whisper.rn 0.4.0-rc.3 → 0.4.0-rc.5

package/cpp/ggml-backend.c

@@ -0,0 +1,1357 @@
+#include "ggml-backend-impl.h"
+#include "ggml-alloc.h"
+#include "ggml-impl.h"
+
+#include <assert.h>
+#include <limits.h>
+#include <stdarg.h>
+#include <stdio.h>
+#include <stdlib.h>
+#include <string.h>
+
+
+#define MAX(a, b) ((a) > (b) ? (a) : (b))
+
+
+// backend buffer type
+
+wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t wsp_ggml_backend_buft_alloc_buffer(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_t buft, size_t size) {
+    return buft->iface.alloc_buffer(buft, size);
+}
+
+size_t wsp_ggml_backend_buft_get_alignment(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_t buft) {
+    return buft->iface.get_alignment(buft);
+}
+
+size_t wsp_ggml_backend_buft_get_alloc_size(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_t buft, struct wsp_ggml_tensor * tensor) {
+    // get_alloc_size is optional, defaults to wsp_ggml_nbytes
+    if (buft->iface.get_alloc_size) {
+        return buft->iface.get_alloc_size(buft, tensor);
+    }
+    return wsp_ggml_nbytes(tensor);
+}
+
+bool wsp_ggml_backend_buft_supports_backend(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_t buft, wsp_ggml_backend_t backend) {
+    return buft->iface.supports_backend(buft, backend);
+}
+
+// backend buffer
+
+wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_init(
+               wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_t      buft,
+        struct wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_i           iface,
+               wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_context_t   context,
+               size_t                          size) {
+    wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer = malloc(sizeof(struct wsp_ggml_backend_buffer));
+
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(iface.get_base != NULL);
+
+    (*buffer) = (struct wsp_ggml_backend_buffer) {
+        /* .interface = */ iface,
+        /* .buft      = */ buft,
+        /* .context   = */ context,
+        /* .size      = */ size,
+    };
+
+    return buffer;
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_free(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer) {
+    if (buffer == NULL) {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    if (buffer->iface.free_buffer != NULL) {
+        buffer->iface.free_buffer(buffer);
+    }
+    free(buffer);
+}
+
+size_t wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_get_size(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer) {
+    return buffer->size;
+}
+
+void * wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_get_base(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer) {
+    void * base = buffer->iface.get_base(buffer);
+
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(base != NULL && "backend buffer base cannot be NULL");
+
+    return base;
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_init_tensor(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer, struct wsp_ggml_tensor * tensor) {
+    // init_tensor is optional
+    if (buffer->iface.init_tensor) {
+        buffer->iface.init_tensor(buffer, tensor);
+    }
+}
+
+size_t wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_get_alignment (wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer) {
+    return wsp_ggml_backend_buft_get_alignment(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type(buffer));
+}
+
+size_t wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_get_alloc_size(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer, struct wsp_ggml_tensor * tensor) {
+    return wsp_ggml_backend_buft_get_alloc_size(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type(buffer), tensor);
+}
+
+wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_t wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer) {
+    return buffer->buft;
+}
+
+// backend
+
+const char * wsp_ggml_backend_name(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend) {
+    if (backend == NULL) {
+        return "NULL";
+    }
+    return backend->iface.get_name(backend);
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_free(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend) {
+    if (backend == NULL) {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    backend->iface.free(backend);
+}
+
+wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_t wsp_ggml_backend_get_default_buffer_type(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend) {
+    return backend->iface.get_default_buffer_type(backend);
+}
+
+wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t wsp_ggml_backend_alloc_buffer(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend, size_t size) {
+    return wsp_ggml_backend_buft_alloc_buffer(wsp_ggml_backend_get_default_buffer_type(backend), size);
+}
+
+size_t wsp_ggml_backend_get_alignment(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend) {
+    return wsp_ggml_backend_buft_get_alignment(wsp_ggml_backend_get_default_buffer_type(backend));
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_tensor_set_async(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend, struct wsp_ggml_tensor * tensor, const void * data, size_t offset, size_t size) {
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(tensor->data != NULL && "tensor not allocated");
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(offset + size <= wsp_ggml_nbytes(tensor) && "tensor write out of bounds");
+
+    backend->iface.set_tensor_async(backend, tensor, data, offset, size);
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_tensor_get_async(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend, const struct wsp_ggml_tensor * tensor, void * data, size_t offset, size_t size) {
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(tensor->data != NULL && "tensor not allocated");
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(offset + size <= wsp_ggml_nbytes(tensor) && "tensor read out of bounds");
+
+    backend->iface.get_tensor_async(backend, tensor, data, offset, size);
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_tensor_set(struct wsp_ggml_tensor * tensor, const void * data, size_t offset, size_t size) {
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(tensor->data != NULL && "tensor not allocated");
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(tensor->buffer != NULL && "tensor buffer not set");
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(offset + size <= wsp_ggml_nbytes(tensor) && "tensor write out of bounds");
+
+    tensor->buffer->iface.set_tensor(tensor->buffer, tensor, data, offset, size);
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_tensor_get(const struct wsp_ggml_tensor * tensor, void * data, size_t offset, size_t size) {
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(tensor->data != NULL && "tensor not allocated");
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(tensor->buffer != NULL && "tensor buffer not set");
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(offset + size <= wsp_ggml_nbytes(tensor) && "tensor read out of bounds");
+
+    tensor->buffer->iface.get_tensor(tensor->buffer, tensor, data, offset, size);
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_synchronize(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend) {
+    if (backend->iface.synchronize == NULL) {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    backend->iface.synchronize(backend);
+}
+
+wsp_ggml_backend_graph_plan_t wsp_ggml_backend_graph_plan_create(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend, struct wsp_ggml_cgraph * cgraph) {
+    return backend->iface.graph_plan_create(backend, cgraph);
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_graph_plan_free(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend, wsp_ggml_backend_graph_plan_t plan) {
+    backend->iface.graph_plan_free(backend, plan);
