tribunal-kit 9.2.3 → 9.2.5

package/skills/rust-pro/SKILL.md

@@ -1,652 +1,652 @@
----
-name: rust-pro
-description: "Use when Master Rust 1.75+ with modern async patterns, ownership/borrowing, lifetimes, traits, error handling with thiserror/anyhow, async Tokio runtime, axum web framework, serde serialization, and systems programming. Use when building Rust services, CLI tools, WebAssembly, or performance-critical systems."
-version: 5.0.0
-last-updated: 2026-09-13
-skills:
-  - clean-code
-  - api-patterns
-  - backend-security-expert
-tools: Read, Grep, Glob, Bash, Edit, Write
-scripts-binding:
-  - .agent/scripts/lint_runner.js
-  - .agent/scripts/verify_all.js
----
-
-# Rust Pro — Rust 1.75+ Systems Mastery
-
----
-
-## 🛠️ Technical Architecture & Reference Recipes
-
----
-
-## 2026 Rust Performance & Memory Invariants
-
-1. **Native `std::sync::LazyLock`**:
-   ```rust
-   use std::sync::LazyLock;
-   static REGEX: LazyLock<regex::Regex> = LazyLock::new(|| regex::Regex::new(r"^\d+$").unwrap());
-   ```
-2. **Async fn in Traits**: Use native `async fn` inside traits directly (Rust 1.75+ / 2024 edition) without the legacy `#[async_trait]` macro attribute.
-3. **Zero-Copy Borrowing**: Accept `&str` or `&[T]` instead of taking owned `String` or `Vec<T>` in function signatures unless ownership transfer is strictly required.
-4. **Tokio Task Spawning Budget**: Never spawn unbounded Tokio tasks inside request loops without a semaphore limit to prevent memory exhaustion.
-
-## Hallucination Traps (Read First)
-
-- ❌ Using `lazy_static!` or `once_cell::sync::Lazy` → ✅ Use `std::sync::LazyLock`
-- ❌ Using `#[async_trait]` macro for basic traits → ✅ Native `async fn` in traits (Rust 1.75+)
-- ❌ `.unwrap()` in production handlers → ✅ `?` operator with `thiserror` / `anyhow`
-- ❌ Axum `:id` path parameter syntax → ✅ Axum 0.7+: `{id}` bracket syntax
-- ❌ Allocating `String` just to pass to a reader → ✅ Pass `&str`
-
----
-
-## Ownership & Borrowing
-
-### The Three Rules
-
-```rust
-// Rule 1: Each value has exactly ONE owner
-let s1 = String::from("hello");
-let s2 = s1; // s1 is MOVED to s2 — s1 is no longer valid
-// println!("{s1}"); // ❌ compile error: value borrowed after move
-
-// Rule 2: You can have EITHER one mutable reference OR any number of immutable references
-let mut data = vec![1, 2, 3];
-let r1 = &data;     // ✅ immutable borrow
-let r2 = &data;     // ✅ second immutable borrow — fine
-// let r3 = &mut data; // ❌ compile error: cannot borrow as mutable while immutable borrows exist
-println!("{r1:?} {r2:?}");
-// r1 and r2 go out of scope here (NLL — Non-Lexical Lifetimes)
-let r3 = &mut data; // ✅ now fine — no immutable borrows active
-r3.push(4);
-
-// Rule 3: References must always be valid (no dangling pointers)
-// fn dangling() -> &String { // ❌ compile error
-//     let s = String::from("hello");
-//     &s // s is dropped at end of function — reference would dangle
-// }
-fn not_dangling() -> String {
-    String::from("hello") // ✅ return owned value
-}
-```
-
-### Common Ownership Patterns
-
-```rust
-// Clone when you need independent copies (has a cost — measure)
-let original = vec![1, 2, 3];
-let copy = original.clone(); // deep copy — both are independent
-
-// Rc<T> — shared ownership (single-threaded)
-use std::rc::Rc;
-let shared = Rc::new(vec![1, 2, 3]);
-let also_shared = Rc::clone(&shared); // cheap reference count increment
-// Both shared and also_shared point to the same data
-
-// Arc<T> — shared ownership (thread-safe)
-use std::sync::Arc;
-let thread_safe = Arc::new(vec![1, 2, 3]);
-let for_thread = Arc::clone(&thread_safe);
-std::thread::spawn(move || {
-    println!("{for_thread:?}");
-});
-
-// Cow<T> — Clone on Write (zero-copy when not modified)
-use std::borrow::Cow;
-fn process(input: &str) -> Cow<'_, str> {
-    if input.contains("bad") {
-        Cow::Owned(input.replace("bad", "good")) // allocated only if needed
-    } else {
-        Cow::Borrowed(input) // zero-copy
-    }
-}
-```
-
----
-
-## Lifetimes
-
-```rust
-// Lifetime annotations tell the compiler how long references are valid
-// They DON'T change how long values live — they DESCRIBE existing relationships
-
-// ✅ Explicit lifetime: return value lives as long as the input
-fn longest<'a>(x: &'a str, y: &'a str) -> &'a str {
-    if x.len() > y.len() { x } else { y }
-}
-
-// Struct with references (requires lifetime annotation)
-struct Config<'a> {
-    name: &'a str,
-    version: &'a str,
-}
-
-impl<'a> Config<'a> {
-    fn display(&self) -> String {
-        format!("{} v{}", self.name, self.version)
-    }
-}
-
-// 'static lifetime — lives for the entire program
-let s: &'static str = "I live forever"; // string literals are 'static
-// Owned types satisfy 'static (they own their data)
-fn takes_static(s: String) { /* String is 'static because it owns its data */ }
-
-// ❌ HALLUCINATION TRAP: Lifetime elision rules handle most cases
-// Don't add lifetimes unless the compiler asks for them
-// The compiler tells you exactly which annotations are needed
-```
-
----
-
-## Error Handling
-
-### The `?` Operator & Result
-
-```rust
-use std::fs;
-use std::io;
-
-// ✅ Propagate errors with ?
