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-    [{"block_type":"image","img_src":"https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Redirect/file/Electrolysis_Apparatus.png","img_caption":"Illustration of a Hofmann electrolysis apparatus used in a school laboratory"},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":""},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"In [[Chemistry|chemistry|0|wiki]] and [[Manufacturing|manufacturing|1|wiki]], **electrolysis** is a technique that uses [[Direct_current|direct electric current|2|wiki]] (DC) to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous [[Chemical_reaction|chemical reaction|3|wiki]]. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in the separation of [[Chemical_element|elements|4|wiki]] from naturally occurring sources such as [[Ores|ores|5|wiki]] using an [[Electrolytic_cell|electrolytic cell|6|wiki]]. The [[Voltage|voltage|7|wiki]] that is needed for electrolysis to occur is called the decomposition potential. The word \"lysis\" means to separate or break, so in terms, electrolysis would mean \"breakdown via electricity\"."},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Etymology","heading_level":1,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"The word \"electrolysis\" was introduced by [[Michael_Faraday|Michael Faraday|8|wiki]] in 1834, using the [[Greek_language|Greek|9|wiki]] words ἤλεκτρον \"amber\", which since the 17th century was associated with [[Electrical_phenomena|electrical phenomena|10|wiki]], and λύσις  meaning \"dissolution\". Nevertheless, electrolysis, as a tool to study chemical reactions and obtain pure [[Chemical_element|elements|11|wiki]], precedes the coinage of the term and formal description by Faraday."}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"History","heading_level":1,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"In the early nineteenth century, [[William_Nicholson_(chemist)|William Nicholson|12|wiki]] and [[Anthony_Carlisle|Anthony Carlisle|13|wiki]] sought to further [[Alessandro_Volta|Volta's|14|wiki]] experiments. They attached two wires to either side of a [[Voltaic_pile|voltaic pile|15|wiki]] and placed the other ends in a tube filled with water. They noticed when the wires were brought together that each wire produced bubbles. One type was hydrogen, the other was oxygen."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"In 1785 a Dutch scientist named [[Martin_van_Marum|Martin van Marum|16|wiki]] created an electrostatic generator that he used to reduce tin, zinc and antimony from their salts using a process later known as electrolysis. Though he unknowingly produced electrolysis, it was not until 1800 when William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle discovered how electrolysis works."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"In 1791 [[Luigi_Galvani|Luigi Galvani|17|wiki]] experimented with frog legs. He claimed that placing animal muscle between two dissimilar metal sheets resulted in electricity. Responding to these claims, [[Alessandro_Volta|Alessandro Volta|18|wiki]] conducted his own tests. This would give insight to [[Humphry_Davy|Humphry Davy|19|wiki]]'s ideas on electrolysis. During preliminary experiments, Humphry Davy hypothesized that when two elements combine to form a compound, electrical energy is released. Humphry Davy would go on to create Decomposition Tables from his preliminary experiments on Electrolysis. The Decomposition Tables would give insight on the energies needed to break apart certain compounds."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"In 1817 [[Johan_August_Arfwedson|Johan August Arfwedson|20|wiki]] determined there was another element, lithium, in some of his samples; however, he could not isolate the component. It was not until 1821 that [[William_Thomas_Brande|William Thomas Brande|21|wiki]] used electrolysis to single it out. Two years later, he streamlined the process using lithium chloride and potassium chloride with electrolysis to produce lithium and lithium hydroxide."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"During the later years of Humphry Davy's research, Michael Faraday became his assistant. While studying the process of electrolysis under Humphry Davy, Michael Faraday discovered two [[Laws_of_electrolysis|laws of electrolysis|22|wiki]]."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"During the time of Maxwell and Faraday, concerns came about for [[Electropositive|electropositive|23|wiki]] and [[Electronegative|electronegative|24|wiki]] activities."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"In November 1875, [[Paul_Émile_Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran|Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran|25|wiki]] discovered [[Gallium|gallium|26|wiki]] using electrolysis of gallium hydroxide, producing 3.4 mg of gallium. The following December, he presented his discovery of gallium to the [[Académie_des_sciences|Académie des sciences|27|wiki]] in Paris."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"On June 26, 1886, [[Ferdinand_Frederick_Henri_Moissan|Ferdinand Frederick Henri Moissan|28|wiki]] finally felt comfortable performing electrolysis on [[Anhydrous|anhydrous|29|wiki]] hydrogen fluoride to create a gaseous fluorine pure element. Before he used hydrogen fluoride, Henri Moissan used fluoride salts with electrolysis. Thus on June 28, 1886, he performed his experiment in front of the Académie des sciences to show his discovery of the new element fluorine. While trying to find elemental fluorine through electrolysis of fluoride salts, many chemists perished including Paulin Louyet and Jérôme Nicklès."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"In 1886 [[Charles_Martin_Hall|Charles Martin Hall|30|wiki]] from America and [[Paul_Héroult|Paul Héroult|31|wiki]] from France both filed for American patents for the electrolysis of aluminum, with Héroult submitting his in May, and Hall, in July. Hall was able to get his patent by proving through letters to his brother and family evidence that his method was discovered before the French patent was submitted. This became known as the [[Hall–Héroult_process|Hall–Héroult process|32|wiki]] which benefited many industries because aluminum's price then dropped from four dollars to thirty cents per pound."},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Timeline","heading_level":2,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":""},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"1785 – [[Martinus_van_Marum|Martinus van Marum|33|wiki]]'s electrostatic generator was used to reduce [[Tin|tin|34|wiki]], [[Zinc|zinc|35|wiki]], and [[Antimony|antimony|36|wiki]] from their salts using electrolysis."