zexus 1.7.2 → 1.8.1

package/rust_core/src/rust_vm.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,2313 @@
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// Zexus Blockchain — Rust Bytecode Interpreter (Phase 2 + Phase 6)
+// ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+//
+// A complete stack-machine bytecode interpreter written in Rust that
+// executes .zxc binary bytecode **without GIL overhead**.
+//
+// Architecture:
+//
+//   1.  Deserialize .zxc bytes → ZxcModule  (Phase 1, binary_bytecode.rs)
+//   2.  Convert ZxcModule into VM-internal representation (VmProgram)
+//   3.  Execute VmProgram on the RustVM stack machine
+//   4.  Return result to Python via PyO3
+//
+// Phase 6: Contract builtins (keccak256, verify_sig, emit, get_balance,
+//   transfer, block_number, block_timestamp) execute in pure Rust.
+//   Cross-contract calls (contract_call, static_call, delegate_call)
+//   still fall back to Python when needed.
+//
+// Value system:
+//   The VM operates on `ZxValue` — a Rust enum covering all Zexus
+//   runtime types including Null, Bool, Int, Float, String, List, Map.
+//   Python objects that cannot be represented natively (e.g. callables,
+//   AST nodes) are stored as `ZxValue::PyObject(PyObject)` and require
+//   GIL acquisition only when accessed.
+//
+// Gas metering:
+//   Each opcode has an associated gas cost (matching the Python VM).
+//   The gas budget is checked before every instruction.  When gas is
+//   exhausted an `OutOfGasError` is raised.
+//
+// Blockchain state:
+//   STATE_READ / STATE_WRITE operate on a `HashMap<String, ZxValue>`
+//   that is passed in from Python and returned after execution.
+//   TX_BEGIN / TX_COMMIT / TX_REVERT provide snapshot-based
+//   transactions.
+
+use pyo3::prelude::*;
+use pyo3::types::{PyBool, PyBytes, PyDict, PyList};
+use pyo3::ToPyObject;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::fmt;
+
+use crate::binary_bytecode::{self, Operand, ZxcModule, ZxcValue};
+use crate::signature::verify_single;
+use sha2::{Digest, Sha256};
+use tiny_keccak::{Hasher as TinyHasher, Keccak};
+
+// ── Opcode constants (mirrors Python Opcode IntEnum) ─────────────────
+
+#[allow(non_camel_case_types, dead_code)]
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+#[repr(u16)]
+pub enum Op {
+    // Stack
+    LOAD_CONST = 1,
+    LOAD_NAME = 2,
+    STORE_NAME = 3,
+    STORE_FUNC = 4,
+    POP = 5,
+    DUP = 6,
+
+    // Arithmetic
+    ADD = 10,
+    SUB = 11,
+    MUL = 12,
+    DIV = 13,
+    MOD = 14,
+    POW = 15,
+    NEG = 16,
+
+    // Comparison
+    EQ = 20,
+    NEQ = 21,
+    LT = 22,
+    GT = 23,
+    LTE = 24,
+    GTE = 25,
+
+    // Logical
+    AND = 30,
+    OR = 31,
+    NOT = 32,
+
+    // Control flow
+    JUMP = 40,
+    JUMP_IF_FALSE = 41,
+    JUMP_IF_TRUE = 42,
+    RETURN = 43,
+
+    // Calls
+    CALL_NAME = 50,
+    CALL_FUNC_CONST = 51,
+    CALL_TOP = 52,
+    CALL_BUILTIN = 53,
+    CALL_METHOD = 54,
+
+    // Collections
+    BUILD_LIST = 60,
+    BUILD_MAP = 61,
+    BUILD_SET = 62,
+    INDEX = 63,
+    SLICE = 64,
+    GET_ATTR = 65,
+
+    // Async
+    SPAWN = 70,
+    AWAIT = 71,
+    SPAWN_CALL = 72,
+
+    // Events
+    REGISTER_EVENT = 80,
+    EMIT_EVENT = 81,
+
+    // Modules
+    IMPORT = 90,
+    EXPORT = 91,
+
+    // Blockchain
+    HASH_BLOCK = 110,
+    VERIFY_SIGNATURE = 111,
+    MERKLE_ROOT = 112,
+    STATE_READ = 113,
+    STATE_WRITE = 114,
+    TX_BEGIN = 115,
+    TX_COMMIT = 116,
+    TX_REVERT = 117,
+    GAS_CHARGE = 118,
+    LEDGER_APPEND = 119,
+
+    // Security & Contracts
+    REQUIRE = 130,
+    DEFINE_CONTRACT = 131,
+    DEFINE_ENTITY = 132,
+    AUDIT_LOG = 136,
+    RESTRICT_ACCESS = 137,
+
+    // Exception handling
+    SETUP_TRY = 140,
+    POP_TRY = 141,
+    THROW = 142,
+
+    // Iteration
+    FOR_ITER = 150,
+
+    // System
+    ENABLE_ERROR_MODE = 160,
+
+    // I/O
+    PRINT = 250,
+
+    // Parallel (no-op markers)
+    PARALLEL_START = 300,
+    PARALLEL_END = 301,
+
+    // NOP
+    NOP = 255,
+
+    // Unknown — anything not recognised
+    UNKNOWN = 0xFFFF,
+}
+
+impl Op {
+    fn from_u16(v: u16) -> Self {
+        match v {
+            1 => Op::LOAD_CONST,
+            2 => Op::LOAD_NAME,
+            3 => Op::STORE_NAME,
+            4 => Op::STORE_FUNC,
+            5 => Op::POP,
+            6 => Op::DUP,
+            10 => Op::ADD,
+            11 => Op::SUB,
+            12 => Op::MUL,
+            13 => Op::DIV,
+            14 => Op::MOD,
+            15 => Op::POW,
+            16 => Op::NEG,
+            20 => Op::EQ,
+            21 => Op::NEQ,
+            22 => Op::LT,
+            23 => Op::GT,
+            24 => Op::LTE,
+            25 => Op::GTE,
+            30 => Op::AND,
+            31 => Op::OR,
+            32 => Op::NOT,
+            40 => Op::JUMP,
+            41 => Op::JUMP_IF_FALSE,
+            42 => Op::JUMP_IF_TRUE,
+            43 => Op::RETURN,
+            50 => Op::CALL_NAME,
+            51 => Op::CALL_FUNC_CONST,
+            52 => Op::CALL_TOP,
+            53 => Op::CALL_BUILTIN,
+            54 => Op::CALL_METHOD,
+            60 => Op::BUILD_LIST,
+            61 => Op::BUILD_MAP,
+            62 => Op::BUILD_SET,
+            63 => Op::INDEX,
+            64 => Op::SLICE,
+            65 => Op::GET_ATTR,
+            70 => Op::SPAWN,
+            71 => Op::AWAIT,
+            72 => Op::SPAWN_CALL,
+            80 => Op::REGISTER_EVENT,
+            81 => Op::EMIT_EVENT,
+            90 => Op::IMPORT,
+            91 => Op::EXPORT,
+            110 => Op::HASH_BLOCK,
+            111 => Op::VERIFY_SIGNATURE,
+            112 => Op::MERKLE_ROOT,
+            113 => Op::STATE_READ,
+            114 => Op::STATE_WRITE,
+            115 => Op::TX_BEGIN,
+            116 => Op::TX_COMMIT,
+            117 => Op::TX_REVERT,
+            118 => Op::GAS_CHARGE,
+            119 => Op::LEDGER_APPEND,
+            130 => Op::REQUIRE,
+            131 => Op::DEFINE_CONTRACT,
+            132 => Op::DEFINE_ENTITY,
+            136 => Op::AUDIT_LOG,
+            137 => Op::RESTRICT_ACCESS,
+            140 => Op::SETUP_TRY,
+            141 => Op::POP_TRY,
+            142 => Op::THROW,
+            150 => Op::FOR_ITER,
+            160 => Op::ENABLE_ERROR_MODE,
+            250 => Op::PRINT,
+            255 => Op::NOP,
+            300 => Op::PARALLEL_START,
+            301 => Op::PARALLEL_END,
+            _ => Op::UNKNOWN,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Base gas cost for this opcode (matches Python GasCost IntEnum).
+    fn gas_cost(self) -> u64 {
+        match self {
+            Op::NOP => 0,
+            Op::LOAD_CONST => 1,
+            Op::LOAD_NAME => 2,
+            Op::STORE_NAME | Op::STORE_FUNC => 3,
+            Op::POP | Op::DUP => 1,
+            Op::ADD | Op::SUB => 3,
+            Op::MUL => 5,
+            Op::DIV | Op::MOD => 10,
+            Op::POW => 20,
+            Op::NEG => 2,
+            Op::EQ | Op::NEQ | Op::LT | Op::GT | Op::LTE | Op::GTE => 2,
+            Op::NOT | Op::AND | Op::OR => 2,
+            Op::JUMP => 2,
+            Op::JUMP_IF_FALSE | Op::JUMP_IF_TRUE => 3,
+            Op::RETURN => 2,
+            Op::BUILD_LIST | Op::BUILD_MAP | Op::BUILD_SET => 5, // base; dynamic added in consume_gas_dynamic
+            Op::INDEX | Op::GET_ATTR => 3,
+            Op::SLICE => 5,
+            Op::CALL_NAME | Op::CALL_TOP | Op::CALL_METHOD | Op::CALL_FUNC_CONST => 10, // base; + 2*argc
+            Op::CALL_BUILTIN => 8, // base; + 2*argc
+            Op::SPAWN | Op::SPAWN_CALL => 15,
+            Op::AWAIT => 10,
+            Op::HASH_BLOCK => 50,
+            Op::VERIFY_SIGNATURE => 100,
+            Op::MERKLE_ROOT => 30, // base; + 5*leaves
+            Op::STATE_READ => 20,
+            Op::STATE_WRITE => 30,  // Reduced: RustStateAdapter caching makes writes memory-local
+            Op::TX_BEGIN => 20,
+            Op::TX_COMMIT => 30,
+            Op::TX_REVERT => 20,
+            Op::GAS_CHARGE => 2,
+            Op::LEDGER_APPEND => 40,
+            Op::REQUIRE => 5,
+            Op::AUDIT_LOG => 15,
+            Op::RESTRICT_ACCESS => 5,
+            Op::DEFINE_CONTRACT | Op::DEFINE_ENTITY => 50,
+            Op::EMIT_EVENT | Op::REGISTER_EVENT => 10,
+            Op::SETUP_TRY => 3,
+            Op::POP_TRY => 2,
+            Op::THROW => 5,
+            Op::ENABLE_ERROR_MODE => 2,
+            Op::PRINT => 10,
+            Op::IMPORT | Op::EXPORT => 10,
+            Op::PARALLEL_START => 15,
+            Op::PARALLEL_END => 10,
+            Op::FOR_ITER => 3,
+            Op::UNKNOWN => 5,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// ── VM Value type ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+/// Runtime value for the Rust VM stack machine.
