.is_sequence_constructor:
+            if lhs.is_starred:
+                error(lhs.pos, "starred assignment target must be in a list or tuple")
+            complete_assignments.append(lhs)
+            continue
+        lhs_size = len(lhs.args)
+        starred_targets = 0
+        for expr in lhs.args:
+            starred_targets += bool(expr.is_starred)
+        if starred_targets > 1:
+            error(lhs.pos, "more than 1 starred expression in assignment")
+            output.append([lhs,rhs])
+            continue
+        elif lhs_size - starred_targets > rhs_size:
+            error(lhs.pos, "need more than %d value%s to unpack"
+                  % (rhs_size, (rhs_size != 1) and 's' or ''))
+            output.append([lhs,rhs])
+            continue
+        elif starred_targets:
+            map_starred_assignment(lhs_targets, starred_assignments,
+                                   lhs.args, rhs_args)
+        elif lhs_size < rhs_size:
+            error(lhs.pos, "too many values to unpack (expected %d, got %d)"
+                  % (lhs_size, rhs_size))
+            output.append([lhs,rhs])
+            continue
+        else:
+            for targets, expr in zip(lhs_targets, lhs.args):
+                targets.append(expr)
+
+    if complete_assignments:
+        complete_assignments.append(rhs)
+        output.append(complete_assignments)
+
+    # recursively flatten partial assignments
+    for cascade, rhs in zip(lhs_targets, rhs_args):
+        if cascade:
+            cascade.append(rhs)
+            flatten_parallel_assignments(cascade, output)
+
+    # recursively flatten starred assignments
+    for cascade in starred_assignments:
+        if cascade[0].is_sequence_constructor:
+            flatten_parallel_assignments(cascade, output)
+        else:
+            output.append(cascade)
+
+
+@cython.cfunc
+def map_starred_assignment(lhs_targets: list, starred_assignments: list, lhs_args: list, rhs_args: list):
+    # Appends the fixed-position LHS targets to the target list that
+    # appear left and right of the starred argument.
+    #
+    # The starred_assignments list receives a new tuple
+    # (lhs_target, rhs_values_list) that maps the remaining arguments
+    # (those that match the starred target) to a list.
+
+    # left side of the starred target
+    i: cython.Py_ssize_t
+    starred: cython.Py_ssize_t
+    lhs_remaining: cython.Py_ssize_t
+    for i, (targets, expr) in enumerate(zip(lhs_targets, lhs_args)):
+        if expr.is_starred:
+            starred = i
+            lhs_remaining = len(lhs_args) - i - 1
+            break
+        targets.append(expr)
+    else:
+        raise InternalError("no starred arg found when splitting starred assignment")
+
+    # right side of the starred target
+    for i, (targets, expr) in enumerate(zip(lhs_targets[-lhs_remaining:],
+                                            lhs_args[starred + 1:])):
+        targets.append(expr)
+
+    # the starred target itself, must be assigned a (potentially empty) list
+    target = lhs_args[starred].target  # unpack starred node
+    starred_rhs = rhs_args[starred:]
+    if lhs_remaining:
+        starred_rhs = starred_rhs[:-lhs_remaining]
+    if starred_rhs:
+        pos = starred_rhs[0].pos
+    else:
+        pos = target.pos
+    starred_assignments.append([
+        target, ExprNodes.ListNode(pos=pos, args=starred_rhs)])
+
+
+class PxdPostParse(CythonTransform, SkipDeclarations):
+    """
+    Basic interpretation/validity checking that should only be
+    done on pxd trees.
+
+    A lot of this checking currently happens in the parser; but
+    what is listed below happens here.
+
+    - "def" functions are let through only if they fill the
+    getbuffer/releasebuffer slots
+
+    - cdef functions are let through only if they are on the
+    top level and are declared "inline"
+    """
+    ERR_INLINE_ONLY = "function definition in pxd file must be declared 'cdef inline'"
+    ERR_NOGO_WITH_INLINE = "inline function definition in pxd file cannot be '%s'"
+
+    def __call__(self, node):
+        self.scope_type = 'pxd'
+        return super().__call__(node)
+
+    def visit_CClassDefNode(self, node):
+        old = self.scope_type
+        self.scope_type = 'cclass'
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.scope_type = old
+        return node
+
+    def visit_FuncDefNode(self, node):
+        # FuncDefNode always come with an implementation (without
+        # an imp they are CVarDefNodes..)
+        err = self.ERR_INLINE_ONLY
+
+        if (isinstance(node, Nodes.DefNode) and self.scope_type == 'cclass'
+                and node.name in ('__getbuffer__', '__releasebuffer__')):
+            err = None  # allow these slots
+
+        if isinstance(node, Nodes.CFuncDefNode):
+            if ('inline' in node.modifiers and
+                    self.scope_type in ('pxd', 'cclass')):
+                node.inline_in_pxd = True
+                if node.visibility != 'private':
+                    err = self.ERR_NOGO_WITH_INLINE % node.visibility
+                elif node.api:
+                    err = self.ERR_NOGO_WITH_INLINE % 'api'
+                else:
+                    err = None  # allow inline function
+            else:
+                err = self.ERR_INLINE_ONLY
+
+        if err:
+            self.context.nonfatal_error(PostParseError(node.pos, err))
+            return None
+        else:
+            return node
+
+
+class TrackNumpyAttributes(VisitorTransform, SkipDeclarations):
+    # TODO: Make name handling as good as in InterpretCompilerDirectives() below - probably best to merge the two.
+    def __init__(self):
+        super().__init__()
+        self.numpy_module_names = set()
+
+    def visit_CImportStatNode(self, node):
+        if node.module_name == "numpy":
+            self.numpy_module_names.add(node.as_name or "numpy")
+        return node
+
+    def visit_AttributeNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        obj = node.obj
+        if (obj.is_name and obj.name in self.numpy_module_names) or obj.is_numpy_attribute:
+            node.is_numpy_attribute = True
+        return node
+
+    visit_Node = VisitorTransform.recurse_to_children
+
+
+class InterpretCompilerDirectives(CythonTransform):
+    """
+    After parsing, directives can be stored in a number of places:
+    - #cython-comments at the top of the file (stored in ModuleNode)
+    - Command-line arguments overriding these
+    - @cython.directivename decorators
+    - with cython.directivename: statements
+    - replaces "cython.compiled" with BoolNode(value=True)
+      allowing unreachable blocks to be removed at a fairly early stage
+      before cython typing rules are forced on applied
+
+    This transform is responsible for interpreting these various sources
+    and store the directive in two ways:
+    - Set the directives attribute of the ModuleNode for global directives.
+    - Use a CompilerDirectivesNode to override directives for a subtree.
+
+    (The first one is primarily to not have to modify with the tree
+    structure, so that ModuleNode stay on top.)
+
+    The directives are stored in dictionaries from name to value in effect.
+    Each such dictionary is always filled in for all possible directives,
+    using default values where no value is given by the user.
+
+    The available directives are controlled in Options.py.
+
+    Note that we have to run this prior to analysis, and so some minor
+    duplication of functionality has to occur: We manually track cimports
+    and which names the "cython" module may have been imported to.
+    """
+    unop_method_nodes = {
+        'typeof': ExprNodes.TypeofNode,
+
+        'operator.address': ExprNodes.AmpersandNode,
+        'operator.dereference': ExprNodes.DereferenceNode,
+        'operator.preincrement' : ExprNodes.inc_dec_constructor(True, '++'),
+        'operator.predecrement' : ExprNodes.inc_dec_constructor(True, '--'),
+        'operator.postincrement': ExprNodes.inc_dec_constructor(False, '++'),
+        'operator.postdecrement': ExprNodes.inc_dec_constructor(False, '--'),
+        'operator.typeid'       : ExprNodes.TypeidNode,
+
+        # For backwards compatibility.
+        'address': ExprNodes.AmpersandNode,
+    }
+
+    binop_method_nodes = {
+        'operator.comma'        : ExprNodes.c_binop_constructor(','),
+    }
+
+    special_methods = {
+        'declare', 'union', 'struct', 'typedef',
+        'sizeof', 'cast', 'pointer', 'compiled',
+        'NULL', 'fused_type', 'parallel', 'likely',
+        'unlikely'
+    }
+    special_methods.update(unop_method_nodes)
+
+    valid_cython_submodules = {
+        'cimports',
+        'dataclasses',
+        'operator',
+        'parallel',
+        'view',
+    }
+
+    valid_parallel_directives = {
+        "parallel",
+        "prange",
+        "threadid",
+        #"threadsavailable",
+    }
+
+    def __init__(self, context, compilation_directive_defaults):
+        super().__init__(context)
+        self.cython_module_names = set()
+        self.directive_names = {'staticmethod': 'staticmethod'}
+        self.parallel_directives = {}
+        directives = copy.deepcopy(Options.get_directive_defaults())
+        for key, value in compilation_directive_defaults.items():
+            directives[str(key)] = copy.deepcopy(value)
+        self.directives = directives
+
+    def check_directive_scope(self, pos, directive, scope):
+        legal_scopes = Options.directive_scopes.get(directive, None)
+        if legal_scopes and scope not in legal_scopes:
+            self.context.nonfatal_error(PostParseError(pos, 'The %s compiler directive '
+                                        'is not allowed in %s scope' % (directive, scope)))
+            return False
+        else:
+            if directive not in Options.directive_types:
+                error(pos, "Invalid directive: '%s'." % (directive,))
+            return True
+
+    def _check_valid_cython_module(self, pos, module_name):
+        if not module_name.startswith("cython."):
+            return
+        submodule = module_name.split('.', 2)[1]
+        if submodule in self.valid_cython_submodules:
+            return
+
+        extra = ""
+        # This is very rarely used, so don't waste space on static tuples.
+        hints = [
+            line.split() for line in """\
+                imp                  cimports
+                cimp                 cimports
+                para                 parallel
+                parra                parallel
+                dataclass            dataclasses
+            """.splitlines()[:-1]
+        ]
+        for wrong, correct in hints:
+            if module_name.startswith("cython." + wrong):
+                extra = "Did you mean 'cython.%s' ?" % correct
+                break
+        if not extra:
+            is_simple_cython_name = submodule in Options.directive_types
+            if not is_simple_cython_name and not submodule.startswith("_"):
+                # Try to find it in the Shadow module (i.e. the pure Python namespace of cython.*).
+                # FIXME: use an internal reference of "cython.*" names instead of Shadow.py
+                from .. import Shadow
+                is_simple_cython_name = hasattr(Shadow, submodule)
+            if is_simple_cython_name:
+                extra = "Instead, use 'import cython' and then 'cython.%s'." % submodule
+
+        error(pos, "'%s' is not a valid cython.* module%s%s" % (
+            module_name,
+            ". " if extra else "",
+            extra,
+        ))
+
+    # Set up processing and handle the cython: comments.
+    def visit_ModuleNode(self, node):
+        for key in sorted(node.directive_comments):
+            if not self.check_directive_scope(node.pos, key, 'module'):
+                self.wrong_scope_error(node.pos, key, 'module')
+                del node.directive_comments[key]
+
+        self.module_scope = node.scope
+
+        self.directives.update(node.directive_comments)
+        node.directives = self.directives
+        node.parallel_directives = self.parallel_directives
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        node.cython_module_names = self.cython_module_names
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CompilerDirectivesMixin(self, node):
+        with node.apply_directives(self):
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    # The following four functions track imports and cimports that
+    # begin with "cython"
+    def is_cython_directive(self, name):
+        return (name in Options.directive_types or
+                name in self.special_methods or
+                PyrexTypes.parse_basic_type(name))
+
+    def is_parallel_directive(self, full_name, pos):
+        """
+        Checks to see if fullname (e.g. cython.parallel.prange) is a valid
+        parallel directive. If it is a star import it also updates the
+        parallel_directives.
+        """
+        result = (full_name + ".").startswith("cython.parallel.")
+
+        if result:
+            directive = full_name.split('.')
+            if full_name == "cython.parallel":
+                self.parallel_directives["parallel"] = "cython.parallel"
+            elif full_name == "cython.parallel.*":
+                for name in self.valid_parallel_directives:
+                    self.parallel_directives[name] = "cython.parallel.%s" % name
+            elif (len(directive) != 3 or
+                  directive[-1] not in self.valid_parallel_directives):
+                error(pos, "No such directive: %s" % full_name)
+
+        return result
+
+    def visit_CImportStatNode(self, node):
+        module_name = node.module_name
+        if module_name == "cython.cimports":
+            error(node.pos, "Cannot cimport the 'cython.cimports' package directly, only submodules.")
+        if module_name.startswith("cython.cimports."):
+            if node.as_name and node.as_name != 'cython':
+                node.module_name = module_name[len("cython.cimports."):]
+                return node
+            error(node.pos,
+                  "Python cimports must use 'from cython.cimports... import ...'"
+                  " or 'import ... as ...', not just 'import ...'")
+
+        if module_name == "cython":
+            self.cython_module_names.add(node.as_name or "cython")
+        elif module_name.startswith("cython."):
+            if module_name.startswith("cython.parallel."):
+                error(node.pos, node.module_name + " is not a module")
+            else:
+                self._check_valid_cython_module(node.pos, module_name)
+
+            if module_name == "cython.parallel":
+                if node.as_name and node.as_name != "cython":
+                    self.parallel_directives[node.as_name] = module_name
+                else:
+                    self.cython_module_names.add("cython")
+                    self.parallel_directives[
+                                    "cython.parallel"] = module_name
+            elif node.as_name:
+                self.directive_names[node.as_name] = module_name[7:]
+            else:
+                self.cython_module_names.add("cython")
+            # if this cimport was a compiler directive, we don't
+            # want to leave the cimport node sitting in the tree
+            return None
+        return node
+
+    def visit_FromCImportStatNode(self, node):
+        module_name = node.module_name
+        if module_name == "cython.cimports" or module_name.startswith("cython.cimports."):
+            # only supported for convenience
+            return self._create_cimport_from_import(
+                node.pos, module_name, node.relative_level, node.imported_names)
+        elif not node.relative_level and (
+                module_name == "cython" or module_name.startswith("cython.")):
+            self._check_valid_cython_module(node.pos, module_name)
+            submodule = (module_name + ".")[7:]
+            newimp = []
+            for pos, name, as_name in node.imported_names:
+                full_name = submodule + name
+                qualified_name = "cython." + full_name
+                if self.is_parallel_directive(qualified_name, node.pos):
+                    # from cython cimport parallel, or
+                    # from cython.parallel cimport parallel, prange, ...
+                    self.parallel_directives[as_name or name] = qualified_name
+                elif self.is_cython_directive(full_name):
+                    self.directive_names[as_name or name] = full_name
+                elif full_name in ['dataclasses', 'typing']:
+                    self.directive_names[as_name or name] = full_name
+                    # unlike many directives, still treat it as a regular module
+                    newimp.append((pos, name, as_name))
+                else:
+                    newimp.append((pos, name, as_name))
+
+            if not newimp:
+                return None
+
+            node.imported_names = newimp
+        return node
+
+    def visit_FromImportStatNode(self, node):
+        import_node = node.module
+        module_name = import_node.module_name.value
+        if module_name == "cython.cimports" or module_name.startswith("cython.cimports."):
+            imported_names = []
+            for name, name_node in node.items:
+                imported_names.append(
+                    (name_node.pos, name, None if name == name_node.name else name_node.name))
+            return self._create_cimport_from_import(
+                node.pos, module_name, import_node.level, imported_names)
+        elif module_name == "cython" or module_name.startswith("cython."):
+            self._check_valid_cython_module(import_node.module_name.pos, module_name)
+            submodule = (module_name + ".")[7:]
+            newimp = []
+            for name, name_node in node.items:
+                full_name = submodule + name
+                qualified_name = "cython." + full_name
+                if self.is_parallel_directive(qualified_name, node.pos):
+                    self.parallel_directives[name_node.name] = qualified_name
+                elif self.is_cython_directive(full_name):
+                    self.directive_names[name_node.name] = full_name
+                else:
+                    newimp.append((name, name_node))
+            if not newimp:
+                return None
+            node.items = newimp
+        return node
+
+    def _create_cimport_from_import(self, node_pos, module_name, level, imported_names):
+        if module_name == "cython.cimports" or module_name.startswith("cython.cimports."):
+            module_name = EncodedString(module_name[len("cython.cimports."):])  # may be empty
+
+        if module_name:
+            # from cython.cimports.a.b import x, y, z  =>  from a.b cimport x, y, z
+            return Nodes.FromCImportStatNode(
+                node_pos, module_name=module_name,
+                relative_level=level,
+                imported_names=imported_names)
+        else:
+            # from cython.cimports import x, y, z  =>  cimport x; cimport y; cimport z
+            return [
+                Nodes.CImportStatNode(
+                    pos,
+                    module_name=dotted_name,
+                    as_name=as_name,
+                    is_absolute=level == 0)
+                for pos, dotted_name, as_name in imported_names
+            ]
+
+    def visit_SingleAssignmentNode(self, node):
+        if isinstance(node.rhs, ExprNodes.ImportNode):
+            module_name = node.rhs.module_name.value
+            if module_name != "cython" and not module_name.startswith("cython."):
+                return node
+
+            node = Nodes.CImportStatNode(node.pos, module_name=module_name, as_name=node.lhs.name)
+            node = self.visit_CImportStatNode(node)
+        else:
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+
+        return node
+
+    def visit_NameNode(self, node):
+        if node.annotation:
+            self.visitchild(node, 'annotation')
+        if node.name in self.cython_module_names:
+            node.is_cython_module = True
+        else:
+            directive = self.directive_names.get(node.name)
+            if directive is not None:
+                node.cython_attribute = directive
+        if node.as_cython_attribute() == "compiled":
+            return ExprNodes.BoolNode(node.pos, value=True)  # replace early so unused branches can be dropped
+                # before they have a chance to cause compile-errors
+        return node
+
+    def visit_AttributeNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        if node.as_cython_attribute() == "compiled":
+            return ExprNodes.BoolNode(node.pos, value=True)  # replace early so unused branches can be dropped
+                # before they have a chance to cause compile-errors
+        return node
+
+    def visit_AnnotationNode(self, node):
+        # for most transforms annotations are left unvisited (because they're unevaluated)
+        # however, it is important to pick up compiler directives from them
+        if node.expr:
+            self.visit(node.expr)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_NewExprNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchild(node, 'cppclass')
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def try_to_parse_directives(self, node):
+        # If node is the contents of an directive (in a with statement or
+        # decorator), returns a list of (directivename, value) pairs.