},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"1800 – [[William_Nicholson_(chemist)|William Nicholson|37|wiki]] and [[Anthony_Carlisle|Anthony Carlisle|38|wiki]] (and also [[Johann_Ritter|Johann Ritter|39|wiki]]), decomposed [[Water|water|40|wiki]] into [[Hydrogen|hydrogen|41|wiki]] and [[Oxygen|oxygen|42|wiki]]."},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"1808 – [[Potassium|Potassium|43|wiki]] (1807), [[Sodium|sodium|44|wiki]] (1807), [[Barium|barium|45|wiki]], [[Calcium|calcium|46|wiki]] and [[Magnesium|magnesium|47|wiki]] were discovered by [[Sir_Humphry_Davy|Humphry Davy|48|wiki]] using electrolysis."},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"1821 – [[Lithium|Lithium|49|wiki]] was discovered by the English chemist [[William_Thomas_Brande|William Thomas Brande|50|wiki]], who obtained it by electrolysis of lithium oxide."},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"1834 – [[Michael_Faraday|Michael Faraday|51|wiki]] published his [[Faraday's_laws_of_electrolysis|two laws of electrolysis|52|wiki]], provided a mathematical explanation for them, and introduced terminology such as electrode, electrolyte, anode, cathode, anion, and cation."},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"1875 – [[Paul_Émile_Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran|Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran|53|wiki]] discovered [[Gallium|gallium|54|wiki]] using electrolysis."},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"1886 – [[Fluorine|Fluorine|55|wiki]] was discovered by [[Henri_Moissan|Henri Moissan|56|wiki]] using electrolysis."},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"1886 – [[Hall–Héroult_process|Hall–Héroult process|57|wiki]] developed for making [[Aluminium|aluminium|58|wiki]]."},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"1890 – [[Castner–Kellner_process|Castner–Kellner process|59|wiki]] developed for making [[Sodium_hydroxide|sodium hydroxide|60|wiki]]."}]}]}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Overview","heading_level":1,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"Electrolysis is the passing of a [[Direct_current|direct electric current|61|wiki]] through an [[Electrolyte|electrolyte|62|wiki]] producing chemical reactions at the [[Electrode|electrodes|63|wiki]] and [[Chemical_decomposition|decomposition|64|wiki]] of the materials."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"The main components required to achieve electrolysis are an [[Electrolyte|electrolyte|65|wiki]], electrodes, and an external power source. A partition (e.g. an [[Ion-exchange_membrane|ion-exchange membrane|66|wiki]] or a [[Salt_bridge|salt bridge|67|wiki]]) is optional to keep the products from diffusing to the vicinity of the opposite electrode."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"The electrolyte is a [[Chemical_substance|chemical substance|68|wiki]] which contains [[Ion|free ions|69|wiki]] and carries [[Electric_current|electric current|70|wiki]] (e.g. an ion-conducting [[Polymer|polymer|71|wiki]], solution, or a [[Ionic_liquid|ionic liquid|72|wiki]] compound). If the ions are not mobile, as in most solid [[Salt_(chemistry)|salts|73|wiki]], then electrolysis cannot occur. A liquid electrolyte is produced by:"},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"The electrodes are immersed separated by a distance such that a current flows between them through the [[Electrolyte|electrolyte|74|wiki]] and are connected to the power source which completes the [[Electrical_circuit|electrical circuit|75|wiki]]. A [[Direct_current|direct current|76|wiki]] supplied by the power source drives the reaction causing ions in the electrolyte to be attracted toward the respective oppositely charged electrode."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"Electrodes of [[Metal|metal|77|wiki]], [[Graphite|graphite|78|wiki]] and [[Semiconductor|semiconductor|79|wiki]] material are widely used. Choice of suitable [[Electrode|electrode|80|wiki]] depends on chemical reactivity between the electrode and electrolyte and manufacturing cost. Historically, when non-reactive anodes were desired for electrolysis, graphite (called plumbago in Faraday's time) or platinum were chosen. They were found to be some of the least reactive materials for anodes. Platinum erodes very slowly compared to other materials, and graphite crumbles and can produce carbon dioxide in aqueous solutions but otherwise does not participate in the reaction. Cathodes may be made of the same material, or they may be made from a more reactive one since anode wear is greater due to oxidation at the anode."},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Solvation|Solvation|81|wiki]] or reaction of an [[Ionic_compound|ionic compound|82|wiki]] with a [[Solvent|solvent|83|wiki]] (such as water) to produce mobile ions"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"An ionic compound melted by heating"}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Process of electrolysis","heading_level":2,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"The key process of electrolysis is the interchange of atoms and ions by the removal or addition of electrons due to the applied current. The desired products of electrolysis are often in a different physical state from the electrolyte and can be removed by mechanical processes (e.g. by collecting gas above an electrode or precipitating a product out of the electrolyte)."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"The quantity of the products is proportional to the current, and when two or more electrolytic cells are connected in series to the same power source, the products produced in the cells are proportional to their [[Equivalent_weight|equivalent weight|84|wiki]]. These are known as [[Faraday's_laws_of_electrolysis|Faraday's laws of electrolysis|85|wiki]]."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"Each electrode attracts ions that are of the opposite [[Electric_charge|charge|86|wiki]]. Positively charged ions ([[Cation|cations|87|wiki]]) move towards the electron-providing (negative) cathode. Negatively charged ions ([[Anion|anions|88|wiki]]) move towards the electron-extracting (positive) anode. In this process [[Electron|electrons|89|wiki]] are effectively introduced at the cathode as a [[Reagent|reactant|90|wiki]] and removed at the anode as a [[Product_(chemistry)|product|91|wiki]]. In chemistry, the loss of electrons is called [[Oxidation|oxidation|92|wiki]], while electron gain is called [[Reduction_(chemistry)|reduction|93|wiki]]."