open-agreements 0.7.6 → 0.8.0

package/skills/legal-explainers/non-compete-contract-explainer/LICENSE

@@ -0,0 +1,269 @@
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package/skills/legal-explainers/non-compete-contract-explainer/NOTICE

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+This skill bundle contains practice-note content licensed under the Creative
+Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License (CC BY 4.0).
+
+The content is published and maintained by openagreements.org.
+It is a one-way projection from UseJunior/legal-explainer into this skill
+directory. For content fixes, file an issue in UseJunior/legal-explainer rather
+than opening a pull request against this generated directory.

package/skills/{non-compete-contract-explainer → legal-explainers/non-compete-contract-explainer}/SKILL.md

@@ -100,7 +100,7 @@ The bundled jurisdictions are listed in `manifest.json` at this skill's root
 
 ## Notes
 
-- Content is licensed **CC BY 4.0** (© UseJunior); each `content/<slug>.md`
+- Content is licensed **CC BY 4.0** (© openagreements.org); each `content/<slug>.md`
   carries its own attribution and canonical link.
 - This skill does **not** download or execute network code. The only network
   action is the optional, user-approved canonical-URL refresh in step 5.

package/skills/legal-explainers/non-compete-contract-explainer/content/alabama.md

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+---
+jurisdiction: "Alabama"
+slug: alabama
+countryCode: US
+snapshotAsOf: "2026-06-19"
+lastReviewed: "2026-06-03"
+canonicalUrl: https://openagreements.org/practice-guides/non-compete/us/alabama
+license: CC BY 4.0
+stale: false
+---
+
+> [!IMPORTANT]
+> **Informational only — not legal advice.** This is a snapshot of an OpenAgreements practice note,
+> provided for general information. It is not legal advice, does not create an attorney-client
+> relationship, and is not a substitute for a licensed attorney in the relevant jurisdiction.
+> Laws change; verify against the canonical version before relying on it.
+>
+> **Canonical:** https://openagreements.org/practice-guides/non-compete/us/alabama · **Snapshot as of:** 2026-06-19 · License: CC BY 4.0 · © openagreements.org
+
+# Non-Competes in Alabama[^about]
+
+A question-by-question summary of Alabama non-compete law under the 2016 Restrictive Covenant Act (Ala. Code § 8-1-190 et seq.), including the void-by-default rule, the six statutory exceptions and their duration presumptions, protectable interests, the all-parties signature requirement after Amanda Howard, judicial reformation, the professional exemption, tolling-during-breach clauses, and choice-of-law limits.
+
+
+## At a glance
+
+| Question | Alabama |
+| --- | --- |
+| **Are non-competes enforceable?** | Allowed if reasonable |
+| **Bottom line** | Alabama voids non-competes by default but enforces an employee covenant that fits the Restrictive Covenant Act's narrow safe harbor, protects a statutory interest, and is properly signed. |
+| **Main law or case** | Ala. Code § 8-1-190 et seq. (Restrictive Covenant Act) |
+| **Main exceptions** | Sale of business; current-customer non-solicit (18-mo); employee no-hire for uniquely essential workers; professional exemption (physicians, CPAs, veterinarians, physical therapists) |
+| **Can a court narrow it?** | Yes — rewrites to reasonable |
+| **Applies to contractors?** | Unclear |
+| **Restriction extended during a breach?** | Not addressed by statute or case law |
+| **Maximum length set by law** | 2 years presumed reasonable (employee) |
+
+## Are employee non-compete agreements enforceable in Alabama? {#employee-noncompetes}
+
+**Short answer.** Yes, but only inside a narrow statutory safe harbor. Alabama starts from the rule that every contract restraining a lawful profession, trade, or business is void, and then allows an employee non-compete as one of six listed exceptions; a covenant of two years or less is presumed reasonable [^ala-8-1-190-void][^ala-8-1-190-employee].
