theus-cli-linux-arm64 1.2.1 → 1.3.0

package/vendor/higiene-motor/image_meta.py

@@ -0,0 +1,2171 @@
+"""Detect and strip C2PA / AI-related metadata from raster images (stdlib).
+
+Supported formats: PNG, JPEG, WebP, AVIF/HEIC (ISOBMFF), BMP, GIF, and TIFF
+(classic and BigTIFF).
+"""
+
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import base64
+import json
+import os
+import re
+import struct
+import subprocess
+import sys
+import urllib.error
+import urllib.request
+import zlib
+from dataclasses import dataclass, field
+from pathlib import Path
+from typing import Any
+from urllib.parse import urlparse
+
+from common import (
+    c2patool_probe_note,
+    classify_finding_confidence,
+    safe_arg,
+    safe_write_bytes,
+    subprocess_creationflags,
+    subprocess_preexec_fn,
+    which,
+)
+
+SCRIPTS_DIR = Path(__file__).resolve().parent
+
+# Optional HTTP SynthID scorer sidecar (synthid_score_server.py). When
+# WATERMARKS_SYNTHID_SCORER_URL is set, run_synthid_score calls the sidecar
+# instead of a local reverse-SynthID checkout — this keeps the published core
+# image free of the non-commercial upstream code. Read per call so tests can
+# set the env vars after import.
+DEFAULT_SYNTHID_SCORER_TIMEOUT = 60.0
+
+# CtrlRegen is torch-based and needs far more address space than the stdlib
+# parsers. The invoking clean_image.py subprocess applies these higher,
+# env-overridable caps instead of the default child limits in common.py.
+_CTRLREGEN_RLIMIT_AS = int(os.environ.get("WATERMARKS_CTRLREGEN_RLIMIT_AS", str(32 << 30)))
+_CTRLREGEN_RLIMIT_FSIZE = int(os.environ.get("WATERMARKS_CTRLREGEN_RLIMIT_FSIZE", str(2 << 30)))
+
+
+def ctrlregen_preexec_fn() -> None:
+    """Higher resource caps for the CtrlRegen subprocess (torch memory)."""
+    try:
+        import resource
+
+        resource.setrlimit(resource.RLIMIT_AS, (_CTRLREGEN_RLIMIT_AS, _CTRLREGEN_RLIMIT_AS))
+        resource.setrlimit(
+            resource.RLIMIT_FSIZE, (_CTRLREGEN_RLIMIT_FSIZE, _CTRLREGEN_RLIMIT_FSIZE)
+        )
+    except (ImportError, OSError, ValueError):
+        pass
+
+
+ctrlregen_subprocess_preexec_fn = ctrlregen_preexec_fn if os.name == "posix" else None
+
+PNG_SIG = b"\x89PNG\r\n\x1a\n"
+JPEG_SOI = b"\xff\xd8"
+WEBP_RIFF = b"RIFF"
+WEBP_SIG = b"WEBP"
+BMP_SIG = b"BM"
+GIF_SIGS = (b"GIF87a", b"GIF89a")
+TIFF_LE_SIG = b"II*\x00"
+TIFF_BE_SIG = b"MM\x00*"
+TIFF_LE_BIG_SIG = b"II+\x00"
+TIFF_BE_BIG_SIG = b"MM\x00+"
+
+# Chunk types / content patterns associated with C2PA / AI provenance
+C2PA_MARKERS = (
+    b"c2pa",
+    b"C2PA",
+    b"jumb",
+    b"JUMB",
+    b"c2ma",
+    b"contentcredentials",
+    b"contentauth",
+    b"cai:",
+    b"http://ns.adobe.com/xmp/InstanceID/",  # not solely C2PA
+)
+
+AI_META_HINTS = (
+    b"c2pa",
+    b"C2PA",
+    b"contentcredentials",
+    b"ContentCredentials",
+    b"digitalSourceType",
+    b"trainedAlgorithmicMedia",
+    b"compositeWithTrainedAlgorithmicMedia",
+    b"algorithmicMedia",
+    b"AIGC",
+    b"aigc",
+    b"AI generated",
+    b"Generated by",
+    b"Claude",
+    b"Anthropic",
+    b"OpenAI",
+    b"SynthID",
+    b"dcterms:provenance",
+)
+
+# JPEG COM is unkeyed free text, so only unambiguous provenance markers are
+# evidence of AI metadata. Bare vendor names and "Generated by" are ordinary
+# comment text too (for example, "Claude Monet" or "Generated by ImageMagick").
+JPEG_C2PA_MARKERS = (
+    b"c2pa",
+    b"c2ma",
+    b"contentcredentials",
+    b"contentauth",
+    b"cai:",
+)
+JPEG_COM_AI_HINTS = (
+    *JPEG_C2PA_MARKERS,
+    b"digitalSourceType",
+    b"trainedAlgorithmicMedia",
+    b"compositeWithTrainedAlgorithmicMedia",
+    b"algorithmicMedia",
+    b"AIGC",
+    b"AI generated",
+    b"Generated by AI",
+    b"SynthID",
+    b"dcterms:provenance",
+)
+
+# Well-known AI generator product/model names. These are matched ONLY
+# against the values of generator-bearing PNG text-chunk keys (Software,
+# Creator, parameters) — see _generator_product_hits — and deliberately
+# kept out of the flat AI_META_HINTS blob scan: bare "Gemini", "Sora",
+# or "Firefly" are ordinary words that can appear in captions, and only a
+# generator field makes them evidence of AI provenance.
+AI_GENERATOR_PRODUCTS = (
+    b"ChatGPT",
+    b"DALL-E",
+    b"Midjourney",
+    b"Stable Diffusion",
+    b"SDXL",
+    b"FLUX",
+    b"DreamStudio",
+    b"Leonardo AI",
+    b"Leonardo.Ai",
+    b"Craiyon",
+    b"NovelAI",
+    b"Ideogram",
+    b"TensorArt",
+    b"Recraft",
+    b"Clipdrop",
+    b"DeepAI",
+    b"NightCafe",
+    b"Bing Image Creator",
+    b"Adobe Firefly",
+    b"Firefly",
+    b"Gemini",
+    b"Imagen",
+    b"Grok",
+    b"Sora",
+    b"Veo",
+    b"Kling",
+    b"Runway",
+    b"Luma",
+    b"Qwen",
+    b"GPT-4",
+    b"GPT-5",
+)
+
+# PNG text-chunk keys whose value can name the generating model/tool.
+# tEXt/iTXt "Software" and "Creator" are the classic generator fields;
+# "parameters" is what Stable Diffusion WebUI writes with the full
+# generation string. Values of other keys (Comment, Description, Title,
+# ...) are free text and are never scanned for product names.
+_GENERATOR_TEXT_KEYS = ("software", "creator", "parameters")
+
+
+@dataclass
+class ImageInspectReport:
+    path: str
+    format: str  # png | jpeg | webp | avif | heic | bmp | gif | tiff | unknown
+    has_c2pa: bool
+    has_ai_metadata: bool
+    findings: list[str] = field(default_factory=list)
+    tools: dict[str, Any] = field(default_factory=dict)
+    synthid: dict[str, Any] | None = None
+    notes: list[str] = field(default_factory=list)
+
+    def to_dict(self) -> dict:
+        return {
+            "path": self.path,
+            "format": self.format,
+            "has_c2pa": self.has_c2pa,
+            "has_ai_metadata": self.has_ai_metadata,
+            "findings": self.findings,
+            "findings_confidence": [classify_finding_confidence(f) for f in self.findings],
+            "tools": self.tools,
+            "synthid": self.synthid,
+            "notes": self.notes,
+        }
+
+
+def detect_format(data: bytes) -> str:
+    if data.startswith(PNG_SIG):
+        return "png"
+    if data.startswith(JPEG_SOI):
+        return "jpeg"
+    if len(data) >= 12 and data[:4] == WEBP_RIFF and data[8:12] == WEBP_SIG:
+        return "webp"
+    if len(data) >= 12 and data[4:8] == b"ftyp":
+        box_size = struct.unpack(">I", data[0:4])[0]
+        header_chunk = (
+            data[8 : min(box_size, len(data), 64)]
+            if box_size >= 8
+            else data[8 : min(len(data), 64)]
+        )
+        if any(b in header_chunk for b in (b"avif", b"avis", b"avio")):
+            return "avif"
+        if any(
+            b in header_chunk
+            for b in (b"heic", b"heix", b"hevc", b"heim", b"heis", b"mif1", b"msf1", b"heif")
+        ):
+            return "heic"
+    if data[:2] == BMP_SIG:
+        return "bmp"
+    if data[:6] in GIF_SIGS:
+        return "gif"
+    if data[:4] in (TIFF_LE_SIG, TIFF_BE_SIG, TIFF_LE_BIG_SIG, TIFF_BE_BIG_SIG):
+        return "tiff"
+    return "unknown"
+
+
+def _contains_any(blob: bytes, needles: tuple[bytes, ...]) -> list[str]:
+    found = []
+    lower = blob.lower()
+    for n in needles:
+        if n.lower() in lower:
+            try:
+                found.append(n.decode("ascii", errors="replace"))
+            except Exception:
+                found.append(repr(n))
+    return found
+
+
+def _png_text_entries(payload: bytes, ctype: bytes) -> list[tuple[str, str]]:
+    """Parse a PNG text-chunk payload into (key, value) pairs.
+
+    Handles tEXt (latin-1), zTXt (zlib-compressed text), and iTXt
+    (UTF-8, optionally compressed). Malformed or undecodable chunks
+    yield whatever pairs are recoverable; nothing is raised.