+/// Covers all Zexus primitive types plus Python interop.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub enum ZxValue {
+    Null,
+    Bool(bool),
+    Int(i64),
+    Float(f64),
+    Str(String),
+    List(Vec<ZxValue>),
+    Map(Vec<(String, ZxValue)>),
+    /// Python object that cannot be represented natively.
+    /// Requires GIL for access — used for callables, AST nodes, etc.
+    PyObj(PyObject),
+}
+
+impl Clone for ZxValue {
+    fn clone(&self) -> Self {
+        match self {
+            ZxValue::Null => ZxValue::Null,
+            ZxValue::Bool(b) => ZxValue::Bool(*b),
+            ZxValue::Int(i) => ZxValue::Int(*i),
+            ZxValue::Float(f) => ZxValue::Float(*f),
+            ZxValue::Str(s) => ZxValue::Str(s.clone()),
+            ZxValue::List(v) => ZxValue::List(v.clone()),
+            ZxValue::Map(v) => ZxValue::Map(v.clone()),
+            ZxValue::PyObj(obj) => {
+                Python::with_gil(|py| ZxValue::PyObj(obj.clone_ref(py)))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl ZxValue {
+    /// Truthiness (matches Python semantics).
+    pub fn is_truthy(&self) -> bool {
+        match self {
+            ZxValue::Null => false,
+            ZxValue::Bool(b) => *b,
+            ZxValue::Int(i) => *i != 0,
+            ZxValue::Float(f) => *f != 0.0,
+            ZxValue::Str(s) => !s.is_empty(),
+            ZxValue::List(v) => !v.is_empty(),
+            ZxValue::Map(v) => !v.is_empty(),
+            ZxValue::PyObj(_) => true,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Convert to i64, defaulting to 0 for non-numeric types.
+    pub fn as_int(&self) -> i64 {
+        match self {
+            ZxValue::Int(i) => *i,
+            ZxValue::Float(f) => *f as i64,
+            ZxValue::Bool(b) => if *b { 1 } else { 0 },
+            _ => 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Convert to f64, defaulting to 0.0 for non-numeric types.
+    pub fn as_float(&self) -> f64 {
+        match self {
+            ZxValue::Float(f) => *f,
+            ZxValue::Int(i) => *i as f64,
+            ZxValue::Bool(b) => if *b { 1.0 } else { 0.0 },
+            _ => 0.0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// String representation for PRINT and error messages.
+    pub fn display_str(&self) -> String {
+        match self {
+            ZxValue::Null => "null".to_string(),
+            ZxValue::Bool(b) => b.to_string(),
+            ZxValue::Int(i) => i.to_string(),
+            ZxValue::Float(f) => format!("{}", f),
+            ZxValue::Str(s) => s.clone(),
+            ZxValue::List(items) => {
+                let inner: Vec<String> = items.iter().map(|v| v.display_str()).collect();
+                format!("[{}]", inner.join(", "))
+            }
+            ZxValue::Map(pairs) => {
+                let inner: Vec<String> = pairs
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|(k, v)| format!("{}: {}", k, v.display_str()))
+                    .collect();
+                format!("{{{}}}", inner.join(", "))
+            }
+            ZxValue::PyObj(_) => "<python object>".to_string(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Check if this is a numeric type (Int or Float).
+    fn is_numeric(&self) -> bool {
+        matches!(self, ZxValue::Int(_) | ZxValue::Float(_))
+    }
+
+    /// Check if either operand is float (for promotion).
+    fn needs_float_promotion(a: &ZxValue, b: &ZxValue) -> bool {
+        matches!(a, ZxValue::Float(_)) || matches!(b, ZxValue::Float(_))
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartialEq for ZxValue {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        match (self, other) {
+            (ZxValue::Null, ZxValue::Null) => true,
+            (ZxValue::Bool(a), ZxValue::Bool(b)) => a == b,
+            (ZxValue::Int(a), ZxValue::Int(b)) => a == b,
+            (ZxValue::Float(a), ZxValue::Float(b)) => a == b,
+            (ZxValue::Int(a), ZxValue::Float(b)) => (*a as f64) == *b,
+            (ZxValue::Float(a), ZxValue::Int(b)) => *a == (*b as f64),
+            (ZxValue::Str(a), ZxValue::Str(b)) => a == b,
+            (ZxValue::Bool(a), ZxValue::Int(b)) => (if *a { 1i64 } else { 0 }) == *b,
+            (ZxValue::Int(a), ZxValue::Bool(b)) => *a == (if *b { 1i64 } else { 0 }),
+            _ => false,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PartialOrd for ZxValue {
+    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<std::cmp::Ordering> {
+        match (self, other) {
+            (ZxValue::Int(a), ZxValue::Int(b)) => a.partial_cmp(b),
+            (ZxValue::Float(a), ZxValue::Float(b)) => a.partial_cmp(b),
+            (ZxValue::Int(a), ZxValue::Float(b)) => (*a as f64).partial_cmp(b),
+            (ZxValue::Float(a), ZxValue::Int(b)) => a.partial_cmp(&(*b as f64)),
+            (ZxValue::Str(a), ZxValue::Str(b)) => a.partial_cmp(b),
+            (ZxValue::Bool(a), ZxValue::Bool(b)) => a.partial_cmp(b),
+            _ => None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// ── ZxcValue → ZxValue conversion ────────────────────────────────────
+
+fn zxc_to_zx(v: &ZxcValue) -> ZxValue {
+    match v {
+        ZxcValue::Null => ZxValue::Null,
+        ZxcValue::Bool(b) => ZxValue::Bool(*b),
+        ZxcValue::Int(i) => ZxValue::Int(*i),
+        ZxcValue::Float(f) => ZxValue::Float(*f),
+        ZxcValue::String(s) => ZxValue::Str(s.clone()),
+        ZxcValue::FuncDesc(s) => ZxValue::Str(s.clone()), // treated as string for now
+        ZxcValue::List(items) => ZxValue::List(items.iter().map(zxc_to_zx).collect()),
+        ZxcValue::Map(pairs) => {
+            let converted: Vec<(String, ZxValue)> = pairs
+                .iter()
+                .map(|(k, v)| {
+                    let key = match k {
+                        ZxcValue::String(s) => s.clone(),
+                        other => format!("{}", other),
+                    };
+                    (key, zxc_to_zx(v))
+                })
+                .collect();
+            ZxValue::Map(converted)
+        }
+        ZxcValue::Opaque(_) => ZxValue::Null, // Opaque data not usable in Rust
+    }
+}
+
+// ── ZxValue → PyObject conversion ────────────────────────────────────
+
+pub fn zx_to_py(py: Python<'_>, val: &ZxValue) -> PyObject {
+    match val {
+        ZxValue::Null => py.None(),
+        ZxValue::Bool(b) => b.to_object(py),
+        ZxValue::Int(i) => i.to_object(py),
+        ZxValue::Float(f) => f.to_object(py),
+        ZxValue::Str(s) => s.to_object(py),
+        ZxValue::List(items) => {
+            let py_list = PyList::empty_bound(py);
+            for item in items {
+                let _ = py_list.append(zx_to_py(py, item));
+            }
+            py_list.to_object(py)
+        }
+        ZxValue::Map(pairs) => {
+            let py_dict = PyDict::new_bound(py);
+            for (k, v) in pairs {
+                let _ = py_dict.set_item(k, zx_to_py(py, v));
+            }
+            py_dict.to_object(py)
+        }
+        ZxValue::PyObj(obj) => obj.clone_ref(py),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Convert a PyObject to ZxValue.
+pub fn py_to_zx(py: Python<'_>, obj: &PyObject) -> ZxValue {
+    let bound = obj.bind(py);
+
+    if bound.is_none() {
+        return ZxValue::Null;
+    }
+    if let Ok(b) = bound.downcast::<PyBool>() {
+        return ZxValue::Bool(b.is_true());
+    }
+    if let Ok(i) = bound.extract::<i64>() {
+        return ZxValue::Int(i);
+    }
+    if let Ok(f) = bound.extract::<f64>() {
+        return ZxValue::Float(f);
+    }
+    if let Ok(s) = bound.extract::<String>() {
+        return ZxValue::Str(s);
+    }
+    if let Ok(list) = bound.downcast::<PyList>() {
+        let items: Vec<ZxValue> = list
+            .iter()
+            .map(|item| py_to_zx(py, &item.to_object(py)))
+            .collect();
+        return ZxValue::List(items);
+    }
+    if let Ok(dict) = bound.downcast::<PyDict>() {
+        let pairs: Vec<(String, ZxValue)> = dict
+            .iter()
+            .map(|(k, v)| {
+                let key = k.extract::<String>().unwrap_or_else(|_| format!("{}", k));
+                let val = py_to_zx(py, &v.to_object(py));
+                (key, val)
+            })
+            .collect();
+        return ZxValue::Map(pairs);
+    }
+
+    // Fallback: keep as PyObject
+    ZxValue::PyObj(obj.clone_ref(py))
+}
+
+// ── VM Errors ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub enum VmError {
+    OutOfGas { used: u64, limit: u64, opcode: String },
+    RequireFailed(String),
+    RuntimeError(String),
+    UnsupportedOpcode(u16),
+    /// Opcode requires Python fallback (e.g. CALL_NAME, CALL_METHOD).