+
+Alabama is not a reasonableness state in the usual sense. Restrictive covenants are now governed by the Alabama Restrictive Covenant Act, Ala. Code § 8-1-190 et seq. (enacted as Act 2015-465, effective in 2016), which replaced the older, common-law-driven § 8-1-1. The Act governs covenants entered on or after its effective date; agreements predating it remain governed by the former § 8-1-1, which is why several leading Alabama cases construe that predecessor statute. The Act begins with a presumption of voidness.
+
+"Every contract by which anyone is restrained from exercising a lawful profession, trade, or business of any kind otherwise than is provided by this section is to that extent void."[^ala-8-1-190-void]
+
+An employee non-compete escapes that rule only if it fits the employee exception in § 8-1-190(b)(4), which requires a specified geographic area and a competing business by the employer, and which builds in a durational presumption [^ala-8-1-190-employee]. Fitting a statutory category is necessary but not sufficient: the covenant still has to protect a statutory protectable interest, satisfy the writing-and-signature and consideration rules, and survive the professional exemption and any other defense. So the practical question in Alabama is rarely whether a covenant is generally reasonable; it is whether the covenant fits a statutory category and clears those additional limits.
+
+## Which restrictive covenants does the Alabama Restrictive Covenant Act allow? {#allowed-covenants}
+
+**Short answer.** Six categories, each with its own limits. The Act lists employee no-hire covenants for uniquely essential employees, exclusive-dealing agreements, sale-of-business covenants, employee non-competes, current-customer non-solicitation covenants, and dissolution covenants, with presumptively reasonable durations of one year for sales, two years for employee non-competes, and eighteen months for current-customer non-solicits [^ala-8-1-190-sale][^ala-8-1-190-nonsolicit].
+
+The exceptions are listed in § 8-1-190(b). They are the entire universe of allowed restraints; anything that does not fit one of the six is void. The employee-facing categories carry the most-cited duration presumptions.
+
+For a sale-of-business covenant, a one-year restraint is presumed reasonable [^ala-8-1-190-sale]. The customer non-solicitation exception reaches only *current* customers, not former or merely prospective ones, and for such a covenant the presumed-reasonable period is eighteen months or as long as post-separation consideration is paid, whichever is greater.
+
+"Restraints of 18 months or for as long as post-separation consideration is paid for such agreement, whichever is greater, are presumed to be reasonable."[^ala-8-1-190-nonsolicit]
+
+The employee no-hire category is unusually narrow. A covenant restricting the hiring of another party's workers is allowed only where the worker holds a position uniquely essential to the business [^ala-8-1-190-no-hire], a high bar that few rank-and-file or mid-level employees will meet.
+
+## What is a protectable interest under Alabama law? {#protectable-interest}
+
+**Short answer.** A statutorily listed interest, not ordinary competition. Section 8-1-191 lists trade secrets, confidential information, specific customer relationships and goodwill, and specialized training as protectable interests, and it states that job skills alone are not [^ala-8-1-191-customers][^ala-8-1-191-jobskills].
+
+Fitting a statutory exception is not enough; the party enforcing the covenant must also show it protects a protectable interest defined in § 8-1-191. The list includes trade secrets, which are defined by cross-reference to the Alabama Trade Secrets Act at Ala. Code § 8-27-2, along with confidential information, goodwill, and commercial relationships with specific customers, including prospective ones [^ala-8-1-191-customers].
+
+The statute draws a hard line at general skills. An employer cannot restrain a former employee just to suppress competition.
+
+"Job skills in and of themselves, without more, are not protectable interests."[^ala-8-1-191-jobskills]
+
+Specialized training counts, but only if the employer takes a specific drafting step: the training and its expense must be set out in writing in the agreement itself as consideration for the restraint [^ala-8-1-191-training].
+
+> [!CAUTION]
+> **Drafting note.**
+>
+> Do not rely on a generic recital of training to support an Alabama covenant. Section 8-1-191 makes specialized training a protectable interest only when the training and its anticipated expense are specifically set forth in writing in the agreement as consideration for the restraint, so a boilerplate reference will not qualify [^ala-8-1-191-training].
+
+## Must an Alabama non-compete be signed by all parties, including the employer? {#signature-requirement}
+
+**Short answer.** Yes. Section 8-1-192 requires the covenant to be in writing, signed by all parties, and supported by adequate consideration, and the Alabama Supreme Court held in Amanda Howard Real Estate v. Lee that an employer's failure to sign the document containing the covenant makes it void [^ala-8-1-192][^howard-affirm].