+    """
+    entries: list[tuple[str, str]] = []
+    if ctype == b"tEXt":
+        key, sep, text = payload.partition(b"\x00")
+        if sep:
+            entries.append(
+                (
+                    key.decode("latin-1", errors="replace"),
+                    text.decode("latin-1", errors="replace"),
+                )
+            )
+    elif ctype == b"zTXt":
+        key, sep, rest = payload.partition(b"\x00")
+        if not sep or len(rest) < 2:
+            return entries
+        try:
+            text = zlib.decompress(rest[1:])
+        except zlib.error:
+            return entries
+        entries.append(
+            (
+                key.decode("latin-1", errors="replace"),
+                text.decode("latin-1", errors="replace"),
+            )
+        )
+    elif ctype == b"iTXt":
+        key, sep, rest = payload.partition(b"\x00")
+        if not sep or len(rest) < 4:
+            return entries
+        comp_flag = rest[0]
+        rest = rest[2:]  # skip compression flag + method
+        _lang, sep2, rest = rest.partition(b"\x00")
+        if not sep2:
+            return entries
+        _tkey, sep3, text = rest.partition(b"\x00")
+        if not sep3:
+            return entries
+        if comp_flag == 1:
+            try:
+                text = zlib.decompress(text)
+            except zlib.error:
+                return entries
+        entries.append(
+            (
+                key.decode("latin-1", errors="replace"),
+                text.decode("utf-8", errors="replace"),
+            )
+        )
+    return entries
+
+
+def _generator_product_hits(entries: list[tuple[str, str]]) -> list[str]:
+    """Product-name hits scoped to generator-bearing text-chunk keys.
+
+    Returns labels like "Software=ChatGPT" (one per matching product).
+    Matching is a case-insensitive substring check on the value, mirroring
+    _contains_any, but only for _GENERATOR_TEXT_KEYS values.
+    """
+    hits: list[str] = []
+    for key, value in entries:
+        if key.strip().lower() not in _GENERATOR_TEXT_KEYS:
+            continue
+        low = value.lower()
+        for product in AI_GENERATOR_PRODUCTS:
+            label = product.decode("ascii", errors="replace")
+            if label.lower() in low:
+                hits.append(f"{key.strip()}={label}")
+    return hits
+
+
+def _png_text_hits(payload: bytes, ctype: bytes) -> tuple[list[str], list[str]]:
+    """Return flat-marker and product-name hits from a PNG text chunk."""
+    entries = _png_text_entries(payload, ctype)
+    decoded = "\n".join(value for _key, value in entries).encode("utf-8")
+    hits = _contains_any(payload + b"\n" + decoded, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+    return hits, _generator_product_hits(entries)
+
+
+def _text_chunk_is_ai(payload: bytes, ctype: bytes) -> bool:
+    """True when a PNG text chunk carries AI/C2PA markers.
+
+    Flat markers (AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS) match the raw payload and
+    decoded text; generator product names only match generator-bearing key
+    values (see _generator_product_hits).
+    """
+    hits, product_hits = _png_text_hits(payload, ctype)
+    return bool(hits or product_hits)
+
+
+def inspect_png(data: bytes) -> tuple[bool, bool, list[str]]:
+    findings: list[str] = []
+    has_c2pa = False
+    has_ai = False
+    if not data.startswith(PNG_SIG):
+        return False, False, ["not a PNG"]
+    pos = 8
+    while pos + 8 <= len(data):
+        length = struct.unpack(">I", data[pos : pos + 4])[0]
+        ctype = data[pos + 4 : pos + 8]
+        chunk_start = pos + 8
+        chunk_end = chunk_start + length
+        if chunk_end + 4 > len(data):
+            findings.append(f"truncated chunk {ctype!r}")
+            break
+        payload = data[chunk_start:chunk_end]
+        name = ctype.decode("latin-1", errors="replace")
+        # Private/ancillary chunks sometimes used for JUMBF/C2PA
+        if ctype in (b"caBX", b"juMB", b"jumb") or ctype.startswith(b"c2"):
+            has_c2pa = True
+            findings.append(f"PNG chunk {name} (possible C2PA container)")
+        if ctype in (b"tEXt", b"zTXt", b"iTXt", b"eXIf"):
+            if ctype in (b"tEXt", b"zTXt", b"iTXt"):
+                hits, product_hits = _png_text_hits(payload, ctype)
+            else:
+                hits = _contains_any(payload, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+                product_hits = []
+            if hits or product_hits:
+                has_ai = True
+                if any(h.lower() in ("c2pa", "contentcredentials", "jumb") for h in hits):
+                    has_c2pa = True
+                parts = [", ".join(hits[:8])] if hits else []
+                if product_hits:
+                    parts.append(f"AI generator ({', '.join(product_hits[:8])})")
+                findings.append(f"PNG {name}: {'; '.join(parts)}")
+        if ctype == b"IEND":
+            break
+        pos = chunk_end + 4  # skip CRC
+    # Whole-file scan fallback
+    whole = _contains_any(data, C2PA_MARKERS)
+    if whole and not has_c2pa:
+        has_c2pa = True
+        findings.append(f"byte-scan C2PA markers: {', '.join(whole[:6])}")
+    return has_c2pa, has_ai or has_c2pa, findings
+
+
+def inspect_jpeg(data: bytes) -> tuple[bool, bool, list[str]]:
+    findings: list[str] = []
+    has_c2pa = False
+    has_ai = False
+    if not data.startswith(JPEG_SOI):
+        return False, False, ["not a JPEG"]
+    i = 2
+    n = len(data)
+    while i + 4 <= n:
+        if data[i] != 0xFF:
+            i += 1
+            continue
+        # skip fill
+        while i < n and data[i] == 0xFF:
+            i += 1
+        if i >= n:
+            break
+        marker = data[i]
+        i += 1
+        if marker in (0xD8, 0xD9):  # SOI/EOI
+            continue
+        if marker == 0xDA:  # SOS — image data follows
+            break
+        if marker >= 0xD0 and marker <= 0xD7:  # RSTn
+            continue
+        if i + 2 > n:
+            break
+        seglen = struct.unpack(">H", data[i : i + 2])[0]
+        if seglen < 2 or i + seglen > n:
+            findings.append(f"bad segment length at marker 0x{marker:02X}")
+            break
+        payload = data[i + 2 : i + seglen]
+        i += seglen
+
+        if marker == 0xFE:  # COM
+            hits = _contains_any(payload, JPEG_COM_AI_HINTS)
+            if hits:
+                has_ai = True
+                if any(
+                    h.lower() in ("c2pa", "contentcredentials", "jumb", "contentauth") for h in hits
+                ):
+                    has_c2pa = True
+                findings.append(f"JPEG COM: {', '.join(hits[:8])}")
+        # APP11 (0xEB) often holds JUMBF/C2PA
+        if marker == 0xEB:
+            has_c2pa = True
+            findings.append("JPEG APP11 segment (JUMBF/C2PA common)")
+        if marker in (0xE1, 0xE2, 0xED, 0xEE, 0xEB):  # APP1,2,13,14,11
+            hits = _contains_any(payload, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+            if hits:
+                has_ai = True
+                if any(
+                    h.lower() in ("c2pa", "contentcredentials", "jumb", "contentauth") for h in hits
+                ):
+                    has_c2pa = True
+                findings.append(f"JPEG APP{marker - 0xE0}: {', '.join(hits[:8])}")
+
+    whole = _contains_any(data, JPEG_C2PA_MARKERS)
+    if whole and not has_c2pa:
+        has_c2pa = True
+        findings.append(f"byte-scan C2PA markers: {', '.join(whole[:6])}")
+    return has_c2pa, has_ai or has_c2pa, findings
+
+
+def _webp_chunks(data: bytes) -> tuple[list[tuple[bytes, bytes, bytes]], list[str]]:
+    if detect_format(data) != "webp":
+        return [], ["not a WebP"]
+
+    notes: list[str] = []
+    declared_size = struct.unpack("<I", data[4:8])[0]
+    if declared_size + 8 != len(data):
+        notes.append(f"RIFF size mismatch: header={declared_size + 8} actual={len(data)}")
+
+    chunks: list[tuple[bytes, bytes, bytes]] = []
+    pos = 12
+    while pos + 8 <= len(data):
+        fourcc = data[pos : pos + 4]
+        length = struct.unpack("<I", data[pos + 4 : pos + 8])[0]
+        payload_start = pos + 8
+        payload_end = payload_start + length
+        padded_end = payload_end + (length & 1)
+        if padded_end > len(data):
+            name = fourcc.decode("latin-1", errors="replace")
+            notes.append(f"truncated WebP chunk {name}")
+            break
+        chunks.append((fourcc, data[payload_start:payload_end], data[payload_end:padded_end]))
+        pos = padded_end
+    if pos != len(data) and not any("truncated" in note for note in notes):
+        notes.append(f"trailing WebP bytes: {len(data) - pos}")
+    return chunks, notes
+
+
+def inspect_webp(data: bytes) -> tuple[bool, bool, list[str]]:
+    chunks, findings = _webp_chunks(data)
+    if not chunks and findings == ["not a WebP"]:
+        return False, False, findings
+
+    has_c2pa = False
+    has_ai = False
+    for fourcc, payload, _padding in chunks:
+        name = fourcc.decode("latin-1", errors="replace")
+        if fourcc.upper() == b"C2PA":
+            has_c2pa = True
+            has_ai = True
+            findings.append("WebP C2PA chunk")
+            continue
+        if fourcc in (b"XMP ", b"EXIF"):
+            hits = _contains_any(payload, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+            if hits:
+                has_ai = True
+                if any(
+                    hit.lower() in ("c2pa", "contentcredentials", "jumb", "contentauth")
+                    for hit in hits
+                ):
+                    has_c2pa = True
+                findings.append(f"WebP {name}: {', '.join(hits[:8])}")
+    return has_c2pa, has_ai or has_c2pa, findings
+
+
+XMP_UUID = b"\xbe\x7a\xcf\xcb\x97\xa9\x42\xe8\x9c\x71\x99\x94\x91\xe3\xaf\xac"
+
+
+def _parse_isobmff_boxes(
+    data: bytes, start: int = 0, end: int | None = None
+) -> tuple[list[tuple[bytes, bytes, int, int]], int]:
+    """Parse top-level or container ISOBMFF boxes.
+
+    Returns (boxes, scanned_end): the list of (fourcc, payload,
+    total_box_size, header_size) tuples and the offset where the walk
+    stopped -- the start of the first box that could not be parsed (an
+    overrunning box, or a run of fewer than 8 trailing bytes), or `end`
+    when the whole buffer parsed.
+    """
+    if end is None:
+        end = len(data)
+    boxes = []
+    pos = start
+    while pos + 8 <= end:
+        size = struct.unpack(">I", data[pos : pos + 4])[0]
+        fourcc = data[pos + 4 : pos + 8]
+        header_size = 8
+        if size == 1:
+            if pos + 16 > end:
+                break
+            size = struct.unpack(">Q", data[pos + 8 : pos + 16])[0]
+            header_size = 16
+        elif size == 0:
+            size = end - pos
+
+        if size < header_size or pos + size > end:
+            break
+        payload = data[pos + header_size : pos + size]
+        boxes.append((fourcc, payload, size, header_size))
+        pos += size
+    return boxes, pos
+
+
+def _build_isobmff_box(fourcc: bytes, payload: bytes, header_size: int = 8) -> bytes:
+    """Serialize an ISOBMFF box while preserving its header width."""