+        # Otherwise, returns None
+        if isinstance(node, ExprNodes.CallNode):
+            self.visitchild(node, 'function')
+            optname = node.function.as_cython_attribute()
+            if optname:
+                directivetype = Options.directive_types.get(optname)
+                if directivetype:
+                    args, kwds = node.explicit_args_kwds()
+                    directives = []
+                    key_value_pairs = []
+                    if kwds is not None and directivetype is not dict:
+                        for keyvalue in kwds.key_value_pairs:
+                            key, value = keyvalue
+                            sub_optname = "%s.%s" % (optname, key.value)
+                            if Options.directive_types.get(sub_optname):
+                                directives.append(self.try_to_parse_directive(sub_optname, [value], None, keyvalue.pos))
+                            else:
+                                key_value_pairs.append(keyvalue)
+                        if not key_value_pairs:
+                            kwds = None
+                        else:
+                            kwds.key_value_pairs = key_value_pairs
+                        if directives and not kwds and not args:
+                            return directives
+                    directives.append(self.try_to_parse_directive(optname, args, kwds, node.function.pos))
+                    return directives
+        elif isinstance(node, (ExprNodes.AttributeNode, ExprNodes.NameNode)):
+            self.visit(node)
+            optname = node.as_cython_attribute()
+            if optname:
+                directivetype = Options.directive_types.get(optname)
+                if directivetype is bool:
+                    arg = ExprNodes.BoolNode(node.pos, value=True)
+                    return [self.try_to_parse_directive(optname, [arg], None, node.pos)]
+                elif directivetype is None or directivetype is Options.DEFER_ANALYSIS_OF_ARGUMENTS:
+                    return [(optname, None)]
+                else:
+                    raise PostParseError(
+                        node.pos, "The '%s' directive should be used as a function call." % optname)
+        return None
+
+    def try_to_parse_directive(self, optname, args, kwds, pos):
+        if optname == 'np_pythran' and not self.context.cpp:
+            raise PostParseError(pos, 'The %s directive can only be used in C++ mode.' % optname)
+        elif optname == 'exceptval':
+            # default: exceptval(None, check=True)
+            arg_error = len(args) > 1
+            check = True
+            if kwds and kwds.key_value_pairs:
+                kw = kwds.key_value_pairs[0]
+                if (len(kwds.key_value_pairs) == 1 and
+                        kw.key.is_string_literal and kw.key.value == 'check' and
+                        isinstance(kw.value, ExprNodes.BoolNode)):
+                    check = kw.value.value
+                else:
+                    arg_error = True
+            if arg_error:
+                raise PostParseError(
+                    pos, 'The exceptval directive takes 0 or 1 positional arguments and the boolean keyword "check"')
+            return ('exceptval', (args[0] if args else None, check))
+
+        directivetype = Options.directive_types.get(optname)
+        if len(args) == 1 and isinstance(args[0], ExprNodes.NoneNode):
+            return optname, Options.get_directive_defaults()[optname]
+        elif directivetype is bool:
+            if kwds is not None or len(args) != 1 or not isinstance(args[0], ExprNodes.BoolNode):
+                raise PostParseError(pos,
+                    'The %s directive takes one compile-time boolean argument' % optname)
+            return (optname, args[0].value)
+        elif directivetype is int:
+            if kwds is not None or len(args) != 1 or not isinstance(args[0], ExprNodes.IntNode):
+                raise PostParseError(pos,
+                    'The %s directive takes one compile-time integer argument' % optname)
+            return (optname, int(args[0].value))
+        elif directivetype is str:
+            if kwds is not None or len(args) != 1 or not isinstance(args[0], ExprNodes.UnicodeNode):
+                raise PostParseError(pos,
+                    'The %s directive takes one compile-time string argument' % optname)
+            return (optname, str(args[0].value))
+        elif directivetype is type:
+            if kwds is not None or len(args) != 1:
+                raise PostParseError(pos,
+                    'The %s directive takes one type argument' % optname)
+            return (optname, args[0])
+        elif directivetype is dict:
+            if len(args) != 0:
+                raise PostParseError(pos,
+                    'The %s directive takes no prepositional arguments' % optname)
+            return optname, kwds.as_python_dict()
+        elif directivetype is list:
+            if kwds and len(kwds.key_value_pairs) != 0:
+                raise PostParseError(pos,
+                    'The %s directive takes no keyword arguments' % optname)
+            return optname, [ str(arg.value) for arg in args ]
+        elif callable(directivetype):
+            if kwds is not None or len(args) != 1 or not isinstance(args[0], ExprNodes.UnicodeNode):
+                raise PostParseError(pos,
+                    'The %s directive takes one compile-time string argument' % optname)
+            return (optname, directivetype(optname, str(args[0].value)))
+        elif directivetype is Options.DEFER_ANALYSIS_OF_ARGUMENTS:
+            # signal to pass things on without processing
+            return (optname, (args, kwds.as_python_dict() if kwds else {}))
+        else:
+            assert False
+
+    def visit_with_directives(self, node, directives, contents_directives):
+        # contents_directives may be None
+        if not directives:
+            assert not contents_directives
+            return self.visit_Node(node)
+
+        old_directives = self.directives
+        new_directives = Options.copy_inherited_directives(old_directives, **directives)
+        if contents_directives is not None:
+            new_contents_directives = Options.copy_inherited_directives(
+                old_directives, **contents_directives)
+        else:
+            new_contents_directives = new_directives
+
+        if new_directives == old_directives:
+            return self.visit_Node(node)
+
+        self.directives = new_directives
+        if (contents_directives is not None and
+                new_contents_directives != new_directives):
+            # we need to wrap the node body in a compiler directives node
+            node.body = Nodes.StatListNode(
+                node.body.pos,
+                stats=[
+                    Nodes.CompilerDirectivesNode(
+                        node.body.pos,
+                        directives=new_contents_directives,
+                        body=node.body)
+                ]
+            )
+        retbody = self.visit_Node(node)
+        self.directives = old_directives
+
+        if isinstance(retbody, Nodes.CompilerDirectivesNode):
+            new_directives.update(retbody.directives)
+            retbody = retbody.body
+        if not isinstance(retbody, Nodes.StatListNode):
+            retbody = Nodes.StatListNode(node.pos, stats=[retbody])
+        return Nodes.CompilerDirectivesNode(
+            retbody.pos, body=retbody, directives=new_directives, is_terminator=retbody.is_terminator)
+
+    # Handle decorators
+    def visit_FuncDefNode(self, node):
+        directives, contents_directives = self._extract_directives(node, 'function')
+        return self.visit_with_directives(node, directives, contents_directives)
+
+    def visit_CVarDefNode(self, node):
+        directives, _ = self._extract_directives(node, 'function')
+        for name, value in directives.items():
+            if name == 'locals':
+                node.directive_locals = value
+            elif name not in ('final', 'staticmethod'):
+                self.context.nonfatal_error(PostParseError(
+                    node.pos,
+                    "Cdef functions can only take cython.locals(), "
+                    "staticmethod, or final decorators, got %s." % name))
+        return self.visit_with_directives(node, directives, contents_directives=None)
+
+    def visit_CClassDefNode(self, node):
+        directives, contents_directives = self._extract_directives(node, 'cclass')
+        return self.visit_with_directives(node, directives, contents_directives)
+
+    def visit_CppClassNode(self, node):
+        directives, contents_directives = self._extract_directives(node, 'cppclass')
+        return self.visit_with_directives(node, directives, contents_directives)
+
+    def visit_PyClassDefNode(self, node):
+        directives, contents_directives = self._extract_directives(node, 'class')
+        return self.visit_with_directives(node, directives, contents_directives)
+
+    def _extract_directives(self, node, scope_name):
+        """
+        Returns two dicts - directives applied to this function/class
+        and directives applied to its contents. They aren't always the
+        same (since e.g. cfunc should not be applied to inner functions)
+        """
+        if not node.decorators:
+            return {}, {}
+        # Split the decorators into two lists -- real decorators and directives
+        directives = []
+        realdecs = []
+        both = []
+        current_opt_dict = dict(self.directives)
+        missing = object()
+        # Decorators coming first take precedence.
+        for dec in node.decorators[::-1]:
+            new_directives = self.try_to_parse_directives(dec.decorator)
+            if new_directives is not None:
+                for directive in new_directives:
+                    if self.check_directive_scope(node.pos, directive[0], scope_name):
+                        name, value = directive
+                        if name in ('nogil', 'with_gil'):
+                            if value is None:
+                                value = True
+                            else:
+                                args, kwds = value
+                                if kwds or len(args) != 1 or not isinstance(args[0], ExprNodes.BoolNode):
+                                    raise PostParseError(dec.pos, 'The %s directive takes one compile-time boolean argument' % name)
+                                value = args[0].value
+                            directive = (name, value)
+                        if current_opt_dict.get(name, missing) != value:
+                            if name == 'cfunc' and 'ufunc' in current_opt_dict:
+                                error(dec.pos, "Cannot apply @cfunc to @ufunc, please reverse the decorators.")
+                            directives.append(directive)
+                            current_opt_dict[name] = value
+                        elif name not in ['profile', 'linetrace']:
+                            # Exclude some decorators that people may leave around, but warn about useless ones.
+                            warning(dec.pos, "Directive does not change previous value (%s%s)" % (
+                                name, '=%r' % value if value is not None else ''))
+                        if directive[0] == 'staticmethod':
+                            both.append(dec)
+                    # Adapt scope type based on decorators that change it.
+                    if directive[0] == 'cclass' and scope_name == 'class':
+                        scope_name = 'cclass'
+            else:
+                realdecs.append(dec)
+        node.decorators = realdecs[::-1] + both[::-1]
+        # merge or override repeated directives
+        optdict = {}
+        contents_optdict = {}
+        for name, value in directives:
+            if name in optdict:
+                old_value = optdict[name]
+                # keywords and arg lists can be merged, everything
+                # else overrides completely
+                if isinstance(old_value, dict):
+                    old_value.update(value)
+                elif isinstance(old_value, list):
+                    old_value.extend(value)
+                else:
+                    if name == "collection_type" and value != optdict[name]:
+                        error(node.pos, "Multiple values of collection_type are not supported")
+                    optdict[name] = value
+            else:
+                optdict[name] = value
+            if name not in Options.immediate_decorator_directives:
+                contents_optdict[name] = value
+        return optdict, contents_optdict
+
+    # Handle with-statements
+    def visit_WithStatNode(self, node):
+        directive_dict = {}
+        for directive in self.try_to_parse_directives(node.manager) or []:
+            if directive is None:
+                continue
+            if node.target is not None:
+                self.context.nonfatal_error(
+                    PostParseError(node.pos, "Compiler directive with statements cannot contain 'as'"))
+                continue
+            name, value = directive
+            if name in ('nogil', 'gil'):
+                # special case: in pure mode, "with nogil" spells "with cython.nogil"
+                return self._transform_with_gil(node, name)
+            elif name == "critical_section":
+                args, kwds = value
+                return self._transform_critical_section(node, args, kwds)
+            elif self.check_directive_scope(node.pos, name, 'with statement'):
+                directive_dict[name] = value
+        if directive_dict:
+            return self.visit_with_directives(node.body, directive_dict, contents_directives=None)
+        return self.visit_Node(node)
+
+    def _transform_with_gil(self, node, state):
+        assert state in ('gil', 'nogil')
+        manager = node.manager
+        condition = None
+        if isinstance(manager, ExprNodes.SimpleCallNode) and manager.args:
+            if len(manager.args) > 1:
+                self.context.nonfatal_error(
+                    PostParseError(node.pos, "Compiler directive %s accepts one positional argument." % state))
+            condition = manager.args[0]
+        elif isinstance(manager, ExprNodes.GeneralCallNode):
+            self.context.nonfatal_error(
+                PostParseError(node.pos, "Compiler directive %s accepts one positional argument." % state))
+        node = Nodes.GILStatNode(node.pos, state=state, body=node.body, condition=condition)
+        return self.visit_Node(node)
+
+    def _transform_critical_section(self, node, args, kwds):
+        if len(args) < 1 or len(args) > 2 or kwds:
+            self.context.nonfatal_error(
+                PostParseError(node.pos, "critical_section directive accepts one or two positional arguments")
+            )
+        node = Nodes.CriticalSectionStatNode(
+            node.pos, args=args, body=node.body
+        )
+        return self.visit_Node(node)
+
+
+class ParallelRangeTransform(CythonTransform, SkipDeclarations):
+    """
+    Transform cython.parallel stuff. The parallel_directives come from the
+    module node, set there by InterpretCompilerDirectives.
+
+        x = cython.parallel.threadavailable()   -> ParallelThreadAvailableNode
+        with nogil, cython.parallel.parallel(): -> ParallelWithBlockNode
+            print cython.parallel.threadid()    -> ParallelThreadIdNode
+            for i in cython.parallel.prange(...):  -> ParallelRangeNode
+                ...
+    """
+
+    # a list of names, maps 'cython.parallel.prange' in the code to
+    # ['cython', 'parallel', 'prange']
+    parallel_directive = None
+
+    # Indicates whether a namenode in an expression is the cython module
+    namenode_is_cython_module = False
+
+    # Keep track of whether we are the context manager of a 'with' statement
+    in_context_manager_section = False
+
+    # One of 'prange' or 'with parallel'. This is used to disallow closely
+    # nested 'with parallel:' blocks
+    state = None
+
+    directive_to_node = {
+        "cython.parallel.parallel": Nodes.ParallelWithBlockNode,
+        # u"cython.parallel.threadsavailable": ExprNodes.ParallelThreadsAvailableNode,
+        "cython.parallel.threadid": ExprNodes.ParallelThreadIdNode,
+        "cython.parallel.prange": Nodes.ParallelRangeNode,
+    }
+
+    def node_is_parallel_directive(self, node):
+        return node.name in self.parallel_directives or node.is_cython_module
+
+    def get_directive_class_node(self, node):
+        """
+        Figure out which parallel directive was used and return the associated
+        Node class.
+
+        E.g. for a cython.parallel.prange() call we return ParallelRangeNode
+        """
+        if self.namenode_is_cython_module:
+            directive = '.'.join(self.parallel_directive)
+        else:
+            directive = self.parallel_directives[self.parallel_directive[0]]
+            directive = '%s.%s' % (directive,
+                                   '.'.join(self.parallel_directive[1:]))
+            directive = directive.rstrip('.')
+
+        cls = self.directive_to_node.get(directive)
+        if cls is None and not (self.namenode_is_cython_module and
+                                self.parallel_directive[0] != 'parallel'):
+            error(node.pos, "Invalid directive: %s" % directive)
+
+        self.namenode_is_cython_module = False
+        self.parallel_directive = None
+
+        return cls
+
+    def visit_ModuleNode(self, node):
+        """
+        If any parallel directives were imported, copy them over and visit
+        the AST
+        """
+        if node.parallel_directives:
+            self.parallel_directives = node.parallel_directives
+            return self.visit_Node(node)
+
+        # No parallel directives were imported, so they can't be used :)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_NameNode(self, node):
+        if self.node_is_parallel_directive(node):
+            self.parallel_directive = [node.name]
+            self.namenode_is_cython_module = node.is_cython_module
+        return node
+
+    def visit_AttributeNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        if self.parallel_directive:
+            self.parallel_directive.append(node.attribute)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CallNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchild(node, 'function')
+        if not self.parallel_directive:
+            self.visitchildren(node, exclude=('function',))
+            return node
+
+        # We are a parallel directive, replace this node with the
+        # corresponding ParallelSomethingSomething node
+
+        if isinstance(node, ExprNodes.GeneralCallNode):
+            args = node.positional_args.args
+            kwargs = node.keyword_args
+        else:
+            args = node.args
+            kwargs = {}
+
+        parallel_directive_class = self.get_directive_class_node(node)
+        if parallel_directive_class:
+            # Note: in case of a parallel() the body is set by
+            # visit_WithStatNode
+            node = parallel_directive_class(node.pos, args=args, kwargs=kwargs)
+
+        return node
+
+    def visit_WithStatNode(self, node):
+        "Rewrite with cython.parallel.parallel() blocks"
+        newnode = self.visit(node.manager)
+
+        if isinstance(newnode, Nodes.ParallelWithBlockNode):
+            if self.state == 'parallel with':
+                error(node.manager.pos,
+                      "Nested parallel with blocks are disallowed")
+
+            self.state = 'parallel with'
+            body = self.visitchild(node, 'body')
+            self.state = None
+
+            newnode.body = body
+            return newnode
+        elif self.parallel_directive:
+            parallel_directive_class = self.get_directive_class_node(node)
+
+            if not parallel_directive_class:
+                # There was an error, stop here and now
+                return None
+
+            if parallel_directive_class is Nodes.ParallelWithBlockNode:
+                error(node.pos, "The parallel directive must be called")
+                return None
+
+        self.visitchild(node, 'body')
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ForInStatNode(self, node):
+        "Rewrite 'for i in cython.parallel.prange(...):'"
+        self.visitchild(node, 'iterator')
+        self.visitchild(node, 'target')
+
+        in_prange = isinstance(node.iterator.sequence,
+                               Nodes.ParallelRangeNode)
+        previous_state = self.state
+
+        if in_prange:
+            # This will replace the entire ForInStatNode, so copy the
+            # attributes
+            parallel_range_node = node.iterator.sequence
+
+            parallel_range_node.target = node.target
+            parallel_range_node.body = node.body
+            parallel_range_node.else_clause = node.else_clause
+
+            node = parallel_range_node
+
+            if not isinstance(node.target, ExprNodes.NameNode):
+                error(node.target.pos,
+                      "Can only iterate over an iteration variable")
+
+            self.state = 'prange'
+
+        self.visitchild(node, 'body')
+        self.state = previous_state
+        self.visitchild(node, 'else_clause')
+        return node
+
+    def visit(self, node):
+        "Visit a node that may be None"
+        if node is not None:
+            return super().visit(node)
+
+
+class WithTransform(VisitorTransform, SkipDeclarations):
+    def visit_WithStatNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node, ['body'])
+        pos = node.pos
+        is_async = node.is_async
+        body, target, manager = node.body, node.target, node.manager
+        manager = node.manager = ExprNodes.ProxyNode(manager)
+        node.enter_call = ExprNodes.SimpleCallNode(
+            pos, function=ExprNodes.AttributeNode(
+                pos, obj=ExprNodes.CloneNode(manager),
+                attribute=EncodedString('__aenter__' if is_async else '__enter__'),
+                is_special_lookup=True),
+            args=[],
+            is_temp=True)
+
+        if is_async:
+            node.enter_call = ExprNodes.AwaitExprNode(pos, arg=node.enter_call)
+
+        if target is not None:
+            body = Nodes.StatListNode(
+                pos, stats=[
+                    Nodes.WithTargetAssignmentStatNode(
+                        pos, lhs=target, with_node=node),
+                    body])
+
+        excinfo_target = ExprNodes.TupleNode(pos, slow=True, args=[
+            ExprNodes.ExcValueNode(pos) for _ in range(3)])
+        except_clause = Nodes.ExceptClauseNode(
+            pos, body=Nodes.IfStatNode(
+                pos, if_clauses=[
+                    Nodes.IfClauseNode(
+                        pos, condition=ExprNodes.NotNode(
+                            pos, operand=ExprNodes.WithExitCallNode(
+                                pos, with_stat=node,
+                                test_if_run=False,
+                                args=excinfo_target,
+                                await_expr=ExprNodes.AwaitExprNode(pos, arg=None) if is_async else None)),
+                        body=Nodes.ReraiseStatNode(pos),
+                    ),
+                ],
+                else_clause=None),
+            pattern=None,
+            target=None,
+            excinfo_target=excinfo_target,
+        )
+
+        node.body = Nodes.TryFinallyStatNode(
+            pos, body=Nodes.TryExceptStatNode(
+                pos, body=body,
+                except_clauses=[except_clause],
+                else_clause=None,
+            ),
+            finally_clause=Nodes.ExprStatNode(
+                pos, expr=ExprNodes.WithExitCallNode(
+                    pos, with_stat=node,
+                    test_if_run=True,
+                    args=ExprNodes.TupleNode(
+                        pos, args=[ExprNodes.NoneNode(pos) for _ in range(3)]),
+                    await_expr=ExprNodes.AwaitExprNode(pos, arg=None) if is_async else None)),
+            handle_error_case=False,
+        )
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ExprNode(self, node):
+        # With statements are never inside expressions.