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"When neutral atoms or molecules, such as those on the surface of an electrode, gain or lose electrons they become ions and may dissolve in the electrolyte and react with other ions."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"When ions gain or lose electrons and become neutral, they will form compounds that separate from the electrolyte. Positive metal ions like Cu2+ deposit onto the cathode in a layer. The terms for this are [[Electroplating|electroplating|94|wiki]], [[Electrowinning|electrowinning|95|wiki]], and [[Electrorefining|electrorefining|96|wiki]]."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"When an ion gains or loses electrons without becoming neutral, its electronic charge is altered in the process."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"For example, the [[Chloralkali_process|electrolysis of brine|97|wiki]] produces hydrogen and chlorine gases which bubble from the electrolyte and are collected. The initial overall reaction is thus:"},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":""},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"The reaction at the anode results in chlorine gas from chlorine ions:"},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"The reaction at the cathode results in hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions:"},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"Without a partition between the electrodes, the OH− ions produced at the cathode are free to diffuse throughout the electrolyte to the anode. As the electrolyte becomes more [[Base_(chemistry)|basic|98|wiki]] due to the production of OH−, less Cl2 emerges from the solution as it begins to react with the hydroxide producing [[Hypochlorite|hypochlorite|99|wiki]] (ClO−) at the anode:"},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":""},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"The more opportunity the Cl2 has to interact with NaOH in the solution, the less Cl2 emerges at the surface of the solution and the faster the production of hypochlorite progresses. This depends on factors such as solution temperature, the amount of time the Cl2 molecule is in contact with the solution, and concentration of NaOH."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"Likewise, as hypochlorite increases in concentration, chlorates are produced from them:"},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":""},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"Other reactions occur, such as the [[Self-ionization_of_water|self-ionization of water|100|wiki]] and the decomposition of hypochlorite at the cathode, the rate of the latter depends on factors such as [[Diffusion|diffusion|101|wiki]] and the surface area of the cathode in contact with the electrolyte."},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"2 NaCl + 2 H2O → 2 NaOH + H2 + Cl2"}]},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"2 Cl− → Cl2 + 2 e−"}]},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"2 H2O + 2 e− → H2 + 2 OH−"}]},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"Cl2 + 2 NaOH → NaCl + NaClO + H2O"}]},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"3 NaClO → NaClO3 + 2 NaCl"}]}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Decomposition potential","heading_level":2,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"Decomposition potential or decomposition voltage refers to the minimum voltage (difference in [[Electrode_potential|electrode potential|102|wiki]]) between [[Anode|anode|103|wiki]] and [[Cathode|cathode|104|wiki]] of an electrolytic cell that is needed for electrolysis to occur."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"The voltage at which electrolysis is thermodynamically preferred is the difference of the electrode potentials as calculated using the [[Nernst_equation|Nernst equation|105|wiki]]. Applying additional voltage, referred to as [[Overpotential|overpotential|106|wiki]], can increase the rate of reaction and is often needed above the thermodynamic value. It is especially necessary for electrolysis reactions involving gases, such as [[Oxygen|oxygen|107|wiki]], [[Hydrogen|hydrogen|108|wiki]] or [[Chlorine|chlorine|109|wiki]]."}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Oxidation and reduction at the electrodes","heading_level":2,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"[[Oxidation|Oxidation|110|wiki]] of ions or neutral molecules occurs at the [[Anode|anode|111|wiki]]. For example, it is possible to oxidize ferrous ions to ferric ions at the anode: [[Redox|Reduction|112|wiki]] of ions or neutral molecules occurs at the [[Cathode|cathode|113|wiki]]. It is possible to reduce [[Ferricyanide|ferricyanide|114|wiki]] ions to [[Ferrocyanide|ferrocyanide|115|wiki]] ions at the cathode:"},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"Neutral molecules can also react at either of the electrodes. For example: *p*-benzoquinone can be reduced to hydroquinone at the cathode:"},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":""},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"In the last example, H+ ions (hydrogen ions) also take part in the reaction and are provided by the acid in the solution, or by the solvent itself (water, methanol, etc.). Electrolysis reactions involving H+ ions are fairly common in acidic solutions. In aqueous alkaline solutions, reactions involving OH− (hydroxide ions) are common."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"Sometimes the solvents themselves (usually water) are oxidized or reduced at the electrodes. It is even possible to have electrolysis involving gases, e.g. by using a [[Gas_diffusion_electrode|gas diffusion electrode|116|wiki]]."},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"Fe(aq) → Fe(aq) + e−"}]},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"Fe(CN) + e− → Fe(CN)"}]},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Image:P-Benzochinon.svg|35px|117|wiki]] + 2 e− + 2 H+ → [[Image:Hydrochinon2.svg|90px|118|wiki]]"}]}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Energy changes during electrolysis","heading_level":2,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"The amount of electrical energy that must be added equals the change in [[Gibbs_free_energy|Gibbs free energy|119|wiki]] of the reaction plus the losses in the system. The losses can (in theory) be arbitrarily close to zero, so the maximum [[Thermodynamics|thermodynamic|120|wiki]] efficiency equals the [[Enthalpy|enthalpy|121|wiki]] change divided by the free energy change of the reaction. In most cases, the electric input is larger than the enthalpy change of the reaction, so some energy is released in the form of heat. In some cases, for instance, in the electrolysis of [[Steam|steam|122|wiki]] into hydrogen and oxygen at high temperature, the opposite is true and heat energy is absorbed. This heat is absorbed from the surroundings, and the [[Heating_value|heating value|123|wiki]] of the produced hydrogen is higher than the electric input."