+    size = len(payload) + header_size
+    if header_size == 16:
+        return struct.pack(">I4sQ", 1, fourcc, size) + payload
+    return struct.pack(">I4s", size, fourcc) + payload
+
+
+def _isobmff_free_box(size: int, header_size: int = 8) -> bytes:
+    """Return an equal-size free box so later absolute offsets stay valid."""
+    return _build_isobmff_box(b"free", b"\x00" * (size - header_size), header_size)
+
+
+def inspect_isobmff(data: bytes, fmt: str = "avif") -> tuple[bool, bool, list[str]]:
+    findings: list[str] = []
+    has_c2pa = False
+    has_ai = False
+
+    boxes, _ = _parse_isobmff_boxes(data)
+    if not boxes:
+        # Box parsing failed (e.g. the first box's size overruns a truncated
+        # download) — that is exactly when the whole-file byte scan below is
+        # most useful, and every sibling inspector (png/jpeg/gif/tiff) still
+        # runs its equivalent after a truncation. Run the fallback, then
+        # report the parse failure alongside whatever it found (#167).
+        whole = _contains_any(data, C2PA_MARKERS)
+        if whole:
+            findings.append(f"byte-scan C2PA markers: {', '.join(whole[:6])}")
+            has_c2pa = True
+        findings.append(f"not a valid {fmt.upper()} (no ISOBMFF boxes found)")
+        return has_c2pa, has_ai or has_c2pa, findings
+
+    for fourcc, payload, _, _ in boxes:
+        name = fourcc.decode("latin-1", errors="replace")
+        if fourcc in (b"jumb", b"c2pa") or name.lower().startswith("c2"):
+            has_c2pa = True
+            findings.append(f"{fmt.upper()} top-level box {name} (C2PA/JUMBF manifest)")
+        elif fourcc == b"uuid":
+            if payload.startswith(XMP_UUID):
+                has_ai = True
+                xmp_text = payload[16:]
+                hits = _contains_any(xmp_text, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+                if hits:
+                    findings.append(f"{fmt.upper()} XMP uuid box: {', '.join(hits[:8])}")
+                else:
+                    findings.append(f"{fmt.upper()} XMP uuid box")
+                if any(
+                    h.lower() in ("c2pa", "contentcredentials", "jumb", "contentauth") for h in hits
+                ):
+                    has_c2pa = True
+            else:
+                hits = _contains_any(payload, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+                if hits:
+                    has_ai = True
+                    findings.append(f"{fmt.upper()} uuid box: {', '.join(hits[:8])}")
+                    if any(h.lower() in ("c2pa", "contentcredentials", "jumb") for h in hits):
+                        has_c2pa = True
+        elif fourcc == b"meta":
+            meta_sub, _ = _parse_isobmff_boxes(payload, start=4)
+            for s_fourcc, s_payload, _, _ in meta_sub:
+                s_name = s_fourcc.decode("latin-1", errors="replace")
+                if s_fourcc in (b"jumb", b"c2pa") or s_name.lower().startswith("c2"):
+                    has_c2pa = True
+                    findings.append(f"{fmt.upper()} meta sub-box {s_name} (C2PA/JUMBF container)")
+                elif s_fourcc == b"uuid":
+                    if s_payload.startswith(XMP_UUID):
+                        has_ai = True
+                        hits = _contains_any(s_payload[16:], AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+                        if hits:
+                            findings.append(f"{fmt.upper()} meta XMP uuid: {', '.join(hits[:8])}")
+                        else:
+                            findings.append(f"{fmt.upper()} meta XMP uuid box")
+                        if any(h.lower() in ("c2pa", "contentcredentials", "jumb") for h in hits):
+                            has_c2pa = True
+                    else:
+                        hits = _contains_any(s_payload, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+                        if hits:
+                            has_ai = True
+                            findings.append(f"{fmt.upper()} meta uuid: {', '.join(hits[:8])}")
+                elif s_fourcc in (b"iinf", b"infe", b"iref", b"iloc", b"xml ", b"bxml"):
+                    hits = _contains_any(s_payload, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+                    if hits:
+                        has_ai = True
+                        if any(h.lower() in ("c2pa", "contentcredentials", "jumb") for h in hits):
+                            has_c2pa = True
+                        findings.append(f"{fmt.upper()} meta/{s_name}: {', '.join(hits[:8])}")
+
+    whole = _contains_any(data, C2PA_MARKERS)
+    if whole and not has_c2pa:
+        has_c2pa = True
+        findings.append(f"byte-scan C2PA markers: {', '.join(whole[:6])}")
+
+    return has_c2pa, has_ai or has_c2pa, findings
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# BMP
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+def _bmp_payload_extent(data: bytes) -> tuple[int, int] | None:
+    """Return (pixel_offset, pixel_size) for a BMP, or None.
+
+    Locates the true image payload by parsing the BITMAPFILEHEADER and the DIB
+    header (BITMAPINFOHEADER 40, V4 108, or V5 124 bytes), so trailing
+    non-image bytes can be told apart from pixel data. Uncompressed rows are
+    padded to 4-byte boundaries; compressed or embedded-image BMPs (RLE, JPEG,
+    PNG) rely on the declared biSizeImage, and anything unparseable returns
+    None so callers stay conservative.
+    """
+    if len(data) < 30 or data[:2] != BMP_SIG:
+        return None
+    pixel_offset = struct.unpack("<I", data[10:14])[0]
+    dib_size = struct.unpack("<I", data[14:18])[0]
+    if dib_size < 40 or 14 + dib_size > len(data):
+        return None
+    width = struct.unpack("<i", data[18:22])[0]
+    height = struct.unpack("<i", data[22:26])[0]
+    bpp = struct.unpack("<H", data[28:30])[0]
+    compression = struct.unpack("<I", data[30:34])[0]
+    size_image = struct.unpack("<I", data[34:38])[0]
+    if width <= 0 or bpp == 0 or pixel_offset > len(data):
+        return None
+    if compression == 0:  # BI_RGB
+        row_size = ((width * bpp + 31) // 32) * 4
+        size = row_size * abs(height)
+    elif size_image:
+        size = size_image
+    else:
+        return None
+    return pixel_offset, size
+
+
+def _bmp_trailing(data: bytes) -> bytes:
+    """Bytes after the image payload, which is where non-standard BMP metadata lives."""
+    extent = _bmp_payload_extent(data)
+    if extent is None:
+        return b""
+    pixel_offset, size = extent
+    end = pixel_offset + size
+    return data[end:] if end < len(data) else b""
+
+
+def inspect_bmp(data: bytes) -> tuple[bool, bool, list[str]]:
+    """Inspect a BMP for trailing (non-standard) metadata.
+
+    BMP has no standardized metadata container; the only realistic place
+    provenance data can live is after the image payload. Pixel bytes are never
+    scanned, so compressed/embedded-image data cannot false-positive.
+    """
+    findings: list[str] = []
+    if len(data) < 14 or data[:2] != BMP_SIG:
+        return False, False, ["not a BMP"]
+    trailing = _bmp_trailing(data)
+    has_c2pa = False
+    has_ai = False
+    if trailing:
+        hits = _contains_any(trailing, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+        if hits:
+            has_ai = True
+            if any(
+                h.lower() in ("c2pa", "contentcredentials", "jumb", "contentauth") for h in hits
+            ):
+                has_c2pa = True
+            findings.append(f"BMP trailing metadata: {', '.join(hits[:6])}")
+        else:
+            findings.append(f"BMP has {len(trailing)} unrecognized trailing byte(s)")
+    else:
+        findings.append("BMP has no metadata (header-only raster format)")
+    return has_c2pa, has_ai or has_c2pa, findings
+
+
+def strip_bmp(data: bytes, *, strip_all_metadata: bool = True) -> tuple[bytes, list[str]]:
+    """Strip trailing non-image bytes from a BMP and fix the file-size field.
+
+    The pixel payload is located via the DIB header and left byte-identical;
+    anything after it is treated as metadata. The 4-byte file-size field at
+    offset 2 is rewritten to the truncated length.
+    """
+    if len(data) < 14 or data[:2] != BMP_SIG:
+        raise ValueError("not BMP")
+    extent = _bmp_payload_extent(data)
+    if extent is None:
+        return data, ["BMP header not fully parsed; left unchanged"]
+    pixel_offset, size = extent
+    end = pixel_offset + size
+    if end >= len(data):
+        return data, ["no BMP trailing metadata to strip"]
+    trailing = data[end:]
+    hits = _contains_any(trailing, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+    if not strip_all_metadata and not hits:
+        return data, ["BMP trailing bytes kept (keep-non-ai-metadata)"]
+    out = bytearray(data[:end])
+    out[2:6] = struct.pack("<I", end)
+    reason = f" ({', '.join(hits[:4])})" if hits else ""
+    return bytes(out), [f"drop {len(trailing)} BMP trailing byte(s){reason}"]
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# GIF
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+def _gif_extension_info(data: bytes, start: int, n: int) -> tuple[int, int, bytes] | None:
+    """Return (end, label, payload) for the extension block at *start* (0x21).
+
+    The payload is the concatenation of all sub-blocks after the label; *end*
+    is the offset just past the terminating 0x00.
+    """
+    if start + 2 > n:
+        return None
+    label = data[start + 1]
+    pos = start + 2
+    payload = bytearray()
+    while pos < n:
+        size = data[pos]
+        pos += 1
+        if size == 0:
+            return pos, label, bytes(payload)
+        if pos + size > n:
+            return None
+        payload.extend(data[pos : pos + size])
+        pos += size
+    return None
+
+
+def _gif_image_end(data: bytes, start: int, n: int) -> int | None:
+    """Return the offset just past the image block starting at *start* (0x2C)."""