+    NeedsPythonFallback,
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for VmError {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        match self {
+            VmError::OutOfGas { used, limit, opcode } => {
+                write!(f, "Out of gas: used={}, limit={}, opcode={}", used, limit, opcode)
+            }
+            VmError::RequireFailed(msg) => write!(f, "Requirement failed: {}", msg),
+            VmError::RuntimeError(msg) => write!(f, "Runtime error: {}", msg),
+            VmError::UnsupportedOpcode(op) => write!(f, "Unsupported opcode: {}", op),
+            VmError::NeedsPythonFallback => write!(f, "Opcode requires Python fallback"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// ── Transaction snapshot ──────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct TxSnapshot {
+    state: HashMap<String, ZxValue>,
+    pending: HashMap<String, ZxValue>,
+}
+
+// ── The Rust VM ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+/// Stack-based bytecode interpreter for Zexus.
+pub struct RustVM {
+    // Program
+    constants: Vec<ZxValue>,
+    instructions: Vec<(Op, Operand)>,
+
+    // Execution state
+    stack: Vec<ZxValue>,
+    ip: usize,
+
+    // Environment
+    env: HashMap<String, ZxValue>,
+    blockchain_state: HashMap<String, ZxValue>,
+
+    // Gas metering
+    gas_limit: u64,
+    gas_used: u64,
+    gas_enabled: bool,
+    /// Discount factor for Rust execution (0.0–1.0).
+    /// Default 0.6 → Rust charges 60% of base gas (40% discount).
+    gas_discount: f64,
+
+    // Transaction state
+    in_transaction: bool,
+    tx_snapshot: Option<HashMap<String, ZxValue>>,
+    tx_pending: HashMap<String, ZxValue>,
+    tx_stack: Vec<TxSnapshot>,
+
+    // Exception handling
+    try_stack: Vec<usize>,
+
+    // Ledger
+    ledger: Vec<ZxValue>,
+
+    // Audit log
+    audit_log: Vec<(String, ZxValue)>,
+
+    // Contract events (Phase 6) — collected by emit() builtin and EMIT_EVENT opcode
+    events: Vec<(String, ZxValue)>,
+
+    // Output capture (for PRINT)
+    output: Vec<String>,
+
+    // Stats
+    instructions_executed: u64,
+}
+
+impl RustVM {
+    /// Create a new VM from a deserialized ZxcModule.
+    pub fn from_module(module: &ZxcModule) -> Self {
+        let constants: Vec<ZxValue> = module.constants.iter().map(zxc_to_zx).collect();
+        let instructions: Vec<(Op, Operand)> = module
+            .instructions
+            .iter()
+            .map(|i| (Op::from_u16(i.opcode), i.operand.clone()))
+            .collect();
+
+        RustVM {
+            constants,
+            instructions,
+            stack: Vec::with_capacity(256),
+            ip: 0,
+            env: HashMap::new(),
+            blockchain_state: HashMap::new(),
+            gas_limit: 100_000_000,
+            gas_used: 0,
+            gas_enabled: false,
+            gas_discount: 0.6,  // 40% cheaper than Python VM
+            in_transaction: false,
+            tx_snapshot: None,
+            tx_pending: HashMap::new(),
+            tx_stack: Vec::new(),
+            try_stack: Vec::new(),
+            ledger: Vec::new(),
+            audit_log: Vec::new(),
+            events: Vec::new(),
+            output: Vec::new(),
+            instructions_executed: 0,
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Set gas limit and enable gas metering.
+    pub fn set_gas_limit(&mut self, limit: u64) {
+        self.gas_limit = limit;
+        self.gas_enabled = true;
+    }
+
+    /// Set initial environment variables.
+    pub fn set_env(&mut self, env: HashMap<String, ZxValue>) {
+        self.env = env;
+    }
+
+    /// Set initial blockchain state.
+    pub fn set_blockchain_state(&mut self, state: HashMap<String, ZxValue>) {
+        self.blockchain_state = state;
+    }
+
+    // ── Helpers ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+    #[inline(always)]
+    fn pop(&mut self) -> ZxValue {
+        self.stack.pop().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null)
+    }
+
+    #[inline(always)]
+    fn push(&mut self, v: ZxValue) {
+        self.stack.push(v);
+    }
+
+    #[inline(always)]
+    fn peek(&self) -> &ZxValue {
+        self.stack.last().unwrap_or(&ZxValue::Null)
+    }
+
+    #[inline(always)]
+    fn const_val(&self, idx: u32) -> ZxValue {
+        self.constants
+            .get(idx as usize)
+            .cloned()
+            .unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null)
+    }
+
+    fn const_str(&self, idx: u32) -> String {
+        match self.constants.get(idx as usize) {
+            Some(ZxValue::Str(s)) => s.clone(),
+            Some(other) => other.display_str(),
+            None => String::new(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[inline(always)]
+    fn consume_gas(&mut self, op: Op) -> Result<(), VmError> {
+        if !self.gas_enabled {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let base_cost = op.gas_cost();
+        let cost = ((base_cost as f64) * self.gas_discount).ceil() as u64;
+        self.gas_used += cost;
+        if self.gas_used > self.gas_limit {
+            return Err(VmError::OutOfGas {
+                used: self.gas_used,
+                limit: self.gas_limit,
+                opcode: format!("{:?}", op),
+            });
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Consume gas with dynamic per-element scaling (for BUILD_LIST, CALL_*, etc.)
+    #[inline(always)]
+    fn consume_gas_dynamic(&mut self, op: Op, extra: u64) -> Result<(), VmError> {
+        if !self.gas_enabled {
+            return Ok(());
+        }
+        let base_cost = op.gas_cost();
+        let total = base_cost + extra;
+        let cost = ((total as f64) * self.gas_discount).ceil() as u64;
+        self.gas_used += cost;
+        if self.gas_used > self.gas_limit {
+            return Err(VmError::OutOfGas {
+                used: self.gas_used,
+                limit: self.gas_limit,
+                opcode: format!("{:?}", op),
+            });
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    /// Set gas discount factor (0.0–1.0, default 0.6).
+    pub fn set_gas_discount(&mut self, discount: f64) {
+        self.gas_discount = discount.clamp(0.01, 1.0);
+    }
+
+    fn revert_on_failure(&mut self) {
+        if self.in_transaction {
+            if let Some(snapshot) = self.tx_snapshot.take() {
+                self.blockchain_state = snapshot;
+            }
+            self.in_transaction = false;
+            self.tx_pending.clear();
+        }
+    }
+
+    // ── Arithmetic helpers (with type promotion) ─────────────────────
+
+    fn arith_add(a: ZxValue, b: ZxValue) -> ZxValue {
+        match (&a, &b) {
+            (ZxValue::Int(x), ZxValue::Int(y)) => ZxValue::Int(x.wrapping_add(*y)),
+            (ZxValue::Float(x), ZxValue::Float(y)) => ZxValue::Float(x + y),
+            (ZxValue::Int(x), ZxValue::Float(y)) => ZxValue::Float(*x as f64 + y),
+            (ZxValue::Float(x), ZxValue::Int(y)) => ZxValue::Float(x + *y as f64),
+            (ZxValue::Str(x), ZxValue::Str(y)) => {
+                let mut s = x.clone();
+                s.push_str(y);
+                ZxValue::Str(s)
+            }
+            (ZxValue::Str(x), _) => {
+                let mut s = x.clone();
+                s.push_str(&b.display_str());
+                ZxValue::Str(s)
+            }
+            (_, ZxValue::Str(y)) => {
+                let mut s = a.display_str();
+                s.push_str(y);
+                ZxValue::Str(s)
+            }
+            (ZxValue::List(x), ZxValue::List(y)) => {
+                let mut result = x.clone();
+                result.extend(y.iter().cloned());
+                ZxValue::List(result)
+            }
+            _ => ZxValue::Int(a.as_int().wrapping_add(b.as_int())),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn arith_sub(a: ZxValue, b: ZxValue) -> ZxValue {
+        if ZxValue::needs_float_promotion(&a, &b) {
+            ZxValue::Float(a.as_float() - b.as_float())
+        } else {
+            ZxValue::Int(a.as_int().wrapping_sub(b.as_int()))
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn arith_mul(a: ZxValue, b: ZxValue) -> ZxValue {
+        match (&a, &b) {
+            (ZxValue::Str(s), ZxValue::Int(n)) | (ZxValue::Int(n), ZxValue::Str(s)) => {
+                ZxValue::Str(s.repeat((*n).max(0) as usize))
+            }
+            _ if ZxValue::needs_float_promotion(&a, &b) => {
+                ZxValue::Float(a.as_float() * b.as_float())
+            }
+            _ => ZxValue::Int(a.as_int().wrapping_mul(b.as_int())),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn arith_div(a: ZxValue, b: ZxValue) -> ZxValue {
+        let bv = b.as_float();
+        if bv == 0.0 {
+            return ZxValue::Int(0);
+        }
+        if ZxValue::needs_float_promotion(&a, &b) {
+            ZxValue::Float(a.as_float() / bv)
+        } else {
+            let ai = a.as_int();
+            let bi = b.as_int();
+            if bi == 0 {
+                ZxValue::Int(0)
+            } else {
+                ZxValue::Int(ai / bi)
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn arith_mod(a: ZxValue, b: ZxValue) -> ZxValue {
+        let bi = b.as_int();
+        if bi == 0 {
+            ZxValue::Int(0)
+        } else {
+            ZxValue::Int(a.as_int() % bi)
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn arith_pow(a: ZxValue, b: ZxValue) -> ZxValue {
+        if ZxValue::needs_float_promotion(&a, &b) {
+            ZxValue::Float(a.as_float().powf(b.as_float()))
+        } else {
+            let base = a.as_int();
+            let exp = b.as_int();
+            if exp < 0 {
+                ZxValue::Float((base as f64).powf(exp as f64))
+            } else {
+                ZxValue::Int(base.wrapping_pow(exp as u32))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // ── Main execution loop ──────────────────────────────────────────
+
+    /// Execute the loaded bytecode program.