+
+Section 8-1-192 sets three formation requirements for any covenant under the Act.
+
+"In order to be valid, any contract or agreement executed pursuant to this article shall be reduced to writing, signed by all parties, and be supported by adequate consideration."[^ala-8-1-192]
+
+In *Amanda Howard Real Estate, LLC v. Lee*, the employee signed the addendum containing the non-compete in 2017, but no representative of the employer signed that document at the time; the employer did not sign it until the day the employee resigned, roughly two years later, after the employment contract had already been formed. The trial court held the covenant void, and the Supreme Court affirmed, reading the signed-by-all-parties requirement strictly.
+
+"We affirm the judgment because none of Howard Real Estate's arguments establish that it satisfied the statutory signatures requirement."[^howard-affirm]
+
+The Court rejected the employer's arguments that mutual assent shown by conduct, or full performance of the employment relationship, could substitute for the missing signature [^howard-thing-signed]. The signature has to be on the document that actually contains the restrictive covenant.
+
+> [!CAUTION]
+> **Drafting note.**
+>
+> Make sure the company itself signs the exact document that contains the non-compete, while the employment relationship is in place. After *Amanda Howard Real Estate v. Lee*, an employer's failure to timely sign the covenant document defeats enforcement of that covenant, and a much-later signature, payment, or assent shown by conduct will not cure it; a fresh, properly signed covenant going forward must itself satisfy § 8-1-192 [^howard-affirm][^howard-thing-signed].
+
+## When does an Alabama non-compete have to be signed relative to employment? {#timing-of-signing}
+
+**Short answer.** The safer answer is that it must. Under the predecessor statute, the Alabama Supreme Court held in Pitney Bowes v. Berney Office Solutions that a covenant signed before the employer-employee relationship began was void; the current Act's employee exceptions are written the same relationship-first way, though no decision under the 2016 Act has yet addressed the point [^pitney-timing].
+
+This is a timing trap that predates the 2016 Act but remains a live drafting risk. In *Pitney Bowes, Inc. v. Berney Office Solutions*, an employee signed a non-compete before the acquiring company became his employer, and the company tried to enforce it after the acquisition closed about a month later. The Court refused.
+
+"The voidness of the agreement in this case did not disappear when Pitney employed Morris almost a month after the signing."[^pitney-timing]
+
+*Pitney Bowes* construed the former § 8-1-1, but the employee exceptions in the current Act are written the same relationship-first way: § 8-1-190(b)(4) and (b)(5) allow a covenant by an *agent, servant, or employee of a commercial entity* with *such entity*, which presupposes an existing employment relationship at signing. The case also disposes of a common argument that paying for the covenant cures the problem; the Court explained the statute already assumes the covenant is supported by consideration [^pitney-consideration]. That is why Alabama treats continued employment of an existing employee as adequate consideration, while a payment cannot rescue a covenant that is void for a different reason.
+
+> [!NOTE]
+> **Practice note.**
+>
+> Do not have a new hire sign an Alabama non-compete before the employment relationship actually begins. *Pitney Bowes* held that a covenant signed before employment was void and did not become valid when employment later started, so the safer practice is to execute the covenant once the person is employed and to re-execute it after any acquisition that changes the employing entity [^pitney-timing].
+
+## Will an Alabama court narrow an overbroad non-compete instead of voiding it? {#blue-pencil}
+
+**Short answer.** Sometimes. Section 8-1-193 lets a court reform a covenant that is overly broad in duration, but it also tells the court to void the restraint entirely if it does not fit one of the six statutory exceptions in the first place [^ala-8-1-193-reform][^ala-8-1-193-void].
+
+Alabama gives courts a limited blue-pencil power. If the problem is an unreasonable duration, a court can trim the covenant and enforce the rest.