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_graph_plan_compute(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend, wsp_ggml_backend_graph_plan_t plan) {
+    backend->iface.graph_plan_compute(backend, plan);
+
+    // TODO: optional sync
+    wsp_ggml_backend_synchronize(backend);
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_graph_compute(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend, struct wsp_ggml_cgraph * cgraph) {
+    backend->iface.graph_compute(backend, cgraph);
+
+    // TODO: optional sync
+    wsp_ggml_backend_synchronize(backend);
+}
+
+bool wsp_ggml_backend_supports_op(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend, const struct wsp_ggml_tensor * op) {
+    return backend->iface.supports_op(backend, op);
+}
+
+// backend copy
+
+static bool wsp_ggml_are_same_layout(const struct wsp_ggml_tensor * a, const struct wsp_ggml_tensor * b) {
+    if (a->type != b->type) {
+        return false;
+    }
+    for (int i = 0; i < WSP_GGML_MAX_DIMS; i++) {
+        if (a->ne[i] != b->ne[i]) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        if (a->nb[i] != b->nb[i]) {
+            return false;
+        }
+    }
+    return true;
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_tensor_copy(struct wsp_ggml_tensor * src, struct wsp_ggml_tensor * dst) {
+    //printf("src: %s ne: [%d %d %d %d] nb: [%d %d %d %d]\n", src->name, (int)src->ne[0], (int)src->ne[1], (int)src->ne[2], (int)src->ne[3], (int)src->nb[0], (int)src->nb[1], (int)src->nb[2], (int)src->nb[3]);
+    //printf("dst: %s ne: [%d %d %d %d] nb: [%d %d %d %d]\n", dst->name, (int)dst->ne[0], (int)dst->ne[1], (int)dst->ne[2], (int)dst->ne[3], (int)dst->nb[0], (int)dst->nb[1], (int)dst->nb[2], (int)dst->nb[3]);
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(wsp_ggml_are_same_layout(src, dst) && "cannot copy tensors with different layouts");
+
+    // fprintf(stderr, "cpy tensor %s from %s to %s (%lu bytes)\n", src->name, wsp_ggml_backend_name(src->backend), wsp_ggml_backend_name(dst->backend), wsp_ggml_nbytes(src));
+
+    if (src == dst) {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    // TODO: allow backends to support copy to/from same backend
+
+    if (dst->buffer->iface.cpy_tensor_from != NULL) {
+        dst->buffer->iface.cpy_tensor_from(dst->buffer, src, dst);
+    } else if (src->buffer->iface.cpy_tensor_to != NULL) {
+        src->buffer->iface.cpy_tensor_to(src->buffer, src, dst);
+    } else {
+        // shouldn't be hit when copying from/to CPU
+        #ifndef NDEBUG
+        fprintf(stderr, "wsp_ggml_backend_tensor_copy: neither cpy_tensor_from nor cpy_tensor_to "
+                        "are implemented for %s and %s, falling back to get/set\n", src->name, dst->name);
+        #endif
+        size_t nbytes = wsp_ggml_nbytes(src);
+        void * data = malloc(nbytes);
+        wsp_ggml_backend_tensor_get(src, data, 0, nbytes);
+        wsp_ggml_backend_tensor_set(dst, data, 0, nbytes);
+        free(data);
+    }
+}
+
+// backend registry
+
+#define WSP_GGML_MAX_BACKENDS_REG 16
+
+struct wsp_ggml_backend_reg {
+    char name[128];
+    wsp_ggml_backend_init_fn init_fn;
+    wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_t default_buffer_type;
+    void * user_data;
+};
+
+static struct wsp_ggml_backend_reg wsp_ggml_backend_registry[WSP_GGML_MAX_BACKENDS_REG];
+static size_t wsp_ggml_backend_registry_count = 0;
+
+static wsp_ggml_backend_t wsp_ggml_backend_reg_cpu_init(const char * params, void * user_data);
+
+static void wsp_ggml_backend_registry_init(void) {
+    static bool initialized = false;
+
+    if (initialized) {
+        return;
+    }
+
+    initialized = true;
+
+    wsp_ggml_backend_register("CPU", wsp_ggml_backend_reg_cpu_init, wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_type(), NULL);
+
+    // add forward decls here to avoid including the backend headers
+#ifdef WSP_GGML_USE_CUBLAS
+    extern void wsp_ggml_backend_cuda_reg_devices(void);
+    wsp_ggml_backend_cuda_reg_devices();
+#endif
+
+#ifdef WSP_GGML_USE_METAL
+    extern wsp_ggml_backend_t wsp_ggml_backend_reg_metal_init(const char * params, void * user_data);
+    extern wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_t wsp_ggml_backend_metal_buffer_type(void);
+    wsp_ggml_backend_register("Metal", wsp_ggml_backend_reg_metal_init, wsp_ggml_backend_metal_buffer_type(), NULL);
+#endif
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_register(const char * name, wsp_ggml_backend_init_fn init_fn, wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_t default_buffer_type, void * user_data) {
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(wsp_ggml_backend_registry_count < WSP_GGML_MAX_BACKENDS_REG);
+
+    int id = wsp_ggml_backend_registry_count;
+
+    wsp_ggml_backend_registry[id] = (struct wsp_ggml_backend_reg) {
+        /* .name                = */ {0},
+        /* .fn                  = */ init_fn,
+        /* .default_buffer_type = */ default_buffer_type,
+        /* .user_data           = */ user_data,
+    };
+
+    snprintf(wsp_ggml_backend_registry[id].name, sizeof(wsp_ggml_backend_registry[id].name), "%s", name);
+
+#ifndef NDEBUG
+    fprintf(stderr, "%s: registered backend %s\n", __func__, name);
+#endif
+
+    wsp_ggml_backend_registry_count++;
+}
+
+size_t wsp_ggml_backend_reg_get_count(void) {
+    wsp_ggml_backend_registry_init();
+
+    return wsp_ggml_backend_registry_count;
+}
+
+size_t wsp_ggml_backend_reg_find_by_name(const char * name) {
+    wsp_ggml_backend_registry_init();
+
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < wsp_ggml_backend_registry_count; i++) {
+        // TODO: case insensitive in a portable way
+        if (strcmp(wsp_ggml_backend_registry[i].name, name) == 0) {
+            return i;
+        }
+    }
+    return SIZE_MAX;
+}
+
+// init from backend:params string
+wsp_ggml_backend_t wsp_ggml_backend_reg_init_backend_from_str(const char * backend_str) {
+    wsp_ggml_backend_registry_init();
+
+    const char * params = strchr(backend_str, ':');
+    char backend_name[128];
+    if (params == NULL) {
+        strcpy(backend_name, backend_str);
+        params = "";
+    } else {
+        strncpy(backend_name, backend_str, params - backend_str);
+        backend_name[params - backend_str] = '\0';
+        params++;
+    }
+
+    size_t backend_i = wsp_ggml_backend_reg_find_by_name(backend_name);
+    if (backend_i == SIZE_MAX) {
+        fprintf(stderr, "%s: backend %s not found\n", __func__, backend_name);
+        return NULL;
+    }
+
+    return wsp_ggml_backend_reg_init_backend(backend_i, params);
+}
+
+const char * wsp_ggml_backend_reg_get_name(size_t i) {
+    wsp_ggml_backend_registry_init();
+
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(i < wsp_ggml_backend_registry_count);
+    return wsp_ggml_backend_registry[i].name;
+}
+
+wsp_ggml_backend_t wsp_ggml_backend_reg_init_backend(size_t i, const char * params) {
+    wsp_ggml_backend_registry_init();
+
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(i < wsp_ggml_backend_registry_count);
+    return wsp_ggml_backend_registry[i].init_fn(params, wsp_ggml_backend_registry[i].user_data);
+}
+
+wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_t wsp_ggml_backend_reg_get_default_buffer_type(size_t i) {
+    wsp_ggml_backend_registry_init();
+
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(i < wsp_ggml_backend_registry_count);
+    return wsp_ggml_backend_registry[i].default_buffer_type;
+}
+
+wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t wsp_ggml_backend_reg_alloc_buffer(size_t i, size_t size) {
+    wsp_ggml_backend_registry_init();
+
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(i < wsp_ggml_backend_registry_count);
+    return wsp_ggml_backend_buft_alloc_buffer(wsp_ggml_backend_registry[i].default_buffer_type, size);
+}
+
+// backend CPU
+
+static void * wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_get_base(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer) {
+    return (void *)buffer->context;
+}
+