+    pos = start + 1
+    if pos + 9 > n:
+        return None
+    packed = data[pos + 8]
+    pos += 9
+    if packed & 0x80:  # local color table present
+        pos += 3 * (1 << ((packed & 0x07) + 1))
+    if pos >= n:
+        return None
+    pos += 1  # LZW minimum code size
+    while pos < n:
+        size = data[pos]
+        pos += 1
+        if size == 0:
+            return pos
+        if pos + size > n:
+            return None
+        pos += size
+    return None
+
+
+GIF_XMP_APPLICATION_ID = b"XMP DataXMP"
+# Application extensions that control rendering rather than carrying provenance;
+# dropping them would change animation looping or color, so they are kept.
+_GIF_CONTROL_APPLICATION_IDS = (b"NETSCAPE2.0", b"ICCRGBG1012")
+
+
+def inspect_gif(data: bytes) -> tuple[bool, bool, list[str]]:
+    """Inspect GIF comment / application extensions and XMP payloads."""
+    findings: list[str] = []
+    has_c2pa = False
+    has_ai = False
+    if data[:6] not in GIF_SIGS:
+        return False, False, ["not a GIF"]
+    n = len(data)
+    pos = 6
+    if pos + 7 > n:
+        return False, False, ["truncated GIF header"]
+    packed = data[pos + 4]
+    pos += 7
+    if packed & 0x80:  # global color table present
+        pos += 3 * (1 << ((packed & 0x07) + 1))
+    while pos < n:
+        block = data[pos]
+        if block == 0x3B:  # trailer
+            break
+        if block == 0x21:
+            info = _gif_extension_info(data, pos, n)
+            if info is None:
+                findings.append("truncated GIF extension")
+                break
+            end, label, payload = info
+            if label == 0xFE:
+                findings.append("GIF comment extension present")
+                hits = _contains_any(payload, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+                if hits:
+                    has_ai = True
+                    findings.append(f"GIF comment: {', '.join(hits[:6])}")
+            elif label == 0xFF:
+                if payload.startswith(GIF_XMP_APPLICATION_ID):
+                    findings.append("GIF XMP application extension present")
+                    hits = _contains_any(payload, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+                    if hits:
+                        has_ai = True
+                        findings.append(f"GIF XMP: {', '.join(hits[:6])}")
+                elif any(m in payload[:11] for m in (b"c2pa", b"jumb", b"C2PA", b"JUMB")):
+                    has_c2pa = True
+                    findings.append("GIF application extension (possible C2PA)")
+            pos = end
+        elif block == 0x2C:
+            end = _gif_image_end(data, pos, n)
+            if end is None:
+                findings.append("truncated GIF image block")
+                break
+            pos = end
+        else:
+            pos += 1
+    whole = _contains_any(data, C2PA_MARKERS)
+    if whole and not has_c2pa:
+        has_c2pa = True
+        findings.append(f"byte-scan C2PA markers: {', '.join(whole[:6])}")
+    if not findings:
+        findings.append("no GIF metadata extensions found")
+    return has_c2pa, has_ai or has_c2pa, findings
+
+
+def strip_gif(data: bytes, *, strip_all_metadata: bool = True) -> tuple[bytes, list[str]]:
+    """Rebuild the GIF without comment/XMP metadata, keeping control blocks.
+
+    Comment (0xFE) and XMP application (0xFF "XMP DataXMP") extensions carry
+    metadata and are dropped in strip-all mode; unknown application extensions
+    are dropped too. NETSCAPE2.0 (loop count) and ICC (color) extensions are
+    rendering control, not provenance, so they are preserved unless they
+    themselves contain AI/C2PA markers. Graphic-control, plain-text, and image
+    blocks are always copied verbatim.
+    """
+    if data[:6] not in GIF_SIGS:
+        raise ValueError("not GIF")
+    actions: list[str] = []
+    out = bytearray(data[:6])
+    n = len(data)
+    pos = 6
+    if pos + 7 > n:
+        raise ValueError("truncated GIF header")
+    packed = data[pos + 4]
+    out.extend(data[pos : pos + 7])
+    pos += 7
+    if packed & 0x80:  # global color table present
+        gct_size = 3 * (1 << ((packed & 0x07) + 1))
+        out.extend(data[pos : pos + gct_size])
+        pos += gct_size
+
+    while pos < n:
+        block = data[pos]
+        if block == 0x3B:  # trailer
+            out.extend(data[pos:])
+            break
+        if block == 0x21:
+            info = _gif_extension_info(data, pos, n)
+            if info is None:
+                out.extend(data[pos:])
+                break
+            end, label, payload = info
+            drop = False
+            name = "extension"
+            if label == 0xFE:
+                name = "comment"
+                drop = strip_all_metadata or bool(
+                    _contains_any(payload, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+                )
+            elif label == 0xFF:
+                ident = payload[:11]
+                marker_hit = bool(_contains_any(payload, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS))
+                if ident == GIF_XMP_APPLICATION_ID:
+                    name = "XMP application"
+                    drop = strip_all_metadata or marker_hit
+                elif ident in _GIF_CONTROL_APPLICATION_IDS:
+                    name = "control application"
+                    drop = marker_hit  # keep looping/ICC unless it carries markers
+                else:
+                    name = "application"
+                    drop = strip_all_metadata or marker_hit
+            if drop:
+                actions.append(f"drop GIF {name} extension")
+            else:
+                out.extend(data[pos:end])
+            pos = end
+        elif block == 0x2C:
+            end = _gif_image_end(data, pos, n)
+            if end is None:
+                out.extend(data[pos:])
+                break
+            out.extend(data[pos:end])
+            pos = end
+        else:
+            out.extend(data[pos : pos + 1])
+            pos += 1
+
+    if not actions:
+        actions.append("no GIF metadata blocks removed (already clean or none matched)")
+    return bytes(out), actions
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# TIFF (classic + BigTIFF)
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+_TIFF_TYPE_SIZES = {1: 1, 2: 1, 3: 2, 4: 4, 5: 8, 6: 1, 7: 1, 8: 2, 9: 4, 10: 8, 11: 4, 12: 8}
+
+# Provenance / descriptive metadata tags stripped when cleaning TIFF.
+_TIFF_META_TAG_NAMES = {
+    269: "DocumentName",
+    270: "ImageDescription",
+    271: "Make",
+    272: "Model",
+    305: "Software",
+    306: "DateTime",
+    315: "Artist",
+    316: "HostComputer",
+    33432: "Copyright",
+    40091: "XPTitle",
+    40092: "XPComment",
+    40093: "XPAuthor",
+    40094: "XPKeywords",
+    40095: "XPSubject",
+    700: "XMP",
+    33723: "IPTC/NAA",
+    34377: "Photoshop",
+    34665: "ExifIFD",
+    34853: "GPSInfo",
+    37500: "MakerNote",
+}
+
+_TIFF_DROP_TAGS = frozenset(_TIFF_META_TAG_NAMES)
+
+# Structural tags that must survive even when their payload looks marker-ish
+# (offset lists, color tables, compression tables, DNG core tags).
+_TIFF_KEEP_TAGS = frozenset(
+    {
+        254,
+        255,
+        256,
+        257,
+        258,
+        259,
+        262,
+        263,
+        264,
+        265,
+        266,
+        273,
+        274,
+        277,
+        278,
+        279,
+        282,
+        283,
+        284,
+        285,
+        286,
+        287,
+        288,
+        289,
+        290,
+        291,
+        292,
+        293,
+        294,
+        295,
+        296,
+        297,
+        301,
+        302,
+        304,
+        320,
+        321,
+        322,
+        323,
+        324,
+        325,
+        326,
+        327,
+        328,
+        329,
+        330,
+        331,
+        332,
+        333,
+        334,
+        336,
+        338,
+        339,
+        340,
+        341,
+        342,
+        343,
+        344,
+        345,
+        346,
+        347,
+        512,
+        513,
+        514,
+        515,
+        516,
+        517,
+        518,
+        519,
+        520,
+        521,
+        529,
+        530,
+        531,
+        532,
+        533,
+        33421,
+        33422,
+        33423,
+        34675,
+        34676,
+        *range(50706, 50742),  # DNG structural tags
+    }
+)
+
+MAX_TIFF_IFDS = 4096
+
+
+def _tiff_layout(data: bytes) -> tuple[str, bool] | None:
+    """Return (byte_order, bigtiff) for a classic or BigTIFF, else None."""
+    if data[:2] == b"II" and data[2:4] == b"*\x00":
+        return "<", False
+    if data[:2] == b"MM" and data[2:4] == b"\x00*":
+        return ">", False
+    if data[:2] == b"II" and data[2:4] == b"+\x00":
+        return "<", True
+    if data[:2] == b"MM" and data[2:4] == b"\x00+":
+        return ">", True
+    return None
+
+
+def _parse_tiff_ifds(data: bytes) -> tuple[str, bool, dict[int, dict[str, Any]]]:
+    """Parse every reachable TIFF IFD (classic 12-byte or BigTIFF 20-byte entries).
+
+    Returns (byte_order, bigtiff, {offset: {count, entries, next, block_len}}).
+    Each entry is {tag, type, count, value (inline field bytes), byte_size,
+    value_offset}; value_offset is None when the value is inline. Cycle-
+    protected with a hard cap on the number of IFDs.