+
+"If a contractually specified restraint is overly broad or unreasonable in its duration, a court may void the restraint in part and reform it to preserve the protectable interest or interests."[^ala-8-1-193-reform]
+
+But reformation has a hard limit. A court can fix an overbroad term inside a valid category; it cannot rewrite a covenant that never fit a statutory exception to begin with [^ala-8-1-193-void]. For a restraint that is not tethered to a protectable interest, or that falls outside the six categories, the statute authorizes a court to void it in its entirety rather than narrow it. For a clause-by-clause pass over a specific agreement against these rules, the [Alabama non-compete review checklist](/checklists/non-compete/us/alabama) walks the full covenant suite item by item with each requirement's force level.
+
+> [!CAUTION]
+> **Drafting note.**
+>
+> Do not treat Alabama's blue-pencil power as a safety net for an overreaching covenant. Section 8-1-193 lets a court reform an overbroad *duration*, but it authorizes the court to void the entire restraint if the covenant does not fit one of the six § 8-1-190(b) exceptions, so a covenant that misses a statutory category should not be treated as salvageable through duration reformation [^ala-8-1-193-void].
+
+## Does Alabama exempt professionals from non-compete agreements? {#professional-exemption}
+
+**Short answer.** Yes, within limits. Section 8-1-196 preserves Alabama's common-law professional exemption, under which a non-compete cannot bar a member of a recognized profession from practicing that profession; Alabama courts have applied it to veterinarians and physical therapists. The exemption protects the practice of the profession, not unrelated business conduct [^ala-8-1-196][^benchmark-scope].
+
+The 2016 Act did not disturb the long-standing rule that professionals are off-limits for non-competes. Section 8-1-196 expressly keeps that exemption in place.
+
+"Nothing in this article shall be construed to eliminate any professional exemption recognized by Alabama law."[^ala-8-1-196]
+
+Alabama courts decide who is a professional using a multi-factor test drawn from cases under the former § 8-1-1, which § 8-1-196 carries forward. In *Friddle v. Raymond*, the Court listed the factors that distinguish a profession from an ordinary trade.
+
+"this Court stated several relevant factors to be considered in resolving the issue as to what constitutes a profession: professional training, skill, and experience required to perform certain services; delicate nature of the services offered; and the ability and need to make instantaneous decisions."[^friddle-factors]
+
+A professional cannot squeeze into the statutory exceptions, so a covenant that bars practicing the profession fails [^friddle-cannot-fall]. Alabama courts have classified physicians, certified public accountants, and veterinarians as professionals, and in *Benchmark Medical Holdings, Inc. v. Barnes* a federal court applying Alabama law extended the exemption to physical therapists [^benchmark-pt].
+
+The exemption is not blanket immunity, though. It protects the professional in the practice of the profession, not in every business activity.
+
+"A doctor is, instead, protected only in his practice of medicine, for the purpose of the protection is the interest of the public in being able to receive the doctor's professional services."[^benchmark-scope]
+
+So a professional cannot be barred from practicing, but conduct outside that practice — *Benchmark* used the example of acquiring competing practices purely as an investment, without managing them — can still be restrained.
+
+> [!NOTE]
+> **Practice note.**
+>
+> Do not assume a non-compete will keep a licensed professional from practicing in Alabama. Because § 8-1-196 preserves the common-law professional exemption, a covenant cannot bar a physician, accountant, veterinarian, physical therapist, or similar professional from practicing the profession, even when it would otherwise fit a statutory category, though restrictions on business activity outside that practice may still operate [^ala-8-1-196][^benchmark-scope].
+
+## Does a tolling or extension-during-breach clause extend an Alabama non-compete? {#tolling-during-breach}
+
+**Short answer.** Alabama law does not answer this directly. No Alabama appellate decision under the 2016 Act addresses a clause that pauses or extends the restricted period during breach or litigation, and a tolling clause that pushes the effective restraint past the presumptively reasonable window is exposed to reformation as an unreasonable duration [^q8-ala-8-1-190-2yr][^q8-ala-8-1-193-reform].
+
+Many non-compete forms add a tolling or extension clause so the employer gets the full restricted period even if the former employee competes during it. Alabama has no statute or controlling case on whether such a clause is enforceable, so this is an open question that calls for caution rather than confidence.