+static void wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_free_buffer(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer) {
+    free(buffer->context);
+    WSP_GGML_UNUSED(buffer);
+}
+
+static void wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_set_tensor(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer, struct wsp_ggml_tensor * tensor, const void * data, size_t offset, size_t size) {
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(offset + size <= wsp_ggml_nbytes(tensor) && "tensor write out of bounds");
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(tensor->data != NULL && "tensor not allocated");
+
+    memcpy((char *)tensor->data + offset, data, size);
+
+    WSP_GGML_UNUSED(buffer);
+}
+
+static void wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_get_tensor(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer, const struct wsp_ggml_tensor * tensor, void * data, size_t offset, size_t size) {
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(offset + size <= wsp_ggml_nbytes(tensor) && "tensor read out of bounds");
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(tensor->data != NULL && "tensor not allocated");
+
+    memcpy(data, (const char *)tensor->data + offset, size);
+
+    WSP_GGML_UNUSED(buffer);
+}
+
+static void wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_cpy_tensor_from(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer, struct wsp_ggml_tensor * src, struct wsp_ggml_tensor * dst) {
+    wsp_ggml_backend_tensor_get(src, dst->data, 0, wsp_ggml_nbytes(src));
+
+    WSP_GGML_UNUSED(buffer);
+}
+
+static void wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_cpy_tensor_to(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer, struct wsp_ggml_tensor * src, struct wsp_ggml_tensor * dst) {
+    wsp_ggml_backend_tensor_set(dst, src->data, 0, wsp_ggml_nbytes(src));
+
+    WSP_GGML_UNUSED(buffer);
+}
+
+static struct wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_i cpu_backend_buffer_i = {
+    /* .free_buffer     = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_free_buffer,
+    /* .get_base        = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_get_base,
+    /* .init_tensor     = */ NULL, // no initialization required
+    /* .set_tensor      = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_set_tensor,
+    /* .get_tensor      = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_get_tensor,
+    /* .cpy_tensor_from = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_cpy_tensor_from,
+    /* .cpy_tensor_to   = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_cpy_tensor_to,
+};
+
+// for buffers from ptr, free is not called
+static struct wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_i cpu_backend_buffer_i_from_ptr = {
+    /* .free_buffer     = */ NULL, // ptr is not owned by the buffer, so it does not need to be freed
+    /* .get_base        = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_get_base,
+    /* .init_tensor     = */ NULL, // no initialization required
+    /* .set_tensor      = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_set_tensor,
+    /* .get_tensor      = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_get_tensor,
+    /* .cpy_tensor_from = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_cpy_tensor_from,
+    /* .cpy_tensor_to   = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_cpy_tensor_to,
+};
+
+static const size_t TENSOR_ALIGNMENT = 64; // should be enough for AVX 512
+
+static wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_type_alloc_buffer(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_t buft, size_t size) {
+    size += TENSOR_ALIGNMENT;   // malloc may return an address that is not aligned
+    void * data = malloc(size); // TODO: maybe use WSP_GGML_ALIGNED_MALLOC?
+
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(data != NULL && "failed to allocate buffer");
+
+    return wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_init(buft, cpu_backend_buffer_i, data, size);
+}
+
+static size_t wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_type_get_alignment(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_t buft) {
+    return TENSOR_ALIGNMENT;
+
+    WSP_GGML_UNUSED(buft);
+}
+
+static bool wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_type_supports_backend(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_t buft, wsp_ggml_backend_t backend) {
+    return wsp_ggml_backend_is_cpu(backend);
+
+    WSP_GGML_UNUSED(buft);
+}
+
+wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_t wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_type(void) {
+    static struct wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_cpu = {
+        /* .iface = */ {
+            /* .alloc_buffer     = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_type_alloc_buffer,
+            /* .get_alignment    = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_type_get_alignment,
+            /* .get_alloc_size   = */ NULL, // defaults to wsp_ggml_nbytes
+            /* .supports_backend = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_type_supports_backend,
+        },
+        /* .context = */ NULL,
+    };
+
+    return &wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_cpu;
+}
+
+struct wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_context {
+    int n_threads;
+    void * work_data;
+    size_t work_size;
+};
+
+static const char * wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_name(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend) {
+    return "CPU";
+
+    WSP_GGML_UNUSED(backend);
+}
+
+static void wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_free(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend) {
+    struct wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_context * cpu_ctx = (struct wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_context *)backend->context;
+    free(cpu_ctx->work_data);
+    free(cpu_ctx);
+    free(backend);
+}
+
+static wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_type_t wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_get_default_buffer_type(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend) {
+    return wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_type();
+
+    WSP_GGML_UNUSED(backend);
+}
+
+struct wsp_ggml_backend_plan_cpu {
+    struct wsp_ggml_cplan cplan;
+    struct wsp_ggml_cgraph cgraph;
+};
+
+static wsp_ggml_backend_graph_plan_t wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_graph_plan_create(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend, struct wsp_ggml_cgraph * cgraph) {
+    struct wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_context * cpu_ctx = (struct wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_context *)backend->context;
+
+    struct wsp_ggml_backend_plan_cpu * cpu_plan = malloc(sizeof(struct wsp_ggml_backend_plan_cpu));
+
+    cpu_plan->cplan = wsp_ggml_graph_plan(cgraph, cpu_ctx->n_threads);
+    cpu_plan->cgraph = *cgraph;
+
+    if (cpu_plan->cplan.work_size > 0) {
+        cpu_plan->cplan.work_data = malloc(cpu_plan->cplan.work_size);
+    }
+
+    return cpu_plan;
+}
+
+static void wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_graph_plan_free(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend, wsp_ggml_backend_graph_plan_t plan) {
+    struct wsp_ggml_backend_plan_cpu * cpu_plan = (struct wsp_ggml_backend_plan_cpu *)plan;
+
+    free(cpu_plan->cplan.work_data);
+    free(cpu_plan);
+
+    WSP_GGML_UNUSED(backend);
+}
+
+static void wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_graph_plan_compute(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend, wsp_ggml_backend_graph_plan_t plan) {
+    struct wsp_ggml_backend_plan_cpu * cpu_plan = (struct wsp_ggml_backend_plan_cpu *)plan;
+
+    wsp_ggml_graph_compute(&cpu_plan->cgraph, &cpu_plan->cplan);
+
+    WSP_GGML_UNUSED(backend);
+}
+