+        return node
+
+    visit_Node = VisitorTransform.recurse_to_children
+
+
+class _GeneratorExpressionArgumentsMarker(TreeVisitor, SkipDeclarations):
+    # called from "MarkClosureVisitor"
+    def __init__(self, gen_expr):
+        super().__init__()
+        self.gen_expr = gen_expr
+
+    def visit_ExprNode(self, node):
+        if not node.is_literal:
+            # Don't bother tagging literal nodes
+            assert (not node.generator_arg_tag)  # nobody has tagged this first
+            node.generator_arg_tag = self.gen_expr
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+
+    def visit_Node(self, node):
+        # We're only interested in the expressions that make up the iterator sequence,
+        # so don't go beyond ExprNodes (e.g. into ForFromStatNode).
+        return
+
+    def visit_GeneratorExpressionNode(self, node):
+        node.generator_arg_tag = self.gen_expr
+        # don't visit children, can't handle overlapping tags
+        # (and assume generator expressions don't end up optimized out in a way
+        #  that would require overlapping tags)
+
+
+class _HandleGeneratorArguments(VisitorTransform, SkipDeclarations):
+    # used from within CreateClosureClasses
+
+    def __call__(self, node):
+        from . import Visitor
+        assert isinstance(node, ExprNodes.GeneratorExpressionNode)
+        self.gen_node = node
+
+        self.args = list(node.def_node.args)
+        self.call_parameters = list(node.call_parameters)
+        self.tag_count = 0
+        self.substitutions = {}
+
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+
+        for k, v in self.substitutions.items():
+            # doing another search for replacements here (at the end) allows us to sweep up
+            # CloneNodes too (which are often generated by the optimizer)
+            # (it could arguably be done more efficiently with a single traversal though)
+            Visitor.recursively_replace_node(node, k, v)
+
+        node.def_node.args = self.args
+        node.call_parameters = self.call_parameters
+        return node
+
+    def visit_GeneratorExpressionNode(self, node):
+        # a generator can also be substituted itself, so handle that case
+        new_node = self._handle_ExprNode(node, do_visit_children=False)
+        # However do not traverse into it. A new _HandleGeneratorArguments visitor will be used
+        # elsewhere to do that.
+        return node
+
+    def _handle_ExprNode(self, node, do_visit_children):
+        if (node.generator_arg_tag is not None and self.gen_node is not None and
+                self.gen_node == node.generator_arg_tag):
+            pos = node.pos
+            # The reason for using ".x" as the name is that this is how CPython
+            # tracks internal variables in loops (e.g.
+            #  { locals() for v in range(10) }
+            # will produce "v" and ".0"). We don't replicate this behaviour completely
+            # but use it as a starting point
+            name_source = self.tag_count
+            self.tag_count += 1
+            name = EncodedString(".{}".format(name_source))
+            def_node = self.gen_node.def_node
+            if not def_node.local_scope.lookup_here(name):
+                from . import Symtab
+                cname = EncodedString(Naming.genexpr_arg_prefix + Symtab.punycodify_name(str(name_source)))
+                name_decl = Nodes.CNameDeclaratorNode(pos=pos, name=name)
+                type = node.type
+
+                # strip away cv types - they shouldn't be applied to the
+                # function argument or to the closure struct.
+                # It isn't obvious whether the right thing to do would be to capture by reference or by
+                # value (C++ itself doesn't know either for lambda functions and forces a choice).
+                # However, capture by reference involves converting to FakeReference which would require
+                # re-analysing AttributeNodes. Therefore I've picked capture-by-value out of convenience
+                # TODO - could probably be optimized by making the arg a reference but the closure not
+                # (see https://github.com/cython/cython/issues/2468)
+                type = PyrexTypes.remove_cv_ref(type, remove_fakeref=False)
+
+                name_decl.type = type
+                new_arg = Nodes.CArgDeclNode(pos=pos, declarator=name_decl,
+                                                base_type=None, default=None, annotation=None)
+                new_arg.name = name_decl.name
+                new_arg.type = type
+
+                self.args.append(new_arg)
+                node.generator_arg_tag = None  # avoid the possibility of this being caught again
+                self.call_parameters.append(node)
+                new_arg.entry = def_node.declare_argument(def_node.local_scope, new_arg)
+                new_arg.entry.cname = cname
+                new_arg.entry.in_closure = True
+
+            if do_visit_children:
+                # now visit the Nodes's children (but remove self.gen_node to not to further
+                # argument substitution)
+                gen_node, self.gen_node = self.gen_node, None
+                self.visitchildren(node)
+                self.gen_node = gen_node
+
+            # replace the node inside the generator with a looked-up name
+            # (initialized_check can safely be False because the source variable will be checked
+            # before it is captured if the check is required)
+            name_node = ExprNodes.NameNode(pos, name=name, initialized_check=False)
+            name_node.entry = self.gen_node.def_node.gbody.local_scope.lookup(name_node.name)
+            name_node.type = name_node.entry.type
+            self.substitutions[node] = name_node
+            return name_node
+        if do_visit_children:
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ExprNode(self, node):
+        return self._handle_ExprNode(node, True)
+
+    visit_Node = VisitorTransform.recurse_to_children
+
+
+class DecoratorTransform(ScopeTrackingTransform, SkipDeclarations):
+    """
+    Transforms method decorators in cdef classes into nested calls or properties.
+
+    Python-style decorator properties are transformed into a PropertyNode
+    with up to the three getter, setter and deleter DefNodes.
+    The functional style isn't supported yet.
+    """
+    _properties = None
+
+    _map_property_attribute = {
+        'getter': EncodedString('__get__'),
+        'setter': EncodedString('__set__'),
+        'deleter': EncodedString('__del__'),
+    }.get
+
+    def visit_CClassDefNode(self, node):
+        if self._properties is None:
+            self._properties = []
+        self._properties.append({})
+        node = super().visit_CClassDefNode(node)
+        self._properties.pop()
+        return node
+
+    def visit_PropertyNode(self, node):
+        # Low-level warning for other code until we can convert all our uses over.
+        level = 2 if isinstance(node.pos[0], str) else 0
+        warning(node.pos, "'property %s:' syntax is deprecated, use '@property'" % node.name, level)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CFuncDefNode(self, node):
+        node = self.visit_FuncDefNode(node)
+        if not node.decorators:
+            return node
+        elif self.scope_type != 'cclass' or self.scope_node.visibility != "extern":
+            # at the moment cdef functions are very restricted in what decorators they can take
+            # so it's simple to test for the small number of allowed decorators....
+            if not (len(node.decorators) == 1 and node.decorators[0].decorator.is_name and
+                    node.decorators[0].decorator.name == "staticmethod"):
+                error(node.decorators[0].pos, "Cdef functions cannot take arbitrary decorators.")
+            return node
+
+        ret_node = node
+        decorator_node = self._find_property_decorator(node)
+        if decorator_node and (name := node.declared_name()):
+            if decorator_node.decorator.is_name:
+                ret_node = self._add_property(node, name, decorator_node)
+            else:
+                handler_name = self._map_property_attribute(decorator_node.decorator.attribute)
+                if handler_name:
+                    if handler_name == "__del__":
+                        error(decorator_node.pos,
+                              "Cannot have deleter for C property")
+                        ret_node = None
+                    elif decorator_node.decorator.obj.name != name:
+                        # CPython does not generate an error or warning, but not something useful either.
+                        error(decorator_node.pos,
+                            "Mismatching C property names, expected '%s', got '%s'" % (
+                                decorator_node.decorator.obj.name, name))
+                        ret_node = None
+                    else:
+                        ret_node = self._add_to_property(node, handler_name, decorator_node)
+
+        if node.decorators:
+            return self._reject_decorated_property(node, node.decorators[0])
+        return ret_node
+
+    def visit_DefNode(self, node):
+        scope_type = self.scope_type
+        node = self.visit_FuncDefNode(node)
+        if scope_type != 'cclass' or not node.decorators:
+            return node
+
+        # transform @property decorators
+        decorator_node = self._find_property_decorator(node)
+        if decorator_node is not None:
+            decorator = decorator_node.decorator
+            if decorator.is_name:
+                return self._add_property(node, node.name, decorator_node)
+            else:
+                handler_name = self._map_property_attribute(decorator.attribute)
+                if handler_name:
+                    if decorator.obj.name != node.name:
+                        # CPython does not generate an error or warning, but not something useful either.
+                        error(decorator_node.pos,
+                              "Mismatching property names, expected '%s', got '%s'" % (
+                                  decorator.obj.name, node.name))
+                    elif len(node.decorators) > 1:
+                        return self._reject_decorated_property(node, decorator_node)
+                    else:
+                        return self._add_to_property(node, handler_name, decorator_node)
+
+        # we clear node.decorators, so we need to set the
+        # is_staticmethod/is_classmethod attributes now
+        for decorator in node.decorators:
+            func = decorator.decorator
+            if func.is_name:
+                node.is_classmethod |= func.name == 'classmethod'
+                node.is_staticmethod |= func.name == 'staticmethod'
+
+        # transform normal decorators
+        decs = node.decorators
+        node.decorators = None
+        return self.chain_decorators(node, decs, node.name)
+
+    def _find_property_decorator(self, node):
+        properties = self._properties[-1]
+        for decorator_node in node.decorators[::-1]:
+            decorator = decorator_node.decorator
+            if decorator.is_name and decorator.name == 'property':
+                # @property
+                return decorator_node
+            elif decorator.is_attribute and decorator.obj.name in properties:
+                # @prop.setter etc.
+                return decorator_node
+        return None
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def _reject_decorated_property(node, decorator_node):
+        # restrict transformation to outermost decorator as wrapped properties will probably not work
+        for deco in node.decorators:
+            if deco != decorator_node:
+                error(deco.pos, "Property methods with additional decorators are not supported")
+        return node
+
+    def _get_property_function_name(self, node):
+        if isinstance(node, Nodes.CFuncDefNode):
+            return node.declared_name()
+        return node.name
+
+    def _rename_property_function(self, node, name):
+        if isinstance(node, Nodes.CFuncDefNode):
+            node.declarator.set_declared_name(name)
+        else:
+            node.name = name
+
+    def _add_property(self, node, name, decorator_node):
+        if len(node.decorators) > 1:
+            return self._reject_decorated_property(node, decorator_node)
+        node.decorators.remove(decorator_node)
+        properties = self._properties[-1]
+        is_cproperty = isinstance(node, Nodes.CFuncDefNode)
+        body = Nodes.StatListNode(node.pos, stats=[node])
+        node_type = Nodes.PropertyNode
+        if is_cproperty:
+            if 'inline' not in node.modifiers:
+                error(node.pos, "C property method must be declared 'inline'")
+            node_type = Nodes.CPropertyNode
+        if name in properties:
+            prop = properties[name]
+            if prop.is_cproperty:
+                error(node.pos, "C property redeclared")
+            else:
+                self._rename_property_function(node, EncodedString("__get__"))
+                prop.pos = node.pos
+                prop.doc = node.doc
+                prop.body.stats = [node]
+            return None
+        else:
+            self._rename_property_function(node, EncodedString("__get__"))
+            prop = node_type(
+                node.pos, name=name, doc=node.doc, body=body)
+        properties[name] = prop
+        return prop
+
+    def _add_to_property(self, node, name, decorator):
+        properties = self._properties[-1]
+        prop = properties[self._get_property_function_name(node)]
+        self._rename_property_function(node, name)
+        if isinstance(node, Nodes.CFuncDefNode):
+            if 'inline' not in node.modifiers:
+                error(node.pos, "C property method must be declared 'inline'")
+        node.decorators.remove(decorator)
+        stats = prop.body.stats
+        for i, stat in enumerate(stats):
+            if self._get_property_function_name(stat) == name:
+                if prop.is_cproperty:
+                    error(node.pos, "C property redeclared")
+                    return None
+                stats[i] = node
+                break
+        else:
+            stats.append(node)
+        return None
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def chain_decorators(node, decorators, name):
+        """
+        Decorators are applied directly in DefNode and PyClassDefNode to avoid
+        reassignments to the function/class name - except for cdef class methods.
+        For those, the reassignment is required as methods are originally
+        defined in the PyMethodDef struct.
+
+        The IndirectionNode allows DefNode to override the decorator.
+        """
+        decorator_result = ExprNodes.NameNode(node.pos, name=name)
+        for decorator in decorators[::-1]:
+            decorator_result = ExprNodes.SimpleCallNode(
+                decorator.pos,
+                function=decorator.decorator,
+                args=[decorator_result])
+
+        name_node = ExprNodes.NameNode(node.pos, name=name)
+        reassignment = Nodes.SingleAssignmentNode(
+            node.pos,
+            lhs=name_node,
+            rhs=decorator_result)
+
+        reassignment = Nodes.IndirectionNode([reassignment])
+        node.decorator_indirection = reassignment
+        return [node, reassignment]
+
+
+class CnameDirectivesTransform(CythonTransform, SkipDeclarations):
+    """
+    Only part of the CythonUtilityCode pipeline. Must be run before
+    DecoratorTransform in case this is a decorator for a cdef class.
+    It filters out @cname('my_cname') decorators and rewrites them to
+    CnameDecoratorNodes.
+    """
+
+    def handle_function(self, node):
+        if not getattr(node, 'decorators', None):
+            return self.visit_Node(node)
+
+        for i, decorator in enumerate(node.decorators):
+            decorator = decorator.decorator
+
+            if (isinstance(decorator, ExprNodes.CallNode) and
+                    decorator.function.is_name and
+                    decorator.function.name == 'cname'):
+                args, kwargs = decorator.explicit_args_kwds()
+
+                if kwargs:
+                    raise AssertionError(
+                            "cname decorator does not take keyword arguments")
+
+                if len(args) != 1:
+                    raise AssertionError(
+                            "cname decorator takes exactly one argument")
+
+                if not (args[0].is_literal and args[0].type is Builtin.unicode_type):
+                    raise AssertionError(
+                            "argument to cname decorator must be a string literal")
+
+                cname = args[0].compile_time_value(None)
+                del node.decorators[i]
+                node = Nodes.CnameDecoratorNode(pos=node.pos, node=node,
+                                                cname=cname)
+                break
+
+        return self.visit_Node(node)
+
+    visit_FuncDefNode = handle_function
+    visit_CClassDefNode = handle_function
+    visit_CEnumDefNode = handle_function
+    visit_CStructOrUnionDefNode = handle_function
+    visit_CVarDefNode = handle_function
+
+
+class ForwardDeclareTypes(CythonTransform):
+    """
+    Declare all global cdef names that we allow referencing in other places,
+    before declaring everything (else) in source code order.
+    """
+
+    def visit_CompilerDirectivesMixin(self, node):
+        env = self.module_scope
+        with node.apply_directives(env):
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ModuleNode(self, node):
+        self.module_scope = node.scope
+        self.module_scope.directives = node.directives
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CDefExternNode(self, node):
+        old_cinclude_flag = self.module_scope.in_cinclude
+        self.module_scope.in_cinclude = 1
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.module_scope.in_cinclude = old_cinclude_flag
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CEnumDefNode(self, node):
+        node.declare(self.module_scope)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CStructOrUnionDefNode(self, node):
+        if node.name not in self.module_scope.entries:
+            node.declare(self.module_scope)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CClassDefNode(self, node):
+        if node.class_name not in self.module_scope.entries:
+            node.declare(self.module_scope)
+        # Expand fused methods of .pxd declared types to construct the final vtable order.
+        type = self.module_scope.entries[node.class_name].type
+        if type is not None and type.is_extension_type and not type.is_builtin_type and type.scope:
+            scope = type.scope
+            for entry in scope.cfunc_entries:
+                if entry.type and entry.type.is_fused:
+                    entry.type.get_all_specialized_function_types()
+        return node
+
+    def visit_FuncDefNode(self, node):
+        # no traversal needed
+        return node
+
+    def visit_PyClassDefNode(self, node):
+        # no traversal needed
+        return node
+
+
+class AnalyseDeclarationsTransform(EnvTransform):
+
+    basic_property = TreeFragment("""
+property NAME:
+    def __get__(self):
+        with CRITICAL_SECTION(self):
+            return ATTR
+    def __set__(self, value):
+        with CRITICAL_SECTION(self):
+            ATTR = value
+    """, level='c_class', pipeline=[NormalizeTree(None)])
+    basic_pyobject_property = TreeFragment("""
+property NAME:
+    def __get__(self):
+        with CRITICAL_SECTION(self):
+            return ATTR
+    def __set__(self, value):
+        with CRITICAL_SECTION(self):
+            ATTR = value
+    def __del__(self):
+        with CRITICAL_SECTION(self):
+            ATTR = None
+    """, level='c_class', pipeline=[NormalizeTree(None)])
+    basic_property_ro = TreeFragment("""
+property NAME:
+    def __get__(self):
+        with CRITICAL_SECTION(self):
+            return ATTR
+    """, level='c_class', pipeline=[NormalizeTree(None)])
+
+    struct_or_union_wrapper = TreeFragment("""
+cdef class NAME:
+    cdef TYPE value
+    def __init__(self, MEMBER=None):
+        cdef int count
+        count = 0
+        INIT_ASSIGNMENTS
+        if IS_UNION and count > 1:
+            raise ValueError, "At most one union member should be specified."