+    """
+    layout = _tiff_layout(data)
+    if layout is None:
+        raise ValueError("not a TIFF")
+    bo, bigtiff = layout
+    n = len(data)
+    count_len = 8 if bigtiff else 2
+    off_len = 8 if bigtiff else 4
+    entry_size = 20 if bigtiff else 12
+    header_size = 16 if bigtiff else 8
+    count_fmt = bo + ("Q" if bigtiff else "H")
+    off_fmt = bo + ("Q" if bigtiff else "I")
+    if n < header_size:
+        return bo, bigtiff, {}
+    first = struct.unpack(off_fmt, data[header_size - off_len : header_size])[0]
+    if first == 0 or first + count_len > n:
+        return bo, bigtiff, {}
+    ifds: dict[int, dict[str, Any]] = {}
+    seen: set[int] = set()
+    todo = [first]
+    while todo and len(ifds) < MAX_TIFF_IFDS:
+        off = todo.pop()
+        if off in seen or off + count_len > n:
+            continue
+        seen.add(off)
+        count = struct.unpack(count_fmt, data[off : off + count_len])[0]
+        block_len = count_len + count * entry_size
+        entries: list[dict[str, Any]] = []
+        if off + block_len + off_len <= n:
+            next_ptr = struct.unpack(off_fmt, data[off + block_len : off + block_len + off_len])[0]
+        else:
+            block_len = max(0, n - off - off_len)
+            next_ptr = 0
+        for i in range(count):
+            e = off + count_len + i * entry_size
+            if e + entry_size > n:
+                break
+            tag = struct.unpack(bo + "H", data[e : e + 2])[0]
+            ftype = struct.unpack(bo + "H", data[e + 2 : e + 4])[0]
+            fcount = struct.unpack(off_fmt, data[e + 4 : e + 4 + off_len])[0]
+            value = data[e + 4 + off_len : e + entry_size]
+            byte_size = fcount * _TIFF_TYPE_SIZES.get(ftype, 1)
+            value_offset = None
+            if byte_size > len(value):
+                value_offset = struct.unpack(off_fmt, value[:off_len])[0]
+            entries.append(
+                {
+                    "tag": tag,
+                    "type": ftype,
+                    "count": fcount,
+                    "value": value,
+                    "byte_size": byte_size,
+                    "value_offset": value_offset,
+                }
+            )
+        ifds[off] = {
+            "count": count,
+            "entries": entries,
+            "next": next_ptr,
+            "block_len": block_len,
+        }
+        if next_ptr:
+            todo.append(next_ptr)
+        for ent in entries:
+            if ent["tag"] in (34665, 34853, 40965):
+                ptr = struct.unpack(off_fmt, ent["value"][:off_len])[0]
+                if ptr:
+                    todo.append(ptr)
+    return bo, bigtiff, ifds
+
+
+def _tiff_entry_payload(data: bytes, ent: dict[str, Any]) -> bytes | None:
+    if ent["value_offset"] is None:
+        return ent["value"][: ent["byte_size"]] if ent["byte_size"] <= len(ent["value"]) else None
+    vo = ent["value_offset"]
+    return data[vo : vo + ent["byte_size"]]
+
+
+def inspect_tiff(data: bytes) -> tuple[bool, bool, list[str]]:
+    """Walk the IFD chains (classic or BigTIFF) and report metadata tags."""
+    findings: list[str] = []
+    has_c2pa = False
+    has_ai = False
+    try:
+        _bo, _big, ifds = _parse_tiff_ifds(data)
+    except ValueError:
+        return False, False, ["not a valid TIFF"]
+    if not ifds:
+        return False, False, ["TIFF with no image file directories"]
+    for _off, ifd in sorted(ifds.items()):
+        for ent in ifd["entries"]:
+            tag = ent["tag"]
+            payload = _tiff_entry_payload(data, ent)
+            hits = _contains_any(payload or b"", AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+            if hits:
+                if any(
+                    h.lower() in ("c2pa", "contentcredentials", "jumb", "contentauth") for h in hits
+                ):
+                    has_c2pa = True
+                has_ai = True
+                findings.append(f"TIFF tag {tag}: {', '.join(hits[:6])}")
+            name = _TIFF_META_TAG_NAMES.get(tag)
+            if name:
+                label = "sub-IFD" if tag in (34665, 34853, 40965) else "tag"
+                findings.append(f"TIFF {label} {tag} ({name}) present")
+    whole = _contains_any(data, C2PA_MARKERS)
+    if whole and not has_c2pa:
+        has_c2pa = True
+        findings.append(f"byte-scan C2PA markers: {', '.join(whole[:6])}")
+    if not findings:
+        findings.append("no TIFF metadata tags found")
+    return has_c2pa, has_ai or has_c2pa, findings
+
+
+def _collect_tiff_sub_ifd_drops(
+    off_fmt: str,
+    off_len: int,
+    ifds: dict[int, dict[str, Any]],
+    data_len: int,
+    ptr: int,
+    drop_ranges: list[tuple[int, int]],
+    drop_ifd_ranges: list[tuple[int, int]],
+    seen: set[int],
+) -> None:
+    """Record the region and value payloads of a dropped sub-IFD chain."""
+    sub = ifds.get(ptr)
+    if sub is None or ptr in seen:
+        return
+    seen.add(ptr)
+    drop_ifd_ranges.append((ptr, min(ptr + sub["block_len"] + off_len, data_len)))
+    for ent in sub["entries"]:
+        if ent["tag"] in (34665, 34853):
+            p2 = struct.unpack(off_fmt, ent["value"][:off_len])[0]
+            if p2:
+                _collect_tiff_sub_ifd_drops(
+                    off_fmt, off_len, ifds, data_len, p2, drop_ranges, drop_ifd_ranges, seen
+                )
+        elif ent["value_offset"] is not None:
+            vo, vs = ent["value_offset"], ent["byte_size"]
+            if vo + vs <= data_len:
+                drop_ranges.append((vo, vo + vs))
+
+
+def strip_tiff(data: bytes, *, strip_all_metadata: bool = True) -> tuple[bytes, list[str]]:
+    """Drop TIFF metadata tags (classic or BigTIFF) without moving referenced data.
+
+    Each IFD entry region is patched in place — kept entries copied verbatim,
+    dropped entries removed, the block zero-padded to its original length — so
+    every offset (strip/tile offsets, next-IFD pointers, color tables) stays
+    valid. Payloads of dropped tags and orphaned sub-IFD chains are zeroed
+    unless a kept entry still references them.
+    """
+    bo, bigtiff, ifds = _parse_tiff_ifds(data)
+    if not ifds:
+        raise ValueError("not a valid TIFF (no image file directories)")
+    n = len(data)
+    off_len = 8 if bigtiff else 4
+    off_fmt = bo + ("Q" if bigtiff else "I")
+    count_fmt = bo + ("Q" if bigtiff else "H")
+    actions: list[str] = []
+    kept: dict[int, list[dict[str, Any]]] = {}
+    drop_ranges: list[tuple[int, int]] = []
+    drop_ifd_ranges: list[tuple[int, int]] = []
+
+    for off, ifd in sorted(ifds.items()):
+        keep_here: list[dict[str, Any]] = []
+        for ent in ifd["entries"]:
+            tag = ent["tag"]
+            payload = _tiff_entry_payload(data, ent)
+            marker_hit = bool(_contains_any(payload or b"", AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS))
+            if tag in (34665, 34853):
+                ptr = struct.unpack(off_fmt, ent["value"][:off_len])[0]
+                sub = ifds.get(ptr)
+                if sub is not None:
+                    sub_blob = data[ptr : min(ptr + sub["block_len"] + off_len, n)]
+                    marker_hit = marker_hit or bool(
+                        _contains_any(sub_blob, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+                    )
+                    for sent in sub["entries"]:
+                        s_payload = _tiff_entry_payload(data, sent)
+                        if _contains_any(s_payload or b"", AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS):
+                            marker_hit = True
+                            break
+            drop = False
+            if tag in _TIFF_DROP_TAGS:
+                drop = strip_all_metadata or marker_hit
+            elif marker_hit and tag not in _TIFF_KEEP_TAGS:
+                drop = True
+            if not drop:
+                keep_here.append(ent)
+                continue
+            name = _TIFF_META_TAG_NAMES.get(tag)
+            actions.append(
+                f"drop TIFF tag {tag} ({name})" if name else f"drop TIFF tag {tag} (AI markers)"
+            )
+            if tag in (34665, 34853):
+                ptr = struct.unpack(off_fmt, ent["value"][:off_len])[0]
+                _collect_tiff_sub_ifd_drops(
+                    off_fmt, off_len, ifds, n, ptr, drop_ranges, drop_ifd_ranges, set()
+                )
+            elif ent["value_offset"] is not None and ent["value_offset"] + ent["byte_size"] <= n:
+                drop_ranges.append((ent["value_offset"], ent["value_offset"] + ent["byte_size"]))
+        kept[off] = keep_here
+
+    # Ranges still referenced from the root through kept entries must never be
+    # zeroed. An orphaned sub-IFD (its pointer dropped) contributes nothing.
+    reachable: set[int] = set()
+
+    def _mark_reachable(off: int) -> None:
+        if off in reachable or off not in ifds:
+            return
+        reachable.add(off)
+        for ent in kept.get(off, []):
+            if ent["tag"] in (34665, 34853, 40965):
+                _mark_reachable(struct.unpack(off_fmt, ent["value"][:off_len])[0])
+        if ifds[off]["next"]:
+            _mark_reachable(ifds[off]["next"])
+
+    root = (
+        struct.unpack(off_fmt, data[16 - off_len : 16])[0]
+        if bigtiff
+        else struct.unpack(off_fmt, data[8 - off_len : 8])[0]
+    )
+    _mark_reachable(root)
+
+    referenced: list[tuple[int, int]] = []
+    for off in sorted(reachable):
+        for ent in kept.get(off, []):
+            if ent["value_offset"] is not None and ent["value_offset"] + ent["byte_size"] <= n:
+                referenced.append((ent["value_offset"], ent["value_offset"] + ent["byte_size"]))
+            if ent["tag"] in (34665, 34853, 40965):
+                ptr = struct.unpack(off_fmt, ent["value"][:off_len])[0]
+                sub = ifds.get(ptr)
+                if sub is not None:
+                    referenced.append((ptr, min(ptr + sub["block_len"] + off_len, n)))
+
+    def _covered(ranges: list[tuple[int, int]], start: int, end: int) -> bool:
+        return any(s <= start and end <= e for s, e in ranges)
+
+    zero: list[tuple[int, int]] = []
+    for s, e in drop_ranges:
+        if not _covered(referenced, s, e):
+            zero.append((s, e))
+    for s, e in drop_ifd_ranges:
+        if not _covered(referenced, s, e):
+            zero.append((s, e))
+
+    # Patch IFD entry regions in place, then zero dropped payloads.
+    out = bytearray(data)
+    for off, ifd in sorted(ifds.items()):
+        entries = kept.get(off, [])
+        block = bytearray()
+        block.extend(struct.pack(count_fmt, len(entries)))
+        for ent in entries:
+            block.extend(struct.pack(bo + "H", ent["tag"]))
+            block.extend(struct.pack(bo + "H", ent["type"]))
+            block.extend(struct.pack(off_fmt, ent["count"]))
+            block.extend(ent["value"])
+        block.extend(struct.pack(off_fmt, ifd["next"]))
+        region_len = ifd["block_len"] + off_len
+        if off + region_len <= n:
+            if len(block) > region_len:
+                block = block[:region_len]
+            out[off : off + region_len] = block + b"\x00" * (region_len - len(block))
+    for s, e in zero:
+        out[s:e] = b"\x00" * (e - s)
+
+    if not actions:
+        actions.append("no TIFF metadata tags removed (already clean or none matched)")
+    return bytes(out), actions
+
+
+def run_optional_tools(path: Path) -> dict[str, Any]:
+    tools: dict[str, Any] = {}
+    c2patool = which("c2patool")
+    if c2patool:
+        try:
+            r = subprocess.run(
+                [c2patool, safe_arg(str(path))],
+                capture_output=True,
+                text=True,
+                timeout=30,
+                preexec_fn=subprocess_preexec_fn,
+                check=False,
+                creationflags=subprocess_creationflags,
+            )
+            out = (r.stdout or "") + (r.stderr or "")
+            low = out.lower()
+            # Negative markers must veto every positive branch, so the
+            # positive alternatives are parenthesised: c2patool reports a
+            # missing manifest as "Error: No claim found", which contains
+            # the substring "claim" and would otherwise read as a hit.