+static void wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_graph_compute(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend, struct wsp_ggml_cgraph * cgraph) {
+    struct wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_context * cpu_ctx = (struct wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_context *)backend->context;
+
+    struct wsp_ggml_cplan cplan = wsp_ggml_graph_plan(cgraph, cpu_ctx->n_threads);
+
+    if (cpu_ctx->work_size < cplan.work_size) {
+        // TODO: may be faster to free and use malloc to avoid the copy
+        cpu_ctx->work_data = realloc(cpu_ctx->work_data, cplan.work_size);
+        cpu_ctx->work_size = cplan.work_size;
+    }
+
+    cplan.work_data = cpu_ctx->work_data;
+
+    wsp_ggml_graph_compute(cgraph, &cplan);
+}
+
+static bool wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_supports_op(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend, const struct wsp_ggml_tensor * op) {
+    return true;
+
+    WSP_GGML_UNUSED(backend);
+    WSP_GGML_UNUSED(op);
+}
+
+static struct wsp_ggml_backend_i cpu_backend_i = {
+    /* .get_name                = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_name,
+    /* .free                    = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_free,
+    /* .get_default_buffer_type = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_get_default_buffer_type,
+    /* .set_tensor_async        = */ NULL,
+    /* .get_tensor_async        = */ NULL,
+    /* .cpy_tensor_from_async   = */ NULL,
+    /* .cpy_tensor_to_async     = */ NULL,
+    /* .synchronize             = */ NULL,
+    /* .graph_plan_create       = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_graph_plan_create,
+    /* .graph_plan_free         = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_graph_plan_free,
+    /* .graph_plan_compute      = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_graph_plan_compute,
+    /* .graph_compute           = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_graph_compute,
+    /* .supports_op             = */ wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_supports_op,
+};
+
+wsp_ggml_backend_t wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_init(void) {
+    struct wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_context * ctx = malloc(sizeof(struct wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_context));
+
+    ctx->n_threads = WSP_GGML_DEFAULT_N_THREADS;
+    ctx->work_data = NULL;
+    ctx->work_size = 0;
+
+    wsp_ggml_backend_t cpu_backend = malloc(sizeof(struct wsp_ggml_backend));
+
+    *cpu_backend = (struct wsp_ggml_backend) {
+        /* .interface = */ cpu_backend_i,
+        /* .context   = */ ctx
+    };
+    return cpu_backend;
+}
+
+bool wsp_ggml_backend_is_cpu(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend) {
+    return backend->iface.get_name == wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_name;
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_set_n_threads(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend_cpu, int n_threads) {
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(wsp_ggml_backend_is_cpu(backend_cpu));
+
+    struct wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_context * ctx = (struct wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_context *)backend_cpu->context;
+    ctx->n_threads = n_threads;
+}
+
+wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_from_ptr(void * ptr, size_t size) {
+    return wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_init(wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_buffer_type(), cpu_backend_buffer_i_from_ptr, ptr, size);
+}
+
+static wsp_ggml_backend_t wsp_ggml_backend_reg_cpu_init(const char * params, void * user_data) {
+    return wsp_ggml_backend_cpu_init();
+
+    WSP_GGML_UNUSED(params);
+    WSP_GGML_UNUSED(user_data);
+}
+
+
+// scheduler
+
+#define WSP_GGML_MAX_BACKENDS 4
+#define WSP_GGML_MAX_SPLITS 256
+#define WSP_GGML_MAX_SPLIT_INPUTS 16
+
+struct wsp_ggml_backend_sched_split {
+    wsp_ggml_tallocr_t tallocr;
+    int i_start;
+    int i_end;
+    struct wsp_ggml_tensor * inputs[WSP_GGML_MAX_SPLIT_INPUTS];
+    int n_inputs;
+    struct wsp_ggml_cgraph graph;
+};
+
+struct wsp_ggml_backend_sched {
+    int n_backends;
+    wsp_ggml_backend_t backends[WSP_GGML_MAX_BACKENDS];
+    wsp_ggml_tallocr_t  tallocs[WSP_GGML_MAX_BACKENDS];
+
+    wsp_ggml_gallocr_t galloc;
+
+    struct wsp_ggml_hash_set    hash_set;
+    wsp_ggml_tallocr_t *        node_talloc;                     // [hash_set.size]
+    struct wsp_ggml_tensor * (* node_copies)[WSP_GGML_MAX_BACKENDS]; // [hash_set.size][WSP_GGML_MAX_BACKENDS]
+
+    struct wsp_ggml_cgraph * graph;
+    struct wsp_ggml_backend_sched_split splits[WSP_GGML_MAX_SPLITS];
+    int n_splits;
+
+    struct wsp_ggml_context * ctx;
+
+    // align context_buffer to WSP_GGML_MEM_ALIGN
+    #ifdef _MSC_VER
+    __declspec(align(WSP_GGML_MEM_ALIGN))
+    #else
+    __attribute__((aligned(WSP_GGML_MEM_ALIGN)))
+    #endif
+    char context_buffer[WSP_GGML_MAX_SPLITS*WSP_GGML_MAX_SPLIT_INPUTS*sizeof(struct wsp_ggml_tensor) + sizeof(struct wsp_ggml_cgraph)];
+};
+
+#define hash_id(node) wsp_ggml_hash_find_or_insert(sched->hash_set, node)
+#define node_allocr(node) sched->node_talloc[hash_id(node)]
+
+static bool wsp_ggml_is_view_op(enum wsp_ggml_op op) {
+    return op == WSP_GGML_OP_VIEW || op == WSP_GGML_OP_RESHAPE || op == WSP_GGML_OP_PERMUTE || op == WSP_GGML_OP_TRANSPOSE;
+}
+
+// returns the priority of the backend, lower is better
+static int sched_backend_prio(wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t sched, wsp_ggml_backend_t backend) {
+    for (int i = 0; i < sched->n_backends; i++) {
+        if (sched->backends[i] == backend) {
+            return i;
+        }
+    }
+    return INT_MAX;
+}
+
+static int sched_allocr_prio(wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t sched, wsp_ggml_tallocr_t allocr) {
+    for (int i = 0; i < sched->n_backends; i++) {
+        if (sched->tallocs[i] == allocr) {
+            return i;
+        }
+    }
+    return INT_MAX;
+}
+
+static wsp_ggml_backend_t get_buffer_backend(wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t sched, wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer) {
+    if (buffer == NULL) {
+        return NULL;
+    }
+    // find highest prio backend that supports the buffer type
+    for (int i = 0; i < sched->n_backends; i++) {
+        if (wsp_ggml_backend_buft_supports_backend(buffer->buft, sched->backends[i])) {
+            return sched->backends[i];
+        }
+    }
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(false && "tensor buffer type not supported by any backend");
+}
+
+static wsp_ggml_backend_t get_allocr_backend(wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t sched, wsp_ggml_tallocr_t allocr) {
+    if (allocr == NULL) {
+        return NULL;
+    }
+    // find highest prio backend that supports the buffer type
+    for (int i = 0; i < sched->n_backends; i++) {
+        if (sched->tallocs[i] == allocr) {
+            return sched->backends[i];
+        }
+    }
+    WSP_GGML_UNREACHABLE();
+}
+
+#if 0
+static char causes[WSP_GGML_DEFAULT_GRAPH_SIZE*8 + WSP_GGML_MAX_SPLITS*WSP_GGML_MAX_SPLIT_INPUTS][128]; // debug, remove
+#define SET_CAUSE(node, ...) sprintf(causes[hash_id(node)], __VA_ARGS__)
+#define GET_CAUSE(node) causes[hash_id(node)]
+#else
+#define SET_CAUSE(node, ...)
+#define GET_CAUSE(node) ""
+#endif
+
+// returns the backend that should be used for the node based on the current locations
+static wsp_ggml_backend_t sched_backend_from_cur(wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t sched, struct wsp_ggml_tensor * node) {
+    // if the dst tensor is already allocated in a buffer, we must assume that it is critical to keep it there
+    // ie. kv cache updates
+    // note that this doesn't allow fallback to CPU. need to add output tensors to the splits to copy the data back to the original backend.