+    def __str__(self):
+        return STR_FORMAT % MEMBER_TUPLE
+    def __repr__(self):
+        return REPR_FORMAT % MEMBER_TUPLE
+    """, pipeline=[NormalizeTree(None)])
+
+    init_assignment = TreeFragment("""
+if VALUE is not None:
+    ATTR = VALUE
+    count += 1
+    """, pipeline=[NormalizeTree(None)])
+
+    fused_function = None
+    in_lambda = 0
+
+    def __call__(self, root):
+        # needed to determine if a cdef var is declared after it's used.
+        self.seen_vars_stack = []
+        self.fused_error_funcs = set()
+        super_class = super()
+        self._super_visit_FuncDefNode = super_class.visit_FuncDefNode
+        return super_class.__call__(root)
+
+    def visit_NameNode(self, node):
+        self.seen_vars_stack[-1].add(node.name)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ModuleNode(self, node):
+        # Pickling support requires injecting module-level nodes.
+        self.extra_module_declarations = []
+        self.seen_vars_stack.append(set())
+        node.analyse_declarations(self.current_env())
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.seen_vars_stack.pop()
+        node.body.stats.extend(self.extra_module_declarations)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_LambdaNode(self, node):
+        self.in_lambda += 1
+        node.analyse_declarations(self.current_env())
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.in_lambda -= 1
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CClassDefNode(self, node):
+        node = self.visit_ClassDefNode(node)
+        if node.scope and 'dataclasses.dataclass' in node.scope.directives:
+            from .Dataclass import handle_cclass_dataclass
+            handle_cclass_dataclass(node, node.scope.directives['dataclasses.dataclass'], self)
+        if node.scope and node.scope.implemented and node.body:
+            stats = []
+            for entry in node.scope.var_entries:
+                if entry.needs_property:
+                    property = self.create_Property(entry)
+                    property.analyse_declarations(node.scope)
+                    self.visit(property)
+                    stats.append(property)
+            if stats:
+                node.body.stats += stats
+            if (node.visibility != 'extern'
+                    and not node.scope.lookup('__reduce__')
+                    and not node.scope.lookup('__reduce_ex__')):
+                self._inject_pickle_methods(node)
+        return node
+
+    def _inject_pickle_methods(self, node):
+        env = self.current_env()
+        if node.scope.directives['auto_pickle'] is False:   # None means attempt it.
+            # Old behavior of not doing anything.
+            return
+        auto_pickle_forced = node.scope.directives['auto_pickle'] is True
+
+        all_members = []
+        cls = node.entry.type
+        cinit = None
+        inherited_reduce = None
+        while cls is not None:
+            all_members.extend(e for e in cls.scope.var_entries if e.name not in ('__weakref__', '__dict__'))
+            cinit = cinit or cls.scope.lookup('__cinit__')
+            inherited_reduce = inherited_reduce or cls.scope.lookup('__reduce__') or cls.scope.lookup('__reduce_ex__')
+            cls = cls.base_type
+        all_members.sort(key=lambda e: e.name)
+
+        if inherited_reduce:
+            # This is not failsafe, as we may not know whether a cimported class defines a __reduce__.
+            # This is why we define __reduce_cython__ and only replace __reduce__
+            # (via ExtensionTypes.SetupReduce utility code) at runtime on class creation.
+            return
+
+        non_py = [
+            e for e in all_members
+            if not e.type.is_pyobject and (not e.type.can_coerce_to_pyobject(env)
+                                           or not e.type.can_coerce_from_pyobject(env))
+        ]
+
+        structs = [e for e in all_members if e.type.is_struct_or_union]
+
+        if cinit or non_py or (structs and not auto_pickle_forced):
+            if cinit:
+                # TODO(robertwb): We could allow this if __cinit__ has no require arguments.
+                msg = 'no default __reduce__ due to non-trivial __cinit__'
+            elif non_py:
+                msg = "%s cannot be converted to a Python object for pickling" % ','.join("self.%s" % e.name for e in non_py)
+            else:
+                # Extern structs may be only partially defined.
+                # TODO(robertwb): Limit the restriction to extern
+                # (and recursively extern-containing) structs.
+                msg = ("Pickling of struct members such as %s must be explicitly requested "
+                       "with @auto_pickle(True)" % ','.join("self.%s" % e.name for e in structs))
+
+            if auto_pickle_forced:
+                error(node.pos, msg)
+
+            pickle_func = TreeFragment("""
+                def __reduce_cython__(self):
+                    raise TypeError, "%(msg)s"
+                def __setstate_cython__(self, __pyx_state):
+                    raise TypeError, "%(msg)s"
+                """ % {'msg': msg},
+                level='c_class', pipeline=[NormalizeTree(None)]).substitute({})
+            pickle_func.analyse_declarations(node.scope)
+            self.visit(pickle_func)
+            node.body.stats.append(pickle_func)
+
+        else:
+            for e in all_members:
+                if not e.type.is_pyobject:
+                    e.type.create_to_py_utility_code(env)
+                    e.type.create_from_py_utility_code(env)
+
+            all_members_names = [e.name for e in all_members]
+            assignments = '; '.join([
+                '__pyx_result.%s = __pyx_state[%s]' % (v, ix)
+                for ix, v in enumerate(all_members_names)
+            ])
+            checksums = _calculate_pickle_checksums(all_members_names)
+            if len(checksums) != 3:
+                # If we don't have enough checksums to call the check function, we just repeat the last one.
+                checksums = (checksums + [checksums[-1] * 2])[:3]
+
+            unpickle_func_name = f'__pyx_unpickle_{node.punycode_class_name}'
+            num_members = len(all_members_names)
+
+            env.use_utility_code(Code.UtilityCode.load_cached("UpdateUnpickledDict", "ExtensionTypes.c"))
+
+            # TODO(robertwb): Move the state into the third argument
+            # so it can be pickled *after* self is memoized.
+            unpickle_code = f"""
+                cdef extern from *:
+                    int __Pyx_CheckUnpickleChecksum(long, long, long, long, const char*) except -1
+                    int __Pyx_UpdateUnpickledDict(object, object, Py_ssize_t) except -1
+
+                def {unpickle_func_name}(__pyx_type, long __pyx_checksum, tuple __pyx_state):
+                    cdef object __pyx_result
+                    __Pyx_CheckUnpickleChecksum(__pyx_checksum, {', '.join(checksums)}, {', '.join(all_members_names).encode('UTF-8')!r})
+                    __pyx_result = {node.class_name}.__new__(__pyx_type)
+                    if __pyx_state is not None:
+                        {unpickle_func_name}__set_state(<{node.class_name}> __pyx_result, __pyx_state)
+                    return __pyx_result
+
+                cdef {unpickle_func_name}__set_state({node.class_name} __pyx_result, __pyx_state: tuple):
+                    {assignments}
+                    __Pyx_UpdateUnpickledDict(__pyx_result, __pyx_state, {num_members:d})
+            """
+
+            env.use_utility_code(Code.UtilityCode.load_cached("CheckUnpickleChecksum", "ExtensionTypes.c"))
+
+            unpickle_func = TreeFragment(unpickle_code, level='module', pipeline=[NormalizeTree(None)]).substitute({})
+            unpickle_func.analyse_declarations(node.entry.scope)
+
+            self.visit(unpickle_func)
+            self.extra_module_declarations.append(unpickle_func)
+
+            members = ', '.join(f'self.{v}' for v in all_members_names) + (',' if len(all_members_names) == 1 else '')
+            # Even better, we could check PyType_IS_GC.
+            any_notnone_members = ' or '.join([f'self.{e.name} is not None' for e in all_members if e.type.is_pyobject] or ['False'])
+
+            pickle_code = f"""
+                def __reduce_cython__(self):
+                    cdef tuple state
+                    cdef object _dict
+                    cdef bint use_setstate
+                    with CRITICAL_SECTION(self):
+                        state = ({members})
+                        _dict = getattr(self, '__dict__', None)
+                    if _dict is not None and _dict:
+                        state += (_dict,)
+                        use_setstate = True
+                    else:
+                        use_setstate = {any_notnone_members}
+                    if use_setstate:
+                        return {unpickle_func_name}, (type(self), {checksums[0]}, None), state
+                    else:
+                        return {unpickle_func_name}, (type(self), {checksums[0]}, state)
+
+                def __setstate_cython__(self, __pyx_state):
+                    {unpickle_func_name}__set_state(self, __pyx_state)
+            """
+
+            pickle_func = TreeFragment(pickle_code, level='c_class', pipeline=[NormalizeTree(None)]).substitute(
+                {'CRITICAL_SECTION': self._create_critical_section_name_node(node.scope, node.pos)}
+            )
+            pickle_func = InterpretCompilerDirectives(None, {})(pickle_func)
+            pickle_func.analyse_declarations(node.scope)
+
+            self.enter_scope(node, node.scope)  # functions should be visited in the class scope
+            self.visit(pickle_func)
+            self.exit_scope()
+            node.body.stats.append(pickle_func)
+
+    def _handle_fused_def_decorators(self, old_decorators, env, node):
+        """
+        Create function calls to the decorators and reassignments to
+        the function.
+        """
+        # Delete staticmethod and classmethod decorators, this is
+        # handled directly by the fused function object.
+        decorators = []
+        for decorator in old_decorators:
+            func = decorator.decorator
+            if (not func.is_name or
+                    func.name not in ('staticmethod', 'classmethod') or
+                    env.lookup_here(func.name)):
+                # not a static or classmethod
+                decorators.append(decorator)
+
+        if decorators:
+            transform = DecoratorTransform(self.context)
+            def_node = node.node
+            _, reassignments = transform.chain_decorators(
+                def_node, decorators, def_node.name)
+            reassignments.analyse_declarations(env)
+            node = [node, reassignments]
+
+        return node
+
+    def _handle_def(self, decorators, env, node):
+        "Handle def or cpdef fused functions"
+        # Create PyCFunction nodes for each specialization
+        node.stats.insert(0, node.py_func)
+        self.visitchild(node, 'py_func')
+        node.update_fused_defnode_entry(env)
+        # For the moment, fused functions do not support METH_FASTCALL
+        call_signature = node.py_func.entry.signature
+        call_signature.use_fastcall = call_signature.FastcallUsed.NO
+        pycfunc = ExprNodes.PyCFunctionNode.from_defnode(node.py_func, binding=True)
+        pycfunc = ExprNodes.ProxyNode(pycfunc.coerce_to_temp(env))
+        node.resulting_fused_function = pycfunc
+        # Create assignment node for our def function
+        node.fused_func_assignment = self._create_assignment(
+            node.py_func, ExprNodes.CloneNode(pycfunc), env)
+
+        if decorators:
+            node = self._handle_fused_def_decorators(decorators, env, node)
+
+        return node
+
+    def _create_fused_function(self, env, node):
+        "Create a fused function for a DefNode with fused arguments"
+        from . import FusedNode
+
+        if self.fused_function or self.in_lambda:
+            if self.fused_function not in self.fused_error_funcs:
+                if self.in_lambda:
+                    error(node.pos, "Fused lambdas not allowed")
+                else:
+                    error(node.pos, "Cannot nest fused functions")
+
+            self.fused_error_funcs.add(self.fused_function)
+
+            node.body = Nodes.PassStatNode(node.pos)
+            for arg in node.args:
+                if arg.type.is_fused:
+                    arg.type = arg.type.get_fused_types()[0]
+
+            return node
+
+        decorators = getattr(node, 'decorators', None)
+        node = FusedNode.FusedCFuncDefNode(node, env)
+        if node.py_func:
+            node.attach_fused_py_funcs()
+        self.fused_function = node
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.fused_function = None
+        if node.py_func:
+            node = self._handle_def(decorators, env, node)
+
+        return node
+
+    def _handle_fused(self, node):
+        if node.is_generator and node.has_fused_arguments:
+            error(node.pos, "Fused generators not supported")
+            node.has_fused_arguments = False
+            node.gbody.body = Nodes.StatListNode(node.pos, stats=[])
+
+        return node.has_fused_arguments
+
+    def visit_FuncDefNode(self, node):
+        """
+        Analyse a function and its body, as that hasn't happened yet.  Also
+        analyse the directive_locals set by @cython.locals().
+
+        Then, if we are a function with fused arguments, replace the function
+        (after it has declared itself in the symbol table!) with a
+        FusedCFuncDefNode, and analyse its children (which are in turn normal
+        functions). If we're a normal function, just analyse the body of the
+        function.
+        """
+        env = self.current_env()
+
+        self.seen_vars_stack.append(set())
+        lenv = node.local_scope
+        node.declare_arguments(lenv)
+
+        # @cython.locals(...)
+        for var, type_node in node.directive_locals.items():
+            if not lenv.lookup_here(var):   # don't redeclare args
+                type = type_node.analyse_as_type(lenv)
+                if type and type.is_fused and lenv.fused_to_specific:
+                    type = type.specialize(lenv.fused_to_specific)
+                if type:
+                    lenv.declare_var(var, type, type_node.pos)
+                else:
+                    error(type_node.pos, "Not a type")
+
+        if self._handle_fused(node):
+            node = self._create_fused_function(env, node)
+        else:
+            node.body.analyse_declarations(lenv)
+            node = self._super_visit_FuncDefNode(node)
+
+        self.seen_vars_stack.pop()
+
+        if "ufunc" in lenv.directives:
+            from . import UFuncs
+            return UFuncs.convert_to_ufunc(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_DefNode(self, node):
+        node = self.visit_FuncDefNode(node)
+        if not isinstance(node, Nodes.DefNode):
+            return node
+        env = self.current_env()
+        if node.code_object is None:
+            node.code_object = ExprNodes.CodeObjectNode(node)
+            node.code_object.analyse_declarations(env)
+        if node.fused_py_func or node.is_generator_body:
+            return node
+        if not node.needs_assignment_synthesis(env):
+            return node
+        return [node, self._synthesize_assignment(node, env)]
+
+    def visit_CFuncDefNode(self, node):
+        if node.code_object is None and node.py_func is None:
+            node.code_object = ExprNodes.CodeObjectNode.for_cfunc(node)
+            node.code_object.analyse_declarations(self.current_env())
+        return self.visit_FuncDefNode(node)
+
+    def visit_GeneratorBodyDefNode(self, node):
+        return self.visit_FuncDefNode(node)
+
+    def visit_GeneratorDefNode(self, node):
+        # The generator body should use the same code object as the (user facing) generator function that creates it.
+        result = self.visit_DefNode(node)
+        # 'result' will usually be a list of statements, but we still have the original node.
+        node.gbody.code_object = node.code_object
+        return result
+
+    def _synthesize_assignment(self, node, env):
+        # Synthesize assignment node and put it right after defnode
+        genv = env
+        while genv.is_py_class_scope or genv.is_c_class_scope:
+            genv = genv.outer_scope
+
+        binding = env.is_py_class_scope or self.current_directives.get('binding')
+        if genv.is_closure_scope:
+            rhs = node.py_cfunc_node = ExprNodes.InnerFunctionNode.from_defnode(node, binding)
+        else:
+            rhs = ExprNodes.PyCFunctionNode.from_defnode(node, binding)
+
+        node.is_cyfunction = rhs.binding
+        return self._create_assignment(node, rhs, env)
+
+    def _create_assignment(self, def_node, rhs, env):
+        if def_node.decorators:
+            for decorator in def_node.decorators[::-1]:
+                rhs = ExprNodes.SimpleCallNode(
+                    decorator.pos,
+                    function = decorator.decorator,
+                    args = [rhs])
+            def_node.decorators = None
+
+        assmt = Nodes.SingleAssignmentNode(
+            def_node.pos,
+            lhs=ExprNodes.NameNode(def_node.pos, name=def_node.name),
+            rhs=rhs)
+        assmt.analyse_declarations(env)
+        return assmt
+
+    def visit_func_outer_attrs(self, node):
+        # any names in the outer attrs should not be looked up in the function "seen_vars_stack"
+        stack = self.seen_vars_stack.pop()
+        super().visit_func_outer_attrs(node)
+        self.seen_vars_stack.append(stack)
+
+    def visit_ScopedExprNode(self, node):
+        env = self.current_env()
+        node.analyse_declarations(env)
+        # the node may or may not have a local scope
+        if node.expr_scope:
+            self.seen_vars_stack.append(set(self.seen_vars_stack[-1]))
+            self.enter_scope(node, node.expr_scope)
+            node.analyse_scoped_declarations(node.expr_scope)
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+            self.exit_scope()
+            self.seen_vars_stack.pop()
+        else:
+
+            node.analyse_scoped_declarations(env)
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_TempResultFromStatNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        node.analyse_declarations(self.current_env())
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CppClassNode(self, node):
+        if node.visibility == 'extern':
+            return None
+        else:
+            return self.visit_ClassDefNode(node)
+
+    def visit_CStructOrUnionDefNode(self, node):
+        # Create a wrapper node if needed.
+        # We want to use the struct type information (so it can't happen
+        # before this phase) but also create new objects to be declared
+        # (so it can't happen later).
+        # Note that we don't return the original node, as it is
+        # never used after this phase.