}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Variations","heading_level":2,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"[[Pulsed_DC|Pulsating current|124|wiki]] results in products different from DC. For example, pulsing increases the ratio of [[Ozone|ozone|125|wiki]] to oxygen produced at the anode in the electrolysis of an aqueous acidic solution such as dilute sulphuric acid. Electrolysis of ethanol with pulsed current evolves an aldehyde instead of primarily an acid."}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Related processes","heading_level":2,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"[[Galvanic_cell|Galvanic cells|126|wiki]] and [[Electric_battery|batteries|127|wiki]] use spontaneous, energy-releasing [[Redox_reactions|redox reactions|128|wiki]] to generate an electrical potential that provides useful power. When a [[Electric_battery|secondary battery|129|wiki]] is charged, its redox reaction is run in reverse and the system can be considered as an [[Electrolytic_cell|electrolytic cell|130|wiki]]."}]}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Industrial uses","heading_level":1,"children":[{"block_type":"image","img_src":"https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Redirect/file/Hall-heroult-kk-2008-12-31.png","img_caption":"Hall–Héroult process for producing aluminium"},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":""},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Electrometallurgy|Electrometallurgy|131|wiki]] of [[Aluminium|aluminium|132|wiki]], [[Lithium|lithium|133|wiki]], [[Sodium|sodium|134|wiki]], [[Potassium|potassium|135|wiki]], [[Magnesium|magnesium|136|wiki]], [[Calcium|calcium|137|wiki]], and in some cases [[Copper|copper|138|wiki]]."},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Chlorine_production|Production of chlorine|139|wiki]] and [[Sodium_hydroxide|sodium hydroxide|140|wiki]], called the [[Chloralkali_process|Chloralkali process|141|wiki]]."},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"Production of [[Sodium_chlorate|sodium chlorate|142|wiki]] and [[Potassium_chlorate|potassium chlorate|143|wiki]]."},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"Production of perfluorinated organic compounds such as [[Trifluoroacetic_acid|trifluoroacetic acid|144|wiki]] by the process of [[Electrofluorination|electrofluorination|145|wiki]]."},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Copper_extraction_techniques|Purifying copper|146|wiki]] from refined [[Copper|copper|147|wiki]]."},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"Production of fuels such as [[Hydrogen|hydrogen|148|wiki]] for [[Spacecraft|spacecraft|149|wiki]], [[Nuclear_submarines|nuclear submarines|150|wiki]] and [[FCEV|vehicles|151|wiki]]."},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Rust|Rust removal|152|wiki]] and cleaning of old coins and other metallic objects."}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Manufacturing processes","heading_level":2,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"In manufacturing, electrolysis can be used for:"},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Electroplating|Electroplating|153|wiki]], where a thin film of metal is deposited over a substrate material. Electroplating is used in many industries for either functional or decorative purposes, as in-vehicle bodies and nickel coins."},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Electrochemical_machining|Electrochemical machining|154|wiki]] (ECM), where an electrolytic cathode is used as a shaped tool for removing material by anodic oxidation from a workpiece. ECM is often used as a technique for [[Burr_(edge)|deburring|155|wiki]] or for etching metal surfaces like tools or knives with a permanent mark or logo."}]}]}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Competing half-reactions in solution electrolysis","heading_level":1,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"Using a cell containing inert platinum electrodes, electrolysis of aqueous solutions of some salts leads to the reduction of the cations (such as metal deposition with, for example, zinc salts) and oxidation of the anions (such as the evolution of bromine with bromides). However, with salts of some metals (such as sodium) hydrogen is evolved at the cathode, and for salts containing some anions (such as sulfate ) oxygen is evolved at the anode. In both cases, this is due to water being reduced to form hydrogen or oxidized to form oxygen. In principle, the voltage required to electrolyze a salt solution can be derived from the [[Standard_electrode_potential|standard electrode potential|156|wiki]] for the reactions at the anode and cathode. The standard electrode potential is directly related to the [[Gibbs_free_energy|Gibbs free energy|157|wiki]], Δ*G*, for the reactions at each electrode and refers to an electrode with no current flowing. An extract from the [[Table_of_standard_electrode_potentials|table of standard electrode potentials|158|wiki]] is shown below."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"! [[Half-reaction|Half-reaction|159|wiki]] ! *E*° (V) ! Ref. In terms of electrolysis, this table should be interpreted as follows:"},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":""},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"Using the [[Nernst_equation|Nernst equation|160|wiki]] the [[Electrode_potential|electrode potential|161|wiki]] can be calculated for a specific concentration of ions, temperature and the number of electrons involved. For pure water ([[PH|pH|162|wiki]] 7): Comparable figures calculated in a similar way, for 1 M [[Zinc_bromide|zinc bromide|163|wiki]], ZnBr2, are −0.76 V for the reduction to Zn metal and +1.10 V for the oxidation producing bromine. The conclusion from these figures is that hydrogen should be produced at the cathode and oxygen at the anode from the electrolysis of water—which is at variance with the experimental observation that zinc metal is deposited and bromine is produced. The explanation is that these calculated potentials only indicate the thermodynamically preferred reaction. In practice, many other factors have to be taken into account such as the kinetics of some of the reaction steps involved. These factors together mean that a higher potential is required for the reduction and oxidation of water than predicted, and these are termed [[Overpotential|overpotentials|164|wiki]]. Experimentally it is known that overpotentials depend on the design of the cell and the nature of the electrodes."