-fn read_config(path: &str) -> Result<Config, io::Error> {
-    let content = fs::read_to_string(path)?; // returns early on error
-    let config: Config = serde_json::from_str(&content)?;
-    Ok(config)
-}
-
-// ❌ HALLUCINATION TRAP: NEVER use .unwrap() in production code
-// .unwrap() panics on error — crashes the entire program
-// ❌ let file = File::open("config.json").unwrap();
-// ✅ let file = File::open("config.json")?;
-// ✅ let file = File::open("config.json").unwrap_or_default();
-// ✅ let file = File::open("config.json").map_err(|e| AppError::Io(e))?;
-```
-
-### thiserror (Library Errors)
-
-```rust
-// thiserror — for library code (structured error types)
-use thiserror::Error;
-
-#[derive(Debug, Error)]
-pub enum AppError {
-    #[error("Database error: {0}")]
-    Database(#[from] sqlx::Error),
-
-    #[error("Validation error: {field} — {message}")]
-    Validation { field: String, message: String },
-
-    #[error("Not found: {0}")]
-    NotFound(String),
-
-    #[error("Unauthorized")]
-    Unauthorized,
-
-    #[error("IO error: {0}")]
-    Io(#[from] std::io::Error),
-
-    #[error("JSON error: {0}")]
-    Json(#[from] serde_json::Error),
-}
-
-// #[from] auto-implements From<sqlx::Error> for AppError
-// So sqlx errors can be propagated with ? automatically
-```
-
-### anyhow (Application Errors)
-
-```rust
-// anyhow — for application code (quick error propagation)
-use anyhow::{Context, Result, bail, ensure};
-
-fn load_config(path: &str) -> Result<Config> {
-    let content = fs::read_to_string(path)
-        .context(format!("Failed to read config from {path}"))?;
-
-    let config: Config = serde_json::from_str(&content)
-        .context("Invalid JSON in config file")?;
-
-    ensure!(config.port > 0, "Port must be positive, got {}", config.port);
-
-    if config.name.is_empty() {
-        bail!("Config name cannot be empty");
-    }
-
-    Ok(config)
-}
-
-// Use thiserror for libraries, anyhow for applications
-// ❌ HALLUCINATION TRAP: Don't use anyhow in library crates
-// Libraries should expose structured error types (thiserror)
-// anyhow erases type information — callers can't match on specific errors
-```
-
----
-
-## Traits
-
-### Defining & Implementing
-
-```rust
-trait Summarizable {
-    fn summary(&self) -> String;
-
-    // Default implementation
-    fn preview(&self) -> String {
-        let s = self.summary();
-        if s.len() > 50 {
-            format!("{}...", &s[..50])
-        } else {
-            s
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-struct Article {
-    title: String,
-    body: String,
-    author: String,
-}
-
-impl Summarizable for Article {
-    fn summary(&self) -> String {
-        format!("{} by {} — {}", self.title, self.author, &self.body[..100.min(self.body.len())])
-    }
-}
-
-// Trait bounds
-fn notify(item: &impl Summarizable) {
-    println!("Breaking: {}", item.summary());
-}
-
-// Equivalent with generics (more flexible)
-fn notify_generic<T: Summarizable + std::fmt::Display>(item: &T) {
-    println!("Breaking: {}", item.summary());
-}
-
-// where clause (cleaner for complex bounds)
-fn process<T, U>(t: &T, u: &U) -> String
-where
-    T: Summarizable + Clone,
-    U: std::fmt::Debug + Send,
-{
-    format!("{} — {:?}", t.summary(), u)
-}
-
-// Return impl Trait (hide concrete type)
-fn make_summarizer() -> impl Summarizable {
-    Article { title: "News".into(), body: "Content".into(), author: "Author".into() }
-}
-```
-
-### Common Standard Traits
-
-```rust
-// Derive common traits
-#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
-struct Point {
-    x: i32,
-    y: i32,
-}
-
-// Display — for user-facing output
-use std::fmt;
-impl fmt::Display for Point {
-    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "({}, {})", self.x, self.y)
-    }
-}
-
-// From/Into — type conversion
-impl From<(i32, i32)> for Point {
-    fn from((x, y): (i32, i32)) -> Self {
-        Point { x, y }
-    }
-}
-let p: Point = (10, 20).into(); // uses From automatically
-
-// Iterator
-struct Counter { count: u32, max: u32 }
-impl Iterator for Counter {
-    type Item = u32;
-    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
-        if self.count < self.max {
-            self.count += 1;
-            Some(self.count)
-        } else {
-            None
-        }
-    }
-}
-```
-
----
-
-## Async with Tokio
-
-### Runtime Setup
-
-```rust