+
+The statutory text is the best available guide. The employee exception presumes a restraint of two years or less to be reasonable.
+
+"Restraints of two years or less are presumed to be reasonable."[^q8-ala-8-1-190-2yr]
+
+A tolling clause that adds the period of breach plus the time spent in litigation can stretch the effective restraint well beyond two years. Section 8-1-193 lets a court reform a restraint that is overly broad or unreasonable in its duration [^q8-ala-8-1-193-reform], which is the mechanism a court would likely use to cut an open-ended extension back to a reasonable fixed term. Because no Alabama court has ruled on the point, an employer should not assume a drafted tolling clause will add lost time back to the period.
+
+> [!NOTE]
+> **Practice note.**
+>
+> Treat an open-ended tolling-during-breach clause in an Alabama non-compete as unsettled and risky. No Alabama decision enforces one, the statute presumes only restraints of two years or less reasonable, and § 8-1-193 gives a court power to reform an unreasonable duration, so a defined, reasonable fixed term is the safer choice [^q8-ala-8-1-190-2yr][^q8-ala-8-1-193-reform].
+
+## Who has the burden of proof, and what remedies are available in Alabama? {#burden-remedies}
+
+**Short answer.** The party enforcing the covenant bears the burden on every element, while the party resisting must prove undue hardship if it raises that defense; remedies include injunctive relief, damages, and contractual attorneys' fees [^ala-8-1-194][^ala-8-1-195-fees].
+
+The Act allocates the burden of proof against the covenant. The employer must establish each element of enforceability.
+
+"The party seeking enforcement of the covenant has the burden of proof on every element."[^ala-8-1-194]
+
+The employee or other restrained party carries the burden only on undue hardship, and only if it chooses to raise that defense. On remedies, § 8-1-195 makes injunctive relief, actual or liquidated damages, and ordinary contract remedies available, including attorneys' fees where the contract or law provides for them [^ala-8-1-195-fees]. The Act also preserves any other defense available in law or equity [^ala-8-1-195-defenses].
+
+## Can an out-of-state choice-of-law clause bypass Alabama non-compete law? {#choice-of-law}
+
+**Short answer.** Usually not. Section 8-1-197 declares the Act to be fundamental public policy and directs Alabama courts to apply it instead of a foreign law whose application would violate that policy [^ala-8-1-197-govern].
+
+Multi-state employers often designate a more permissive state's law to escape Alabama's professional exemption or its other limits. The Act anticipates that move. It first declares its own status.
+
+"It is hereby declared that this article expresses fundamental public policies of the State of Alabama."[^ala-8-1-197-policy]
+
+It then tells courts to apply Alabama law over a conflicting foreign law.
+
+"Therefore, this article shall govern and shall be applied instead of any foreign laws that might otherwise be applicable in those instances when the application of those foreign laws would violate a fundamental public policy expressed in this article."[^ala-8-1-197-govern]
+
+Because the legislature labeled its restrictive-covenant rules fundamental public policy, an Alabama court, or a federal court applying Alabama conflicts rules, can disregard a foreign choice-of-law clause that would enforce a covenant Alabama treats as void.
+
+> [!NOTE]
+> **Practice note.**
+>
+> Do not count on a Delaware, Florida, or other foreign choice-of-law clause to make an otherwise void Alabama covenant enforceable. Section 8-1-197 designates the Act as fundamental public policy and directs courts to apply Alabama law instead of a conflicting foreign law, so a choice-of-law workaround is unreliable for covenants Alabama would void [^ala-8-1-197-govern].
+
+[^about]: By Steven Obiajulu, J.D. Published by [openagreements.org](https://openagreements.org). Last reviewed 2026-06-03. License: CC BY 4.0. Steven Obiajulu, J.D. is admitted in New York, not Alabama. This article synthesizes Alabama primary law and is not legal advice from a Alabama-admitted attorney. This article is for informational purposes only and does not create an attorney-client relationship.