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"For the electrolysis of a neutral (pH 7) sodium chloride solution, the reduction of sodium ion is thermodynamically very difficult and water is reduced evolving hydrogen leaving hydroxide ions in solution. At the anode the oxidation of [[Chlorine|chlorine|165|wiki]] is observed rather than the oxidation of [[Water|water|166|wiki]] since the overpotential for the oxidation of [[Chloride|chloride|167|wiki]] to chlorine is lower than the overpotential for the oxidation of water to [[Oxygen|oxygen|168|wiki]]. The [[Hydroxide_ion|hydroxide ions|169|wiki]] and dissolved chlorine gas react further to form [[Hypochlorous_acid|hypochlorous acid|170|wiki]]. The aqueous solutions resulting from this process is called [[Electrolyzed_water|electrolyzed water|171|wiki]] and is used as a disinfectant and cleaning agent."},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"{| class=\"wikitable\""}]},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Sodium|Na|172|wiki]]+ + e− Na(s)"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"−2.71 ||"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Zinc|Zn|173|wiki]]2+ + 2 e− Zn(s)"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"−0.7618 ||"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"**2 H+ + 2 e− H2(g)**"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"**≡ 0**||"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"Br2(aq) + 2 e− 2 Br−"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"+1.0873 ||"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"O2(g) + 4 H+ + 4 e− 2 H2O"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"+1.23 ||"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"Cl2(g) + 2 e− 2 Cl−"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"+1.36 ||"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"+ 2 e− 2"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"+2.07 ||"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"}"}]},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"Cl2(g) + 2 e− 2 Cl−"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"+1.36 ||"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"+ 2 e− 2"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"+2.07 ||"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"}"}]},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"+2.07 ||"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"}"}]},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"Moving *down* the table, *E*° becomes more positive, and species on the *left* are more likely to be *reduced*: for example, zinc ions are more likely to be reduced to zinc metal than sodium ions are to be reduced to sodium metal."},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"Moving *up* the table, *E*° becomes more negative, and species on the *right* are more likely to be *oxidized*: for example, sodium metal is more likely to be oxidized to sodium ions than zinc metal is to be oxidized to zinc ions."}]},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"the electrode potential for the reduction producing hydrogen is −0.41 V,"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"the electrode potential for the oxidation producing oxygen is +0.82 V."}]}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Research trends","heading_level":1,"children":[{"block_type":"heading","content":"Electrolysis of carbon dioxide","heading_level":2,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"The electrochemical reduction or electrocatalytic conversion of [[Carbon_dioxide|CO2|174|wiki]] can produce value-added chemicals such [[Methane|methane|175|wiki]], [[Ethylene|ethylene|176|wiki]], [[Ethanol|ethanol|177|wiki]], etc. The electrolysis of carbon dioxide gives formate or carbon monoxide, but sometimes more elaborate organic compounds such as [[Ethylene|ethylene|178|wiki]]. This technology is under research as a carbon-neutral route to organic compounds."}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Electrolysis of acidified water","heading_level":2,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"Electrolysis of water produces [[Hydrogen|hydrogen|179|wiki]] and oxygen in a ratio of 2 to 1 respectively."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"The [[Energy_conversion_efficiency|energy efficiency|180|wiki]] of water electrolysis varies widely. The efficiency of an electrolyzer is a measure of the enthalpy contained in the hydrogen (to undergo combustion with oxygen or some other later reaction), compared with the input electrical energy. Heat/enthalpy values for hydrogen are well published in science and engineering texts, as 144 MJ/kg. Note that fuel cells (not electrolyzers) cannot use this full amount of heat/enthalpy, which has led to some confusion when calculating efficiency values for both types of technology. In the reaction, some energy is lost as heat. Some reports quote efficiencies between 50% and 70% for alkaline electrolyzers; however, much higher practical efficiencies are available with the use of [[Polymer_electrolyte_membrane_electrolysis|polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis|181|wiki]] and catalytic technology, such as 95% efficiency."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"The [[National_Renewable_Energy_Laboratory|National Renewable Energy Laboratory|182|wiki]] estimated in 2006 that 1 kg of hydrogen (roughly equivalent to 3 kg, or 4 liters, of petroleum in energy terms) could be produced by wind powered electrolysis for between US$5.55 in the near term and US$2.27 in the longer term."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"About 4% of hydrogen gas produced worldwide is generated by electrolysis, and normally used onsite. Hydrogen is used for the creation of ammonia for fertilizer via the [[Haber_process|Haber process|183|wiki]], and converting heavy petroleum sources to lighter fractions via [[Hydrocracking|hydrocracking|184|wiki]]. Recently, onsite electrolysis has been utilized to capture hydrogen for hydrogen fuel-cells in [[Hydrogen_vehicles|hydrogen vehicles|185|wiki]]."