-// Cargo.toml
-// [dependencies]
-// tokio = { version = "1", features = ["full"] }
-
-#[tokio::main]
-async fn main() {
-    let result = fetch_data("https://api.example.com/data").await;
-    println!("{result:?}");
-}
-
-// For library code — don't use #[tokio::main], let the caller choose the runtime
-pub async fn fetch_data(url: &str) -> Result<String> {
-    let response = reqwest::get(url).await?;
-    let body = response.text().await?;
-    Ok(body)
-}
-```
-
-### Concurrent Tasks
-
-```rust
-use tokio::task;
-
-// Spawn concurrent tasks
-async fn parallel_fetch() -> Result<(Users, Posts)> {
-    let users_handle = task::spawn(async { fetch_users().await });
-    let posts_handle = task::spawn(async { fetch_posts().await });
-
-    let users = users_handle.await??; // first ? for JoinError, second for app error
-    let posts = posts_handle.await??;
-
-    Ok((users, posts))
-}
-
-// tokio::join! — run concurrently, wait for all
-async fn fetch_all() -> Result<(Users, Posts, Analytics)> {
-    let (users, posts, analytics) = tokio::join!(
-        fetch_users(),
-        fetch_posts(),
-        fetch_analytics(),
-    );
-    Ok((users?, posts?, analytics?))
-}
-
-// tokio::select! — race multiple futures, take first to complete
-async fn fetch_with_timeout(url: &str) -> Result<String> {
-    tokio::select! {
-        result = fetch_data(url) => result,
-        _ = tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)) => {
-            Err(anyhow!("Request timed out after 5s"))
-        }
-    }
-}
-
-// ❌ HALLUCINATION TRAP: tokio::spawn requires 'static + Send
-// You cannot spawn a task referencing local variables without Arc/clone
-// ❌ let data = &local_data;
-//    tokio::spawn(async { process(data) }); // ❌ data doesn't live long enough
-// ✅ let data = Arc::new(local_data);
-//    let data_clone = Arc::clone(&data);
-//    tokio::spawn(async move { process(&data_clone) });
-```
-
-### Channels
-
-```rust
-use tokio::sync::{mpsc, oneshot, broadcast};
-
-// mpsc — Multiple Producer, Single Consumer
-async fn worker_pattern() {
-    let (tx, mut rx) = mpsc::channel::<String>(32); // buffer size
-
-    tokio::spawn(async move {
-        tx.send("hello".to_string()).await.unwrap();
-        tx.send("world".to_string()).await.unwrap();
-    });
-
-    while let Some(msg) = rx.recv().await {
-        println!("Got: {msg}");
-    }
-}
-
-// oneshot — single response (request/response pattern)
-async fn request_response() {
-    let (tx, rx) = oneshot::channel::<String>();
-
-    tokio::spawn(async move {
-        let result = expensive_computation().await;
-        tx.send(result).unwrap();
-    });
-
-    let response = rx.await.unwrap();
-}
-
-// Mutex (async-safe)
-use tokio::sync::Mutex;
-let shared_state = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
-
-let state = Arc::clone(&shared_state);
-tokio::spawn(async move {
-    let mut guard = state.lock().await;
-    guard.push("item");
-}); // lock released when guard is dropped
-```
-
----
-
-## Axum Web Framework
-
-### Basic Server
-
-```rust
-use axum::{
-    extract::{Path, Query, State, Json},
-    http::StatusCode,
-    response::IntoResponse,
-    routing::{get, post, delete},
-    Router,
-};
-use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-
-#[derive(Clone)]
-struct AppState {
-    db: sqlx::PgPool,
-}
-
-#[tokio::main]
-async fn main() {
-    let pool = sqlx::PgPool::connect("postgres://localhost/mydb").await.unwrap();
-    let state = AppState { db: pool };
-
-    let app = Router::new()
-        .route("/users", get(list_users).post(create_user))
-        .route("/users/{id}", get(get_user).delete(delete_user))
-        .with_state(state);
-
-    let listener = tokio::net::TcpListener::bind("0.0.0.0:3000").await.unwrap();
-    axum::serve(listener, app).await.unwrap();
-}
-
-// ❌ HALLUCINATION TRAP: axum 0.7+ uses {id} not :id for path params
-// ❌ .route("/users/:id", ...)  ← old syntax
-// ✅ .route("/users/{id}", ...)  ← axum 0.7+
-```
-
-### Handlers
-
-```rust
-#[derive(Deserialize)]
-struct ListParams {
-    page: Option<u32>,
-    limit: Option<u32>,
-}
-
-async fn list_users(
-    State(state): State<AppState>,
-    Query(params): Query<ListParams>,
-) -> Result<Json<Vec<User>>, AppError> {
-    let page = params.page.unwrap_or(1);
-    let limit = params.limit.unwrap_or(20).min(100);
-    let offset = (page - 1) * limit;
-
-    let users = sqlx::query_as!(