+    /// Returns the final value (from RETURN or top of stack).
+    pub fn execute(&mut self) -> Result<ZxValue, VmError> {
+        let n_instrs = self.instructions.len();
+
+        while self.ip < n_instrs {
+            let (op, operand) = self.instructions[self.ip].clone();
+            self.ip += 1;
+            self.instructions_executed += 1;
+
+            // Gas check
+            self.consume_gas(op)?;
+
+            match op {
+                // ── Stack operations ─────────────────────────────
+                Op::LOAD_CONST => {
+                    if let Operand::U32(idx) = &operand {
+                        self.push(self.const_val(*idx));
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Op::LOAD_NAME => {
+                    let name = match &operand {
+                        Operand::U32(idx) => self.const_str(*idx),
+                        _ => String::new(),
+                    };
+                    let val = self
+                        .env
+                        .get(&name)
+                        .cloned()
+                        .unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null);
+                    self.push(val);
+                }
+
+                Op::STORE_NAME => {
+                    let name = match &operand {
+                        Operand::U32(idx) => self.const_str(*idx),
+                        _ => String::new(),
+                    };
+                    let val = self.pop();
+                    self.env.insert(name, val);
+                }
+
+                Op::STORE_FUNC => {
+                    let name = match &operand {
+                        Operand::U32(idx) => self.const_str(*idx),
+                        _ => String::new(),
+                    };
+                    let val = self.pop();
+                    self.env.insert(name, val);
+                }
+
+                Op::POP => {
+                    self.pop();
+                }
+
+                Op::DUP => {
+                    let v = self.peek().clone();
+                    self.push(v);
+                }
+
+                // ── Arithmetic ───────────────────────────────────
+                Op::ADD => {
+                    let b = self.pop();
+                    let a = self.pop();
+                    self.push(Self::arith_add(a, b));
+                }
+
+                Op::SUB => {
+                    let b = self.pop();
+                    let a = self.pop();
+                    self.push(Self::arith_sub(a, b));
+                }
+
+                Op::MUL => {
+                    let b = self.pop();
+                    let a = self.pop();
+                    self.push(Self::arith_mul(a, b));
+                }
+
+                Op::DIV => {
+                    let b = self.pop();
+                    let a = self.pop();
+                    self.push(Self::arith_div(a, b));
+                }
+
+                Op::MOD => {
+                    let b = self.pop();
+                    let a = self.pop();
+                    self.push(Self::arith_mod(a, b));
+                }
+
+                Op::POW => {
+                    let b = self.pop();
+                    let a = self.pop();
+                    self.push(Self::arith_pow(a, b));
+                }
+
+                Op::NEG => {
+                    let a = self.pop();
+                    match a {
+                        ZxValue::Int(i) => self.push(ZxValue::Int(-i)),
+                        ZxValue::Float(f) => self.push(ZxValue::Float(-f)),
+                        _ => self.push(ZxValue::Int(0)),
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // ── Comparison ───────────────────────────────────
+                Op::EQ => {
+                    let b = self.pop();
+                    let a = self.pop();
+                    self.push(ZxValue::Bool(a == b));
+                }
+
+                Op::NEQ => {
+                    let b = self.pop();
+                    let a = self.pop();
+                    self.push(ZxValue::Bool(a != b));
+                }
+
+                Op::LT => {
+                    let b = self.pop();
+                    let a = self.pop();
+                    self.push(ZxValue::Bool(a.partial_cmp(&b) == Some(std::cmp::Ordering::Less)));
+                }
+
+                Op::GT => {
+                    let b = self.pop();
+                    let a = self.pop();
+                    self.push(ZxValue::Bool(a.partial_cmp(&b) == Some(std::cmp::Ordering::Greater)));
+                }
+
+                Op::LTE => {
+                    let b = self.pop();
+                    let a = self.pop();
+                    let cmp = a.partial_cmp(&b);
+                    self.push(ZxValue::Bool(
+                        cmp == Some(std::cmp::Ordering::Less) || cmp == Some(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal),
+                    ));
+                }
+
+                Op::GTE => {
+                    let b = self.pop();
+                    let a = self.pop();
+                    let cmp = a.partial_cmp(&b);
+                    self.push(ZxValue::Bool(
+                        cmp == Some(std::cmp::Ordering::Greater) || cmp == Some(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal),
+                    ));
+                }
+
+                // ── Logical ──────────────────────────────────────
+                Op::AND => {
+                    let b = self.pop();
+                    let a = self.pop();
+                    self.push(ZxValue::Bool(a.is_truthy() && b.is_truthy()));
+                }
+
+                Op::OR => {
+                    let b = self.pop();
+                    let a = self.pop();
+                    self.push(ZxValue::Bool(a.is_truthy() || b.is_truthy()));
+                }
+
+                Op::NOT => {
+                    let a = self.pop();
+                    self.push(ZxValue::Bool(!a.is_truthy()));
+                }
+
+                // ── Control flow ─────────────────────────────────
+                Op::JUMP => {
+                    if let Operand::U32(target) = &operand {
+                        self.ip = *target as usize;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Op::JUMP_IF_FALSE => {
+                    let cond = self.pop();
+                    if !cond.is_truthy() {
+                        if let Operand::U32(target) = &operand {
+                            self.ip = *target as usize;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Op::JUMP_IF_TRUE => {
+                    let cond = self.pop();
+                    if cond.is_truthy() {
+                        if let Operand::U32(target) = &operand {
+                            self.ip = *target as usize;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Op::RETURN => {
+                    return Ok(self.pop());
+                }
+
+                // ── Collections ──────────────────────────────────
+                Op::BUILD_LIST => {
+                    let count = match &operand {
+                        Operand::U32(n) => *n as usize,
+                        _ => 0,
+                    };
+                    // Dynamic scaling: +1 gas per element (matches Python)
+                    if count > 0 {
+                        self.consume_gas_dynamic(Op::NOP, count as u64)?;
+                    }
+                    let mut items = Vec::with_capacity(count);
+                    for _ in 0..count {
+                        items.push(self.pop());
+                    }
+                    items.reverse();
+                    self.push(ZxValue::List(items));
+                }
+
+                Op::BUILD_MAP => {
+                    let count = match &operand {
+                        Operand::U32(n) => *n as usize,
+                        _ => 0,
+                    };
+                    // Dynamic scaling: +2 gas per pair (matches Python)
+                    if count > 0 {
+                        self.consume_gas_dynamic(Op::NOP, count as u64 * 2)?;
+                    }
+                    let mut pairs = Vec::with_capacity(count);
+                    for _ in 0..count {
+                        let val = self.pop();
+                        let key = self.pop();
+                        let key_str = match &key {
+                            ZxValue::Str(s) => s.clone(),
+                            other => other.display_str(),
+                        };
+                        pairs.push((key_str, val));
+                    }
+                    // Reverse to maintain insertion order
+                    pairs.reverse();
+                    self.push(ZxValue::Map(pairs));
+                }
+
+                Op::BUILD_SET => {
+                    // Treat sets as lists (Zexus doesn't have a native set type in VM)
+                    let count = match &operand {
+                        Operand::U32(n) => *n as usize,
+                        _ => 0,
+                    };
+                    // Dynamic scaling: +1 gas per element (matches Python BUILD_LIST)
+                    if count > 0 {
+                        self.consume_gas_dynamic(Op::NOP, count as u64)?;
+                    }
+                    let mut items = Vec::with_capacity(count);
+                    for _ in 0..count {
+                        items.push(self.pop());
+                    }
+                    items.reverse();
+                    self.push(ZxValue::List(items));
+                }
+
+                Op::INDEX => {
+                    let idx = self.pop();
+                    let obj = self.pop();
+                    match (&obj, &idx) {
+                        (ZxValue::List(items), ZxValue::Int(i)) => {
+                            let i = *i as usize;
+                            self.push(items.get(i).cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null));
+                        }
+                        (ZxValue::Map(pairs), ZxValue::Str(key)) => {
+                            let found = pairs.iter().find(|(k, _)| k == key);
+                            self.push(found.map(|(_, v)| v.clone()).unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null));
+                        }
+                        (ZxValue::Str(s), ZxValue::Int(i)) => {
+                            let i = *i as usize;
+                            self.push(
+                                s.chars()
+                                    .nth(i)
+                                    .map(|c| ZxValue::Str(c.to_string()))
+                                    .unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null),
+                            );
+                        }
+                        _ => self.push(ZxValue::Null),
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Op::SLICE => {
+                    let end = self.pop();
+                    let start = self.pop();
+                    let obj = self.pop();
+                    match &obj {
+                        ZxValue::List(items) => {
+                            let s = start.as_int().max(0) as usize;
+                            let e = end.as_int().max(0) as usize;
+                            let e = e.min(items.len());
+                            let s = s.min(e);
+                            self.push(ZxValue::List(items[s..e].to_vec()));
+                        }
+                        ZxValue::Str(string) => {
+                            let s = start.as_int().max(0) as usize;
+                            let e = end.as_int().max(0) as usize;
+                            let chars: Vec<char> = string.chars().collect();
+                            let e = e.min(chars.len());
+                            let s = s.min(e);
+                            self.push(ZxValue::Str(chars[s..e].iter().collect()));
+                        }
+                        _ => self.push(ZxValue::Null),
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Op::GET_ATTR => {
+                    let attr = self.pop();
+                    let obj = self.pop();
+                    let attr_name = match &attr {
+                        ZxValue::Str(s) => s.clone(),
+                        other => other.display_str(),
+                    };
+                    match &obj {
+                        ZxValue::Map(pairs) => {
+                            let found = pairs.iter().find(|(k, _)| k == &attr_name);
+                            self.push(found.map(|(_, v)| v.clone()).unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null));
+                        }
+                        _ => self.push(ZxValue::Null),
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // ── Function calls ───────────────────────────────
+                // CALL_BUILTIN dispatches to Rust-native builtins (Phase 6).