},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"2 H2O(l) → 2 H2(g) + O2(g) *E*° = +1.229 V"}]}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis","heading_level":2,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"Recently, to reduce the energy input, the utilization of carbon ([[Coal|coal|186|wiki]]), [[Alcohol_(chemistry)|alcohols|187|wiki]] (hydrocarbon solution), and organic solution ([[Glycerol|glycerol|188|wiki]], formic acid, [[Ethylene_glycol|ethylene glycol|189|wiki]], etc.) with co-electrolysis of water has been proposed as a viable option. The carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis (so-called CAWE) process for hydrogen generation would perform this operation in a single [[Electrochemical|electrochemical|190|wiki]] reactor. This system energy balance can be required only around 40% electric input with 60% coming from the chemical energy of carbon or hydrocarbon. This process utilizes solid coal/carbon particles or powder as fuels dispersed in acid/alkaline electrolyte in the form of slurry and the carbon contained source co-assist in the electrolysis process as following theoretical overall reactions:"},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":""},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"or"},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":""},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"Thus, this CAWE approach is that the actual cell overpotential can be significantly reduced to below 1.0 V as compared to 1.5 V for conventional water electrolysis."},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"Carbon/Coal slurry (C + 2H2O) → CO2 + 2H2 *E*′ = 0.21 V (reversible voltage) / *E*′ = 0.46 V (thermo-neutral voltage)"}]},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"Carbon/Coal slurry (C + H2O) → CO + H2 *E*′ = 0.52 V (reversible voltage) / *E*′ = 0.91 V (thermo-neutral voltage)"}]}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Electrocrystallization","heading_level":2,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"A specialized application of electrolysis involves the growth of conductive crystals on one of the electrodes from oxidized or reduced species that are generated in situ. The technique has been used to obtain single crystals of low-dimensional electrical conductors, such as [[Charge-transfer_salt|charge-transfer salts|191|wiki]] and [[Linear_chain_compound|linear chain compounds|192|wiki]]."}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Electrolysis of Iron Ore","heading_level":2,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"The current method of producing steel from [[Iron_ore|iron ore|193|wiki]] is very carbon intensive, in part to the direct release of CO2 in the blast furnace. A study of steel making in Germany found that producing 1 ton of steel emitted 2.1 tons of [[Global_warming_potential|CO2e|194|wiki]] with 22% of that being direct emissions from the blast furnace. As of 2022, steel production contributes 7–9% of global emissions. Electrolysis of iron can eliminate direct emissions and further reduce emissions if the electricity is created from green energy."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"The small-scale electrolysis of iron has been successfully reported by dissolving it in molten [[Oxide|oxide|195|wiki]] salts and using a platinum anode. Oxygen anions form oxygen gas and electrons at the anode. Iron cations consume electrons and form iron metal at the cathode. This method was performed a temperature of 1550 °C which presents a significant challenge to maintaining the reaction. Particularly, anode [[Corrosion|corrosion|196|wiki]] is a concern at these temperatures."},{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"Additionally, the low temperature reduction of iron oxide by dissolving it in alkaline water has been reported. The temperature is much lower than traditional iron production at 114 °C. The low temperatures also tend to correlate with higher current efficiencies, with an efficiency of 95% being reported. While these methods are promising, they struggle to be cost competitive because of the large economies of scale keeping the price of blast furnace iron low."}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"Electrolysis of seawater","heading_level":2,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":"A 2020 study investigated direct electrolysis of seawater, alkaline electrolysis, [[Proton-exchange_membrane|proton-exchange membrane electrolysis|197|wiki]], and [[Solid_oxide_electrolyzer_cell|solid oxide electrolysis|198|wiki]]. Direct electrolysis of seawater follows known processes, forming an electrolysis cell in which the seawater acts as the electrolyte to allow for the reaction at the [[Anode|anode|199|wiki]], and the reaction at the [[Cathode|cathode|200|wiki]],. The inclusion of [[Magnesium|magnesium|201|wiki]] and [[Calcium|calcium|202|wiki]] [[Ion|ions|203|wiki]] in the seawater makes the production of alkali [[Hydroxide|hydroxides|204|wiki]] possible that could form scales in the electrolyser cell, cutting down on lifespan and increasing the need for maintenance. The alkaline electrolyzers operate with the following reactions at the anode, and cathode,, and use high base solutions as electrolytes, operating at 60-90 C and need additional separators to ensure the gas phase hydrogen and oxygen remain separate. The electrolyte can easily get contaminated, but the alkaline electrolyser can operate under pressure to improve energy consumption. The electrodes can be made of inexpensive materials and there's no requirement for an expensive catalyst in the design. Proton-exchange membrane electrolyzers operate with the reactions at the anode, and cathode,, at temperatures of 60-80 C, using a solid polymer electrolyte and requiring higher costs of processing to allow the solid electrolyte to touch uniformly to the electrodes. Similar to the alkaline electrolyzer, the proton exchange membrane electrolyser can operate at higher pressures, reducing the energy costs required to compress the hydrogen gas afterward, but the proton exchange membrane  electrolyser also benefits from rapid response times to changes in power requirements or demands and not needing maintenance, at the cost of having a faster inherent degradation rate and being the most vulnerable to impurities in the water. Solid oxide electrolyzers run the reactions at the anode and at the cathode.The solid oxide electrolyzers require high temperatures (700-1000 C) to operate, generating