-        User,
-        "SELECT id, name, email FROM users ORDER BY id LIMIT $1 OFFSET $2",
-        limit as i64,
-        offset as i64,
-    )
-    .fetch_all(&state.db)
-    .await?;
-
-    Ok(Json(users))
-}
-
-#[derive(Deserialize)]
-struct CreateUserPayload {
-    name: String,
-    email: String,
-}
-
-async fn create_user(
-    State(state): State<AppState>,
-    Json(payload): Json<CreateUserPayload>,
-) -> Result<(StatusCode, Json<User>), AppError> {
-    let user = sqlx::query_as!(
-        User,
-        "INSERT INTO users (name, email) VALUES ($1, $2) RETURNING id, name, email",
-        payload.name,
-        payload.email,
-    )
-    .fetch_one(&state.db)
-    .await?;
-
-    Ok((StatusCode::CREATED, Json(user)))
-}
-
-async fn get_user(
-    State(state): State<AppState>,
-    Path(id): Path<i32>,
-) -> Result<Json<User>, AppError> {
-    let user = sqlx::query_as!(User, "SELECT id, name, email FROM users WHERE id = $1", id)
-        .fetch_optional(&state.db)
-        .await?
-        .ok_or(AppError::NotFound(format!("User {id}")))?;
-
-    Ok(Json(user))
-}
-```
-
-### Error Handling in Axum
-
-```rust
-use axum::response::{IntoResponse, Response};
-
-#[derive(Debug, thiserror::Error)]
-pub enum AppError {
-    #[error("Not found: {0}")]
-    NotFound(String),
-    #[error("Validation: {0}")]
-    Validation(String),
-    #[error("Database: {0}")]
-    Database(#[from] sqlx::Error),
-    #[error("Internal: {0}")]
-    Internal(#[from] anyhow::Error),
-}
-
-impl IntoResponse for AppError {
-    fn into_response(self) -> Response {
-        let (status, message) = match &self {
-            AppError::NotFound(msg) => (StatusCode::NOT_FOUND, msg.clone()),
-            AppError::Validation(msg) => (StatusCode::BAD_REQUEST, msg.clone()),
-            AppError::Database(e) => {
-                tracing::error!("DB error: {e}"); // log internal details
-                (StatusCode::INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR, "Database error".to_string())
-            }
-            AppError::Internal(e) => {
-                tracing::error!("Internal error: {e}");
-                (StatusCode::INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR, "Internal error".to_string())
-            }
-        };
-
-        (status, Json(serde_json::json!({ "error": message }))).into_response()
-    }
-}
-```
-
----
-
-## Serde (Serialization)
-
-```rust
-use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-
-#[derive(Debug, Serialize, Deserialize)]
-#[serde(rename_all = "camelCase")]  // JSON uses camelCase
-struct UserResponse {
-    user_id: i32,           // serialized as "userId"
-    full_name: String,      // serialized as "fullName"
-    email: String,
-
-    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
-    phone: Option<String>,  // omitted from JSON if None
-
-    #[serde(default)]       // defaults to 0 if missing in input
-    login_count: u32,
-
-    #[serde(rename = "type")]  // rename for reserved keywords
-    user_type: String,
-
-    #[serde(skip)]          // never serialized/deserialized
-    internal_token: String,
-}
-
-// Enum serialization
-#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
-#[serde(tag = "type", content = "data")]  // adjacently tagged
-enum Event {
-    #[serde(rename = "user_created")]
-    UserCreated { id: i32, name: String },
-    #[serde(rename = "user_deleted")]
-    UserDeleted { id: i32 },
-}
-// Serializes as: {"type": "user_created", "data": {"id": 1, "name": "Alice"}}
-```
-
----
-
-## Iterator Patterns
-
-```rust
-let numbers = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10];
-
-// Chain operations (lazy — no allocation until collect)
-let result: Vec<i32> = numbers.iter()
-    .filter(|&&n| n % 2 == 0)    // keep even
-    .map(|&n| n * n)              // square
-    .take(3)                      // first 3
-    .collect();                   // [4, 16, 36]
-
-// fold (reduce)
-let sum: i32 = numbers.iter().fold(0, |acc, &n| acc + n);
-
-// find / position
-let first_even = numbers.iter().find(|&&n| n % 2 == 0); // Some(&2)
-let pos = numbers.iter().position(|&n| n > 5);           // Some(5)
-
-// chunk / window
-let chunks: Vec<&[i32]> = numbers.chunks(3).collect();
-// [[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9], [10]]
-
-let windows: Vec<&[i32]> = numbers.windows(3).collect();
-// [[1,2,3], [2,3,4], [3,4,5], ...]