+    // dst
+    wsp_ggml_backend_t cur_backend = get_buffer_backend(sched, node->buffer);
+    if (cur_backend != NULL) {
+        SET_CAUSE(node, "1.dst");
+        return cur_backend;
+    }
+
+    // view_src
+    if (node->view_src != NULL && get_buffer_backend(sched, node->view_src->buffer) != NULL) {
+        SET_CAUSE(node, "1.vsrc");
+        return get_buffer_backend(sched, node->view_src->buffer);
+    }
+
+    // src
+    int cur_prio = INT_MAX;
+    size_t cur_size = 0;
+
+    for (int i = 0; i < WSP_GGML_MAX_SRC; i++) {
+        const struct wsp_ggml_tensor * src = node->src[i];
+        if (src == NULL) {
+            break;
+        }
+        wsp_ggml_backend_t src_backend = get_buffer_backend(sched, src->buffer);
+        if (src_backend != NULL) {
+            int src_prio = sched_backend_prio(sched, src_backend);
+            size_t src_size = wsp_ggml_nbytes(src);
+            if (src_prio < cur_prio && src_size >= cur_size) {
+                cur_prio = src_prio;
+                cur_size = src_size;
+                cur_backend = src_backend;
+                SET_CAUSE(node, "1.src%d", i);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    return cur_backend;
+}
+
+static char * fmt_size(size_t size) {
+    static char buffer[128];
+    if (size >= 1024*1024) {
+        sprintf(buffer, "%zuM", size/1024/1024);
+    } else {
+        sprintf(buffer, "%zuK", size/1024);
+    }
+    return buffer;
+}
+
+static void sched_print_assignments(wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t sched, struct wsp_ggml_cgraph * graph) {
+    int cur_split = 0;
+    for (int i = 0; i < graph->n_nodes; i++) {
+        if (cur_split < sched->n_splits && i == sched->splits[cur_split].i_start) {
+            wsp_ggml_backend_t split_backend = get_allocr_backend(sched, sched->splits[cur_split].tallocr);
+            fprintf(stderr, "\n## SPLIT #%d: %s # %d inputs: ", cur_split, wsp_ggml_backend_name(split_backend),
+                sched->splits[cur_split].n_inputs);
+            for (int j = 0; j < sched->splits[cur_split].n_inputs; j++) {
+                fprintf(stderr, "[%s (%5.5s)] ", sched->splits[cur_split].inputs[j]->name,
+                    fmt_size(wsp_ggml_nbytes(sched->splits[cur_split].inputs[j])));
+            }
+            fprintf(stderr, "\n");
+            cur_split++;
+        }
+        struct wsp_ggml_tensor * node = graph->nodes[i];
+        if (wsp_ggml_is_view_op(node->op)) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        wsp_ggml_tallocr_t node_allocr = node_allocr(node);
+        wsp_ggml_backend_t node_backend = node_allocr ? get_allocr_backend(sched, node_allocr) : NULL; // FIXME:
+        fprintf(stderr, "node #%3d (%10.10s): %20.20s (%4.4s) [%4.4s %8.8s]:", i, wsp_ggml_op_name(node->op), node->name,
+            fmt_size(wsp_ggml_nbytes(node)), node_allocr ? wsp_ggml_backend_name(node_backend) : "NULL", GET_CAUSE(node));
+        for (int j = 0; j < WSP_GGML_MAX_SRC; j++) {
+            struct wsp_ggml_tensor * src = node->src[j];
+            if (src == NULL) {
+                break;
+            }
+            wsp_ggml_tallocr_t src_allocr = node_allocr(src);
+            wsp_ggml_backend_t src_backend = src_allocr ? get_allocr_backend(sched, src_allocr) : NULL;
+            fprintf(stderr, " %20.20s (%4.4s) [%4.4s %8.8s]", src->name,
+                fmt_size(wsp_ggml_nbytes(src)), src_backend ? wsp_ggml_backend_name(src_backend) : "NULL", GET_CAUSE(src));
+        }
+        fprintf(stderr, "\n");
+    }
+}
+
+// creates a copy of the tensor with the same memory layout
+static struct wsp_ggml_tensor * wsp_ggml_dup_tensor_layout(struct wsp_ggml_context * ctx, const struct wsp_ggml_tensor * tensor) {
+    struct wsp_ggml_tensor * dup = wsp_ggml_dup_tensor(ctx, tensor);
+    for (int i = 0; i < WSP_GGML_MAX_DIMS; i++) {
+        dup->nb[i] = tensor->nb[i];
+    }
+    return dup;
+}
+
+// assigns backends to ops and splits the graph into subgraphs that can be computed on the same backend
+// TODO: merge passes
+static void sched_split_graph(wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t sched, struct wsp_ggml_cgraph * graph) {
+    // reset state
+    size_t hash_size = sched->hash_set.size;
+    memset(sched->hash_set.keys, 0, sizeof(sched->hash_set.keys[0]) * hash_size);
+    memset(sched->node_talloc,   0, sizeof(sched->node_talloc[0])   * hash_size);
+    memset(sched->node_copies,   0, sizeof(sched->node_copies[0])   * hash_size);
+    sched->n_splits = 0;
+
+    struct wsp_ggml_init_params params = {
+        /* .mem_size =   */ sizeof(sched->context_buffer),
+        /* .mem_buffer = */ sched->context_buffer,
+        /* .no_alloc =   */ true
+    };
+
+    if (sched->ctx != NULL) {
+        wsp_ggml_free(sched->ctx);
+    }
+
+    sched->ctx = wsp_ggml_init(params);
+
+    // pass 1: assign backends to ops with allocated inputs
+    for (int i = 0; i < graph->n_leafs; i++) {
+        struct wsp_ggml_tensor * leaf = graph->leafs[i];
+        if (node_allocr(leaf) != NULL) {
+            // do not overwrite user assignments
+            continue;
+        }
+        wsp_ggml_backend_t leaf_backend = get_buffer_backend(sched, leaf->buffer);
+        if (leaf_backend == NULL && leaf->view_src != NULL) {
+            leaf_backend = get_buffer_backend(sched, leaf->view_src->buffer);
+        }
+        if (leaf_backend != NULL) {
+            node_allocr(leaf) = wsp_ggml_backend_sched_get_tallocr(sched, leaf_backend);
+        }
+    }
+
+    for (int i = 0; i < graph->n_nodes; i++) {
+        struct wsp_ggml_tensor * node = graph->nodes[i];
+        if (node_allocr(node) != NULL) {
+            // do not overwrite user assignments
+            continue;
+        }
+        wsp_ggml_backend_t node_backend = sched_backend_from_cur(sched, node);
+        if (node_backend != NULL) {
+            node_allocr(node) = wsp_ggml_backend_sched_get_tallocr(sched, node_backend);
+        }
+    }
+    //printf("PASS 1 ASSIGNMENTS\n"); sched_print_assignments(sched, graph);
+
+    // pass 2: assign backends to ops from current assignments
+    // TODO:
+    //  - reuse sched_backend_from_cur
+    for (int i = 0; i < graph->n_nodes; i++) {
+        struct wsp_ggml_tensor * node = graph->nodes[i];
+        wsp_ggml_tallocr_t node_allocr = node_allocr(node);
+        if (node_allocr == NULL) {
+            int    cur_prio = INT_MAX;
+            size_t cur_size = 0;
+            for (int j = 0; j < WSP_GGML_MAX_SRC; j++) {
+                struct wsp_ggml_tensor * src = node->src[j];
+                if (src == NULL) {
+                    break;
+                }
+                wsp_ggml_tallocr_t src_allocr = node_allocr(src);
+                if (src_allocr != NULL) {
+                    int    src_prio = sched_allocr_prio(sched, src_allocr);
+                    size_t src_size = wsp_ggml_nbytes(src);
+                    if (src_prio < cur_prio && src_size >= cur_size) {
+                        cur_prio = src_prio;
+                        cur_size = src_size;
+                        node_allocr = src_allocr;