+            no_manifest = "no claim" in low or "no jumbf" in low
+            has_manifest = (
+                "claim" in low or "c2pa" in low or "manifest" in low
+            ) and not no_manifest
+            # c2patool exits non-zero for a missing manifest too, so the exit
+            # code alone cannot separate "asset is clean" from "the probe
+            # never ran". Treat the run as conclusive only when it either
+            # found a manifest or said in so many words that there is none.
+            # Anything else -- a crash before main(), a kill, an unrecognized
+            # error -- leaves the C2PA question unanswered, and callers must
+            # not read that as a negative.
+            conclusive = has_manifest or no_manifest
+            entry: dict[str, Any] = {
+                "available": True,
+                "returncode": r.returncode,
+                "snippet": out[:2000],
+                "has_manifest": has_manifest,
+                "ok": conclusive,
+            }
+            if not conclusive:
+                entry["error"] = f"exit {r.returncode}, unrecognized output"
+            tools["c2patool"] = entry
+        except Exception as e:
+            tools["c2patool"] = {
+                "available": True,
+                "ok": False,
+                "has_manifest": False,
+                "error": str(e),
+            }
+    else:
+        tools["c2patool"] = {"available": False}
+
+    exiftool = which("exiftool")
+    if exiftool:
+        try:
+            r = subprocess.run(
+                [exiftool, "-G1", "-a", "-s", safe_arg(str(path))],
+                capture_output=True,
+                text=True,
+                timeout=30,
+                preexec_fn=subprocess_preexec_fn,
+                check=False,
+                creationflags=subprocess_creationflags,
+            )
+            out = r.stdout or ""
+            interesting = [
+                line
+                for line in out.splitlines()
+                if re.search(
+                    r"c2pa|content.?credential|AIGC|digitalSource|XMP|EXIF|IPTC|jumb",
+                    line,
+                    re.I,
+                )
+            ]
+            tools["exiftool"] = {
+                "available": True,
+                "interesting_lines": interesting[:50],
+            }
+        except Exception as e:
+            tools["exiftool"] = {"available": True, "error": str(e)}
+    else:
+        tools["exiftool"] = {"available": False}
+    return tools
+
+
+def _synthid_score_http(
+    path: Path, base_url: str, api_key: str, timeout: float
+) -> dict[str, Any] | None:
+    """Score *path* via the HTTP sidecar (synthid_score_server.py)."""
+    try:
+        data = path.read_bytes()
+    except OSError as e:
+        return {"available": False, "error": f"cannot read {path}: {e}"}
+    body = json.dumps({"file": base64.b64encode(data).decode("ascii")}).encode("utf-8")
+    headers = {"Content-Type": "application/json"}
+    if api_key:
+        headers["Authorization"] = f"Bearer {api_key}"
+    if urlparse(base_url).scheme not in ("http", "https"):
+        return {"available": False, "error": f"refusing non-http(s) scorer endpoint: {base_url}"}
+    # S310: URL scheme is restricted to http/https just above.
+    req = urllib.request.Request(  # noqa: S310
+        base_url.rstrip("/") + "/score",
+        data=body,
+        headers=headers,
+        method="POST",
+    )
+    try:
+        with urllib.request.urlopen(req, timeout=timeout) as resp:  # noqa: S310
+            payload = json.loads(resp.read().decode("utf-8"))
+    except (
+        urllib.error.HTTPError,
+        urllib.error.URLError,
+        TimeoutError,
+        OSError,
+        json.JSONDecodeError,
+    ) as e:
+        return {"available": False, "error": f"SynthID scorer sidecar unreachable: {e}"}
+    if not isinstance(payload, dict):
+        return {"available": False, "error": "bad scorer sidecar response"}
+    return payload
+
+
+def _synthid_python(upstream: Path) -> str:
+    """Prefer the checkout venv so the scorer deps (cv2, sklearn) are importable."""
+    if os.name == "nt":
+        venv = upstream / ".venv" / "Scripts" / "python.exe"
+    else:
+        venv = upstream / ".venv" / "bin" / "python"
+    if venv.is_file():
+        return str(venv)
+    return sys.executable
+
+
+def run_synthid_score(
+    path: Path,
+    upstream_dir: str | None = None,
+) -> dict[str, Any] | None:
+    """Run the optional reverse-SynthID scorer.
+
+    Uses the HTTP sidecar when WATERMARKS_SYNTHID_SCORER_URL is set,
+    otherwise a subprocess against a local checkout. Returns None when the
+    scorer is not configured; a dict with "available": False and an "error"
+    when it is configured but unavailable (e.g. exit 3), so callers can
+    distinguish "not scored" from "scored and clean".
+    """
+    scorer_url = os.environ.get("WATERMARKS_SYNTHID_SCORER_URL", "").strip()
+    if scorer_url:
+        api_key = os.environ.get("WATERMARKS_SYNTHID_SCORER_API_KEY", "").strip()
+        try:
+            timeout = float(os.environ.get("WATERMARKS_SYNTHID_SCORER_TIMEOUT", "60"))
+        except ValueError:
+            timeout = DEFAULT_SYNTHID_SCORER_TIMEOUT
+        return _synthid_score_http(path, scorer_url, api_key, timeout)
+    if upstream_dir is None:
+        upstream_dir = os.environ.get("REVERSE_SYNTHID_DIR")
+    if not upstream_dir:
+        return None
+
+    script = SCRIPTS_DIR / "score_synthid.py"
+    cmd = [
+        _synthid_python(Path(upstream_dir)),
+        str(script),
+        str(path),
+        "--upstream-dir",
+        str(upstream_dir),
+        "--json",
+    ]
+    try:
+        r = subprocess.run(
+            cmd,
+            capture_output=True,
+            text=True,
+            timeout=180,
+            preexec_fn=subprocess_preexec_fn,
+            check=False,
+            creationflags=subprocess_creationflags,
+        )
+    except Exception as e:
+        return {"available": False, "error": str(e)}
+
+    if r.returncode == 3:
+        return {
+            "available": False,
+            "error": (r.stderr or "SynthID scorer unavailable (exit 3)").strip()[:2000],
+        }
+    if r.returncode != 0:
+        return {"available": False, "error": (r.stderr or "").strip()[:2000]}
+    try:
+        return json.loads(r.stdout or "{}")
+    except json.JSONDecodeError as e:
+        return {"available": False, "error": f"bad scorer JSON: {e}"}
+
+
+def _ctrlregen_python(upstream: Path) -> str:
+    """Prefer the checkout venv so torch/diffusers are importable."""
+    if os.name == "nt":
+        venv = upstream / ".venv" / "Scripts" / "python.exe"
+    else:
+        venv = upstream / ".venv" / "bin" / "python"
+    if venv.is_file():
+        return str(venv)
+    return sys.executable
+
+
+def _markdiffusion_python(upstream: Path | None) -> str:
+    """Prefer the bootstrap venv so torch/diffusers/markdiffusion importable."""
+    if upstream is not None:
+        if os.name == "nt":
+            venv = upstream / ".venv" / "Scripts" / "python.exe"
+        else:
+            venv = upstream / ".venv" / "bin" / "python"
+        if venv.is_file():
+            return str(venv)
+    return sys.executable
+
+
+def run_markdiffusion_purify(
+    path: Path,
+    output: Path,
+    *,
+    upstream_dir: str | None = None,
+    strength: float = 0.3,
+    model: str | None = None,
+    size: int = 512,
+    steps: int = 50,
+    device: str | None = None,
+    timeout: int = 3600,
+) -> dict[str, Any]:
+    """Run the optional MarkDiffusion DiffusionPurification remover in a subprocess.
+
+    Returns ``{"available": False, "error": ...}`` when the backend is not
+    configured, its dependencies are missing, or it fails at runtime; a
+    successful run is ``{"available": True, ...}``.
+    """
+    if upstream_dir is None:
+        upstream_dir = os.environ.get("MARKDIFFUSION_DIR")
+
+    upstream = Path(upstream_dir).expanduser().resolve() if upstream_dir else None
+    if upstream is not None and not upstream.is_dir():
+        return {
+            "available": False,
+            "error": f"MarkDiffusion dir not found: {upstream}",
+        }
+
+    script = SCRIPTS_DIR / "markdiffusion_harness.py"
+    cmd = [
+        _markdiffusion_python(upstream),
+        str(script),
+        "purify",
+        str(path),
+        "-o",
+        str(output),
+        "--purification-strength",
+        str(strength),
+        "--size",
+        str(size),
+        "--steps",
+        str(steps),
+        "--json",
+    ]
+    if upstream is not None:
+        cmd += ["--upstream-dir", str(upstream)]
+    if model:
+        cmd += ["--model", str(model)]
+    if device:
+        cmd += ["--device", str(device)]
+
+    try:
+        r = subprocess.run(
+            cmd,
+            capture_output=True,
+            text=True,
+            timeout=timeout,
+            preexec_fn=ctrlregen_subprocess_preexec_fn,
+            check=False,
+            creationflags=subprocess_creationflags,
+        )
+    except subprocess.TimeoutExpired:
+        return {
+            "available": False,
+            "error": f"DiffusionPurification timed out after {timeout}s",
+        }
+    except Exception as e:
+        return {"available": False, "error": str(e)}
+
+    if r.returncode != 0:
+        return {"available": False, "error": (r.stderr or "").strip()[:2000]}
+    try:
+        payload = json.loads(r.stdout or "{}")
+    except json.JSONDecodeError as e:
+        return {
+            "available": False,
+            "error": f"bad MarkDiffusion adapter JSON: {e}",
+        }
+    payload["available"] = True
+    return payload
+
+
+def run_ctrlregen_clean(
+    path: Path,
+    output: Path,
+    *,
+    upstream_dir: str | None = None,
+    strength: float = 0.25,
+    steps: int = 50,
+    device: str | None = None,
+    seed: int | None = None,
+    timeout: int = 3600,
+) -> dict[str, Any]:
+    """Run the optional CtrlRegen remover in a subprocess.