-
-// Collecting into HashMap
-use std::collections::HashMap;
-let word_counts: HashMap<&str, usize> = words.iter()
-    .fold(HashMap::new(), |mut map, word| {
-        *map.entry(word.as_str()).or_insert(0) += 1;
-        map
-    });
-```
+---
+name: rust-pro
+description: "Use when Master Rust 1.75+ with modern async patterns, ownership/borrowing, lifetimes, traits, error handling with thiserror/anyhow, async Tokio runtime, axum web framework, serde serialization, and systems programming. Use when building Rust services, CLI tools, WebAssembly, or performance-critical systems."
+version: 5.0.0
+last-updated: 2026-09-13
+skills:
+  - clean-code
+  - api-patterns
+  - backend-security-expert
+tools: Read, Grep, Glob, Bash, Edit, Write
+scripts-binding:
+  - .agent/scripts/lint_runner.js
+  - .agent/scripts/verify_all.js
+---
+
+# Rust Pro — Rust 1.75+ Systems Mastery
+
+---
+
+## 🛠️ Technical Architecture & Reference Recipes
+
+---
+
+## 2026 Rust Performance & Memory Invariants
+
+1. **Native `std::sync::LazyLock`**:
+   ```rust
+   use std::sync::LazyLock;
+   static REGEX: LazyLock<regex::Regex> = LazyLock::new(|| regex::Regex::new(r"^\d+$").unwrap());
+   ```
+2. **Async fn in Traits**: Use native `async fn` inside traits directly (Rust 1.75+ / 2024 edition) without the legacy `#[async_trait]` macro attribute.
+3. **Zero-Copy Borrowing**: Accept `&str` or `&[T]` instead of taking owned `String` or `Vec<T>` in function signatures unless ownership transfer is strictly required.
+4. **Tokio Task Spawning Budget**: Never spawn unbounded Tokio tasks inside request loops without a semaphore limit to prevent memory exhaustion.
+
+## Hallucination Traps (Read First)
+
+- ❌ Using `lazy_static!` or `once_cell::sync::Lazy` → ✅ Use `std::sync::LazyLock`
+- ❌ Using `#[async_trait]` macro for basic traits → ✅ Native `async fn` in traits (Rust 1.75+)
+- ❌ `.unwrap()` in production handlers → ✅ `?` operator with `thiserror` / `anyhow`
+- ❌ Axum `:id` path parameter syntax → ✅ Axum 0.7+: `{id}` bracket syntax
+- ❌ Allocating `String` just to pass to a reader → ✅ Pass `&str`
+
+---
+
+## Ownership & Borrowing
+
+### The Three Rules
+
+```rust
+// Rule 1: Each value has exactly ONE owner
+let s1 = String::from("hello");
+let s2 = s1; // s1 is MOVED to s2 — s1 is no longer valid
+// println!("{s1}"); // ❌ compile error: value borrowed after move
+
+// Rule 2: You can have EITHER one mutable reference OR any number of immutable references
+let mut data = vec![1, 2, 3];
+let r1 = &data;     // ✅ immutable borrow
+let r2 = &data;     // ✅ second immutable borrow — fine
+// let r3 = &mut data; // ❌ compile error: cannot borrow as mutable while immutable borrows exist
+println!("{r1:?} {r2:?}");
+// r1 and r2 go out of scope here (NLL — Non-Lexical Lifetimes)
+let r3 = &mut data; // ✅ now fine — no immutable borrows active
+r3.push(4);
+
+// Rule 3: References must always be valid (no dangling pointers)
+// fn dangling() -> &String { // ❌ compile error
+//     let s = String::from("hello");
+//     &s // s is dropped at end of function — reference would dangle
+// }
+fn not_dangling() -> String {
+    String::from("hello") // ✅ return owned value
+}
+```
+
+### Common Ownership Patterns
+
+```rust
+// Clone when you need independent copies (has a cost — measure)
+let original = vec![1, 2, 3];
+let copy = original.clone(); // deep copy — both are independent
+
+// Rc<T> — shared ownership (single-threaded)
+use std::rc::Rc;
+let shared = Rc::new(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+let also_shared = Rc::clone(&shared); // cheap reference count increment
+// Both shared and also_shared point to the same data
+
+// Arc<T> — shared ownership (thread-safe)
+use std::sync::Arc;
+let thread_safe = Arc::new(vec![1, 2, 3]);
+let for_thread = Arc::clone(&thread_safe);
+std::thread::spawn(move || {
+    println!("{for_thread:?}");
+});
+
+// Cow<T> — Clone on Write (zero-copy when not modified)
+use std::borrow::Cow;
+fn process(input: &str) -> Cow<'_, str> {
+    if input.contains("bad") {
+        Cow::Owned(input.replace("bad", "good")) // allocated only if needed
+    } else {
+        Cow::Borrowed(input) // zero-copy
+    }
+}
+```
+
+---
+
+## Lifetimes
+
+```rust
+// Lifetime annotations tell the compiler how long references are valid
+// They DON'T change how long values live — they DESCRIBE existing relationships
+
+// ✅ Explicit lifetime: return value lives as long as the input
+fn longest<'a>(x: &'a str, y: &'a str) -> &'a str {
+    if x.len() > y.len() { x } else { y }
+}
+
+// Struct with references (requires lifetime annotation)
+struct Config<'a> {
+    name: &'a str,
+    version: &'a str,
+}
+
+impl<'a> Config<'a> {
+    fn display(&self) -> String {
+        format!("{} v{}", self.name, self.version)
+    }
+}
+
+// 'static lifetime — lives for the entire program
+let s: &'static str = "I live forever"; // string literals are 'static
+// Owned types satisfy 'static (they own their data)
+fn takes_static(s: String) { /* String is 'static because it owns its data */ }
+
+// ❌ HALLUCINATION TRAP: Lifetime elision rules handle most cases
+// Don't add lifetimes unless the compiler asks for them
+// The compiler tells you exactly which annotations are needed
+```
+
+---
+
+## Error Handling
+
+### The `?` Operator & Result
+
+```rust
+use std::fs;
+use std::io;
+
+// ✅ Propagate errors with ?