+                        SET_CAUSE(node, "2.src%d", j);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            if (node_allocr != NULL) {
+                node_allocr(node) = node_allocr;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    //printf("PASS 2 ASSIGNMENTS\n"); sched_print_assignments(sched, graph);
+
+    // pass 3: assign backends to remaining src from dst (should only be leafs)
+    for (int i = 0; i < graph->n_nodes; i++) {
+        struct wsp_ggml_tensor * node = graph->nodes[i];
+        wsp_ggml_tallocr_t node_allocr = node_allocr(node);
+        for (int j = 0; j < WSP_GGML_MAX_SRC; j++) {
+            struct wsp_ggml_tensor * src = node->src[j];
+            if (src == NULL) {
+                break;
+            }
+            wsp_ggml_tallocr_t src_allocr = node_allocr(src);
+            if (src_allocr == NULL) {
+                node_allocr(src) = node_allocr;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    //printf("PASS 3 ASSIGNMENTS\n"); sched_print_assignments(sched, graph);
+
+    // pass 4: split graph, find tensors that need to be copied
+    // TODO:
+    //  - when switching from a less preferred backend to a more preferred backend, check if it is possible to move the switch to an earlier point for the same cost
+    // find first backend
+    int cur_split = 0;
+    for (int i = 0; i < graph->n_nodes; i++) {
+        struct wsp_ggml_tensor * node = graph->nodes[i];
+        if (node->view_src == NULL) {
+            sched->splits[0].tallocr = node_allocr(node);
+            break;
+        }
+    }
+    sched->splits[0].i_start = 0;
+    sched->splits[0].n_inputs = 0;
+    memset(sched->splits[0].inputs, 0, sizeof(sched->splits[0].inputs)); //HACK
+    wsp_ggml_tallocr_t cur_allocr = sched->splits[0].tallocr;
+    size_t cur_backend_id = sched_allocr_prio(sched, cur_allocr);
+    for (int i = 0; i < graph->n_nodes; i++) {
+        struct wsp_ggml_tensor * node = graph->nodes[i];
+
+        if (wsp_ggml_is_view_op(node->op)) {
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        wsp_ggml_tallocr_t node_allocr = node_allocr(node);
+
+        if (node_allocr != cur_allocr) {
+            sched->splits[cur_split].i_end = i;
+            cur_split++;
+            WSP_GGML_ASSERT(cur_split < WSP_GGML_MAX_SPLITS);
+            sched->splits[cur_split].tallocr = node_allocr;
+            sched->splits[cur_split].i_start = i;
+            sched->splits[cur_split].n_inputs = 0;
+            memset(sched->splits[cur_split].inputs, 0, sizeof(sched->splits[cur_split].inputs)); //HACK
+            cur_allocr = node_allocr;
+            cur_backend_id = sched_allocr_prio(sched, cur_allocr);
+        }
+
+        // find inputs that are not on the same backend
+        for (int j = 0; j < WSP_GGML_MAX_SRC; j++) {
+            struct wsp_ggml_tensor * src = node->src[j];
+            if (src == NULL) {
+                break;
+            }
+            wsp_ggml_tallocr_t src_allocr = node_allocr(src);
+            if (src_allocr != node_allocr) {
+                int n_inputs = sched->splits[cur_split].n_inputs++;
+                WSP_GGML_ASSERT(n_inputs < WSP_GGML_MAX_SPLIT_INPUTS);
+                sched->splits[cur_split].inputs[n_inputs] = (struct wsp_ggml_tensor *)src;
+
+                // create copies
+                size_t id = hash_id(src);
+                if (sched->node_copies[id][cur_backend_id] == NULL) {
+                    struct wsp_ggml_tensor * tensor_copy = wsp_ggml_dup_tensor_layout(sched->ctx, src);
+                    sched->node_copies[id][cur_backend_id] = tensor_copy;
+                    node_allocr(tensor_copy) = cur_allocr;
+                    wsp_ggml_backend_t backend = get_allocr_backend(sched, cur_allocr);
+                    wsp_ggml_format_name(tensor_copy, "%s#%s", wsp_ggml_backend_name(backend), src->name);
+                }
+                node->src[j] = sched->node_copies[id][cur_backend_id];
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    sched->splits[cur_split].i_end = graph->n_nodes;
+    sched->n_splits = cur_split + 1;
+
+    //fprintf(stderr, "PASS 4 ASSIGNMENTS\n"); sched_print_assignments(sched, graph); fflush(stdout);
+
+#if 1
+    // sanity check: all sources should have the same backend as the node
+    for (int i = 0; i < graph->n_nodes; i++) {
+        struct wsp_ggml_tensor * node = graph->nodes[i];
+        wsp_ggml_tallocr_t node_allocr = node_allocr(node);
+        if (node_allocr == NULL) {
+            fprintf(stderr, "!!!!!!! %s has no backend\n", node->name);
+        }
+        for (int j = 0; j < WSP_GGML_MAX_SRC; j++) {
+            struct wsp_ggml_tensor * src = node->src[j];
+            if (src == NULL) {
+                break;
+            }
+            wsp_ggml_tallocr_t src_allocr = node_allocr(src);
+            if (src_allocr != node_allocr /* && src_backend != NULL */) { // ignore nulls for now
+                fprintf(stderr, "!!!! %s has backend %s, src %d (%s) has backend %s\n",
+                    node->name, node_allocr ? wsp_ggml_backend_name(get_allocr_backend(sched, node_allocr)) : "NULL",
+                    j, src->name, src_allocr ? wsp_ggml_backend_name(get_allocr_backend(sched, src_allocr)) : "NULL");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+#endif
+
+    // create copies of the graph for each split
+    // FIXME: avoid this copy, pass split inputs to wsp_ggml_gallocr_alloc_graph_n in some other way
+    struct wsp_ggml_cgraph * graph_copy = wsp_ggml_new_graph_custom(sched->ctx, graph->n_nodes + sched->n_splits*WSP_GGML_MAX_SPLIT_INPUTS, false);
+    for (int i = 0; i < sched->n_splits; i++) {
+        struct wsp_ggml_backend_sched_split * split = &sched->splits[i];
+        split->graph = wsp_ggml_graph_view(graph, split->i_start, split->i_end);
+
+        // add inputs to the graph copy so that they are allocated by ggml-alloc at the start of the split
+        for (int j = 0; j < split->n_inputs; j++) {
+            struct wsp_ggml_tensor * input = split->inputs[j];
+            struct wsp_ggml_tensor * input_cpy = sched->node_copies[hash_id(input)][sched_allocr_prio(sched, split->tallocr)];
+            input_cpy->src[0] = input;
+            graph_copy->nodes[graph_copy->n_nodes++] = input_cpy;
+        }
+
+        for (int j = split->i_start; j < split->i_end; j++) {
+            graph_copy->nodes[graph_copy->n_nodes++] = graph->nodes[j];
+        }
+    }
+    sched->graph = graph_copy;
+}
+
+static void sched_alloc_splits(wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t sched) {
+    wsp_ggml_gallocr_alloc_graph_n(
+        sched->galloc,
+        sched->graph,
+        sched->hash_set,
+        sched->node_talloc);
+}
+
+static void sched_compute_splits(wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t sched) {
+    uint64_t copy_us[WSP_GGML_MAX_BACKENDS] = {0};
+    uint64_t compute_us[WSP_GGML_MAX_BACKENDS] = {0};
+
+    struct wsp_ggml_backend_sched_split * splits = sched->splits;
+
+    for (int i = 0; i < sched->n_splits; i++) {
+        struct wsp_ggml_backend_sched_split * split = &splits[i];