+        if True:  # private (default)
+            return None
+
+        self_value = ExprNodes.AttributeNode(
+            pos = node.pos,
+            obj = ExprNodes.NameNode(pos=node.pos, name="self"),
+            attribute = EncodedString("value"))
+        var_entries = node.entry.type.scope.var_entries
+        attributes = []
+        for entry in var_entries:
+            attributes.append(ExprNodes.AttributeNode(pos = entry.pos,
+                                                      obj = self_value,
+                                                      attribute = entry.name))
+        # __init__ assignments
+        init_assignments = []
+        for entry, attr in zip(var_entries, attributes):
+            # TODO: branch on visibility
+            init_assignments.append(
+                self.init_assignment.substitute(
+                    {
+                        "VALUE": ExprNodes.NameNode(entry.pos, name = entry.name),
+                        "ATTR": attr,
+                    },
+                    pos=entry.pos,
+                )
+            )
+
+        # create the class
+        str_format = "%s(%s)" % (node.entry.type.name, ("%s, " * len(attributes))[:-2])
+        wrapper_class = self.struct_or_union_wrapper.substitute({
+            "INIT_ASSIGNMENTS": Nodes.StatListNode(node.pos, stats = init_assignments),
+            "IS_UNION": ExprNodes.BoolNode(node.pos, value = not node.entry.type.is_struct),
+            "MEMBER_TUPLE": ExprNodes.TupleNode(node.pos, args=attributes),
+            "STR_FORMAT": ExprNodes.UnicodeNode(node.pos, value = EncodedString(str_format)),
+            "REPR_FORMAT": ExprNodes.UnicodeNode(node.pos, value = EncodedString(str_format.replace("%s", "%r"))),
+        }, pos = node.pos).stats[0]
+        wrapper_class.class_name = node.name
+        wrapper_class.shadow = True
+        class_body = wrapper_class.body.stats
+
+        # fix value type
+        assert isinstance(class_body[0].base_type, Nodes.CSimpleBaseTypeNode)
+        class_body[0].base_type.name = node.name
+
+        # fix __init__ arguments
+        init_method = class_body[1]
+        assert isinstance(init_method, Nodes.DefNode) and init_method.name == '__init__'
+        arg_template = init_method.args[1]
+        if not node.entry.type.is_struct:
+            arg_template.kw_only = True
+        del init_method.args[1]
+        for entry, attr in zip(var_entries, attributes):
+            arg = copy.deepcopy(arg_template)
+            arg.declarator.name = entry.name
+            init_method.args.append(arg)
+
+        # setters/getters
+        for entry, attr in zip(var_entries, attributes):
+            # TODO: branch on visibility
+            if entry.type.is_pyobject:
+                template = self.basic_pyobject_property
+            else:
+                template = self.basic_property
+            property = template.substitute(
+                {
+                    "ATTR": attr,
+                },
+                pos=entry.pos,
+            ).stats[0]
+            property.name = entry.name
+            wrapper_class.body.stats.append(property)
+
+        wrapper_class.analyse_declarations(self.current_env())
+        return self.visit_CClassDefNode(wrapper_class)
+
+    # Some nodes are no longer needed after declaration
+    # analysis and can be dropped. The analysis was performed
+    # on these nodes in a separate recursive process from the
+    # enclosing function or module, so we can simply drop them.
+    def visit_CDeclaratorNode(self, node):
+        # necessary to ensure that all CNameDeclaratorNodes are visited.
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CTypeDefNode(self, node):
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CBaseTypeNode(self, node):
+        return None
+
+    def visit_CEnumDefNode(self, node):
+        if node.visibility == 'public':
+            return node
+        else:
+            return None
+
+    def visit_CNameDeclaratorNode(self, node):
+        if node.name in self.seen_vars_stack[-1]:
+            entry = self.current_env().lookup(node.name)
+            if (entry is None or entry.visibility != 'extern'
+                    and not entry.scope.is_c_class_scope):
+                error(node.pos, "cdef variable '%s' declared after it is used" % node.name)
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CVarDefNode(self, node):
+        # to ensure all CNameDeclaratorNodes are visited.
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return None
+
+    def visit_CnameDecoratorNode(self, node):
+        child_node = self.visitchild(node, 'node')
+        if not child_node:
+            return None
+        if type(child_node) is list:  # Assignment synthesized
+            node.node = child_node[0]
+            return [node] + child_node[1:]
+        return node
+
+    def create_Property(self, entry):
+        if entry.visibility == 'public':
+            if entry.type.is_pyobject:
+                template = self.basic_pyobject_property
+            else:
+                template = self.basic_property
+        elif entry.visibility == 'readonly':
+            template = self.basic_property_ro
+        property = template.substitute(
+            {
+                "ATTR": ExprNodes.AttributeNode(pos=entry.pos,
+                                                obj=ExprNodes.NameNode(pos=entry.pos, name="self"),
+                                                attribute=entry.name),
+                "CRITICAL_SECTION": self._create_critical_section_name_node(self.current_env(), entry.pos)
+            },
+            pos=entry.pos
+        ).stats[0]
+        property = InterpretCompilerDirectives(None, {})(property)
+        property.name = entry.name
+        property.doc = entry.doc
+        return property
+
+    def visit_AssignmentExpressionNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        node.analyse_declarations(self.current_env())
+        return node
+
+    def _create_critical_section_name_node(self, env, pos):
+        return ExprNodes.NameNode(
+            pos,
+            name="critical_section",
+            cython_attribute="critical_section"
+        )
+
+
+def _calculate_pickle_checksums(member_names):
+    # Cython 0.x used MD5 for the checksum, which a few Python installations remove for security reasons.
+    # SHA-256 should be ok for years to come, but early Cython 3.0 alpha releases used SHA-1,
+    # which may not be.
+    member_names_string = ' '.join(member_names).encode('utf-8')
+    checksums = []
+    for algo_name in ['sha256', 'sha1', 'md5']:
+        try:
+            mkchecksum = getattr(hashlib, algo_name)
+            checksum = mkchecksum(member_names_string, usedforsecurity=False).hexdigest()
+        except (AttributeError, ValueError):
+            # The algorithm (i.e. MD5) might not be there at all, or might be blocked at runtime.
+            continue
+        checksums.append('0x' + checksum[:7])
+    return checksums
+
+
+class CalculateQualifiedNamesTransform(EnvTransform):
+    """
+    Calculate and store the '__qualname__' and the global
+    module name on some nodes.
+    """
+    needs_qualname_assignment = False
+    needs_module_assignment = False
+
+    def visit_ModuleNode(self, node):
+        self.module_name = self.global_scope().qualified_name
+        self.qualified_name = []
+        _super = super()
+        self._super_visit_FuncDefNode = _super.visit_FuncDefNode
+        self._super_visit_ClassDefNode = _super.visit_ClassDefNode
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def _set_qualname(self, node, name=None):
+        if name:
+            qualname = self.qualified_name[:]
+            qualname.append(name)
+        else:
+            qualname = self.qualified_name
+        node.qualname = EncodedString('.'.join(qualname))
+        node.module_name = self.module_name
+
+    def _append_entry(self, entry):
+        if entry.is_pyglobal and not entry.is_pyclass_attr:
+            self.qualified_name = [entry.name]
+        else:
+            self.qualified_name.append(entry.name)
+
+    def visit_ClassNode(self, node):
+        self._set_qualname(node, node.name)
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_PyClassNamespaceNode(self, node):
+        # class name was already added by parent node
+        self._set_qualname(node)
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_PyCFunctionNode(self, node):
+        orig_qualified_name = self.qualified_name[:]
+        if node.def_node.is_wrapper and self.qualified_name and self.qualified_name[-1] == '<locals>':
+            self.qualified_name.pop()
+            self._set_qualname(node)
+        else:
+            self._set_qualname(node, node.def_node.name)
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.qualified_name = orig_qualified_name
+        return node
+
+    def visit_DefNode(self, node):
+        if node.is_wrapper and self.qualified_name:
+            assert self.qualified_name[-1] == '<locals>', self.qualified_name
+            orig_qualified_name = self.qualified_name[:]
+            self.qualified_name.pop()
+            self._set_qualname(node)
+            self._super_visit_FuncDefNode(node)
+            self.qualified_name = orig_qualified_name
+        else:
+            self._set_qualname(node, node.name)
+            self.visit_FuncDefNode(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_FuncDefNode(self, node):
+        orig_qualified_name = self.qualified_name[:]
+        if getattr(node, 'name', None) == '<lambda>':
+            self.qualified_name.append('<lambda>')
+        else:
+            self._append_entry(node.entry)
+        self.qualified_name.append('<locals>')
+        self._super_visit_FuncDefNode(node)
+        self.qualified_name = orig_qualified_name
+        return node
+
+    def generate_assignment(self, node, name, value):
+        entry = node.scope.lookup_here(name)
+        lhs = ExprNodes.NameNode(
+            node.pos,
+            name=EncodedString(name),
+            entry=entry,
+            is_target=True)
+        rhs = ExprNodes.UnicodeNode(node.pos, value=value)
+        node.body.stats.insert(0, Nodes.SingleAssignmentNode(
+            node.pos,
+            lhs=lhs,
+            rhs=rhs,
+        ).analyse_expressions(self.current_env()))
+
+    def visit_ClassDefNode(self, node):
+        orig_needs_qualname_assignment = self.needs_qualname_assignment
+        self.needs_qualname_assignment = False
+        orig_needs_module_assignment = self.needs_module_assignment
+        self.needs_module_assignment = False
+        orig_qualified_name = self.qualified_name[:]
+        entry = (getattr(node, 'entry', None) or             # PyClass
+                 self.current_env().lookup_here(node.target.name))  # CClass
+        self._append_entry(entry)
+        self._super_visit_ClassDefNode(node)
+        if self.needs_qualname_assignment:
+            self.generate_assignment(node, "__qualname__",
+                                     EncodedString(".".join(self.qualified_name)))
+        if self.needs_module_assignment:
+            self.generate_assignment(node, "__module__",
+                                     EncodedString(self.module_name))
+        self.qualified_name = orig_qualified_name
+        self.needs_qualname_assignment = orig_needs_qualname_assignment
+        self.needs_module_assignment = orig_needs_module_assignment
+        return node
+
+    def visit_NameNode(self, node):
+        scope = self.current_env()
+        if scope.is_c_class_scope:
+            # unlike for a PyClass scope, these attributes aren't defined in the
+            # dictionary when the class definition is executed, therefore we ask
+            # the compiler to generate an assignment to them at the start of the
+            # body.
+            # NOTE: this doesn't put them in locals()
+            if node.name == "__qualname__":
+                self.needs_qualname_assignment = True
+            elif node.name == "__module__":
+                self.needs_module_assignment = True
+        return node
+
+
+class AnalyseExpressionsTransform(CythonTransform):
+
+    def visit_ModuleNode(self, node):
+        node.scope.infer_types()
+        node.body = node.body.analyse_expressions(node.scope)
+        self.positions = [{node.pos}]
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self._build_positions(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_FuncDefNode(self, node):
+        node.local_scope.infer_types()
+        node.body = node.body.analyse_expressions(node.local_scope)
+        self.positions[-1].add(node.pos)
+
+        if node.is_wrapper:
+            # Share positions between function and Python wrapper.
+            local_positions = self.positions[-1]
+        else:
+            local_positions = {node.pos}
+        self.positions.append(local_positions)
+
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self._build_positions(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ScopedExprNode(self, node):
+        if node.has_local_scope:
+            node.expr_scope.infer_types()
+            node = node.analyse_scoped_expressions(node.expr_scope)
+        self.visit_ExprNode(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_IndexNode(self, node):
+        """
+        Replace index nodes used to specialize cdef functions with fused
+        argument types with the Attribute- or NameNode referring to the
+        function. We then need to copy over the specialization properties to
+        the attribute or name node.
+
+        Because the indexing might be a Python indexing operation on a fused
+        function, or (usually) a Cython indexing operation, we need to
+        re-analyse the types.
+        """
+        self.visit_ExprNode(node)
+        if node.is_fused_index and not node.type.is_error:
+            node = node.base
+        return node
+
+    # Build the line table according to PEP-626.
+    # We mostly just do this here to avoid yet another transform traversal.
+
+    def visit_ExprNode(self, node):
+        self.positions[-1].add(node.pos)
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_StatNode(self, node):
+        self.positions[-1].add(node.pos)
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def _build_positions(self, func_node):
+        """
+        Build the PEP-626 line table and "bytecode-to-position" mapping used for CodeObjects.
+        """
+        # Code can originate from different source files and string code fragments, even within a single function.
+        # Thus, it's not completely correct to just ignore the source files when sorting the line numbers,
+        # but it also doesn't hurt much for the moment. Eventually, we might need different CodeObjects
+        # even within a single function if it uses code from different sources / line number ranges.
+        positions: list = sorted(
+            self.positions.pop(),
+            key=itemgetter(1, 2),  # (line, column)
+            # Build ranges backwards to know the end column before we see the start column in the same line.
+            reverse=True,
+        )
+
+        next_line = -1
+        next_column_in_line = 0
+
+        ranges = []
+        for _, line, start_column in positions:
+            ranges.append((line, line, start_column, next_column_in_line if line == next_line else start_column + 1))
+            next_line, next_column_in_line = line, start_column
+
+        ranges.reverse()
+        func_node.node_positions = ranges
+
+        positions.reverse()
+        i: cython.Py_ssize_t
+        func_node.local_scope.node_positions_to_offset = {
+            position: i
+            for i, position in enumerate(positions)
+        }
+
+
+class FindInvalidUseOfFusedTypes(TreeVisitor):
+
+    def __call__(self, tree):
+        self._in_fused_function = False
+        self.visit(tree)
+        return tree
+
+    def visit_Node(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+
+    def visit_FuncDefNode(self, node):
+        outer_status = self._in_fused_function
+        self._in_fused_function = node.has_fused_arguments
+
+        if not self._in_fused_function:
+            # Errors related to use in functions with fused args will already
+            # have been detected.
+            if not node.is_generator_body and node.return_type.is_fused:
+                error(node.pos, "Return type is not specified as argument type")
+
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self._in_fused_function = outer_status
+
+    def visit_ExprNode(self, node):
+        if not self._in_fused_function and node.type and node.type.is_fused:
+            error(node.pos, "Invalid use of fused types, type cannot be specialized")
+            # Errors in subtrees are likely related, so do not recurse.
+        else:
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+
+
+class ExpandInplaceOperators(EnvTransform):
+    """Expand in-place operators into separate read/write operations.
+    """
+
+    def visit_InPlaceAssignmentNode(self, node):
+        lhs = node.lhs
+        rhs = node.rhs
+        if lhs.type.is_cpp_class:
+            # No getting around this exact operator here.
+            return node
+        if isinstance(lhs, ExprNodes.BufferIndexNode):
+            # There is code to handle this case in InPlaceAssignmentNode
+            return node
+
+        env = self.current_env()
+        def side_effect_free_reference(node, setting=False):
+            if node.is_name:
+                return node, []
+            elif node.type.is_pyobject and not setting:
+                node = LetRefNode(node)
+                return node, [node]
+            elif node.is_subscript:
+                base, temps = side_effect_free_reference(node.base)
+                index = LetRefNode(node.index)
+                return ExprNodes.IndexNode(node.pos, base=base, index=index), temps + [index]
+            elif node.is_attribute:
+                obj, temps = side_effect_free_reference(node.obj, setting=setting)
+                return ExprNodes.AttributeNode.from_node(
+                    node, obj=obj, attribute=node.attribute, constant_result=ExprNodes.not_a_constant), temps
+            elif isinstance(node, ExprNodes.BufferIndexNode):
+                raise ValueError("Don't allow things like attributes of buffer indexing operations")
+            else:
+                node = LetRefNode(node)
+                return node, [node]
+
+        try:
+            lhs, let_ref_nodes = side_effect_free_reference(lhs, setting=True)
+        except ValueError:
+            return node
+
+        dup = lhs.__class__(**lhs.__dict__)
+        dup = dup.analyse_types(env)  # FIXME: no need to reanalyse the copy, right?
+        binop = ExprNodes.binop_node(node.pos,
+                                     operator = node.operator,
+                                     operand1 = dup,
+                                     operand2 = rhs,
+                                     inplace=True)
+
+        # Manually analyse types for new node.
+        lhs.is_target = True
+        lhs = lhs.analyse_target_types(env)
+        binop.analyse_operation(env)
+        node = Nodes.SingleAssignmentNode(
+            node.pos,
+            lhs = lhs,
+            rhs=binop.coerce_to(lhs.type, env))
+        # Use LetRefNode to avoid side effects.
+        let_ref_nodes.reverse()
+        for t in let_ref_nodes:
+            node = LetNode(t, node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ExprNode(self, node):
+        # In-place assignments can't happen within an expression.
+        return node
+
+
+class AdjustDefByDirectives(CythonTransform, SkipDeclarations):
+    """
+    Adjust function and class definitions by the decorator directives:
+
+    @cython.cfunc
+    @cython.cclass
+    @cython.ccall
+    @cython.inline
+    @cython.nogil
+    @cython.critical_section
+    """
+    # list of directives that cause conversion to cclass
+    converts_to_cclass = ('cclass', 'total_ordering', 'dataclasses.dataclass')
+
+    def visit_ModuleNode(self, node):
+        self.directives = node.directives
+        self.in_py_class = False
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CompilerDirectivesMixin(self, node):
+        with node.apply_directives(self):
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_DefNode(self, node):
+        modifiers = []
+        if 'inline' in self.directives:
+            modifiers.append('inline')
+        nogil = self.directives.get('nogil')
+        with_gil = self.directives.get('with_gil')
+        except_val = self.directives.get('exceptval')
+        has_explicit_exc_clause = False if except_val is None else True
+        return_type_node = self.directives.get('returns')
+        if return_type_node is None and self.directives['annotation_typing']:
+            return_type_node = node.return_type_annotation
+            # for Python annotations, prefer safe exception handling by default
+            if return_type_node is not None and except_val is None:
+                except_val = (None, True)  # except *
+        elif except_val is None:
+            # backward compatible default: no exception check, unless there's also a "@returns" declaration
+            except_val = (None, True if return_type_node else False)
+        if self.directives.get('c_compile_guard') and 'cfunc' not in self.directives:
+            error(node.pos, "c_compile_guard only allowed on C functions")
+        if 'ccall' in self.directives:
+            if 'cfunc' in self.directives:
+                error(node.pos, "cfunc and ccall directives cannot be combined")
+            if with_gil:
+                error(node.pos, "ccall functions cannot be declared 'with_gil'")
+            node = node.as_cfunction(
+                overridable=True, modifiers=modifiers, nogil=nogil,
+                returns=return_type_node, except_val=except_val, has_explicit_exc_clause=has_explicit_exc_clause)
+            return self.visit(node)
+        if 'cfunc' in self.directives:
+            if self.in_py_class:
+                error(node.pos, "cfunc directive is not allowed here")
+            else:
+                node = node.as_cfunction(
+                    overridable=False, modifiers=modifiers, nogil=nogil, with_gil=with_gil,
+                    returns=return_type_node, except_val=except_val, has_explicit_exc_clause=has_explicit_exc_clause)
+                return self.visit(node)
+        if 'inline' in modifiers:
+            error(node.pos, "Python functions cannot be declared 'inline'")
+        if nogil:
+            # TODO: turn this into a "with gil" declaration.