+fn read_config(path: &str) -> Result<Config, io::Error> {
+    let content = fs::read_to_string(path)?; // returns early on error
+    let config: Config = serde_json::from_str(&content)?;
+    Ok(config)
+}
+
+// ❌ HALLUCINATION TRAP: NEVER use .unwrap() in production code
+// .unwrap() panics on error — crashes the entire program
+// ❌ let file = File::open("config.json").unwrap();
+// ✅ let file = File::open("config.json")?;
+// ✅ let file = File::open("config.json").unwrap_or_default();
+// ✅ let file = File::open("config.json").map_err(|e| AppError::Io(e))?;
+```
+
+### thiserror (Library Errors)
+
+```rust
+// thiserror — for library code (structured error types)
+use thiserror::Error;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Error)]
+pub enum AppError {
+    #[error("Database error: {0}")]
+    Database(#[from] sqlx::Error),
+
+    #[error("Validation error: {field} — {message}")]
+    Validation { field: String, message: String },
+
+    #[error("Not found: {0}")]
+    NotFound(String),
+
+    #[error("Unauthorized")]
+    Unauthorized,
+
+    #[error("IO error: {0}")]
+    Io(#[from] std::io::Error),
+
+    #[error("JSON error: {0}")]
+    Json(#[from] serde_json::Error),
+}
+
+// #[from] auto-implements From<sqlx::Error> for AppError
+// So sqlx errors can be propagated with ? automatically
+```
+
+### anyhow (Application Errors)
+
+```rust
+// anyhow — for application code (quick error propagation)
+use anyhow::{Context, Result, bail, ensure};
+
+fn load_config(path: &str) -> Result<Config> {
+    let content = fs::read_to_string(path)
+        .context(format!("Failed to read config from {path}"))?;
+
+    let config: Config = serde_json::from_str(&content)
+        .context("Invalid JSON in config file")?;
+
+    ensure!(config.port > 0, "Port must be positive, got {}", config.port);
+
+    if config.name.is_empty() {
+        bail!("Config name cannot be empty");
+    }
+
+    Ok(config)
+}
+
+// Use thiserror for libraries, anyhow for applications
+// ❌ HALLUCINATION TRAP: Don't use anyhow in library crates
+// Libraries should expose structured error types (thiserror)
+// anyhow erases type information — callers can't match on specific errors
+```
+
+---
+
+## Traits
+
+### Defining & Implementing
+
+```rust
+trait Summarizable {
+    fn summary(&self) -> String;
+
+    // Default implementation
+    fn preview(&self) -> String {
+        let s = self.summary();
+        if s.len() > 50 {
+            format!("{}...", &s[..50])
+        } else {
+            s
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+struct Article {
+    title: String,
+    body: String,
+    author: String,
+}
+
+impl Summarizable for Article {
+    fn summary(&self) -> String {
+        format!("{} by {} — {}", self.title, self.author, &self.body[..100.min(self.body.len())])
+    }
+}
+
+// Trait bounds
+fn notify(item: &impl Summarizable) {
+    println!("Breaking: {}", item.summary());
+}
+
+// Equivalent with generics (more flexible)
+fn notify_generic<T: Summarizable + std::fmt::Display>(item: &T) {
+    println!("Breaking: {}", item.summary());
+}
+
+// where clause (cleaner for complex bounds)
+fn process<T, U>(t: &T, u: &U) -> String
+where
+    T: Summarizable + Clone,
+    U: std::fmt::Debug + Send,
+{
+    format!("{} — {:?}", t.summary(), u)
+}
+
+// Return impl Trait (hide concrete type)
+fn make_summarizer() -> impl Summarizable {
+    Article { title: "News".into(), body: "Content".into(), author: "Author".into() }
+}
+```
+
+### Common Standard Traits
+
+```rust
+// Derive common traits
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
+struct Point {
+    x: i32,
+    y: i32,
+}
+
+// Display — for user-facing output
+use std::fmt;
+impl fmt::Display for Point {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "({}, {})", self.x, self.y)
+    }
+}
+
+// From/Into — type conversion
+impl From<(i32, i32)> for Point {
+    fn from((x, y): (i32, i32)) -> Self {
+        Point { x, y }
+    }
+}
+let p: Point = (10, 20).into(); // uses From automatically
+
+// Iterator
+struct Counter { count: u32, max: u32 }
+impl Iterator for Counter {
+    type Item = u32;
+    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
+        if self.count < self.max {
+            self.count += 1;
+            Some(self.count)
+        } else {
+            None
+        }
+    }
+}
+```
+
+---
+
+## Async with Tokio
+
+### Runtime Setup
+
+```rust
+// Cargo.toml
+// [dependencies]
+// tokio = { version = "1", features = ["full"] }
+
+#[tokio::main]
+async fn main() {
+    let result = fetch_data("https://api.example.com/data").await;
+    println!("{result:?}");
+}
+
+// For library code — don't use #[tokio::main], let the caller choose the runtime
+pub async fn fetch_data(url: &str) -> Result<String> {
+    let response = reqwest::get(url).await?;
+    let body = response.text().await?;
+    Ok(body)
+}
+```
+
+### Concurrent Tasks
+
+```rust