+                // CALL_NAME also checks builtins before falling back.
+                // Other call types still require Python interop.
+
+                Op::CALL_BUILTIN => {
+                    let (name_idx, argc) = match &operand {
+                        Operand::Pair(a, b) => (*a, *b as usize),
+                        Operand::U32(idx) => (*idx, 0usize),
+                        _ => {
+                            return Err(VmError::RuntimeError(
+                                "Invalid CALL_BUILTIN operand".into(),
+                            ));
+                        }
+                    };
+                    let name = self.const_str(name_idx);
+                    // Dynamic gas: base 8 + 2*argc
+                    if argc > 0 {
+                        self.consume_gas_dynamic(Op::NOP, argc as u64 * 2)?;
+                    }
+                    let mut args = Vec::with_capacity(argc);
+                    for _ in 0..argc {
+                        args.push(self.pop());
+                    }
+                    args.reverse();
+                    let result = self.dispatch_builtin(&name, &args)?;
+                    self.push(result);
+                }
+
+                Op::CALL_NAME => {
+                    let (name_idx, argc) = match &operand {
+                        Operand::Pair(a, b) => (*a, *b as usize),
+                        Operand::U32(idx) => (*idx, 0usize),
+                        _ => {
+                            return Err(VmError::RuntimeError(
+                                "Invalid CALL_NAME operand".into(),
+                            ));
+                        }
+                    };
+                    let name = self.const_str(name_idx);
+                    // Dynamic gas: base 10 + 2*argc
+                    if argc > 0 {
+                        self.consume_gas_dynamic(Op::NOP, argc as u64 * 2)?;
+                    }
+                    let mut args = Vec::with_capacity(argc);
+                    for _ in 0..argc {
+                        args.push(self.pop());
+                    }
+                    args.reverse();
+
+                    // Check if it's a known builtin first
+                    if Self::is_known_builtin(&name) {
+                        let result = self.dispatch_builtin(&name, &args)?;
+                        self.push(result);
+                    } else {
+                        // Check env for user-defined functions
+                        // For now, fall back to Python for non-builtin calls
+                        return Err(VmError::NeedsPythonFallback);
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Op::CALL_TOP | Op::CALL_METHOD | Op::CALL_FUNC_CONST => {
+                    // These require Python interop for general callables
+                    return Err(VmError::NeedsPythonFallback);
+                }
+
+                // ── I/O ──────────────────────────────────────────
+                Op::PRINT => {
+                    let val = self.pop();
+                    self.output.push(val.display_str());
+                }
+
+                // ── Blockchain opcodes ───────────────────────────
+                Op::STATE_READ => {
+                    let key = match &operand {
+                        Operand::U32(idx) => self.const_str(*idx),
+                        _ => {
+                            let k = self.pop();
+                            match k {
+                                ZxValue::Str(s) => s,
+                                other => other.display_str(),
+                            }
+                        }
+                    };
+                    let val = self
+                        .blockchain_state
+                        .get(&key)
+                        .cloned()
+                        .unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null);
+                    self.push(val);
+                }
+
+                Op::STATE_WRITE => {
+                    let val = self.pop();
+                    let key = match &operand {
+                        Operand::U32(idx) => self.const_str(*idx),
+                        _ => {
+                            let k = self.pop();
+                            match k {
+                                ZxValue::Str(s) => s,
+                                other => other.display_str(),
+                            }
+                        }
+                    };
+                    if self.in_transaction {
+                        self.tx_pending.insert(key, val);
+                    } else {
+                        self.blockchain_state.insert(key, val);
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Op::TX_BEGIN => {
+                    self.tx_stack.push(TxSnapshot {
+                        state: self.blockchain_state.clone(),
+                        pending: self.tx_pending.clone(),
+                    });
+                    self.in_transaction = true;
+                    self.tx_snapshot = Some(self.blockchain_state.clone());
+                    self.tx_pending.clear();
+                }
+
+                Op::TX_COMMIT => {
+                    if self.in_transaction {
+                        // Merge pending writes into blockchain state
+                        for (k, v) in self.tx_pending.drain() {
+                            self.blockchain_state.insert(k, v);
+                        }
+                        self.tx_snapshot = None;
+                        // Restore outer transaction's pending writes
+                        if let Some(outer) = self.tx_stack.pop() {
+                            self.tx_pending = outer.pending;
+                        }
+                        self.in_transaction = !self.tx_stack.is_empty();
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Op::TX_REVERT => {
+                    if self.in_transaction {
+                        if let Some(snapshot) = self.tx_snapshot.take() {
+                            self.blockchain_state = snapshot;
+                        }
+                        self.tx_pending.clear();
+                        if let Some(outer) = self.tx_stack.pop() {
+                            if !self.tx_stack.is_empty() {
+                                self.tx_snapshot = Some(outer.state);
+                                self.tx_pending = outer.pending;
+                            }
+                        }
+                        self.in_transaction = !self.tx_stack.is_empty();
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Op::GAS_CHARGE => {
+                    let amount = match &operand {
+                        Operand::U32(n) => *n as u64,
+                        _ => 0,
+                    };
+                    if self.gas_enabled {
+                        self.gas_used += amount;
+                        if self.gas_used > self.gas_limit {
+                            self.revert_on_failure();
+                            return Err(VmError::OutOfGas {
+                                used: self.gas_used,
+                                limit: self.gas_limit,
+                                opcode: "GAS_CHARGE".to_string(),
+                            });
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Op::REQUIRE => {
+                    let message = self.pop();
+                    let condition = self.pop();
+                    if !condition.is_truthy() {
+                        self.revert_on_failure();
+                        return Err(VmError::RequireFailed(message.display_str()));
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Op::LEDGER_APPEND => {
+                    let entry = self.pop();
+                    if self.ledger.len() < 10000 {
+                        self.ledger.push(entry);
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Op::HASH_BLOCK => {
+                    let data = self.pop();
+                    let data_str = data.display_str();
+                    let data_bytes = data_str.as_bytes();
+                    use sha2::{Digest, Sha256};
+                    let hash = Sha256::digest(data_bytes);
+                    self.push(ZxValue::Str(hex::encode(hash)));
+                }
+
+                Op::VERIFY_SIGNATURE => {
+                    // Full ECDSA-secp256k1 verification via RustSignature
+                    if self.stack.len() >= 3 {
+                        let pk = self.pop();
+                        let msg = self.pop();
+                        let sig = self.pop();
+                        let result = Self::builtin_verify_sig(&sig, &msg, &pk);
+                        self.push(ZxValue::Bool(result));
+                    } else {
+                        self.push(ZxValue::Bool(false));
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Op::MERKLE_ROOT => {
+                    let leaf_count = match &operand {
+                        Operand::U32(n) => *n as usize,
+                        _ => 0,
+                    };
+                    if leaf_count == 0 || self.stack.len() < leaf_count {
+                        self.push(ZxValue::Str(String::new()));
+                    } else {
+                        use sha2::{Digest, Sha256};
+                        let mut leaves: Vec<ZxValue> = Vec::with_capacity(leaf_count);
+                        for _ in 0..leaf_count {
+                            leaves.push(self.pop());
+                        }
+                        leaves.reverse();
+                        let mut hashes: Vec<String> = leaves
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|leaf| {
+                                let s = leaf.display_str();
+                                hex::encode(Sha256::digest(s.as_bytes()))
+                            })
+                            .collect();
+                        while hashes.len() > 1 {
+                            if hashes.len() % 2 != 0 {
+                                let last = hashes.last().unwrap().clone();
+                                hashes.push(last);
+                            }
+                            let mut new_hashes = Vec::new();
+                            for i in (0..hashes.len()).step_by(2) {
+                                let combined = format!("{}{}", hashes[i], hashes[i + 1]);
+                                new_hashes
+                                    .push(hex::encode(Sha256::digest(combined.as_bytes())));
+                            }
+                            hashes = new_hashes;
+                        }
+                        self.push(ZxValue::Str(
+                            hashes.into_iter().next().unwrap_or_default(),
+                        ));
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Op::EMIT_EVENT => {
+                    // Pop event data and name, store in events list
+                    let data = self.pop();
+                    let name_val = match &operand {
+                        Operand::U32(idx) => self.const_str(*idx),
+                        _ => {
+                            let n = self.pop();
+                            n.display_str()
+                        }
+                    };
+                    self.events.push((name_val, data));
+                }
+
+                Op::REGISTER_EVENT => {
+                    // Event registration is a no-op at runtime — schema is compile-time
+                    let _data = self.pop();
+                }
+
+                Op::AUDIT_LOG => {
+                    let data = self.pop();
+                    let action = self.pop();
+                    self.audit_log.push((action.display_str(), data));
+                }
+
+                Op::RESTRICT_ACCESS => {
+                    let _restriction = self.pop();
+                    let _prop = self.pop();
+                    let _obj = self.pop();
+                    // Access control enforcement happens at contract level
+                }
+
+                // ── Exception handling ───────────────────────────
+                Op::SETUP_TRY => {
+                    let handler_ip = match &operand {
+                        Operand::U32(target) => *target as usize,
+                        _ => self.ip,
+                    };
+                    self.try_stack.push(handler_ip);
+                }
+
+                Op::POP_TRY => {
+                    self.try_stack.pop();
+                }
+
+                Op::THROW => {
+                    let exc = self.pop();
+                    if let Some(handler_ip) = self.try_stack.pop() {
+                        self.push(exc);
+                        self.ip = handler_ip;
+                    } else {
+                        return Err(VmError::RuntimeError(exc.display_str()));
+                    }
+                }
+
+                Op::ENABLE_ERROR_MODE => {
+                    // No-op — error mode is a Python evaluator concept
+                }
+
+                // ── Marker ops ───────────────────────────────────
+                Op::PARALLEL_START | Op::PARALLEL_END | Op::NOP => {}
+
+                // ── Module / Contract ops (fallback to Python) ───
+                Op::IMPORT | Op::EXPORT | Op::DEFINE_CONTRACT | Op::DEFINE_ENTITY
+                | Op::SPAWN | Op::AWAIT | Op::SPAWN_CALL | Op::FOR_ITER => {
+                    return Err(VmError::NeedsPythonFallback);
+                }
+
+                Op::UNKNOWN => {
+                    return Err(VmError::UnsupportedOpcode(
+                        self.instructions[self.ip - 1].0 as u16,
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        // End of instructions — return top of stack or Null
+        Ok(if self.stack.is_empty() {
+            ZxValue::Null
+        } else {
+            self.pop()
+        })
+    }
+
+    // ── Accessors for Python bridge ──────────────────────────────────
+
+    /// Get the blockchain state after execution.