+            error(node.pos, "Python functions cannot be declared 'nogil'")
+        if with_gil:
+            error(node.pos, "Python functions cannot be declared 'with_gil'")
+        self.visit_FuncDefNode(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_FuncDefNode(self, node):
+        if "critical_section" in self.directives:
+            value = self.directives["critical_section"]
+            if value is not None:
+                error(node.pos, "critical_section decorator does not take arguments")
+            if self.in_py_class:
+                warning(
+                    node.pos,
+                    "@critical_section on method of a class that is not an extension type is unlikely to be useful",
+                    2)
+            new_body = Nodes.CriticalSectionStatNode(
+                node.pos,
+                args=[ExprNodes.FirstArgumentForCriticalSectionNode(node.pos, func_node=node)],
+                body=node.body
+            )
+            node.body = new_body
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_LambdaNode(self, node):
+        # No directives should modify lambdas or generator expressions (and also nothing in them).
+        return node
+
+    def visit_PyClassDefNode(self, node):
+        if any(directive in self.directives for directive in self.converts_to_cclass):
+            node = node.as_cclass()
+            return self.visit(node)
+        else:
+            old_in_pyclass = self.in_py_class
+            self.in_py_class = True
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+            self.in_py_class = old_in_pyclass
+            return node
+
+    def visit_CClassDefNode(self, node):
+        old_in_pyclass = self.in_py_class
+        self.in_py_class = False
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.in_py_class = old_in_pyclass
+        return node
+
+
+class AlignFunctionDefinitions(CythonTransform):
+    """
+    This class takes the signatures from a .pxd file and applies them to
+    the def methods in a .py file.
+    """
+
+    def visit_ModuleNode(self, node):
+        self.scope = node.scope
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_PyClassDefNode(self, node):
+        pxd_def = self.scope.lookup(node.name)
+        if pxd_def:
+            if pxd_def.is_cclass:
+                return self.visit_CClassDefNode(node.as_cclass(), pxd_def)
+            elif not pxd_def.scope or not pxd_def.scope.is_builtin_scope:
+                error(node.pos, "'%s' redeclared" % node.name)
+                if pxd_def.pos:
+                    error(pxd_def.pos, "previous declaration here")
+                return None
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CClassDefNode(self, node, pxd_def=None):
+        if pxd_def is None:
+            pxd_def = self.scope.lookup(node.class_name)
+        if pxd_def:
+            if not pxd_def.defined_in_pxd:
+                return node
+            outer_scope = self.scope
+            self.scope = pxd_def.type.scope
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        if pxd_def:
+            self.scope = outer_scope
+        return node
+
+    def visit_DefNode(self, node):
+        pxd_def = self.scope.lookup(node.name)
+        if pxd_def and (not pxd_def.scope or not pxd_def.scope.is_builtin_scope):
+            if not pxd_def.is_cfunction:
+                error(node.pos, "'%s' redeclared" % node.name)
+                if pxd_def.pos:
+                    error(pxd_def.pos, "previous declaration here")
+                return None
+            node = node.as_cfunction(pxd_def)
+        # Enable this when nested cdef functions are allowed.
+        # self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ExprNode(self, node):
+        # ignore lambdas and everything else that appears in expressions
+        return node
+
+
+class AutoCpdefFunctionDefinitions(CythonTransform):
+
+    def visit_ModuleNode(self, node):
+        self.directives = node.directives
+        self.imported_names = set()  # hack, see visit_FromImportStatNode()
+        self.scope = node.scope
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_DefNode(self, node):
+        if (self.scope.is_module_scope and self.directives['auto_cpdef']
+                and node.name not in self.imported_names
+                and node.is_cdef_func_compatible()):
+            # FIXME: cpdef-ing should be done in analyse_declarations()
+            node = node.as_cfunction(scope=self.scope)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CClassDefNode(self, node, pxd_def=None):
+        if pxd_def is None:
+            pxd_def = self.scope.lookup(node.class_name)
+        if pxd_def:
+            if not pxd_def.defined_in_pxd:
+                return node
+            outer_scope = self.scope
+            self.scope = pxd_def.type.scope
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        if pxd_def:
+            self.scope = outer_scope
+        return node
+
+    def visit_FromImportStatNode(self, node):
+        # hack to prevent conditional import fallback functions from
+        # being cdpef-ed (global Python variables currently conflict
+        # with imports)
+        if self.scope.is_module_scope:
+            for name, _ in node.items:
+                self.imported_names.add(name)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ExprNode(self, node):
+        # ignore lambdas and everything else that appears in expressions
+        return node
+
+
+class RemoveUnreachableCode(CythonTransform):
+
+    def visit_StatListNode(self, node):
+        if not self.current_directives['remove_unreachable']:
+            return node
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        if len(node.stats) == 1 and isinstance(node.stats[0], Nodes.StatListNode) and not node.stats[0].stats:
+            del node.stats[:]
+        for idx, stat in enumerate(node.stats, 1):
+            if stat.is_terminator:
+                if idx < len(node.stats):
+                    if self.current_directives['warn.unreachable']:
+                        warning(node.stats[idx].pos, "Unreachable code", 2)
+                    node.stats = node.stats[:idx]
+                node.is_terminator = True
+                break
+        return node
+
+    def visit_IfClauseNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        if node.body.is_terminator:
+            node.is_terminator = True
+        return node
+
+    def visit_IfStatNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        if node.else_clause and node.else_clause.is_terminator:
+            for clause in node.if_clauses:
+                if not clause.is_terminator:
+                    break
+            else:
+                node.is_terminator = True
+        return node
+
+    def visit_TryExceptStatNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        if node.body.is_terminator and node.else_clause:
+            if self.current_directives['warn.unreachable']:
+                warning(node.else_clause.pos, "Unreachable code", 2)
+            node.else_clause = None
+        return node
+
+    def visit_TryFinallyStatNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        if node.finally_clause.is_terminator:
+            node.is_terminator = True
+        return node
+
+    def visit_PassStatNode(self, node):
+        """Eliminate useless PassStatNode"""
+        # 'pass' statements often appear in a separate line and must be traced.
+        if not self.current_directives['linetrace']:
+            node = Nodes.StatListNode(pos=node.pos, stats=[])
+        return node
+
+
+class YieldNodeCollector(TreeVisitor):
+
+    def __init__(self, excludes=[]):
+        super().__init__()
+        self.yields = []
+        self.returns = []
+        self.finallys = []
+        self.excepts = []
+        self.has_return_value = False
+        self.has_yield = False
+        self.has_await = False
+        self.excludes = excludes
+
+    def visit_Node(self, node):
+        if node not in self.excludes:
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+
+    def visit_YieldExprNode(self, node):
+        self.yields.append(node)
+        self.has_yield = True
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+
+    def visit_AwaitExprNode(self, node):
+        self.yields.append(node)
+        self.has_await = True
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+
+    def visit_ReturnStatNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        if node.value:
+            self.has_return_value = True
+        self.returns.append(node)
+
+    def visit_TryFinallyStatNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.finallys.append(node)
+
+    def visit_TryExceptStatNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.excepts.append(node)
+
+    def visit_ClassDefNode(self, node):
+        pass
+
+    def visit_FuncDefNode(self, node):
+        pass
+
+    def visit_LambdaNode(self, node):
+        pass
+
+    def visit_GeneratorExpressionNode(self, node):
+        # node.loop iterator is evaluated outside the generator expression
+        if isinstance(node.loop, Nodes._ForInStatNode):
+            # Possibly should handle ForFromStatNode
+            # but for now do nothing
+            self.visit(node.loop.iterator)
+
+    def visit_CArgDeclNode(self, node):
+        # do not look into annotations
+        # FIXME: support (yield) in default arguments (currently crashes)
+        pass
+
+
+class MarkClosureVisitor(CythonTransform):
+    # In addition to marking closures this is also responsible to finding parts of the
+    # generator iterable and marking them
+
+    def visit_ModuleNode(self, node):
+        self.needs_closure = Nodes.FuncDefNode.NeedsClosure.NO_CLOSURE
+        self.excludes = []
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_FuncDefNode(self, node):
+        self.needs_closure = Nodes.FuncDefNode.NeedsClosure.NO_CLOSURE
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        node.needs_closure = self.needs_closure
+        self.needs_closure = Nodes.FuncDefNode.NeedsClosure.FULL_CLOSURE
+
+        collector = YieldNodeCollector(self.excludes)
+        collector.visitchildren(node)
+
+        if node.is_async_def:
+            coroutine_type = Nodes.AsyncDefNode
+            if collector.has_yield:
+                coroutine_type = Nodes.AsyncGenNode
+                for yield_expr in collector.yields + collector.returns:
+                    yield_expr.in_async_gen = True
+            elif self.current_directives['iterable_coroutine']:
+                coroutine_type = Nodes.IterableAsyncDefNode
+        elif collector.has_await:
+            found = next(y for y in collector.yields if y.is_await)
+            error(found.pos, "'await' not allowed in generators (use 'yield')")
+            return node
+        elif collector.has_yield:
+            coroutine_type = Nodes.GeneratorDefNode
+        else:
+            return node
+
+        for i, yield_expr in enumerate(collector.yields, 1):
+            yield_expr.label_num = i
+        for retnode in collector.returns + collector.finallys + collector.excepts:
+            retnode.in_generator = True
+
+        gbody = Nodes.GeneratorBodyDefNode(
+            pos=node.pos, name=node.name, body=node.body,
+            is_coroutine_body=node.is_async_def,
+            is_async_gen_body=node.is_async_def and collector.has_yield)
+        coroutine = coroutine_type(
+            pos=node.pos, name=node.name, args=node.args,
+            star_arg=node.star_arg, starstar_arg=node.starstar_arg,
+            doc=node.doc, decorators=node.decorators,
+            gbody=gbody, lambda_name=node.lambda_name,
+            return_type_annotation=node.return_type_annotation,
+            is_generator_expression=node.is_generator_expression)
+        if node.needs_closure:
+            # We may have determined that we need a "full closure"
+            # so upgrade the coroutine to signal that
+            coroutine.needs_closure = node.needs_closure
+        return coroutine
+
+    def visit_CFuncDefNode(self, node):
+        self.needs_closure = Nodes.FuncDefNode.NeedsClosure.NO_CLOSURE
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        node.needs_closure = self.needs_closure
+        self.needs_closure = Nodes.FuncDefNode.NeedsClosure.FULL_CLOSURE
+        if node.needs_closure and node.overridable:
+            error(node.pos, "closures inside cpdef functions not yet supported")
+        return node
+
+    def visit_LambdaNode(self, node):
+        self.needs_closure = Nodes.FuncDefNode.NeedsClosure.NO_CLOSURE
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        node.needs_closure = self.needs_closure
+        self.needs_closure = Nodes.FuncDefNode.NeedsClosure.FULL_CLOSURE
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ClassDefNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.needs_closure = Nodes.FuncDefNode.NeedsClosure.FULL_CLOSURE
+        return node
+
+    def visit_GeneratorExpressionNode(self, node):
+        excludes = self.excludes
+        if isinstance(node.loop, Nodes._ForInStatNode):
+            self.excludes = [node.loop.iterator]
+        node = self.visit_LambdaNode(node)
+        self.excludes = excludes
+        if not isinstance(node.loop, Nodes._ForInStatNode):
+            # Possibly should handle ForFromStatNode
+            # but for now do nothing
+            return node
+        itseq = node.loop.iterator.sequence
+        # literals do not need replacing with an argument
+        if itseq.is_literal:
+            return node
+        _GeneratorExpressionArgumentsMarker(node).visit(itseq)
+        return node
+
+
+class CreateClosureClasses(CythonTransform):
+    # Output closure classes in module scope for all functions
+    # that really need it.
+
+    def __init__(self, context):
+        super().__init__(context)
+        self.path = []
+        self.in_lambda = False
+
+    def visit_ModuleNode(self, node):
+        self.module_scope = node.scope
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def find_entries_used_in_closures(self, node):
+        from_closure = []
+        in_closure = []
+        for scope in node.local_scope.iter_local_scopes():
+            for name, entry in scope.entries.items():
+                if not name:
+                    continue
+                if entry.from_closure:
+                    from_closure.append((name, entry))
+                elif entry.in_closure:
+                    in_closure.append((name, entry))
+        return from_closure, in_closure
+
+    def create_class_from_scope(self, node, target_module_scope, inner_node=None):
+        # move local variables into closure
+        if node.is_generator:
+            for scope in node.local_scope.iter_local_scopes():
+                for entry in scope.entries.values():
+                    if not (entry.from_closure or entry.is_pyglobal or entry.is_cglobal):
+                        entry.in_closure = True
+
+        from_closure, in_closure = self.find_entries_used_in_closures(node)
+        in_closure.sort()
+
+        # Now from the beginning
+        node.needs_closure = Nodes.FuncDefNode.NeedsClosure.NO_CLOSURE
+        node.needs_outer_scope = False
+
+        func_scope = node.local_scope
+        cscope = node.entry.scope
+        while cscope.is_py_class_scope or cscope.is_c_class_scope:
+            cscope = cscope.outer_scope
+
+        if not from_closure and (self.path or inner_node):
+            if not inner_node:
+                if not node.py_cfunc_node:
+                    raise InternalError("DefNode does not have assignment node")
+                inner_node = node.py_cfunc_node
+            inner_node.needs_closure_code = False
+            node.needs_outer_scope = False
+
+        if node.is_generator:
+            pass
+        elif not in_closure and not from_closure:
+            return
+        elif not in_closure:
+            func_scope.is_passthrough = True
+            func_scope.scope_class = cscope.scope_class
+            node.needs_outer_scope = True
+            return
+
+        # entry.cname can contain periods (eg. a derived C method of a class).
+        # We want to use the cname as part of a C struct name, so we replace
+        # periods with double underscores.
+        as_name = '%s_%s' % (
+            target_module_scope.next_id(Naming.closure_class_prefix),
+            node.entry.cname.replace('.','__'))
+        as_name = EncodedString(as_name)
+
+        entry = target_module_scope.declare_c_class(
+            name=as_name, pos=node.pos, defining=True,
+            implementing=True)
+        entry.type.is_final_type = True
+
+        func_scope.scope_class = entry
+        class_scope = entry.type.scope
+        class_scope.is_internal = True
+        class_scope.is_closure_class_scope = True
+        if node.is_async_def or node.is_generator:
+            # Generators need their closure intact during cleanup as they resume to handle GeneratorExit
+            class_scope.directives['no_gc_clear'] = True
+        if Options.closure_freelist_size:
+            class_scope.directives['freelist'] = Options.closure_freelist_size
+
+        if from_closure:
+            assert cscope.is_closure_scope
+            class_scope.declare_var(pos=node.pos,
+                                    name=Naming.outer_scope_cname,
+                                    cname=Naming.outer_scope_cname,
+                                    type=cscope.scope_class.type,
+                                    is_cdef=True)
+            node.needs_outer_scope = True
+        for name, entry in in_closure:
+            closure_entry = class_scope.declare_var(
+                pos=entry.pos,
+                name=entry.name if not entry.in_subscope else None,
+                cname=entry.cname,
+                type=entry.type,
+                is_cdef=True)
+            if entry.is_declared_generic:
+                closure_entry.is_declared_generic = 1
+        node.needs_closure = Nodes.FuncDefNode.NeedsClosure.FULL_CLOSURE
+        # Do it here because other classes are already checked
+        target_module_scope.check_c_class(func_scope.scope_class)
+
+    def visit_LambdaNode(self, node):
+        if not isinstance(node.def_node, Nodes.DefNode):
+            # fused function, an error has been previously issued
+            return node
+
+        was_in_lambda = self.in_lambda
+        self.in_lambda = True
+        self.create_class_from_scope(node.def_node, self.module_scope, node)
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.in_lambda = was_in_lambda
+        return node
+
+    def visit_FuncDefNode(self, node):
+        if self.in_lambda:
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+            return node
+        if node.needs_closure or self.path:
+            self.create_class_from_scope(node, self.module_scope)
+            self.path.append(node)
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+            self.path.pop()
+        return node
+
+    def visit_GeneratorBodyDefNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CFuncDefNode(self, node):
+        if not node.overridable:
+            return self.visit_FuncDefNode(node)
+        else:
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+            return node
+
+    def visit_GeneratorExpressionNode(self, node):
+        node = _HandleGeneratorArguments()(node)
+        return self.visit_LambdaNode(node)
+
+
+class InjectGilHandling(VisitorTransform, SkipDeclarations):
+    """
+    Allow certain Python operations inside of nogil blocks by implicitly acquiring the GIL.
+
+    Must run before the AnalyseDeclarationsTransform to make sure the GILStatNodes get
+    set up, parallel sections know that the GIL is acquired inside of them, etc.
+    """
+    nogil = False
+
+    # special node handling
+
+    def _inject_gil_in_nogil(self, node):
+        """Allow the (Python statement) node in nogil sections by wrapping it in a 'with gil' block."""
+        if self.nogil:
+            node = Nodes.GILStatNode(node.pos, state='gil', body=node, internally_generated=True)
+        return node
+
+    visit_RaiseStatNode = _inject_gil_in_nogil
+    visit_PrintStatNode = _inject_gil_in_nogil  # sadly, not the function
+
+    # further candidates:
+    # def visit_ReraiseStatNode(self, node):
+
+    # nogil tracking
+
+    def visit_GILStatNode(self, node):
+        was_nogil = self.nogil
+        self.nogil = (node.state == 'nogil')
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.nogil = was_nogil
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CFuncDefNode(self, node):
+        was_nogil = self.nogil
+        if isinstance(node.declarator, Nodes.CFuncDeclaratorNode):
+            self.nogil = node.declarator.nogil and not node.declarator.with_gil
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.nogil = was_nogil
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ParallelRangeNode(self, node):
+        was_nogil = self.nogil
+        self.nogil = node.nogil
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.nogil = was_nogil
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ExprNode(self, node):
+        # No special GIL handling inside of expressions for now.