+
+[^ala-8-1-190-void]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-190** — "Every contract by which anyone is restrained from exercising a lawful profession, trade, or business of any kind otherwise than is provided by this section is to that extent void." *Ala. Code § 8-1-190(a).* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-190>
+
+[^ala-8-1-190-employee]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-190** — "Restraints of two years or less are presumed to be reasonable." *Ala. Code § 8-1-190(b)(4).* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-190>
+
+[^ala-8-1-190-sale]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-190** — "Restraints of one year or less are presumed to be reasonable." *Ala. Code § 8-1-190(b)(3).* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-190>
+
+[^ala-8-1-190-nonsolicit]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-190** — "Restraints of 18 months or for as long as post-separation consideration is paid for such agreement, whichever is greater, are presumed to be reasonable." *Ala. Code § 8-1-190(b)(5).* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-190>
+
+[^ala-8-1-190-no-hire]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-190** — "A contract between two or more persons or businesses or a person and a business limiting their ability to hire or employ the agent, servant, or employees of a party to the contract where the agent, servant, or employee holds a position uniquely essential to the management, organization, or service of the business." *Ala. Code § 8-1-190(b)(1).* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-190>
+
+[^ala-8-1-191-customers]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-191** — "Commercial relationships or contacts with specific prospective or existing customers, patients, vendors, or clients." *Ala. Code § 8-1-191(a)(3).* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-191>
+
+[^ala-8-1-191-jobskills]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-191** — "Job skills in and of themselves, without more, are not protectable interests." *Ala. Code § 8-1-191(b).* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-191>
+
+[^ala-8-1-191-training]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-191** — "Specialized and unique training involving substantial business expenditure specifically directed to a particular agent, servant, or employee; provided that such training is specifically set forth in writing as the consideration for the restraint." *Ala. Code § 8-1-191(a)(5).* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-191>
+
+[^ala-8-1-192]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-192** — "In order to be valid, any contract or agreement executed pursuant to this article shall be reduced to writing, signed by all parties, and be supported by adequate consideration." *Ala. Code § 8-1-192.* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-192>
+
+[^howard-affirm]: **Amanda Howard Real Estate, LLC v. Lee** — "We affirm the judgment because none of Howard Real Estate's arguments establish that it satisfied the statutory signatures requirement." *Amanda Howard Real Estate, LLC v. Lee, 387 So. 3d 120 (Ala. 2023).* <https://www.cunninghambounds.com/documents/appellate-blog-category-/Howard-Real-Estate-LLC-v-Lee-and-JRHBW-Realty-Inc..pdf>
+
+[^howard-thing-signed]: **Amanda Howard Real Estate, LLC v. Lee** — "Thus, the thing that must be signed by all parties is the ‘contract or agreement’ containing the noncompete provision." *Amanda Howard Real Estate, LLC v. Lee, 387 So. 3d 120 (Ala. 2023).* <https://www.cunninghambounds.com/documents/appellate-blog-category-/Howard-Real-Estate-LLC-v-Lee-and-JRHBW-Realty-Inc..pdf>
+
+[^pitney-timing]: **Pitney Bowes, Inc. v. Berney Office Solutions** — "The voidness of the agreement in this case did not disappear when Pitney employed Morris almost a month after the signing." *Pitney Bowes, Inc. v. Berney Office Solutions, 823 So. 2d 659 (Ala. 2001).* <https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/1099624/pitney-bowes-inc-v-berney-office-solutions/#:~:text=The%20voidness%20of%20the%20agreement,a%20month%20after%20the%20signing.>
+
+[^pitney-consideration]: **Pitney Bowes, Inc. v. Berney Office Solutions** — "This statute, however, presupposes noncompete agreements supported by consideration." *Pitney Bowes, Inc. v. Berney Office Solutions, 823 So. 2d 659 (Ala. 2001).* <https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/1099624/pitney-bowes-inc-v-berney-office-solutions/#:~:text=This%20statute%2C%20however%2C%20presupposes%20noncompete%20agreements%20supported%20by%20consideration.>
+
+[^ala-8-1-193-reform]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-193** — "If a contractually specified restraint is overly broad or unreasonable in its duration, a court may void the restraint in part and reform it to preserve the protectable interest or interests." *Ala. Code § 8-1-193.* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-193>