+    pub fn get_blockchain_state(&self) -> &HashMap<String, ZxValue> {
+        &self.blockchain_state
+    }
+
+    /// Get the execution stats.
+    pub fn get_stats(&self) -> (u64, u64, u64) {
+        (self.instructions_executed, self.gas_used, self.gas_limit)
+    }
+
+    /// Get captured output (from PRINT opcodes).
+    pub fn get_output(&self) -> &[String] {
+        &self.output
+    }
+
+    /// Get the environment after execution.
+    pub fn get_env(&self) -> &HashMap<String, ZxValue> {
+        &self.env
+    }
+
+    /// Set a single environment variable.
+    pub fn env_set(&mut self, key: &str, val: ZxValue) {
+        self.env.insert(key.to_string(), val);
+    }
+
+    /// Get the ledger entries.
+    pub fn get_ledger(&self) -> &[ZxValue] {
+        &self.ledger
+    }
+
+    /// Get collected events (from emit() builtin and EMIT_EVENT opcode).
+    pub fn get_events(&self) -> &[(String, ZxValue)] {
+        &self.events
+    }
+
+    // ── Phase 6: Contract Builtins ──────────────────────────────────
+
+    /// List of builtin names handled in pure Rust.
+    const KNOWN_BUILTINS: &'static [&'static str] = &[
+        "keccak256",
+        "verify_sig",
+        "emit",
+        "get_balance",
+        "transfer",
+        "block_number",
+        "block_timestamp",
+        "sha256",
+        "print",
+        "len",
+        "str",
+        "int",
+        "float",
+        "type",
+        "abs",
+        "min",
+        "max",
+        "to_string",
+        "to_int",
+        "to_float",
+        "keys",
+        "values",
+        "push",
+        "pop",
+        "contains",
+        "index_of",
+        "slice",
+        "reverse",
+        "sort",
+        "concat",
+        "split",
+        "join",
+        "trim",
+        "upper",
+        "lower",
+        "starts_with",
+        "ends_with",
+        "replace",
+        "substring",
+        "char_at",
+    ];
+
+    /// Check if a name refers to a known Rust-native builtin.
+    fn is_known_builtin(name: &str) -> bool {
+        Self::KNOWN_BUILTINS.contains(&name)
+    }
+
+    /// Dispatch a builtin call by name.  Returns the result or an error.
+    fn dispatch_builtin(&mut self, name: &str, args: &[ZxValue]) -> Result<ZxValue, VmError> {
+        match name {
+            // ── Crypto ───────────────────────────────────────
+            "keccak256" => {
+                let data = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Str(String::new()));
+                Ok(Self::builtin_keccak256(&data))
+            }
+            "sha256" => {
+                let data = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Str(String::new()));
+                Ok(Self::builtin_sha256(&data))
+            }
+            "verify_sig" => {
+                if args.len() < 3 {
+                    return Ok(ZxValue::Bool(false));
+                }
+                Ok(ZxValue::Bool(Self::builtin_verify_sig(
+                    &args[0], &args[1], &args[2],
+                )))
+            }
+
+            // ── Events ───────────────────────────────────────
+            "emit" => {
+                let event_name = args
+                    .first()
+                    .map(|v| v.display_str())
+                    .unwrap_or_default();
+                let event_data = args.get(1).cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null);
+                self.events.push((event_name, event_data));
+                Ok(ZxValue::Null)
+            }
+
+            // ── Chain info ───────────────────────────────────
+            "block_number" => {
+                let val = self
+                    .env
+                    .get("_block_number")
+                    .cloned()
+                    .unwrap_or(ZxValue::Int(0));
+                Ok(val)
+            }
+            "block_timestamp" => {
+                let val = self
+                    .env
+                    .get("_block_timestamp")
+                    .cloned()
+                    .unwrap_or(ZxValue::Float(0.0));
+                Ok(val)
+            }
+
+            // ── Balance / Transfer ───────────────────────────
+            "get_balance" => {
+                let addr = args
+                    .first()
+                    .map(|v| v.display_str())
+                    .unwrap_or_default();
+                let key = format!("_balance:{}", addr);
+                let balance = self
+                    .blockchain_state
+                    .get(&key)
+                    .cloned()
+                    .unwrap_or(ZxValue::Int(0));
+                Ok(balance)
+            }
+            "transfer" => {
+                if args.len() < 2 {
+                    return Ok(ZxValue::Bool(false));
+                }
+                let to_addr = args[0].display_str();
+                let amount = args[1].as_int();
+                if amount <= 0 {
+                    return Ok(ZxValue::Bool(false));
+                }
+                // Get caller address from env
+                let caller = self
+                    .env
+                    .get("_caller")
+                    .map(|v| v.display_str())
+                    .unwrap_or_default();
+                let from_key = format!("_balance:{}", caller);
+                let to_key = format!("_balance:{}", to_addr);
+
+                let from_balance = self
+                    .blockchain_state
+                    .get(&from_key)
+                    .map(|v| v.as_int())
+                    .unwrap_or(0);
+                if from_balance < amount {
+                    return Ok(ZxValue::Bool(false));
+                }
+                let to_balance = self
+                    .blockchain_state
+                    .get(&to_key)
+                    .map(|v| v.as_int())
+                    .unwrap_or(0);
+                // Overflow check
+                if to_balance.checked_add(amount).is_none() {
+                    return Ok(ZxValue::Bool(false));
+                }
+                // Apply transfer
+                if self.in_transaction {
+                    self.tx_pending
+                        .insert(from_key, ZxValue::Int(from_balance - amount));
+                    self.tx_pending
+                        .insert(to_key, ZxValue::Int(to_balance + amount));
+                } else {
+                    self.blockchain_state
+                        .insert(from_key, ZxValue::Int(from_balance - amount));
+                    self.blockchain_state
+                        .insert(to_key, ZxValue::Int(to_balance + amount));
+                }
+                Ok(ZxValue::Bool(true))
+            }
+
+            // ── I/O ──────────────────────────────────────────
+            "print" => {
+                let text = args
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|v| v.display_str())
+                    .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                    .join(" ");
+                self.output.push(text);
+                Ok(ZxValue::Null)
+            }
+
+            // ── Type / Conversion builtins ───────────────────
+            "len" => {
+                let val = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null);
+                match &val {
+                    ZxValue::Str(s) => Ok(ZxValue::Int(s.len() as i64)),
+                    ZxValue::List(v) => Ok(ZxValue::Int(v.len() as i64)),
+                    ZxValue::Map(v) => Ok(ZxValue::Int(v.len() as i64)),
+                    _ => Ok(ZxValue::Int(0)),
+                }
+            }
+            "str" | "to_string" => {
+                let val = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null);
+                Ok(ZxValue::Str(val.display_str()))
+            }
+            "int" | "to_int" => {
+                let val = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null);
+                match &val {
+                    ZxValue::Str(s) => {
+                        let i = s.parse::<i64>().unwrap_or(0);
+                        Ok(ZxValue::Int(i))
+                    }
+                    _ => Ok(ZxValue::Int(val.as_int())),
+                }
+            }
+            "float" | "to_float" => {
+                let val = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null);
+                match &val {
+                    ZxValue::Str(s) => {
+                        let f = s.parse::<f64>().unwrap_or(0.0);
+                        Ok(ZxValue::Float(f))
+                    }
+                    _ => Ok(ZxValue::Float(val.as_float())),
+                }
+            }
+            "type" => {
+                let val = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null);
+                let t = match &val {
+                    ZxValue::Null => "null",
+                    ZxValue::Bool(_) => "bool",
+                    ZxValue::Int(_) => "int",
+                    ZxValue::Float(_) => "float",
+                    ZxValue::Str(_) => "string",
+                    ZxValue::List(_) => "list",
+                    ZxValue::Map(_) => "map",
+                    ZxValue::PyObj(_) => "object",
+                };
+                Ok(ZxValue::Str(t.to_string()))
+            }
+            "abs" => {
+                let val = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Int(0));
+                match &val {
+                    ZxValue::Int(i) => Ok(ZxValue::Int(i.abs())),
+                    ZxValue::Float(f) => Ok(ZxValue::Float(f.abs())),
+                    _ => Ok(ZxValue::Int(val.as_int().abs())),
+                }
+            }
+            "min" => {
+                if args.len() < 2 {
+                    return Ok(args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null));
+                }
+                let a = &args[0];
+                let b = &args[1];
+                match a.partial_cmp(b) {
+                    Some(std::cmp::Ordering::Less) | Some(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal) => {
+                        Ok(a.clone())
+                    }
+                    _ => Ok(b.clone()),
+                }
+            }
+            "max" => {
+                if args.len() < 2 {
+                    return Ok(args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null));
+                }
+                let a = &args[0];
+                let b = &args[1];
+                match a.partial_cmp(b) {
+                    Some(std::cmp::Ordering::Greater) | Some(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal) => {
+                        Ok(a.clone())
+                    }
+                    _ => Ok(b.clone()),
+                }
+            }
+
+            // ── Collection builtins ──────────────────────────
+            "keys" => {
+                let val = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null);
+                match &val {