+use tokio::task;
+
+// Spawn concurrent tasks
+async fn parallel_fetch() -> Result<(Users, Posts)> {
+    let users_handle = task::spawn(async { fetch_users().await });
+    let posts_handle = task::spawn(async { fetch_posts().await });
+
+    let users = users_handle.await??; // first ? for JoinError, second for app error
+    let posts = posts_handle.await??;
+
+    Ok((users, posts))
+}
+
+// tokio::join! — run concurrently, wait for all
+async fn fetch_all() -> Result<(Users, Posts, Analytics)> {
+    let (users, posts, analytics) = tokio::join!(
+        fetch_users(),
+        fetch_posts(),
+        fetch_analytics(),
+    );
+    Ok((users?, posts?, analytics?))
+}
+
+// tokio::select! — race multiple futures, take first to complete
+async fn fetch_with_timeout(url: &str) -> Result<String> {
+    tokio::select! {
+        result = fetch_data(url) => result,
+        _ = tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)) => {
+            Err(anyhow!("Request timed out after 5s"))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// ❌ HALLUCINATION TRAP: tokio::spawn requires 'static + Send
+// You cannot spawn a task referencing local variables without Arc/clone
+// ❌ let data = &local_data;
+//    tokio::spawn(async { process(data) }); // ❌ data doesn't live long enough
+// ✅ let data = Arc::new(local_data);
+//    let data_clone = Arc::clone(&data);
+//    tokio::spawn(async move { process(&data_clone) });
+```
+
+### Channels
+
+```rust
+use tokio::sync::{mpsc, oneshot, broadcast};
+
+// mpsc — Multiple Producer, Single Consumer
+async fn worker_pattern() {
+    let (tx, mut rx) = mpsc::channel::<String>(32); // buffer size
+
+    tokio::spawn(async move {
+        tx.send("hello".to_string()).await.unwrap();
+        tx.send("world".to_string()).await.unwrap();
+    });
+
+    while let Some(msg) = rx.recv().await {
+        println!("Got: {msg}");
+    }
+}
+
+// oneshot — single response (request/response pattern)
+async fn request_response() {
+    let (tx, rx) = oneshot::channel::<String>();
+
+    tokio::spawn(async move {
+        let result = expensive_computation().await;
+        tx.send(result).unwrap();
+    });
+
+    let response = rx.await.unwrap();
+}
+
+// Mutex (async-safe)
+use tokio::sync::Mutex;
+let shared_state = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
+
+let state = Arc::clone(&shared_state);
+tokio::spawn(async move {
+    let mut guard = state.lock().await;
+    guard.push("item");
+}); // lock released when guard is dropped
+```
+
+---
+
+## Axum Web Framework
+
+### Basic Server
+
+```rust
+use axum::{
+    extract::{Path, Query, State, Json},
+    http::StatusCode,
+    response::IntoResponse,
+    routing::{get, post, delete},
+    Router,
+};
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct AppState {
+    db: sqlx::PgPool,
+}
+
+#[tokio::main]
+async fn main() {
+    let pool = sqlx::PgPool::connect("postgres://localhost/mydb").await.unwrap();
+    let state = AppState { db: pool };
+
+    let app = Router::new()
+        .route("/users", get(list_users).post(create_user))
+        .route("/users/{id}", get(get_user).delete(delete_user))
+        .with_state(state);
+
+    let listener = tokio::net::TcpListener::bind("0.0.0.0:3000").await.unwrap();
+    axum::serve(listener, app).await.unwrap();
+}
+
+// ❌ HALLUCINATION TRAP: axum 0.7+ uses {id} not :id for path params
+// ❌ .route("/users/:id", ...)  ← old syntax
+// ✅ .route("/users/{id}", ...)  ← axum 0.7+
+```
+
+### Handlers
+
+```rust
+#[derive(Deserialize)]
+struct ListParams {
+    page: Option<u32>,
+    limit: Option<u32>,
+}
+
+async fn list_users(
+    State(state): State<AppState>,
+    Query(params): Query<ListParams>,
+) -> Result<Json<Vec<User>>, AppError> {
+    let page = params.page.unwrap_or(1);
+    let limit = params.limit.unwrap_or(20).min(100);
+    let offset = (page - 1) * limit;
+
+    let users = sqlx::query_as!(
+        User,
+        "SELECT id, name, email FROM users ORDER BY id LIMIT $1 OFFSET $2",
+        limit as i64,
+        offset as i64,
+    )
+    .fetch_all(&state.db)
+    .await?;
+
+    Ok(Json(users))
+}
+
+#[derive(Deserialize)]
+struct CreateUserPayload {
+    name: String,
+    email: String,
+}
+
+async fn create_user(
+    State(state): State<AppState>,
+    Json(payload): Json<CreateUserPayload>,
+) -> Result<(StatusCode, Json<User>), AppError> {
+    let user = sqlx::query_as!(
+        User,
+        "INSERT INTO users (name, email) VALUES ($1, $2) RETURNING id, name, email",
+        payload.name,
+        payload.email,
+    )
+    .fetch_one(&state.db)
+    .await?;
+
+    Ok((StatusCode::CREATED, Json(user)))
+}
+
+async fn get_user(
+    State(state): State<AppState>,
+    Path(id): Path<i32>,
+) -> Result<Json<User>, AppError> {
+    let user = sqlx::query_as!(User, "SELECT id, name, email FROM users WHERE id = $1", id)
+        .fetch_optional(&state.db)
+        .await?