+        wsp_ggml_backend_t split_backend = get_allocr_backend(sched, split->tallocr);
+        int split_backend_id = sched_backend_prio(sched, split_backend);
+
+        // copy the input tensors to the split backend
+        uint64_t copy_start_us = wsp_ggml_time_us();
+        for (int j = 0; j < split->n_inputs; j++) {
+            struct wsp_ggml_tensor * input = split->inputs[j];
+            struct wsp_ggml_tensor * input_cpy = sched->node_copies[hash_id(input)][sched_backend_prio(sched, split_backend)];
+            if (input->buffer == NULL) {
+                if (input->view_src == NULL) {
+                    fprintf(stderr, "input %s has no buffer and no view_src\n", input->name);
+                    exit(1);
+                }
+                // FIXME: may need to use the sched buffer instead
+                wsp_ggml_backend_view_init(input->view_src->buffer, input);
+            }
+            if (input_cpy->buffer == NULL) {
+                fprintf(stderr, "input_cpy %s has no buffer\n", input_cpy->name);
+                exit(1);
+            }
+            //WSP_GGML_ASSERT(input->buffer->backend != input_cpy->buffer->backend);
+            //WSP_GGML_ASSERT(input_cpy->buffer->backend == split_backend);
+            wsp_ggml_backend_tensor_copy(input, input_cpy);
+        }
+        // wsp_ggml_backend_synchronize(split_backend);
+        int64_t copy_end_us = wsp_ggml_time_us();
+        copy_us[split_backend_id] += copy_end_us - copy_start_us;
+
+#if 0
+        char split_filename[WSP_GGML_MAX_NAME];
+        snprintf(split_filename, WSP_GGML_MAX_NAME, "split_%i_%s.dot", i, wsp_ggml_backend_name(split_backend));
+        wsp_ggml_graph_dump_dot(split->graph, NULL, split_filename);
+#endif
+
+        uint64_t compute_start_us = wsp_ggml_time_us();
+        wsp_ggml_backend_graph_compute(split_backend, &split->graph);
+        // wsp_ggml_backend_synchronize(split_backend);
+        uint64_t compute_end_us = wsp_ggml_time_us();
+        compute_us[split_backend_id] += compute_end_us - compute_start_us;
+    }
+
+#if 0
+    // per-backend timings
+    fprintf(stderr, "sched_compute_splits times (%d splits):\n", sched->n_splits);
+    for (int i = 0; i < sched->n_backends; i++) {
+        if (copy_us[i] > 0 || compute_us[i] > 0) {
+            fprintf(stderr, "\t%5.5s: %lu us copy, %lu us compute\n", wsp_ggml_backend_name(sched->backends[i]), copy_us[i], compute_us[i]);
+        }
+    }
+#endif
+}
+
+static void sched_reset(wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t sched) {
+    for (int i = 0; i < sched->n_backends; i++) {
+        wsp_ggml_tallocr_reset(sched->tallocs[i]);
+    }
+}
+
+wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t wsp_ggml_backend_sched_new(wsp_ggml_backend_t * backends, int n_backends) {
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(n_backends <= WSP_GGML_MAX_BACKENDS);
+
+    struct wsp_ggml_backend_sched * sched = malloc(sizeof(struct wsp_ggml_backend_sched));
+    memset(sched, 0, sizeof(struct wsp_ggml_backend_sched));
+
+    sched->n_backends = n_backends;
+    for (int i = 0; i < n_backends; i++) {
+        sched->backends[i] = backends[i];
+    }
+
+    sched->galloc = wsp_ggml_gallocr_new();
+
+    // init measure allocs for each backend
+    for (int i = 0; i < n_backends; i++) {
+        sched->tallocs[i] = wsp_ggml_tallocr_new_measure_from_backend(backends[i]);
+    }
+
+    return sched;
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_sched_free(wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t sched) {
+    if (sched == NULL) {
+        return;
+    }
+    for (int i = 0; i < sched->n_backends; i++) {
+        wsp_ggml_tallocr_free(sched->tallocs[i]);
+    }
+    wsp_ggml_gallocr_free(sched->galloc);
+    free(sched->hash_set.keys);
+    free(sched->node_talloc);
+    free(sched->node_copies);
+    free(sched);
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_sched_init_measure(wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t sched, struct wsp_ggml_cgraph * measure_graph) {
+    // initialize hash tables
+    size_t hash_size = measure_graph->visited_hash_table.size + WSP_GGML_MAX_SPLITS*WSP_GGML_MAX_SPLIT_INPUTS;
+    sched->hash_set.size = hash_size;
+    sched->hash_set.keys = malloc(sizeof(sched->hash_set.keys[0]) * hash_size);
+    sched->node_talloc   = malloc(sizeof(sched->node_talloc[0])   * hash_size);
+    sched->node_copies   = malloc(sizeof(sched->node_copies[0])   * hash_size);
+
+    sched_split_graph(sched, measure_graph);
+    sched_alloc_splits(sched);
+
+    // allocate buffers and reset allocators
+    for (int i = 0; i < sched->n_backends; i++) {
+        size_t size = wsp_ggml_tallocr_max_size(sched->tallocs[i]);
+        wsp_ggml_tallocr_free(sched->tallocs[i]);
+        sched->tallocs[i] = wsp_ggml_tallocr_new_from_backend(sched->backends[i], size);
+    }
+
+    sched_reset(sched);
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_sched_graph_compute(wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t sched, struct wsp_ggml_cgraph * graph) {
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(sched->hash_set.size >= graph->visited_hash_table.size + WSP_GGML_MAX_SPLITS*WSP_GGML_MAX_SPLIT_INPUTS);
+
+    sched_split_graph(sched, graph);
+    sched_alloc_splits(sched);
+    sched_compute_splits(sched);
+    sched_reset(sched);
+}
+
+wsp_ggml_tallocr_t wsp_ggml_backend_sched_get_tallocr(wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t sched, wsp_ggml_backend_t backend) {
+    int backend_index = sched_backend_prio(sched, backend);
+    return sched->tallocs[backend_index];
+}
+
+wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t wsp_ggml_backend_sched_get_buffer(wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t sched, wsp_ggml_backend_t backend) {
+    int backend_index = sched_backend_prio(sched, backend);
+    return wsp_ggml_tallocr_get_buffer(sched->tallocs[backend_index]);
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_sched_set_node_backend(wsp_ggml_backend_sched_t sched, struct wsp_ggml_tensor * node, wsp_ggml_backend_t backend) {
+    int backend_index = sched_backend_prio(sched, backend);
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(backend_index >= 0 && backend_index < sched->n_backends);
+    node_allocr(node) = sched->tallocs[backend_index];
+}
+
+// utils
+void wsp_ggml_backend_view_init(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer, struct wsp_ggml_tensor * tensor) {
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(tensor->buffer == NULL);
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(tensor->data == NULL);
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(tensor->view_src != NULL);
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(tensor->view_src->buffer != NULL);
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(tensor->view_src->data != NULL);
+
+    tensor->buffer = buffer;
+    tensor->data = (char *)tensor->view_src->data + tensor->view_offs;
+    tensor->backend = tensor->view_src->backend;