+        return node
+
+    visit_Node = VisitorTransform.recurse_to_children
+
+
+class GilCheck(VisitorTransform):
+    """
+    Call `node.gil_check(env)` on each node to make sure we hold the
+    GIL when we need it.  Raise an error when on Python operations
+    inside a `nogil` environment.
+
+    Additionally, raise exceptions for closely nested with gil or with nogil
+    statements. The latter would abort Python.
+    """
+
+    def __call__(self, root):
+        self.env_stack = [root.scope]
+        self.nogil_state = Nodes.NoGilState.HasGil
+        self.in_critical_section = False
+
+        self.nogil_state_at_current_gilstatnode = Nodes.NoGilState.HasGil
+        return super().__call__(root)
+
+    def _visit_scoped_children(self, node, nogil_state):
+        was_nogil = self.nogil_state
+        outer_attrs = node.outer_attrs
+        if outer_attrs and len(self.env_stack) > 1:
+            self.nogil_state = (
+                Nodes.NoGilState.NoGil if self.env_stack[-2].nogil else Nodes.NoGilState.HasGil)
+            self.visitchildren(node, outer_attrs)
+
+        self.nogil_state = nogil_state
+        self.visitchildren(node, attrs=None, exclude=outer_attrs)
+        self.nogil_state = was_nogil
+
+    def visit_FuncDefNode(self, node):
+        self.env_stack.append(node.local_scope)
+        inner_nogil = node.local_scope.nogil
+
+        nogil_state = self.nogil_state
+        if inner_nogil:
+            self.nogil_state = Nodes.NoGilState.NoGilScope
+
+        if inner_nogil and node.nogil_check:
+            node.nogil_check(node.local_scope)
+
+        in_critical_section, self.in_critical_section = self.in_critical_section, False
+        self._visit_scoped_children(node, self.nogil_state)
+        self.in_critical_section = in_critical_section
+
+        # FuncDefNodes can be nested, because a cpdef function contains a def function
+        # inside it. Therefore restore to previous state
+        self.nogil_state = nogil_state
+
+        self.env_stack.pop()
+        return node
+
+    def visit_GILStatNode(self, node):
+        if node.condition is not None:
+            error(node.condition.pos,
+                  "Non-constant condition in a "
+                  "`with %s(<condition>)` statement" % node.state)
+            return node
+
+        if self.nogil_state and node.nogil_check:
+            node.nogil_check()
+
+        was_nogil = self.nogil_state
+        is_nogil = (node.state == 'nogil')
+
+        if was_nogil == is_nogil and not self.nogil_state == Nodes.NoGilState.NoGilScope:
+            if not was_nogil:
+                error(node.pos, "Trying to acquire the GIL while it is "
+                                "already held.")
+            else:
+                error(node.pos, "Trying to release the GIL while it was "
+                                "previously released.")
+        if self.nogil_state == Nodes.NoGilState.NoGilScope:
+            node.scope_gil_state_known = False
+
+        if isinstance(node.finally_clause, Nodes.StatListNode):
+            # The finally clause of the GILStatNode is a GILExitNode,
+            # which is wrapped in a StatListNode. Just unpack that.
+            node.finally_clause, = node.finally_clause.stats
+
+        nogil_state_at_current_gilstatnode = self.nogil_state_at_current_gilstatnode
+        self.nogil_state_at_current_gilstatnode = self.nogil_state
+        nogil_state = Nodes.NoGilState.NoGil if is_nogil else Nodes.NoGilState.HasGil
+        self._visit_scoped_children(node, nogil_state)
+        self.nogil_state_at_current_gilstatnode = nogil_state_at_current_gilstatnode
+
+        # Drop pointless nested `with gil: with nogil:` blocks.
+        # These can occur during the generation of prange/parallel sections for example.
+        node_body = node.body
+        if (isinstance(node_body, Nodes.StatListNode) and len(node_body.stats) == 1):
+            node_body = node_body.stats[0]
+        if isinstance(node_body, Nodes.GILStatNode) and node_body.state != node.state and (
+                # Don't optimize out user-inserted `with nogil` for now. They have the
+                # side-effect of deliberately allowing a thread-switch even if they might
+                # appear useless, so they might be deliberate.
+                (node_body.state == "nogil" and node_body.internally_generated) or
+                (node.state == "nogil" and node.internally_generated)):
+            if not node.scope_gil_state_known:
+                node_body.scope_gil_state_known = False
+                node_body.finally_clause.scope_gil_state_known = False
+                if node_body.finally_except_clause is not None:
+                    node_body.finally_except_clause.scope_gil_state_known = False
+                return node_body
+            else:
+                return node_body.body
+
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ParallelRangeNode(self, node):
+        if self.nogil_state == Nodes.NoGilState.HasGil and not node.nogil:
+            # We still release the GIL then reacquire it to avoid deadlocks.
+            node.acquire_gil = True
+        if (node.nogil or self.nogil_state == Nodes.NoGilState.NoGilScope or
+                (self.nogil_state == Nodes.NoGilState.HasGil and not node.parent)):
+            node_was_nogil, node.nogil = node.nogil, False
+            node = Nodes.GILStatNode(node.pos, state='nogil', body=node, internally_generated=True)
+            if not node_was_nogil and self.nogil_state == Nodes.NoGilState.NoGilScope:
+                # We're in a "nogil" function, but that doesn't prove we
+                # didn't have the gil
+                node.scope_gil_state_known = False
+            return self.visit_GILStatNode(node)
+
+        if node.acquire_gil:
+            if not self.env_stack[-1].directives['freethreading_compatible']:
+                warning(
+                    node.pos,
+                    "prange without releasing the GIL will only work well on freethreaded Python",
+                    level=2)
+            was_nogil = self.nogil_state
+            self.nogil_state = Nodes.NoGilState.HasGil
+
+        node.nogil_check(self.env_stack[-1])
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+
+        if node.acquire_gil:
+            self.nogil_state = was_nogil
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ParallelWithBlockNode(self, node):
+        if self.nogil_state != Nodes.NoGilState.NoGil:
+            # Ensure that the GIL is released
+            if self.nogil_state == Nodes.NoGilState.HasGil:
+                # Even if we intend the block to have the GIL it's easier to release
+                # and reacquire it to void deadlocks.
+                node.acquire_gil = True
+            node = Nodes.GILStatNode(node.pos, state='nogil', body=node, internally_generated=True)
+            if self.nogil_state == Nodes.NoGilState.NoGilScope:
+                node.scope_gil_state_known = False
+            return self.visit_GILStatNode(node)
+
+        if node.acquire_gil:
+            if not self.env_stack[-1].directives['freethreading_compatible']:
+                warning(
+                    node.pos,
+                    "Parallel section without releasing the GIL will only work well on freethreaded Python",
+                    level=2)
+            was_nogil = self.nogil_state
+            self.nogil_state = Nodes.NoGilState.HasGil
+
+        if node.nogil_check:
+            # It does not currently implement this, but test for it anyway to
+            # avoid potential future surprises
+            node.nogil_check(self.env_stack[-1])
+
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        if node.acquire_gil:
+            self.nogil_state = was_nogil
+        return node
+
+    def visit_TryFinallyStatNode(self, node):
+        """
+        Take care of try/finally statements in nogil code sections.
+        """
+        if not self.nogil_state:
+            return self.visit_Node(node)
+
+        node.nogil_check = None
+        node.is_try_finally_in_nogil = True
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CriticalSectionStatNode(self, node):
+        # skip normal "try/finally node" handling
+        in_critical_section, self.in_critical_section = self.in_critical_section, True
+        result = self.visit_Node(node)
+        self.in_critical_section = in_critical_section
+        return result
+
+    def visit_CythonLockStatNode(self, node):
+        # skip normal "try/finally node" handling
+        return self.visit_Node(node)
+
+    def visit_GILExitNode(self, node):
+        if self.nogil_state_at_current_gilstatnode == Nodes.NoGilState.NoGilScope:
+            node.scope_gil_state_known = False
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_Node(self, node):
+        if self.env_stack and self.nogil_state and node.nogil_check:
+            node.nogil_check(self.env_stack[-1])
+        if node.outer_attrs:
+            self._visit_scoped_children(node, self.nogil_state)
+        else:
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+        if self.nogil_state:
+            node.in_nogil_context = self.nogil_state
+        return node
+
+    def visit_SimpleCallNode(self, node):
+        if (node.self and node.self.type.is_cython_lock_type and
+                node.function.is_attribute and node.function.attribute == "acquire" and
+                len(node.args) == 1):
+            # For the cython lock types we can optimize if we know the GIL state.
+            # (Remove this in the distant future when it's all PyMutexes because for these
+            # it doesn't matter)
+            suffix = None
+            if self.nogil_state == Nodes.NoGilState.NoGil:
+                suffix = "Nogil"
+            elif self.nogil_state == Nodes.NoGilState.HasGil:
+                suffix = "Gil"
+            if suffix:
+                node = ExprNodes.PythonCapiCallNode(
+                    node.pos,
+                    node.function.entry.cname + suffix,
+                    node.function.type,
+                    args=[node.self],
+                )
+        return self.visit_Node(node)
+
+    def visit_AttributeNode(self, node):
+        if self.in_critical_section and node.is_py_attr:
+            warning(
+                node.pos,
+                "Python attribute access is not usefully protected by critical_section",
+                1)
+        return self.visit_Node(node)
+
+
+class CoerceCppTemps(EnvTransform, SkipDeclarations):
+    """
+    For temporary expression that are implemented using std::optional it's necessary the temps are
+    assigned using `__pyx_t_x = value;` but accessed using `something = (*__pyx_t_x)`. This transform
+    inserts a coercion node to take care of this, and runs absolutely last (once nothing else can be
+    inserted into the tree)
+
+    TODO: a possible alternative would be to split ExprNode.result() into ExprNode.rhs_result() and ExprNode.lhs_result()???
+    """
+    def visit_ModuleNode(self, node):
+        if self.current_env().cpp:
+            # skipping this makes it essentially free for C files
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ExprNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        if (self.current_env().directives['cpp_locals'] and
+                node.result_in_temp() and node.type.is_cpp_class and
+                # Fake references are not replaced with "std::optional()".
+                not node.type.is_fake_reference):
+            node = ExprNodes.CppOptionalTempCoercion(node)
+
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CppOptionalTempCoercion(self, node):
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CppIteratorNode(self, node):
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ExprStatNode(self, node):
+        # Deliberately skip `expr` in ExprStatNode - we don't need to access it.
+        self.visitchildren(node.expr)
+        return node
+
+
+class TransformBuiltinMethods(EnvTransform):
+    """
+    Replace Cython's own cython.* builtins by the corresponding tree nodes.
+    Also handle some Python special builtin functions (e.g. super()/locals())
+    that require introspection by the compiler.
+    """
+    def __init__(self, *args, **kwds):
+        super().__init__(*args, **kwds)
+        self.def_node_body_insertions = {}
+
+    def visit_SingleAssignmentNode(self, node):
+        if node.declaration_only:
+            return None
+        else:
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+            return node
+
+    def visit_AttributeNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return self.visit_cython_attribute(node)
+
+    def visit_NameNode(self, node):
+        if node.name == u'__class__':
+            lenv = self.current_env()
+            entry = lenv.lookup_here(u'__class__')
+            if not entry:
+                node = self._inject_class(node)
+        return self.visit_cython_attribute(node)
+
+    def visit_cython_attribute(self, node):
+        attribute = node.as_cython_attribute()
+        if attribute:
+            if attribute == '__version__':
+                from .. import __version__ as version
+                node = ExprNodes.UnicodeNode(node.pos, value=EncodedString(version))
+            elif attribute == 'NULL':
+                node = ExprNodes.NullNode(node.pos)
+            elif attribute in ('set', 'frozenset', 'staticmethod'):
+                node = ExprNodes.NameNode(node.pos, name=EncodedString(attribute),
+                                          entry=self.current_env().builtin_scope().lookup_here(attribute))
+            elif PyrexTypes.parse_basic_type(attribute):
+                pass
+            elif self.context.cython_scope.lookup_qualified_name(attribute):
+                pass
+            else:
+                error(node.pos, "'%s' not a valid cython attribute or is being used incorrectly" % attribute)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_ExecStatNode(self, node):
+        lenv = self.current_env()
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        if len(node.args) == 1:
+            node.args.append(ExprNodes.GlobalsExprNode(node.pos))
+            if not lenv.is_module_scope:
+                node.args.append(
+                    ExprNodes.LocalsExprNode(
+                        node.pos, self.current_scope_node(), lenv))
+        return node
+
+    def _inject_locals(self, node, func_name):
+        # locals()/dir()/vars() builtins
+        lenv = self.current_env()
+        entry = lenv.lookup_here(func_name)
+        if entry:
+            # not the builtin
+            return node
+        pos = node.pos
+        if func_name in ('locals', 'vars'):
+            if func_name == 'locals' and len(node.args) > 0:
+                error(self.pos, "Builtin 'locals()' called with wrong number of args, expected 0, got %d"
+                      % len(node.args))
+                return node
+            elif func_name == 'vars':
+                if len(node.args) > 1:
+                    error(self.pos, "Builtin 'vars()' called with wrong number of args, expected 0-1, got %d"
+                          % len(node.args))
+                if len(node.args) > 0:
+                    return node  # nothing to do
+            return ExprNodes.LocalsExprNode(pos, self.current_scope_node(), lenv)
+        else:  # dir()
+            if len(node.args) > 1:
+                error(self.pos, "Builtin 'dir()' called with wrong number of args, expected 0-1, got %d"
+                      % len(node.args))
+            if len(node.args) > 0:
+                # optimised in Builtin.py
+                return node
+            if lenv.is_py_class_scope or lenv.is_module_scope:
+                if lenv.is_py_class_scope:
+                    pyclass = self.current_scope_node()
+                    locals_dict = ExprNodes.CloneNode(pyclass.dict)
+                else:
+                    locals_dict = ExprNodes.GlobalsExprNode(pos)
+                return ExprNodes.SortedDictKeysNode(locals_dict)
+            local_names = sorted(var.name for var in lenv.entries.values() if var.name)
+            items = [ExprNodes.IdentifierStringNode(pos, value=var)
+                     for var in local_names]
+            return ExprNodes.ListNode(pos, args=items)
+
+    def visit_PrimaryCmpNode(self, node):
+        # special case: for in/not-in test, we do not need to sort locals()
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        if node.operator in 'not_in':  # in/not_in
+            if isinstance(node.operand2, ExprNodes.SortedDictKeysNode):
+                arg = node.operand2.arg
+                if isinstance(arg, ExprNodes.NoneCheckNode):
+                    arg = arg.arg
+                node.operand2 = arg
+        return node
+
+    def visit_CascadedCmpNode(self, node):
+        return self.visit_PrimaryCmpNode(node)
+
+    def _inject_eval(self, node, func_name):
+        lenv = self.current_env()
+        entry = lenv.lookup(func_name)
+        if len(node.args) != 1 or (entry and not entry.is_builtin):
+            return node
+        # Inject globals and locals
+        node.args.append(ExprNodes.GlobalsExprNode(node.pos))
+        if not lenv.is_module_scope:
+            node.args.append(
+                ExprNodes.LocalsExprNode(
+                    node.pos, self.current_scope_node(), lenv))
+        return node
+
+    def _inject_class(self, node):
+        # bare __class__ reference inside function
+        current_def_node = self.current_scope_node()
+
+        if not isinstance(current_def_node, Nodes.FuncDefNode):
+            return node
+
+        # Go up the stack, find the first class node and its direct method (i.e. function).