+        .ok_or(AppError::NotFound(format!("User {id}")))?;
+
+    Ok(Json(user))
+}
+```
+
+### Error Handling in Axum
+
+```rust
+use axum::response::{IntoResponse, Response};
+
+#[derive(Debug, thiserror::Error)]
+pub enum AppError {
+    #[error("Not found: {0}")]
+    NotFound(String),
+    #[error("Validation: {0}")]
+    Validation(String),
+    #[error("Database: {0}")]
+    Database(#[from] sqlx::Error),
+    #[error("Internal: {0}")]
+    Internal(#[from] anyhow::Error),
+}
+
+impl IntoResponse for AppError {
+    fn into_response(self) -> Response {
+        let (status, message) = match &self {
+            AppError::NotFound(msg) => (StatusCode::NOT_FOUND, msg.clone()),
+            AppError::Validation(msg) => (StatusCode::BAD_REQUEST, msg.clone()),
+            AppError::Database(e) => {
+                tracing::error!("DB error: {e}"); // log internal details
+                (StatusCode::INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR, "Database error".to_string())
+            }
+            AppError::Internal(e) => {
+                tracing::error!("Internal error: {e}");
+                (StatusCode::INTERNAL_SERVER_ERROR, "Internal error".to_string())
+            }
+        };
+
+        (status, Json(serde_json::json!({ "error": message }))).into_response()
+    }
+}
+```
+
+---
+
+## Serde (Serialization)
+
+```rust
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+
+#[derive(Debug, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(rename_all = "camelCase")]  // JSON uses camelCase
+struct UserResponse {
+    user_id: i32,           // serialized as "userId"
+    full_name: String,      // serialized as "fullName"
+    email: String,
+
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    phone: Option<String>,  // omitted from JSON if None
+
+    #[serde(default)]       // defaults to 0 if missing in input
+    login_count: u32,
+
+    #[serde(rename = "type")]  // rename for reserved keywords
+    user_type: String,
+
+    #[serde(skip)]          // never serialized/deserialized
+    internal_token: String,
+}
+
+// Enum serialization
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(tag = "type", content = "data")]  // adjacently tagged
+enum Event {
+    #[serde(rename = "user_created")]
+    UserCreated { id: i32, name: String },
+    #[serde(rename = "user_deleted")]
+    UserDeleted { id: i32 },
+}
+// Serializes as: {"type": "user_created", "data": {"id": 1, "name": "Alice"}}
+```
+
+---
+
+## Iterator Patterns
+
+```rust
+let numbers = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10];
+
+// Chain operations (lazy — no allocation until collect)
+let result: Vec<i32> = numbers.iter()
+    .filter(|&&n| n % 2 == 0)    // keep even
+    .map(|&n| n * n)              // square
+    .take(3)                      // first 3
+    .collect();                   // [4, 16, 36]
+
+// fold (reduce)
+let sum: i32 = numbers.iter().fold(0, |acc, &n| acc + n);
+
+// find / position
+let first_even = numbers.iter().find(|&&n| n % 2 == 0); // Some(&2)
+let pos = numbers.iter().position(|&n| n > 5);           // Some(5)
+
+// chunk / window
+let chunks: Vec<&[i32]> = numbers.chunks(3).collect();
+// [[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9], [10]]
+
+let windows: Vec<&[i32]> = numbers.windows(3).collect();
+// [[1,2,3], [2,3,4], [3,4,5], ...]
+
+// Collecting into HashMap
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+let word_counts: HashMap<&str, usize> = words.iter()
+    .fold(HashMap::new(), |mut map, word| {
+        *map.entry(word.as_str()).or_insert(0) += 1;
+        map
+    });
+```