+    wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_init_tensor(buffer, tensor);
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_tensor_alloc(wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer, struct wsp_ggml_tensor * tensor, void * addr) {
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(tensor->buffer == NULL);
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(tensor->data == NULL);
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(tensor->view_src == NULL);
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(addr >= wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_get_base(buffer));
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT((char *)addr + wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_get_alloc_size(buffer, tensor) <=
+                (char *)wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_get_base(buffer) + wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_get_size(buffer));
+
+    tensor->buffer = buffer;
+    tensor->data = addr;
+    wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_init_tensor(buffer, tensor);
+}
+
+static struct wsp_ggml_tensor * graph_dup_tensor(struct wsp_ggml_hash_set hash_set, struct wsp_ggml_tensor ** node_copies,
+    struct wsp_ggml_context * ctx_allocated, struct wsp_ggml_context * ctx_unallocated, struct wsp_ggml_tensor * src) {
+
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(src != NULL);
+    WSP_GGML_ASSERT(src->data && "graph must be allocated");
+
+    size_t id = wsp_ggml_hash_insert(hash_set, src);
+    if (id == WSP_GGML_HASHTABLE_ALREADY_EXISTS) {
+        return node_copies[wsp_ggml_hash_find(hash_set, src)];
+    }
+
+    struct wsp_ggml_tensor * dst = wsp_ggml_dup_tensor_layout(src->data && !src->view_src ? ctx_allocated : ctx_unallocated, src);
+    if (src->view_src != NULL) {
+        dst->view_src = graph_dup_tensor(hash_set, node_copies, ctx_allocated, ctx_unallocated, src->view_src);
+        dst->view_offs = src->view_offs;
+    }
+    dst->op = src->op;
+    memcpy(dst->op_params, src->op_params, sizeof(dst->op_params));
+    wsp_ggml_set_name(dst, src->name);
+
+    // copy src
+    for (int i = 0; i < WSP_GGML_MAX_SRC; i++) {
+        struct wsp_ggml_tensor * s = src->src[i];
+        if (s == NULL) {
+            break;
+        }
+        dst->src[i] = graph_dup_tensor(hash_set, node_copies, ctx_allocated, ctx_unallocated, s);
+    }
+
+    node_copies[id] = dst;
+    return dst;
+}
+
+static void graph_init_tensor(struct wsp_ggml_hash_set hash_set, struct wsp_ggml_tensor ** node_copies, bool * node_init, struct wsp_ggml_tensor * src) {
+    size_t id = wsp_ggml_hash_find(hash_set, src);
+    if (node_init[id]) {
+        return;
+    }
+    node_init[id] = true;
+
+    struct wsp_ggml_tensor * dst = node_copies[id];
+    if (dst->view_src != NULL) {
+        wsp_ggml_backend_view_init(dst->view_src->buffer, dst);
+    }
+    else {
+        wsp_ggml_backend_tensor_copy(src, dst);
+    }
+
+    // init src
+    for (int i = 0; i < WSP_GGML_MAX_SRC; i++) {
+        struct wsp_ggml_tensor * s = src->src[i];
+        if (s == NULL) {
+            break;
+        }
+        graph_init_tensor(hash_set, node_copies, node_init, s);
+    }
+}
+
+struct wsp_ggml_backend_graph_copy wsp_ggml_backend_graph_copy(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend, struct wsp_ggml_cgraph * graph) {
+    struct wsp_ggml_hash_set hash_set = {
+        /* .size = */ graph->visited_hash_table.size,
+        /* .keys = */ calloc(sizeof(hash_set.keys[0]) * graph->visited_hash_table.size, 1)
+    };
+    struct wsp_ggml_tensor ** node_copies = calloc(sizeof(node_copies[0]) * hash_set.size, 1);
+    bool * node_init = calloc(sizeof(node_init[0]) * hash_set.size, 1);
+
+    struct wsp_ggml_init_params params = {
+        /* .mem_size   = */ wsp_ggml_tensor_overhead()*hash_set.size + wsp_ggml_graph_overhead_custom(graph->size, false),
+        /* .mem_buffer = */ NULL,
+        /* .no_alloc   = */ true
+    };
+
+    struct wsp_ggml_context * ctx_allocated = wsp_ggml_init(params);
+    struct wsp_ggml_context * ctx_unallocated = wsp_ggml_init(params);
+
+    // dup nodes
+    for (int i = 0; i < graph->n_nodes; i++) {
+        struct wsp_ggml_tensor * node = graph->nodes[i];
+        graph_dup_tensor(hash_set, node_copies, ctx_allocated, ctx_unallocated, node);
+    }
+
+    // allocate nodes
+    wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_t buffer = wsp_ggml_backend_alloc_ctx_tensors(ctx_allocated, backend);
+
+    //printf("copy buffer size: %zu MB\n", wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_get_size(buffer) / 1024 / 1024);
+
+    // copy data and init views
+    for (int i = 0; i < graph->n_nodes; i++) {
+        struct wsp_ggml_tensor * node = graph->nodes[i];
+        graph_init_tensor(hash_set, node_copies, node_init, node);
+    }
+
+    // build graph copy
+    struct wsp_ggml_cgraph * graph_copy = wsp_ggml_new_graph_custom(ctx_allocated, graph->size, false);
+    for (int i = 0; i < graph->n_nodes; i++) {
+        struct wsp_ggml_tensor * node = graph->nodes[i];
+        struct wsp_ggml_tensor * node_copy = node_copies[wsp_ggml_hash_find(hash_set, node)];
+        graph_copy->nodes[i] = node_copy;
+    }
+    graph_copy->n_nodes = graph->n_nodes;
+
+    free(hash_set.keys);
+    free(node_copies);
+    free(node_init);
+
+    return (struct wsp_ggml_backend_graph_copy) {
+        /* .buffer           = */ buffer,
+        /* .ctx_allocated    = */ ctx_allocated,
+        /* .ctx_unallocated  = */ ctx_unallocated,
+        /* .graph            = */ graph_copy,
+    };
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_graph_copy_free(struct wsp_ggml_backend_graph_copy copy) {
+    wsp_ggml_backend_buffer_free(copy.buffer);
+    wsp_ggml_free(copy.ctx_allocated);
+    wsp_ggml_free(copy.ctx_unallocated);
+}
+
+void wsp_ggml_backend_compare_graph_backend(wsp_ggml_backend_t backend1, wsp_ggml_backend_t backend2, struct wsp_ggml_cgraph * graph, wsp_ggml_backend_eval_callback callback, void * user_data) {
+    struct wsp_ggml_backend_graph_copy copy = wsp_ggml_backend_graph_copy(backend2, graph);
+    struct wsp_ggml_cgraph * g1 = graph;
+    struct wsp_ggml_cgraph * g2 = copy.graph;
+
+    assert(g1->n_nodes == g2->n_nodes);
+
+    for (int i = 0; i < g1->n_nodes; i++) {
+        //printf("eval %d/%d\n", i, g1->n_nodes);
+        struct wsp_ggml_tensor * t1 = g1->nodes[i];
+        struct wsp_ggml_tensor * t2 = g2->nodes[i];
+
+        assert(t1->op == t2->op && wsp_ggml_are_same_layout(t1, t2));
+
+        struct wsp_ggml_cgraph g1v = wsp_ggml_graph_view(g1, i, i + 1);
+        struct wsp_ggml_cgraph g2v = wsp_ggml_graph_view(g2, i, i + 1);
+
+        wsp_ggml_backend_graph_compute(backend1, &g1v);
+        wsp_ggml_backend_graph_compute(backend2, &g2v);
+
+        if (wsp_ggml_is_view_op(t1->op)) {
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        // compare results, calculate rms etc
+        if (!callback(i, t1, t2, user_data)) {
+            break;
+        }
+    }
+
+    wsp_ggml_backend_graph_copy_free(copy);
+}