+                    ZxValue::Map(pairs) => {
+                        let keys: Vec<ZxValue> =
+                            pairs.iter().map(|(k, _)| ZxValue::Str(k.clone())).collect();
+                        Ok(ZxValue::List(keys))
+                    }
+                    _ => Ok(ZxValue::List(vec![])),
+                }
+            }
+            "values" => {
+                let val = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null);
+                match &val {
+                    ZxValue::Map(pairs) => {
+                        let vals: Vec<ZxValue> =
+                            pairs.iter().map(|(_, v)| v.clone()).collect();
+                        Ok(ZxValue::List(vals))
+                    }
+                    _ => Ok(ZxValue::List(vec![])),
+                }
+            }
+            "push" => {
+                // push(list, item) → list with item appended
+                if args.len() < 2 {
+                    return Ok(args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null));
+                }
+                match &args[0] {
+                    ZxValue::List(items) => {
+                        let mut new_list = items.clone();
+                        new_list.push(args[1].clone());
+                        Ok(ZxValue::List(new_list))
+                    }
+                    _ => Ok(args[0].clone()),
+                }
+            }
+            "pop" => {
+                // pop(list) → last element (or null)
+                let val = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null);
+                match &val {
+                    ZxValue::List(items) => {
+                        Ok(items.last().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null))
+                    }
+                    _ => Ok(ZxValue::Null),
+                }
+            }
+            "contains" => {
+                if args.len() < 2 {
+                    return Ok(ZxValue::Bool(false));
+                }
+                match &args[0] {
+                    ZxValue::List(items) => {
+                        let found = items.iter().any(|item| item == &args[1]);
+                        Ok(ZxValue::Bool(found))
+                    }
+                    ZxValue::Str(s) => {
+                        let needle = args[1].display_str();
+                        Ok(ZxValue::Bool(s.contains(&needle)))
+                    }
+                    ZxValue::Map(pairs) => {
+                        let key = args[1].display_str();
+                        let found = pairs.iter().any(|(k, _)| k == &key);
+                        Ok(ZxValue::Bool(found))
+                    }
+                    _ => Ok(ZxValue::Bool(false)),
+                }
+            }
+            "index_of" => {
+                if args.len() < 2 {
+                    return Ok(ZxValue::Int(-1));
+                }
+                match &args[0] {
+                    ZxValue::List(items) => {
+                        let pos = items.iter().position(|item| item == &args[1]);
+                        Ok(ZxValue::Int(pos.map(|p| p as i64).unwrap_or(-1)))
+                    }
+                    ZxValue::Str(s) => {
+                        let needle = args[1].display_str();
+                        let pos = s.find(&needle);
+                        Ok(ZxValue::Int(pos.map(|p| p as i64).unwrap_or(-1)))
+                    }
+                    _ => Ok(ZxValue::Int(-1)),
+                }
+            }
+            "slice" => {
+                // slice(collection, start, end?)
+                let coll = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null);
+                let start = args.get(1).map(|v| v.as_int()).unwrap_or(0).max(0) as usize;
+                let end_arg = args.get(2);
+                match &coll {
+                    ZxValue::List(items) => {
+                        let end = end_arg
+                            .map(|v| v.as_int().max(0) as usize)
+                            .unwrap_or(items.len())
+                            .min(items.len());
+                        let start = start.min(end);
+                        Ok(ZxValue::List(items[start..end].to_vec()))
+                    }
+                    ZxValue::Str(s) => {
+                        let chars: Vec<char> = s.chars().collect();
+                        let end = end_arg
+                            .map(|v| v.as_int().max(0) as usize)
+                            .unwrap_or(chars.len())
+                            .min(chars.len());
+                        let start = start.min(end);
+                        Ok(ZxValue::Str(chars[start..end].iter().collect()))
+                    }
+                    _ => Ok(ZxValue::Null),
+                }
+            }
+            "reverse" => {
+                let val = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null);
+                match val {
+                    ZxValue::List(mut items) => {
+                        items.reverse();
+                        Ok(ZxValue::List(items))
+                    }
+                    ZxValue::Str(s) => Ok(ZxValue::Str(s.chars().rev().collect())),
+                    _ => Ok(val),
+                }
+            }
+            "sort" => {
+                let val = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null);
+                match val {
+                    ZxValue::List(mut items) => {
+                        items.sort_by(|a, b| a.partial_cmp(b).unwrap_or(std::cmp::Ordering::Equal));
+                        Ok(ZxValue::List(items))
+                    }
+                    _ => Ok(val),
+                }
+            }
+            "concat" => {
+                // concat(a, b) — concatenate strings or lists
+                if args.len() < 2 {
+                    return Ok(args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null));
+                }
+                match (&args[0], &args[1]) {
+                    (ZxValue::Str(a), ZxValue::Str(b)) => {
+                        Ok(ZxValue::Str(format!("{}{}", a, b)))
+                    }
+                    (ZxValue::List(a), ZxValue::List(b)) => {
+                        let mut result = a.clone();
+                        result.extend(b.iter().cloned());
+                        Ok(ZxValue::List(result))
+                    }
+                    _ => Ok(ZxValue::Str(format!(
+                        "{}{}",
+                        args[0].display_str(),
+                        args[1].display_str()
+                    ))),
+                }
+            }
+
+            // ── String builtins ──────────────────────────────
+            "split" => {
+                let s = args.first().map(|v| v.display_str()).unwrap_or_default();
+                let sep = args.get(1).map(|v| v.display_str()).unwrap_or_else(|| " ".to_string());
+                let parts: Vec<ZxValue> = s.split(&sep).map(|p| ZxValue::Str(p.to_string())).collect();
+                Ok(ZxValue::List(parts))
+            }
+            "join" => {
+                // join(list, separator)
+                let list = args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::List(vec![]));
+                let sep = args.get(1).map(|v| v.display_str()).unwrap_or_else(|| ",".to_string());
+                match &list {
+                    ZxValue::List(items) => {
+                        let joined: String = items
+                            .iter()
+                            .map(|v| v.display_str())
+                            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                            .join(&sep);
+                        Ok(ZxValue::Str(joined))
+                    }
+                    _ => Ok(ZxValue::Str(list.display_str())),
+                }
+            }
+            "trim" => {
+                let s = args.first().map(|v| v.display_str()).unwrap_or_default();
+                Ok(ZxValue::Str(s.trim().to_string()))
+            }
+            "upper" => {
+                let s = args.first().map(|v| v.display_str()).unwrap_or_default();
+                Ok(ZxValue::Str(s.to_uppercase()))
+            }
+            "lower" => {
+                let s = args.first().map(|v| v.display_str()).unwrap_or_default();
+                Ok(ZxValue::Str(s.to_lowercase()))
+            }
+            "starts_with" => {
+                if args.len() < 2 {
+                    return Ok(ZxValue::Bool(false));
+                }
+                let s = args[0].display_str();
+                let prefix = args[1].display_str();
+                Ok(ZxValue::Bool(s.starts_with(&prefix)))
+            }
+            "ends_with" => {
+                if args.len() < 2 {
+                    return Ok(ZxValue::Bool(false));
+                }
+                let s = args[0].display_str();
+                let suffix = args[1].display_str();
+                Ok(ZxValue::Bool(s.ends_with(&suffix)))
+            }
+            "replace" => {
+                // replace(string, old, new)
+                if args.len() < 3 {
+                    return Ok(args.first().cloned().unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null));
+                }
+                let s = args[0].display_str();
+                let old = args[1].display_str();
+                let new = args[2].display_str();
+                Ok(ZxValue::Str(s.replace(&old, &new)))
+            }
+            "substring" => {
+                // substring(string, start, end?)
+                let s = args.first().map(|v| v.display_str()).unwrap_or_default();
+                let chars: Vec<char> = s.chars().collect();
+                let start = args.get(1).map(|v| v.as_int().max(0) as usize).unwrap_or(0);
+                let end = args
+                    .get(2)
+                    .map(|v| v.as_int().max(0) as usize)
+                    .unwrap_or(chars.len())
+                    .min(chars.len());
+                let start = start.min(end);
+                Ok(ZxValue::Str(chars[start..end].iter().collect()))
+            }
+            "char_at" => {
+                let s = args.first().map(|v| v.display_str()).unwrap_or_default();
+                let idx = args.get(1).map(|v| v.as_int().max(0) as usize).unwrap_or(0);
+                let ch = s.chars().nth(idx);
+                Ok(ch
+                    .map(|c| ZxValue::Str(c.to_string()))
+                    .unwrap_or(ZxValue::Null))
+            }
+
+            // ── Cross-contract calls (require Python) ────────
+            "contract_call" | "static_call" | "delegate_call" => {
+                Err(VmError::NeedsPythonFallback)
+            }
+
+            // ── Unknown ──────────────────────────────────────
+            _ => Err(VmError::NeedsPythonFallback),
+        }
+    }
+
+    // ── Builtin implementations ─────────────────────────────────────
+
+    /// Keccak-256 hash → hex string.