+        fdef_node = class_node = generator_node = None
+        for stack_node, stack_scope in reversed(self.env_stack):
+            if isinstance(stack_node, Nodes.ClassDefNode):
+                class_node = stack_node
+                class_scope = stack_scope
+                break
+            elif isinstance(stack_node, Nodes.GeneratorDefNode):
+                generator_node = stack_node
+                fdef_node = stack_node.gbody
+                fdef_scope = stack_scope
+            elif isinstance(stack_node, Nodes.FuncDefNode):
+                fdef_node = stack_node
+                fdef_scope = stack_scope
+
+        if not fdef_node or not class_node:
+            # failed to find a class or function
+            return node
+
+        # now we arrange to inject:
+        #  __class__ = ... at the start of the def_node body
+        # The advantage of doing it like this is that it automatically appears in locals()
+        # and it can be captured by inner functions
+        if fdef_node not in self.def_node_body_insertions:
+            pos = fdef_node.body.pos
+            if class_scope.is_c_class_scope:
+                # c-classes can be resolved at compile-time, so they have a simpler
+                # implementation
+                rhs = ExprNodes.NameNode(
+                            pos, name=class_node.scope.name,
+                            entry=class_node.entry)
+            elif class_scope.is_py_class_scope:
+                rhs = ExprNodes.ClassCellNode(pos, is_generator=generator_node is not None)
+                if generator_node:
+                    generator_node.requires_classobj = True
+                else:
+                    fdef_node.requires_classobj = True
+                class_node.class_cell.is_active = True
+            else:
+                return node  # should never happen
+
+            assign_node = Nodes.SingleAssignmentNode(pos,
+                lhs=ExprNodes.NameNode(pos, name=EncodedString("__class__")),
+                rhs=rhs)
+
+            assign_node.analyse_declarations(fdef_scope)
+
+            assert fdef_node not in self.def_node_body_insertions
+            self.def_node_body_insertions[fdef_node] = assign_node
+
+        return node
+
+    def _inject_super(self, node, func_name):
+        lenv = self.current_env()
+        entry = lenv.lookup_here(func_name)
+        if entry or node.args:
+            return node
+        # Inject no-args super
+        def_node = self.current_scope_node()
+        if not isinstance(def_node, Nodes.DefNode) or not def_node.args or len(self.env_stack) < 2:
+            return node
+        class_node, class_scope = self.env_stack[-2]
+        if class_scope.is_py_class_scope:
+            def_node.requires_classobj = True
+            class_node.class_cell.is_active = True
+            node.args = [
+                ExprNodes.ClassCellNode(
+                    node.pos, is_generator=def_node.is_generator),
+                ExprNodes.NameNode(node.pos, name=def_node.args[0].name)
+                ]
+        elif class_scope.is_c_class_scope:
+            node.args = [
+                ExprNodes.NameNode(
+                    node.pos, name=class_node.scope.name,
+                    entry=class_node.entry),
+                ExprNodes.NameNode(node.pos, name=def_node.args[0].name)
+                ]
+        return node
+
+    def _do_body_insertion(self, node):
+        body_insertion = self.def_node_body_insertions.pop(node, None)
+        if body_insertion:
+            if isinstance(node.body, Nodes.StatListNode):
+                node.body.stats.insert(0, body_insertion)
+            else:
+                node.body = Nodes.StatListNode(node.body.pos,
+                                               stats=[body_insertion, node.body])
+
+    def visit_FuncDefNode(self, node):
+        node = super().visit_FuncDefNode(node)
+        self._do_body_insertion(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_GeneratorBodyDefNode(self, node):
+        node = super().visit_GeneratorBodyDefNode(node)
+        self._do_body_insertion(node)
+        return node
+
+    def _inject_branch_hint(self, node):
+        condition = node.condition
+        if isinstance(condition, ExprNodes.SimpleCallNode):
+            function = condition.function.as_cython_attribute()
+            if function in ('likely', 'unlikely'):
+                node.branch_hint = function
+                node.condition = condition.args[0]
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_IfClauseNode(self, node):
+        return self._inject_branch_hint(node)
+
+    def visit_CondExprNode(self, node):
+        return self._inject_branch_hint(node)
+
+    def visit_SimpleCallNode(self, node):
+        # cython.foo
+        function = node.function.as_cython_attribute()
+        if function:
+            if function in InterpretCompilerDirectives.unop_method_nodes:
+                if len(node.args) != 1:
+                    error(node.function.pos, "%s() takes exactly one argument" % function)
+                else:
+                    node = InterpretCompilerDirectives.unop_method_nodes[function](
+                        node.function.pos, operand=node.args[0])
+            elif function in InterpretCompilerDirectives.binop_method_nodes:
+                if len(node.args) != 2:
+                    error(node.function.pos, "%s() takes exactly two arguments" % function)
+                else:
+                    node = InterpretCompilerDirectives.binop_method_nodes[function](
+                        node.function.pos, operand1=node.args[0], operand2=node.args[1])
+            elif function == 'cast':
+                if len(node.args) != 2:
+                    error(node.function.pos,
+                          "cast() takes exactly two arguments and an optional typecheck keyword")
+                else:
+                    type = node.args[0].analyse_as_type(self.current_env())
+                    if type:
+                        node = ExprNodes.TypecastNode(
+                            node.function.pos, type=type, operand=node.args[1], typecheck=False)
+                    else:
+                        error(node.args[0].pos, "Not a type")
+            elif function == 'sizeof':
+                if len(node.args) != 1:
+                    error(node.function.pos, "sizeof() takes exactly one argument")
+                else:
+                    type = node.args[0].analyse_as_type(self.current_env())
+                    if type:
+                        node = ExprNodes.SizeofTypeNode(node.function.pos, arg_type=type)
+                    else:
+                        node = ExprNodes.SizeofVarNode(node.function.pos, operand=node.args[0])
+            elif function == 'cmod':
+                if len(node.args) != 2:
+                    error(node.function.pos, "cmod() takes exactly two arguments")
+                else:
+                    node = ExprNodes.binop_node(node.function.pos, '%', node.args[0], node.args[1])
+                    node.cdivision = True
+            elif function == 'cdiv':
+                if len(node.args) != 2:
+                    error(node.function.pos, "cdiv() takes exactly two arguments")
+                else:
+                    node = ExprNodes.binop_node(node.function.pos, '/', node.args[0], node.args[1])
+                    node.cdivision = True
+            elif function == 'set':
+                node.function = ExprNodes.NameNode(node.pos, name=EncodedString('set'))
+            elif function == 'staticmethod':
+                node.function = ExprNodes.NameNode(node.pos, name=EncodedString('staticmethod'))
+            elif self.context.cython_scope.lookup_qualified_name(function):
+                pass
+            else:
+                error(node.function.pos,
+                      "'%s' not a valid cython language construct" % function)
+
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+
+        if isinstance(node, ExprNodes.SimpleCallNode) and node.function.is_name:
+            func_name = node.function.name
+            if func_name in ('dir', 'locals', 'vars'):
+                return self._inject_locals(node, func_name)
+            if func_name == 'eval':
+                return self._inject_eval(node, func_name)
+            if func_name == 'super':
+                return self._inject_super(node, func_name)
+        return node
+
+    def visit_GeneralCallNode(self, node):
+        function = node.function.as_cython_attribute()
+        if function == 'cast':
+            # NOTE: assuming simple tuple/dict nodes for positional_args and keyword_args
+            args = node.positional_args.args
+            kwargs = node.keyword_args.compile_time_value(None)
+            if (len(args) != 2 or len(kwargs) > 1 or
+                    (len(kwargs) == 1 and 'typecheck' not in kwargs)):
+                error(node.function.pos,
+                      "cast() takes exactly two arguments and an optional typecheck keyword")
+            else:
+                type = args[0].analyse_as_type(self.current_env())
+                if type:
+                    typecheck = kwargs.get('typecheck', False)
+                    node = ExprNodes.TypecastNode(
+                        node.function.pos, type=type, operand=args[1], typecheck=typecheck)
+                else:
+                    error(args[0].pos, "Not a type")
+
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+
+class ReplaceFusedTypeChecks(VisitorTransform):
+    """
+    This is not a transform in the pipeline. It is invoked on the specific
+    versions of a cdef function with fused argument types. It filters out any
+    type branches that don't match. e.g.
+
+        if fused_t is mytype:
+            ...
+        elif fused_t in other_fused_type:
+            ...
+    """
+    def __init__(self, local_scope):
+        super().__init__()
+        self.local_scope = local_scope
+        # defer the import until now to avoid circular import time dependencies
+        from .Optimize import ConstantFolding
+        self.transform = ConstantFolding(reevaluate=True)
+
+    def visit_IfStatNode(self, node):
+        """
+        Filters out any if clauses with false compile time type check
+        expression.
+        """
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return self.transform(node)
+
+    def visit_GILStatNode(self, node):
+        """
+        Fold constant condition of GILStatNode.
+        """
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return self.transform(node)
+
+    def visit_PrimaryCmpNode(self, node):
+        with Errors.local_errors(ignore=True):
+            type1 = node.operand1.analyse_as_type(self.local_scope)
+            type2 = node.operand2.analyse_as_type(self.local_scope)
+
+        if type1 and type2:
+            false_node = ExprNodes.BoolNode(node.pos, value=False)
+            true_node = ExprNodes.BoolNode(node.pos, value=True)
+
+            type1 = self.specialize_type(type1, node.operand1.pos)
+            op = node.operator
+
+            if op in ('is', 'is_not', '==', '!='):
+                type2 = self.specialize_type(type2, node.operand2.pos)
+
+                is_same = type1.same_as(type2)
+                eq = op in ('is', '==')
+
+                if (is_same and eq) or (not is_same and not eq):
+                    return true_node
+
+            elif op in ('in', 'not_in'):
+                # We have to do an instance check directly, as operand2
+                # needs to be a fused type and not a type with a subtype
+                # that is fused. First unpack the typedef
+                if isinstance(type2, PyrexTypes.CTypedefType):
+                    type2 = type2.typedef_base_type
+
+                if type1.is_fused:
+                    error(node.operand1.pos, "Type is fused")
+                elif not type2.is_fused:
+                    error(node.operand2.pos,
+                          "Can only use 'in' or 'not in' on a fused type")
+                else:
+                    types = PyrexTypes.get_specialized_types(type2)
+
+                    for specialized_type in types:
+                        if type1.same_as(specialized_type):
+                            if op == 'in':
+                                return true_node
+                            else:
+                                return false_node
+
+                    if op == 'not_in':
+                        return true_node
+
+            return false_node
+
+        return node
+
+    def specialize_type(self, type, pos):
+        try:
+            return type.specialize(self.local_scope.fused_to_specific)
+        except KeyError:
+            error(pos, "Type is not specific")
+            return type
+
+    def visit_Node(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+
+class DebugTransform(CythonTransform):
+    """
+    Write debug information for this Cython module.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, context, options, result):
+        super().__init__(context)
+        self.visited = set()
+        # our treebuilder and debug output writer
+        # (see Cython.Debugger.debug_output.CythonDebugWriter)
+        self.tb = self.context.gdb_debug_outputwriter
+        #self.c_output_file = options.output_file
+        self.c_output_file = result.c_file
+
+        # Closure support, basically treat nested functions as if the AST were
+        # never nested
+        self.nested_funcdefs = []
+
+        # tells visit_NameNode whether it should register step-into functions
+        self.register_stepinto = False
+
+    def visit_ModuleNode(self, node):
+        self.tb.module_name = node.full_module_name
+        attrs = dict(
+            module_name=node.full_module_name,
+            filename=node.pos[0].filename,
+            c_filename=self.c_output_file)
+
+        self.tb.start('Module', attrs)
+
+        # serialize functions
+        self.tb.start('Functions')
+        # First, serialize functions normally...
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+
+        # ... then, serialize nested functions
+        for nested_funcdef in self.nested_funcdefs:
+            self.visit_FuncDefNode(nested_funcdef)
+
+        self.register_stepinto = True
+        self.serialize_modulenode_as_function(node)
+        self.register_stepinto = False
+        self.tb.end('Functions')
+
+        # 2.3 compatibility. Serialize global variables
+        self.tb.start('Globals')
+        entries = {}
+
+        for k, v in node.scope.entries.items():
+            if (v.qualified_name not in self.visited and not
+                    v.name.startswith('__pyx_') and not
+                    v.type.is_cfunction and not
+                    v.type.is_extension_type):
+                entries[k]= v
+
+        self.serialize_local_variables(entries)
+        self.tb.end('Globals')
+        # self.tb.end('Module') # end Module after the line number mapping in
+        # Cython.Compiler.ModuleNode.ModuleNode._serialize_lineno_map
+        return node
+
+    def visit_FuncDefNode(self, node):
+        self.visited.add(node.local_scope.qualified_name)
+
+        if getattr(node, 'is_wrapper', False):
+            return node
+
+        if self.register_stepinto:
+            self.nested_funcdefs.append(node)
+            return node
+
+        # node.entry.visibility = 'extern'
+        if node.py_func is None:
+            pf_cname = ''
+        else:
+            pf_cname = node.py_func.entry.func_cname
+
+        # For functions defined using def, cname will be pyfunc_cname=__pyx_pf_*
+        # For functions defined using cpdef or cdef, cname will be func_cname=__pyx_f_*
+        # In all cases, cname will be the name of the function containing the actual code
+        cname = node.entry.pyfunc_cname or node.entry.func_cname
+
+        attrs = dict(
+            name=node.entry.name or getattr(node, 'name', '<unknown>'),
+            cname=cname,
+            pf_cname=pf_cname,
+            qualified_name=node.local_scope.qualified_name,
+            lineno=str(node.pos[1]))
+
+        self.tb.start('Function', attrs=attrs)
+
+        self.tb.start('Locals')
+        self.serialize_local_variables(node.local_scope.entries)
+        self.tb.end('Locals')
+
+        self.tb.start('Arguments')
+        for arg in node.local_scope.arg_entries:
+            self.tb.start(arg.name)
+            self.tb.end(arg.name)
+        self.tb.end('Arguments')
+
+        self.tb.start('StepIntoFunctions')
+        self.register_stepinto = True
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.register_stepinto = False
+        self.tb.end('StepIntoFunctions')
+        self.tb.end('Function')
+
+        return node
+
+    def visit_NameNode(self, node):
+        if (self.register_stepinto and
+                node.type is not None and
+                node.type.is_cfunction and
+                getattr(node, 'is_called', False) and
+                node.entry.func_cname is not None):
+            # don't check node.entry.in_cinclude, as 'cdef extern: ...'
+            # declared functions are not 'in_cinclude'.
+            # This means we will list called 'cdef' functions as
+            # "step into functions", but this is not an issue as they will be
+            # recognized as Cython functions anyway.
+            attrs = dict(name=node.entry.func_cname)
+            self.tb.start('StepIntoFunction', attrs=attrs)
+            self.tb.end('StepIntoFunction')
+
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        return node
+
+    def serialize_modulenode_as_function(self, node):
+        """
+        Serialize the module-level code as a function so the debugger will know
+        it's a "relevant frame" and it will know where to set the breakpoint
+        for 'break modulename'.
+        """
+        self._serialize_modulenode_as_function(node, dict(
+            name=node.full_module_name.rpartition('.')[-1],
+            cname=node.module_init_func_cname(),
+            pf_cname='',
+            # Ignore the qualified_name, breakpoints should be set using
+            # `cy break modulename:lineno` for module-level breakpoints.
+            qualified_name='',
+            lineno='1',
+            is_initmodule_function="True",
+        ))
+
+    def _serialize_modulenode_as_function(self, node, attrs):
+        self.tb.start('Function', attrs=attrs)
+
+        self.tb.start('Locals')
+        self.serialize_local_variables(node.scope.entries)
+        self.tb.end('Locals')
+
+        self.tb.start('Arguments')
+        self.tb.end('Arguments')
+
+        self.tb.start('StepIntoFunctions')
+        self.register_stepinto = True
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+        self.register_stepinto = False
+        self.tb.end('StepIntoFunctions')
+
+        self.tb.end('Function')
+
+    def serialize_local_variables(self, entries):
+        for entry in entries.values():
+            if not entry.cname:
+                # not a local variable
+                continue
+            if entry.type.is_pyobject:
+                vartype = 'PythonObject'
+            else:
+                vartype = 'CObject'
+
+            if entry.from_closure:
+                # We're dealing with a closure where a variable from an outer
+                # scope is accessed, get it from the scope object.
+                cname = '%s->%s' % (Naming.cur_scope_cname,
+                                    entry.outer_entry.cname)
+
+                qname = '%s.%s.%s' % (entry.scope.outer_scope.qualified_name,
+                                      entry.scope.name,
+                                      entry.name)
+            elif entry.in_closure:
+                cname = '%s->%s' % (Naming.cur_scope_cname,
+                                    entry.cname)
+                qname = entry.qualified_name
+            else:
+                cname = entry.cname
+                qname = entry.qualified_name
+
+            if not entry.pos:
+                # this happens for variables that are not in the user's code,
+                # e.g. for the global __builtins__, __doc__, etc. We can just
+                # set the lineno to 0 for those.
+                lineno = '0'
+            else:
+                lineno = str(entry.pos[1])
+
+            attrs = dict(
+                name=entry.name,
+                cname=cname,
+                qualified_name=qname,
+                type=vartype,
+                lineno=lineno)
+
+            self.tb.start('LocalVar', attrs)
+            self.tb.end('LocalVar')
+
+
+class HasNoExceptionHandlingVisitor(TreeVisitor):
+    """
+    Used by finalExceptClauseNode to work out if the body
+    needs to handle exceptions at all. This includes:
+
+    1. Can raise an exception.
+    2. May try to access the traceback.
+    """
+    def __init__(self):
+        self.uses_no_exceptions = True
+        self.assignment_lhs = None
+        super().__init__()
+
+    def __call__(self, node) -> bool:
+        self.visit(node)
+        return self.uses_no_exceptions
+
+    def visit_Node(self, node):
+        self.uses_no_exceptions = False  # In general, nodes use exceptions
+
+    def visit_ExprStatNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+
+    def visit_StatListNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+
+    def visit_ExprNode(self, node):
+        if not node.is_literal:
+            self.uses_no_exceptions = False
+
+    def visit_CallNode(self, node):
+        # Implement this to make the behaviour as explicit as possible.
+        # Even noexcept functions might end up printing a traceback.
+        self.uses_no_exceptions = False
+
+    def visit_PassStatNode(self, node):
+        pass  # Does nothing.  Good.
+
+    def visit_ReturnStatNode(self, node):
+        if not self.uses_no_exceptions:
+            return  # shortcut
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+
+    def visit_SingleAssignmentNode(self, node):
+        if not self.uses_no_exceptions:
+            return  # shortcut
+        self.assignment_lhs = node.lhs
+        self.visit(node.lhs)
+        self.assignment_lhs = None
+        rhs_type = node.rhs.type
+        if not (rhs_type.is_numeric or rhs_type.is_pyobject or rhs_type.is_memoryviewslice):
+            # Treat everything we haven't explicitly thought about as potentially dubious.
+            # cpp classes may have non-trivial assignment operators for example.
+            self.uses_no_exceptions = False
+        if not self.uses_no_exceptions:
+            return
+        self.visitchildren(node, exclude=["lhs"])
+
+    def visit_NameNode(self, node):
+        if not self.uses_no_exceptions:
+            return  # shortcut
+        entry = node.entry
+        if self.assignment_lhs is node:
+            if not (entry.is_cglobal or entry.is_arg or
+                    entry.is_local or entry.in_closure or entry.from_closure):
+                self.uses_no_exceptions = False
+                return
+        else:
+            if entry.is_cglobal:
+                if entry.is_cpp_optional and node.initialized_check:
+                    # Otherwise, reading C globals should be safe.
+                    self.uses_no_exceptions = False
+                    return
+            elif entry.is_arg or entry.is_local or entry.in_closure or entry.from_closure:
+                if (node.cf_is_null or node.cf_maybe_null) and not node.type.is_numeric:
+                    # The logic here is slightly simpler than for NameNode error checking.
+                    # This gives a few false negatives (which is always the safe thing to do)
+                    # for memoryviews and cpp_optionals
+                    self.uses_no_exceptions = False
+                    return
+            else:
+                # Probably a py_global.
+                self.uses_no_exceptions = False
+                return
+
+    def visit_AttributeNode(self, node):
+        if node.is_py_attr:
+            self.uses_no_exceptions = False
+        elif (node.type.is_memoryviewslice or node.entry.is_cpp_optional) and self.assignment_lhs is not node:
+            # Memoryviewslices and cpp_optional are OK as a target, but reading them involves checks.
+            # (Although cpp optionals are currently banned elsewhere
+            # because C++ classes may have non-trivial assignment).
+            self.uses_no_exceptions = False
+        # Python objects just need an incref and simple C types are fine, too. Others may not be.
+        if not (node.type.is_pyobject or node.type.is_numeric or node.type.is_memoryviewslice):
+            self.uses_no_exceptions = False
+        if self.uses_no_exceptions:
+            self.visitchildren(node)
+
+    def visit_IndexNode(self, node):
+        if not (node.base.type.is_array or node.base.type.is_ptr):
+            self.uses_no_exceptions = False
+        if not self.uses_no_exceptions:
+            return
+        self.visitchildren(node)
+
+    def visit_CoerceToTempNode(self, node):
+        self.visitchildren(node)