+
+    Returns ``{"available": False, "error": ...}`` when the remover is not
+    configured, its dependencies are missing, or it fails at runtime; a
+    successful run is ``{"available": True, ...}``.
+    """
+    if upstream_dir is None:
+        upstream_dir = os.environ.get("NOAI_WATERMARK_DIR")
+    if not upstream_dir:
+        return {
+            "available": False,
+            "error": "CtrlRegen not configured (set NOAI_WATERMARK_DIR or pass --ctrlregen-dir)",
+        }
+
+    upstream = Path(upstream_dir).expanduser().resolve()
+    if not upstream.is_dir():
+        return {"available": False, "error": f"CtrlRegen dir not found: {upstream}"}
+
+    script = SCRIPTS_DIR / "clean_ctrlregen.py"
+    cmd = [
+        _ctrlregen_python(upstream),
+        str(script),
+        str(path),
+        "-o",
+        str(output),
+        "--upstream-dir",
+        str(upstream),
+        "--strength",
+        str(strength),
+        "--steps",
+        str(steps),
+        "--json",
+    ]
+    if device:
+        cmd += ["--device", str(device)]
+    if seed is not None:
+        cmd += ["--seed", str(seed)]
+
+    try:
+        r = subprocess.run(
+            cmd,
+            capture_output=True,
+            text=True,
+            timeout=timeout,
+            preexec_fn=ctrlregen_subprocess_preexec_fn,
+            check=False,
+            creationflags=subprocess_creationflags,
+        )
+    except subprocess.TimeoutExpired:
+        return {"available": False, "error": f"CtrlRegen timed out after {timeout}s"}
+    except Exception as e:
+        return {"available": False, "error": str(e)}
+
+    if r.returncode != 0:
+        return {"available": False, "error": (r.stderr or "").strip()[:2000]}
+    try:
+        payload = json.loads(r.stdout or "{}")
+    except json.JSONDecodeError as e:
+        return {"available": False, "error": f"bad CtrlRegen adapter JSON: {e}"}
+    payload["available"] = True
+    return payload
+
+
+def inspect_image(
+    path: Path,
+    synthid_dir: str | None = None,
+) -> ImageInspectReport:
+    data = path.read_bytes()
+    fmt = detect_format(data)
+    if fmt == "png":
+        has_c2pa, has_ai, findings = inspect_png(data)
+    elif fmt == "jpeg":
+        has_c2pa, has_ai, findings = inspect_jpeg(data)
+    elif fmt == "webp":
+        has_c2pa, has_ai, findings = inspect_webp(data)
+    elif fmt in ("avif", "heic"):
+        has_c2pa, has_ai, findings = inspect_isobmff(data, fmt)
+    elif fmt == "bmp":
+        has_c2pa, has_ai, findings = inspect_bmp(data)
+    elif fmt == "gif":
+        has_c2pa, has_ai, findings = inspect_gif(data)
+    elif fmt == "tiff":
+        has_c2pa, has_ai, findings = inspect_tiff(data)
+    else:
+        has_c2pa, has_ai, findings = (
+            False,
+            False,
+            ["unsupported format (PNG/JPEG/WebP/AVIF/HEIC/BMP/GIF/TIFF)"],
+        )
+
+    notes: list[str] = []
+    if fmt == "unknown":
+        notes.append(
+            "format not fully inspected; only PNG/JPEG/WebP/AVIF/HEIC/BMP/GIF/TIFF are supported"
+        )
+
+    tools = run_optional_tools(path)
+    # Elevate flags from tools
+    ct = tools.get("c2patool") or {}
+    if ct.get("has_manifest"):
+        has_c2pa = True
+        findings.append("c2patool reports a C2PA-related manifest")
+    probe_note = c2patool_probe_note(tools)
+    if probe_note:
+        notes.append(probe_note)
+
+    return ImageInspectReport(
+        path=str(path),
+        format=fmt,
+        has_c2pa=has_c2pa,
+        has_ai_metadata=has_ai,
+        findings=findings,
+        tools=tools,
+        synthid=run_synthid_score(path, synthid_dir),
+        notes=notes,
+    )
+
+
+def _png_chunk(ctype: bytes, payload: bytes) -> bytes:
+    crc = zlib.crc32(ctype)
+    crc = zlib.crc32(payload, crc) & 0xFFFFFFFF
+    return struct.pack(">I", len(payload)) + ctype + payload + struct.pack(">I", crc)
+
+
+def strip_png(data: bytes, *, strip_all_text: bool = True) -> tuple[bytes, list[str]]:
+    if not data.startswith(PNG_SIG):
+        raise ValueError("not PNG")
+    actions: list[str] = []
+    out = bytearray(PNG_SIG)
+    pos = 8
+    while pos + 8 <= len(data):
+        length = struct.unpack(">I", data[pos : pos + 4])[0]
+        ctype = data[pos + 4 : pos + 8]
+        chunk_start = pos + 8
+        chunk_end = chunk_start + length
+        if chunk_end + 4 > len(data):
+            # A truncated chunk (interrupted download): copy the remainder
+            # verbatim instead of dropping it — dropping turned a recoverable
+            # image into an unopenable husk while reporting "already clean"
+            # (#170). Note it as an action so the run is never mistaken for
+            # an ordinary no-op clean.
+            out.extend(data[pos:])
+            actions.append(
+                f"kept {len(data) - pos} bytes of truncated chunk {ctype.decode('latin-1', errors='replace')} tail (file truncated)"
+            )
+            break
+        payload = data[chunk_start:chunk_end]
+        crc_bytes = data[chunk_end : chunk_end + 4]
+        pos = chunk_end + 4
+        name = ctype.decode("latin-1", errors="replace")
+
+        drop = False
+        if ctype in (b"eXIf", b"caBX") or ctype.startswith(b"c2"):
+            drop = True
+            actions.append(f"drop chunk {name}")
+        elif ctype in (b"tEXt", b"zTXt", b"iTXt"):
+            if strip_all_text or _text_chunk_is_ai(payload, ctype):
+                drop = True
+                actions.append(f"drop chunk {name}")
+        elif _contains_any(ctype + payload, C2PA_MARKERS) and ctype not in (
+            b"IHDR",
+            b"IDAT",
+            b"IEND",
+            b"PLTE",
+            b"tRNS",
+            b"gAMA",
+            b"pHYs",
+            b"sRGB",
+            b"cHRM",
+            b"iCCP",
+        ):
+            drop = True
+            actions.append(f"drop chunk {name} (C2PA marker in payload)")
+
+        if not drop:
+            out.extend(struct.pack(">I", length) + ctype + payload + crc_bytes)
+        if ctype == b"IEND":
+            break
+    if not actions:
+        actions.append("no PNG metadata chunks removed (already clean or none matched)")
+    return bytes(out), actions
+
+
+def strip_jpeg(data: bytes, *, strip_all_app: bool = True) -> tuple[bytes, list[str]]:
+    if not data.startswith(JPEG_SOI):
+        raise ValueError("not JPEG")
+    actions: list[str] = []
+    out = bytearray(JPEG_SOI)
+    i = 2
+    n = len(data)
+    while i < n:
+        if data[i] != 0xFF:
+            # unexpected; copy rest
+            out.extend(data[i:])
+            actions.append("copied remainder after non-marker byte")
+            break
+        while i < n and data[i] == 0xFF:
+            i += 1
+        if i >= n:
+            break
+        marker = data[i]
+        i += 1
+
+        if marker == 0xD9:  # EOI
+            out.extend(b"\xff\xd9")
+            break
+        if marker == 0xD8:  # nested SOI?
+            continue
+        if 0xD0 <= marker <= 0xD7:
+            out.extend(bytes([0xFF, marker]))
+            continue
+        if marker == 0xDA:  # SOS — copy through end
+            # need length of SOS header then entropy-coded data to EOI
+            if i + 2 > n:
+                break
+            seglen = struct.unpack(">H", data[i : i + 2])[0]
+            # Find EOI from here carefully: after SOS segment header, scan for FF D9
+            # not preceded by stuffed FF 00 issues — simple approach: copy from FF DA to end
+            # Reconstruct: FF DA + rest of file
+            out.extend(b"\xff\xda")
+            out.extend(data[i:])
+            actions.append("preserved entropy-coded scan (SOS→EOF)")
+            break
+
+        if i + 2 > n:
+            break
+        seglen = struct.unpack(">H", data[i : i + 2])[0]
+        if seglen < 2 or i + seglen > n:
+            out.extend(data[i - 2 :])  # best effort
+            actions.append("truncated segment; copied remainder")
+            break
+        payload = data[i + 2 : i + seglen]
+        next_i = i + seglen
+
+        # APP0 is JFIF — keep for compatibility unless full strip of all APP
+        keep = False
+        drop = False
+        if 0xE0 <= marker <= 0xEF:  # APPn
+            if marker == 0xEB:  # APP11 JUMBF/C2PA
+                drop = True
+                actions.append("drop APP11 (C2PA/JUMBF)")
+            elif strip_all_app and marker != 0xE0:
+                # keep APP0 (JFIF) by default
+                drop = True
+                actions.append(f"drop APP{marker - 0xE0}")
+            elif _contains_any(payload, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS):
+                drop = True
+                actions.append(f"drop APP{marker - 0xE0} (AI/C2PA markers)")
+            else:
+                keep = True
+        elif marker == 0xFE:  # COM
+            hits = _contains_any(payload, JPEG_COM_AI_HINTS)
+            if strip_all_app or hits:
+                drop = True
+                actions.append("drop COM comment")
+            else:
+                keep = True
+        else:
+            keep = True
+
+        if keep and not drop:
+            out.extend(bytes([0xFF, marker]))
+            out.extend(data[i : i + seglen])
+        i = next_i
+
+    if not actions:
+        actions.append("no JPEG APP segments removed")
+    return bytes(out), actions
+
+
+def strip_webp(data: bytes, *, strip_all_metadata: bool = True) -> tuple[bytes, list[str]]:
+    chunks, notes = _webp_chunks(data)
+    if not chunks and notes == ["not a WebP"]:
+        raise ValueError("not WebP")
+    if notes:
+        raise ValueError("malformed WebP: " + "; ".join(notes))
+
+    actions: list[str] = []
+    kept: list[tuple[bytes, bytes, bytes]] = []
+    removed_flags = 0
+    metadata_flags = {b"ICCP": 0x20, b"EXIF": 0x08, b"XMP ": 0x04}
+
+    for fourcc, payload, padding in chunks:
+        drop = fourcc.upper() == b"C2PA"
+        if fourcc in metadata_flags:
+            drop = strip_all_metadata or bool(_contains_any(payload, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS))
+        if drop:
+            name = fourcc.decode("latin-1", errors="replace")
+            actions.append(f"drop WebP chunk {name}")
+            removed_flags |= metadata_flags.get(fourcc, 0)
+        else:
+            kept.append((fourcc, payload, padding))
+
+    body = bytearray(WEBP_SIG)
+    for fourcc, payload, padding in kept:
+        chunk = payload
+        if fourcc == b"VP8X" and len(chunk) >= 1 and removed_flags:
+            chunk = bytes([chunk[0] & ~removed_flags]) + chunk[1:]
+        body.extend(fourcc)
+        body.extend(struct.pack("<I", len(chunk)))
+        body.extend(chunk)
+        body.extend(padding if len(chunk) & 1 else b"")
+
+    if not actions:
+        actions.append("no WebP metadata chunks removed (already clean or none matched)")
+    return WEBP_RIFF + struct.pack("<I", len(body)) + bytes(body), actions
+
+
+def strip_isobmff(
+    data: bytes, fmt: str = "avif", *, strip_all_metadata: bool = True
+) -> tuple[bytes, list[str]]:
+    boxes, scanned_end = _parse_isobmff_boxes(data)
+    if not boxes:
+        raise ValueError(f"not a valid {fmt.upper()} (no ISOBMFF boxes)")
+
+    # scanned_end is where the box walk stopped: the parser halts at the first
+    # box whose declared size overruns the data (a truncated download). The
+    # rebuild below used to emit only the boxes that parsed — dropping a
+    # truncated mdat, the actual coded image, while reporting "already clean"
+    # (#170); the tail is appended verbatim afterwards instead.