+    fn builtin_keccak256(data: &ZxValue) -> ZxValue {
+        let input = data.display_str();
+        let mut hasher = Keccak::v256();
+        let mut output = [0u8; 32];
+        hasher.update(input.as_bytes());
+        hasher.finalize(&mut output);
+        ZxValue::Str(hex::encode(output))
+    }
+
+    /// SHA-256 hash → hex string.
+    fn builtin_sha256(data: &ZxValue) -> ZxValue {
+        let input = data.display_str();
+        let hash = Sha256::digest(input.as_bytes());
+        ZxValue::Str(hex::encode(hash))
+    }
+
+    /// ECDSA-secp256k1 signature verification.
+    fn builtin_verify_sig(sig: &ZxValue, msg: &ZxValue, pk: &ZxValue) -> bool {
+        let sig_bytes = Self::zxvalue_to_bytes(sig);
+        let msg_bytes = Self::zxvalue_to_bytes(msg);
+        let pk_bytes = Self::zxvalue_to_bytes(pk);
+        verify_single(&msg_bytes, &sig_bytes, &pk_bytes)
+    }
+
+    /// Convert ZxValue to bytes (for crypto operations).
+    fn zxvalue_to_bytes(val: &ZxValue) -> Vec<u8> {
+        match val {
+            ZxValue::Str(s) => {
+                // Try hex decode first, then fall back to raw bytes
+                hex::decode(s).unwrap_or_else(|_| s.as_bytes().to_vec())
+            }
+            _ => val.display_str().as_bytes().to_vec(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// ── PyO3 Bridge — RustVMExecutor ─────────────────────────────────────
+
+/// Python-callable executor wrapping the Rust bytecode interpreter.
+///
+/// Usage from Python:
+/// ```python
+/// from zexus_core import RustVMExecutor
+/// executor = RustVMExecutor()
+/// result = executor.execute(zxc_bytes, env={}, state={}, gas_limit=1000000)
+/// ```
+#[pyclass]
+pub struct RustVMExecutor {
+    /// Stats from last execution
+    last_instructions: u64,
+    last_gas_used: u64,
+    /// Gas discount factor (0.0–1.0). Default 0.6 = 40% cheaper than Python.
+    gas_discount: f64,
+}
+
+#[pymethods]
+impl RustVMExecutor {
+    #[new]
+    #[pyo3(signature = (gas_discount=0.6))]
+    fn new(gas_discount: f64) -> Self {
+        RustVMExecutor {
+            last_instructions: 0,
+            last_gas_used: 0,
+            gas_discount: gas_discount.clamp(0.01, 1.0),
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// Get the current gas discount factor.
+    #[getter]
+    fn gas_discount(&self) -> f64 {
+        self.gas_discount
+    }
+
+    /// Set the gas discount factor (0.01–1.0).
+    #[setter]
+    fn set_gas_discount(&mut self, discount: f64) {
+        self.gas_discount = discount.clamp(0.01, 1.0);
+    }
+
+    /// Execute .zxc binary bytecode and return the result.
+    ///
+    /// Args:
+    ///     data: bytes — serialized .zxc bytecode
+    ///     env: dict — initial environment variables (optional)
+    ///     state: dict — initial blockchain state (optional)
+    ///     gas_limit: int — gas limit (0 = unlimited)
+    ///
+    /// Returns:
+    ///     dict with keys: result, env, state, output, gas_used,
+    ///                     instructions_executed, needs_fallback
+    #[pyo3(signature = (data, env=None, state=None, gas_limit=0))]
+    fn execute(
+        &mut self,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        data: &Bound<'_, PyBytes>,
+        env: Option<&Bound<'_, PyDict>>,
+        state: Option<&Bound<'_, PyDict>>,
+        gas_limit: u64,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyObject> {
+        let raw = data.as_bytes();
+
+        // Deserialize .zxc → ZxcModule (GIL-free)
+        let module = binary_bytecode::deserialize_zxc(raw, true)
+            .map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e))?;
+
+        // Create VM
+        let mut vm = RustVM::from_module(&module);
+
+        // Set gas limit and discount
+        if gas_limit > 0 {
+            vm.set_gas_limit(gas_limit);
+        }
+        vm.set_gas_discount(self.gas_discount);
+
+        // Convert Python env → Rust env
+        if let Some(py_env) = env {
+            let mut rust_env = HashMap::new();
+            for (k, v) in py_env.iter() {
+                let key = k.extract::<String>().unwrap_or_default();
+                let val = py_to_zx(py, &v.to_object(py));
+                rust_env.insert(key, val);
+            }
+            vm.set_env(rust_env);
+        }
+
+        // Convert Python state → Rust state
+        if let Some(py_state) = state {
+            let mut rust_state = HashMap::new();
+            for (k, v) in py_state.iter() {
+                let key = k.extract::<String>().unwrap_or_default();
+                let val = py_to_zx(py, &v.to_object(py));
+                rust_state.insert(key, val);
+            }
+            vm.set_blockchain_state(rust_state);
+        }
+
+        // Execute (GIL is held but computation is pure Rust)
+        let exec_result = vm.execute();
+
+        // Build result dict
+        let result_dict = PyDict::new_bound(py);
+
+        match exec_result {
+            Ok(val) => {
+                result_dict.set_item("result", zx_to_py(py, &val))?;
+                result_dict.set_item("needs_fallback", false)?;
+                result_dict.set_item("error", py.None())?;
+            }
+            Err(VmError::NeedsPythonFallback) => {
+                result_dict.set_item("result", py.None())?;
+                result_dict.set_item("needs_fallback", true)?;
+                result_dict.set_item("error", py.None())?;
+            }
+            Err(VmError::OutOfGas { used, limit, opcode }) => {
+                result_dict.set_item("result", py.None())?;
+                result_dict.set_item("needs_fallback", false)?;
+                result_dict
+                    .set_item("error", format!("OutOfGas: used={}, limit={}, op={}", used, limit, opcode))?;
+            }
+            Err(VmError::RequireFailed(msg)) => {
+                result_dict.set_item("result", py.None())?;
+                result_dict.set_item("needs_fallback", false)?;
+                result_dict.set_item("error", format!("RequireFailed: {}", msg))?;
+            }
+            Err(e) => {
+                result_dict.set_item("result", py.None())?;
+                result_dict.set_item("needs_fallback", false)?;
+                result_dict.set_item("error", format!("{}", e))?;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Return environment
+        let py_env_out = PyDict::new_bound(py);
+        for (k, v) in vm.get_env() {
+            py_env_out.set_item(k, zx_to_py(py, v))?;
+        }
+        result_dict.set_item("env", py_env_out)?;
+
+        // Return blockchain state
+        let py_state_out = PyDict::new_bound(py);
+        for (k, v) in vm.get_blockchain_state() {
+            py_state_out.set_item(k, zx_to_py(py, v))?;
+        }
+        result_dict.set_item("state", py_state_out)?;
+
+        // Output
+        let py_output = PyList::empty_bound(py);
+        for line in vm.get_output() {
+            py_output.append(line)?;
+        }
+        result_dict.set_item("output", py_output)?;
+
+        // Events (Phase 6)
+        let py_events = PyList::empty_bound(py);
+        for (name, data) in vm.get_events() {
+            let ev = PyDict::new_bound(py);
+            ev.set_item("event", name)?;
+            ev.set_item("data", zx_to_py(py, data))?;
+            py_events.append(ev)?;
+        }
+        result_dict.set_item("events", py_events)?;
+
+        // Stats
+        let (instr_count, gas_used, _gas_limit) = vm.get_stats();
+        result_dict.set_item("gas_used", gas_used)?;
+        result_dict.set_item("instructions_executed", instr_count)?;
+        result_dict.set_item("gas_discount", self.gas_discount)?;
+
+        self.last_instructions = instr_count;
+        self.last_gas_used = gas_used;
+
+        Ok(result_dict.to_object(py))
+    }
+
+    /// Get stats from the last execution.
+    fn last_stats(&self) -> (u64, u64) {
+        (self.last_instructions, self.last_gas_used)
+    }
+
+    /// Execute .zxc binary bytecode without any Python interop.
+    /// Returns only numeric stats (for benchmarking).
+    #[pyo3(signature = (data, iterations=1, gas_limit=0))]
+    fn benchmark(
+        &self,
+        py: Python<'_>,
+        data: &Bound<'_, PyBytes>,
+        iterations: u32,
+        gas_limit: u64,
+    ) -> PyResult<PyObject> {
+        let raw = data.as_bytes();
+
+        let module = binary_bytecode::deserialize_zxc(raw, true)
+            .map_err(|e| pyo3::exceptions::PyValueError::new_err(e))?;
+
+        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+        let mut total_instrs: u64 = 0;
+        let mut last_result = ZxValue::Null;
+
+        for _ in 0..iterations {
+            let mut vm = RustVM::from_module(&module);
+            if gas_limit > 0 {
+                vm.set_gas_limit(gas_limit);
+            }
+            match vm.execute() {
+                Ok(val) => {
+                    let (instrs, _, _) = vm.get_stats();
+                    total_instrs += instrs;
+                    last_result = val;
+                }
+                Err(VmError::NeedsPythonFallback) => {
+                    let (instrs, _, _) = vm.get_stats();
+                    total_instrs += instrs;
+                }
+                Err(e) => {
+                    return Err(pyo3::exceptions::PyRuntimeError::new_err(format!("{}", e)));
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        let elapsed = start.elapsed();
+        let result = PyDict::new_bound(py);
+        result.set_item("iterations", iterations)?;
+        result.set_item("total_instructions", total_instrs)?;
+        result.set_item("elapsed_ms", elapsed.as_secs_f64() * 1000.0)?;
+        result.set_item(
+            "instructions_per_sec",
+            if elapsed.as_secs_f64() > 0.0 {
+                total_instrs as f64 / elapsed.as_secs_f64()
+            } else {
+                0.0
+            },
+        )?;
+        result.set_item("result", zx_to_py(py, &last_result))?;
+
+        Ok(result.to_object(py))
+    }
+}