+
+[^ala-8-1-193-void]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-193** — "If a contractually specified restraint does not fall within the limited exceptions set out in subsection (b) of Section 8-1-190, a court may void the restraint in its entirety." *Ala. Code § 8-1-193.* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-193>
+
+[^ala-8-1-196]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-196** — "Nothing in this article shall be construed to eliminate any professional exemption recognized by Alabama law." *Ala. Code § 8-1-196.* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-196>
+
+[^benchmark-scope]: **Benchmark Medical Holdings, Inc. v. Barnes** — "A doctor is, instead, protected only in his practice of medicine, for the purpose of the protection is the interest of the public in being able to receive the doctor's professional services." *Benchmark Med. Holdings, Inc. v. Barnes, 328 F. Supp. 2d 1236 (M.D. Ala. 2004).* <https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2438759/benchmark-medical-holdings-inc-v-barnes/#:~:text=A%20doctor%20is%2C%20instead%2C%20protected,receive%20the%20doctor's%20professional%20services.>
+
+[^friddle-factors]: **Friddle v. Raymond** — "this Court stated several relevant factors to be considered in resolving the issue as to what constitutes a profession: professional training, skill, and experience required to perform certain services; delicate nature of the services offered; and the ability and need to make instantaneous decisions." *Friddle v. Raymond, 575 So. 2d 1038 (Ala. 1991).* <https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/1839261/friddle-v-raymond/#:~:text=this%20Court%20stated%20several%20relevant,need%20to%20make%20instantaneous%20decisions.>
+
+[^friddle-cannot-fall]: **Friddle v. Raymond** — "this Court has stated on numerous occasions that a ‘professional’ cannot fall within these statutory exceptions." *Friddle v. Raymond, 575 So. 2d 1038 (Ala. 1991).* <https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/1839261/friddle-v-raymond/#:~:text=this%20Court%20has%20stated%20on,fall%20within%20these%20statutory%20exceptions.>
+
+[^benchmark-pt]: **Benchmark Medical Holdings, Inc. v. Barnes** — "Because a physical therapist as a professional cannot fall within either of these statutory exceptions, the general rule that non-compete agreements are invalid applies; therefore, physical therapists are not subject to non-competition agreements." *Benchmark Med. Holdings, Inc. v. Barnes, 328 F. Supp. 2d 1236 (M.D. Ala. 2004).* <https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2438759/benchmark-medical-holdings-inc-v-barnes/#:~:text=Because%20a%20physical%20therapist%20as,not%20subject%20to%20non%2Dcompetition%20agreements.>
+
+[^q8-ala-8-1-190-2yr]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-190** — "Restraints of two years or less are presumed to be reasonable." *Ala. Code § 8-1-190(b)(4).* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-190>
+
+[^q8-ala-8-1-193-reform]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-193** — "If a contractually specified restraint is overly broad or unreasonable in its duration, a court may void the restraint in part and reform it to preserve the protectable interest or interests." *Ala. Code § 8-1-193.* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-193>
+
+[^ala-8-1-194]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-194** — "The party seeking enforcement of the covenant has the burden of proof on every element." *Ala. Code § 8-1-194.* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-194>
+
+[^ala-8-1-195-fees]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-195** — "Any remedies available in contract law, including attorneys’ fees or costs, if provided for in the contract or otherwise provided for by law." *Ala. Code § 8-1-195(a)(3).* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-195>
+
+[^ala-8-1-195-defenses]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-195** — "Nothing in this article shall limit the availability of any defense otherwise available in law or equity." *Ala. Code § 8-1-195(b).* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-195>
+
+[^ala-8-1-197-govern]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-197** — "Therefore, this article shall govern and shall be applied instead of any foreign laws that might otherwise be applicable in those instances when the application of those foreign laws would violate a fundamental public policy expressed in this article." *Ala. Code § 8-1-197.* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-197>
+
+[^ala-8-1-197-policy]: **Ala. Code § 8-1-197** — "It is hereby declared that this article expresses fundamental public policies of the State of Alabama." *Ala. Code § 8-1-197.* <https://alison.legislature.state.al.us/code-of-alabama/8-1-197>