+    actions: list[str] = []
+    out = bytearray()
+
+    for fourcc, payload, size, header_size in boxes:
+        name = fourcc.decode("latin-1", errors="replace")
+        if fourcc in (b"jumb", b"c2pa") or name.lower().startswith("c2"):
+            actions.append(f"drop top-level {name} box (C2PA/JUMBF)")
+            out.extend(_isobmff_free_box(size, header_size))
+            continue
+
+        if fourcc == b"uuid":
+            if payload.startswith(XMP_UUID):
+                actions.append(f"drop top-level {name} box (XMP metadata)")
+                out.extend(_isobmff_free_box(size, header_size))
+                continue
+            if strip_all_metadata or _contains_any(payload, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS):
+                actions.append(f"drop top-level {name} box (UUID metadata)")
+                out.extend(_isobmff_free_box(size, header_size))
+                continue
+
+        if fourcc == b"meta":
+            meta_verflags = payload[:4] if len(payload) >= 4 else b"\x00\x00\x00\x00"
+            sub_boxes, _ = _parse_isobmff_boxes(payload, start=4)
+            clean_sub = bytearray()
+            for s_fourcc, s_payload, s_size, s_hdr in sub_boxes:
+                s_name = s_fourcc.decode("latin-1", errors="replace")
+                if s_fourcc in (b"jumb", b"c2pa") or s_name.lower().startswith("c2"):
+                    actions.append(f"drop meta sub-box {s_name} (C2PA/JUMBF)")
+                    clean_sub.extend(_isobmff_free_box(s_size, s_hdr))
+                    continue
+                if s_fourcc == b"uuid":
+                    if s_payload.startswith(XMP_UUID):
+                        actions.append(f"drop meta sub-box {s_name} (XMP metadata)")
+                        clean_sub.extend(_isobmff_free_box(s_size, s_hdr))
+                        continue
+                    if strip_all_metadata or _contains_any(s_payload, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS):
+                        actions.append(f"drop meta sub-box {s_name} (UUID metadata)")
+                        clean_sub.extend(_isobmff_free_box(s_size, s_hdr))
+                        continue
+                if s_fourcc in (b"xml ", b"bxml") and (
+                    strip_all_metadata or _contains_any(s_payload, AI_META_HINTS + C2PA_MARKERS)
+                ):
+                    actions.append(f"drop meta sub-box {s_name} (XML metadata)")
+                    clean_sub.extend(_isobmff_free_box(s_size, s_hdr))
+                    continue
+                clean_sub.extend(_build_isobmff_box(s_fourcc, s_payload, s_hdr))
+
+            new_meta_payload = meta_verflags + clean_sub
+            out.extend(_build_isobmff_box(b"meta", new_meta_payload, header_size))
+            continue
+
+        out.extend(_build_isobmff_box(fourcc, payload, header_size))
+
+    if scanned_end < len(data):
+        tail = data[scanned_end:]
+        out.extend(tail)
+        # An 8-byte header whose box overruns the data is a truncated download
+        # worth reporting; fewer than 8 leftover bytes is merely trailing junk
+        # and is kept verbatim without claiming the file was truncated (#170).
+        if len(tail) >= 8:
+            actions.append(f"kept {len(tail)} bytes of truncated tail (file truncated)")
+
+    if not actions:
+        actions.append(f"no {fmt.upper()} metadata boxes removed (already clean or none matched)")
+
+    return bytes(out), actions
+
+
+def clean_image(
+    path: Path,
+    dest: Path,
+    *,
+    strip_all_metadata: bool = True,
+    synthid_dir: str | None = None,
+    remove_pixel: str | None = None,
+    ctrlregen_dir: str | None = None,
+    ctrlregen_strength: float = 0.25,
+    ctrlregen_steps: int = 50,
+    ctrlregen_device: str | None = None,
+    ctrlregen_seed: int | None = None,
+    ctrlregen_timeout: int = 3600,
+    markdiffusion_dir: str | None = None,
+    markdiffusion_strength: float = 0.3,
+    markdiffusion_model: str | None = None,
+    markdiffusion_size: int = 512,
+    markdiffusion_steps: int = 50,
+    markdiffusion_device: str | None = None,
+    markdiffusion_timeout: int = 3600,
+) -> dict[str, Any]:
+    synthid_before = run_synthid_score(path, synthid_dir)
+    data = path.read_bytes()
+    fmt = detect_format(data)
+    if fmt == "png":
+        cleaned, actions = strip_png(data, strip_all_text=strip_all_metadata)
+    elif fmt == "jpeg":
+        cleaned, actions = strip_jpeg(data, strip_all_app=strip_all_metadata)
+    elif fmt == "webp":
+        cleaned, actions = strip_webp(data, strip_all_metadata=strip_all_metadata)
+    elif fmt in ("avif", "heic"):
+        cleaned, actions = strip_isobmff(data, fmt, strip_all_metadata=strip_all_metadata)
+    elif fmt == "bmp":
+        cleaned, actions = strip_bmp(data, strip_all_metadata=strip_all_metadata)
+    elif fmt == "gif":
+        cleaned, actions = strip_gif(data, strip_all_metadata=strip_all_metadata)
+    elif fmt == "tiff":
+        cleaned, actions = strip_tiff(data, strip_all_metadata=strip_all_metadata)
+    else:
+        raise ValueError(f"unsupported format: {fmt}")
+
+    # Optional exiftool pass for residual tags
+    safe_write_bytes(dest, cleaned)
+    exiftool = which("exiftool")
+    if exiftool and strip_all_metadata:
+        try:
+            subprocess.run(
+                [
+                    exiftool,
+                    "-all=",
+                    "-overwrite_original",
+                    safe_arg(str(dest)),
+                ],
+                capture_output=True,
+                text=True,
+                timeout=60,
+                check=False,
+                preexec_fn=subprocess_preexec_fn,
+                creationflags=subprocess_creationflags,
+            )
+            actions.append("exiftool -all= pass")
+        except Exception as e:
+            actions.append(f"exiftool failed: {e}")
+
+    pixel_removal: dict[str, Any] | None = None
+    if remove_pixel:
+        if remove_pixel == "ctrlregen":
+            pixel_removal = run_ctrlregen_clean(
+                dest,
+                dest,
+                upstream_dir=ctrlregen_dir,
+                strength=ctrlregen_strength,
+                steps=ctrlregen_steps,
+                device=ctrlregen_device,
+                seed=ctrlregen_seed,
+                timeout=ctrlregen_timeout,
+            )
+            if pixel_removal.get("available"):
+                actions.append(f"CtrlRegen pixel removal (strength {ctrlregen_strength})")
+            else:
+                actions.append(
+                    "CtrlRegen pixel removal skipped: "
+                    f"{pixel_removal.get('error', 'unknown error')}"
+                )
+        elif remove_pixel == "diffusion":
+            pixel_removal = run_markdiffusion_purify(
+                dest,
+                dest,
+                upstream_dir=markdiffusion_dir,
+                strength=markdiffusion_strength,
+                model=markdiffusion_model,
+                size=markdiffusion_size,
+                steps=markdiffusion_steps,
+                device=markdiffusion_device,
+                timeout=markdiffusion_timeout,
+            )
+            if pixel_removal.get("available"):
+                actions.append(
+                    f"DiffusionPurification pixel removal (strength {markdiffusion_strength})"
+                )
+            else:
+                actions.append(
+                    "DiffusionPurification pixel removal skipped: "
+                    f"{pixel_removal.get('error', 'unknown error')}"
+                )
+        else:
+            raise ValueError(f"unknown pixel remover: {remove_pixel}")
+
+    after = inspect_image(dest, synthid_dir=synthid_dir)
+    return {
+        "input": str(path),
+        "output": str(dest),
+        "format": fmt,
+        "actions": actions,
+        "bytes_in": len(data),
+        "bytes_out": dest.stat().st_size,
+        "still_has_c2pa": after.has_c2pa,
+        "still_has_ai_metadata": after.has_ai_metadata,
+        "post_findings": after.findings,
+        "synthid_before": synthid_before,
+        "synthid_after": after.synthid,
+        "pixel_removal": pixel_removal,
+    }