superheated steam. They suffer from degradation when turned off, making it a more inflexible hydrogen generation technology. In a selected series of [[Multiple-criteria_decision_analysis|multiple-criteria decision-analysis|205|wiki]] comparisons in which the highest priority was placed on economic operation costs followed equally by environmental and social criteria, it was found that the proton exchange membrane electrolyser offered the most suitable combination of values (e.g., investment cost, maintenance, and operation cost, resistance to impurities, specific energy for hydrogen production at sea, risk of environmental impact, etc.), followed by the alkaline electrolyzer, with the alkaline  electrolyser being the most economically feasible, but more hazardous in terms of safety and environmental concerns due to the need for basic electrolyte solutions as opposed to the solid polymers used in proton-exchange membranes. Due to the methods conducted in multiple-criteria decision analysis, non-objective weights are applied to the various factors, and so multiple methods of decision analysis were performed simultaneously to examine the electrolyzers in a way that minimizes the effects of bias on the performance conclusions."}]}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"See also","heading_level":1,"children":[{"block_type":"paragraph","content":""},{"block_type":"list","list_type":"ordered","content":[{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Alkaline_water_electrolysis|Alkaline water electrolysis|206|wiki]]"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Castner–Kellner_process|Castner–Kellner process|207|wiki]]"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Electrolytic_cell|Electrolytic cell|208|wiki]]"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Electrochemical_engineering|Electrochemical engineering|209|wiki]]"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Faraday's_law_of_electrolysis|Faraday's law of electrolysis|210|wiki]]"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Faraday_constant|Faraday constant|211|wiki]]"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Faraday_efficiency|Faraday efficiency|212|wiki]]"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Galvanic_corrosion|Galvanic corrosion|213|wiki]]"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Galvanoluminescence|Galvanoluminescence|214|wiki]]"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Gas_cracker|Gas cracker|215|wiki]]"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Hall–Héroult_process|Hall–Héroult process|216|wiki]]"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[High-pressure_electrolysis|High-pressure electrolysis|217|wiki]]"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Overpotential|Overpotential|218|wiki]]"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Patterson_Power_Cell|Patterson Power Cell|219|wiki]]"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Thermochemical_cycle|Thermochemical cycle|220|wiki]]"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[Timeline_of_hydrogen_technologies|Timeline of hydrogen technologies|221|wiki]]"},{"block_type":"list_item","content":"[[PEM_electrolysis|PEM electrolysis|222|wiki]]"}]}]},{"block_type":"heading","content":"References","heading_level":1,"children":[]}]
-;
-
+const sourceString = [
+  {
+    block_type: "image",
+    img_src:
+      "https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Redirect/file/F%C3%BCller-tinte_hg.jpg",
+    img_caption: "Bottles of ink from Germany",
+  },
+  {
+    block_type: "image",
+    img_src:
+      "https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Redirect/file/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%A3%2C_%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%94_%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95.jpg",
+    img_caption: "Writing ink and a quill",
+  },
+  {
+    block_type: "paragraph",
+    content:
+      "**Ink** is a [[Gel|gel|0|wiki]], [[Sol_(colloid)|sol|1|wiki]], or [[Solution_(chemistry)|solution|2|wiki]] that contains at least one [[Colorant|colorant|3|wiki]], such as a [[Dye|dye|4|wiki]] or [[Pigment|pigment|5|wiki]], and is used to color a surface to produce an [[Image|image|6|wiki]], [[Writing|text|7|wiki]], or [[Design|design|8|wiki]]. Ink is used for [[Drawing|drawing|9|wiki]] or [[Writing|writing|10|wiki]] with a [[Pen|pen|11|wiki]], [[Brush|brush|12|wiki]], [[Reed_pen|reed pen|13|wiki]], or [[Quill|quill|14|wiki]]. Thicker inks, in paste form, are used extensively in [[Letterpress|letterpress|15|wiki]] and [[Lithographic|lithographic|16|wiki]] [[Printing|printing|17|wiki]].",
+  },
+  {
+    block_type: "paragraph",
+    content:
+      "Ink can be a complex medium, composed of [[Solvent|solvents|18|wiki]], pigments, [[Dye|dyes|19|wiki]], [[Resin|resins|20|wiki]], [[Lubricant|lubricants|21|wiki]], [[Solubilizer|solubilizers|22|wiki]], [[Surfactant|surfactants|23|wiki]], [[Suspended_solids|particulate matter|24|wiki]], [[Fluorescence|fluorescents|25|wiki]], and other materials. The components of inks serve many purposes; the ink's carrier, colorants, and other additives affect the flow and thickness of the ink and its dry appearance.",
+  },
+  {
+    block_type: "heading",
+    content: "History",
+    heading_level: 1,
+    children: [
+      {
+        block_type: "image",
+        img_src:
+          "https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Redirect/file/Ganesha_ink.jpg",
+        img_caption:
+          "Ink drawing of Ganesha under an umbrella (early 19th century). Ink, called masi, an admixture of several chemical components, has been used in India since at least the 4th century BC. The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in early South India. Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink.",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "image",
+        img_src:
+          "https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Redirect/file/Oak_galls_and_iron(II)_sulfate_-_California_State_Archives.jpg",
+        img_caption: "Oak galls and iron(II) sulfate",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content:
+          "Many ancient cultures around the world have independently discovered and formulated inks due to the need to write and draw. The recipes and techniques for the production of ink are derived from archaeological analyses or from written texts itself. The earliest inks from all civilizations are believed to have been made with *[[Lampblack|lampblack|26|wiki]]*, a kind of [[Soot|soot|27|wiki]], easily collected as a by-product of fire.",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content:
+          "Ink was used in [[Ancient_Egypt|Ancient Egypt|28|wiki]] for writing and drawing on [[Papyrus|papyrus|29|wiki]] from at least the 26th century BC. Egyptian red and black inks included [[Iron|iron|30|wiki]] and [[Ocher|ocher|31|wiki]] as pigments, in addition to [[Phosphate|phosphate|32|wiki]], [[Sulfate|sulfate|33|wiki]], [[Chloride|chloride|34|wiki]], and [[Carboxylate|carboxylate|35|wiki]] ions, with [[Lead|lead|36|wiki]] also used as a drier.",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content:
+          "The earliest Chinese inks may date to four millennia ago, to the [[List_of_Neolithic_cultures_of_China|Chinese Neolithic Period|37|wiki]]. These included plant, animal, and mineral inks, based on such materials as [[Graphite|graphite|38|wiki]]; these were ground with water and applied with [[Ink_brush|ink brushes|39|wiki]]. Direct evidence for the earliest Chinese inks, similar to modern [[Inkstick|inksticks|40|wiki]], is found around 256 BC, in the end of the [[Warring_States_period|Warring States period|41|wiki]]; being produced from soot and [[Animal_glue|animal glue|42|wiki]]. The preferred inks for drawing or painting on paper or silk are produced from the resin of the pine trees between 50 and 100 years old. The Chinese inkstick is produced with a fish glue, whereas Japanese glue (膠 *nikawa*) is from cow or stag.",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content:
+          "[[India_ink|India ink|43|wiki]] was invented in China, though materials were often traded from India, hence the name. The traditional Chinese method of making the ink was to grind a mixture of hide glue, [[Carbon_black|carbon black|44|wiki]], lampblack, and [[Bone_char|bone black|45|wiki]] pigment with a [[Pestle_and_mortar|pestle and mortar|46|wiki]], then pour it into a ceramic dish to dry. To use the dry mixture, a wet brush would be applied until it reliquified. The manufacture of India ink was well-established by the [[Cao_Wei|Cao Wei|47|wiki]] dynasty (220–265 AD). Indian documents written in [[Kharosthi|Kharosthi|48|wiki]] with ink have been unearthed in [[Xinjiang|Xinjiang|49|wiki]]. The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in early South India. Several [[Buddhism|Buddhist|50|wiki]] and Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink.",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content:
+          '[[Cephalopod_ink|Cephalopod ink|51|wiki]], known as [[Sepia_(color)|sepia|52|wiki]], turns from dark blue-black to brown on drying, and was used as an ink in the Graeco-Roman period and subsequently. Black [[Atramentum|atramentum|53|wiki]] was also used in [[Ancient_Rome|ancient Rome|54|wiki]]; in an article for *[[The_Christian_Science_Monitor|The Christian Science Monitor|55|wiki]]*, Sharon J. Huntington describes these other historical inks: "About 1,600 years ago, a popular ink recipe was created. The recipe was used for centuries. Iron salts, such as ferrous sulfate (made by treating iron with sulfuric acid), were mixed with tannin from gallnuts (they grow on trees) and a thickener. When first put to paper, this ink is bluish-black. Over time it fades to a dull brown."',
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content:
+          '"Scribes in medieval Europe (about AD 800 to 1500) wrote principally on parchment or vellum. One 12th century ink recipe called for hawthorn branches to be cut in the spring and left to dry. Then the bark was pounded from the branches and soaked in water for eight days. The water was boiled until it thickened and turned black. Wine was added during boiling. The ink was poured into special bags and hung in the sun. Once dried, the mixture was mixed with wine and iron salt over a fire to make the final ink."',
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content:
+          "The reservoir pen, which may have been the first [[Fountain_pen|fountain pen|56|wiki]], dates back to 953, when [[Al_Muizz|Ma'ād al-Mu'izz|57|wiki]], the [[Caliph|caliph|58|wiki]] of Egypt, demanded a pen that would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen that held ink in a reservoir.",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content:
+          "In the 15th century, a new type of ink had to be developed in Europe for the [[Printing_press|printing press|59|wiki]] by [[Johannes_Gutenberg|Johannes Gutenberg|60|wiki]]. According to Martyn Lyons in his book *Books: A Living History*, Gutenberg's dye was indelible, oil-based, and made from the soot of lamps (lamp-black) mixed with [[Varnish|varnish|61|wiki]] and egg white. Two types of ink were prevalent at the time: the Greek and Roman writing ink (soot, glue, and water) and the 12th century variety composed of ferrous sulfate, gall, gum, and water. Neither of these handwriting inks could adhere to printing surfaces without creating blurs. Eventually an oily, [[Varnish|varnish|62|wiki]]-like ink made of soot, [[Turpentine|turpentine|63|wiki]], and walnut oil was created specifically for the printing press.",
+      },
+    ],
+  },
+  {
+    block_type: "heading",
+    content: "Types",
+    heading_level: 1,
+    children: [
+      {
+        block_type: "image",
+        img_src:
+          "https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Redirect/file/Tintenstrich-detail_2.jpg",
+        img_caption: "Magnified line drawn by a fountain pen.",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content: "",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content: "Ink formulas vary, but commonly involve two components:",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content: "Inks generally fall into four classes:",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "list",
+        content: [
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "1.",
+            content: "Colorants",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "2.",
+            content: "Vehicles (binders)",
+          },
+        ],
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "list",
+        content: [
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "1.",
+            content: "Aqueous",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "2.",
+            content: "Liquid",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "3.",
+            content: "Paste",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "4.",
+            content: "Powder",
+          },
+        ],
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "heading",
+        content: "Colorants",
+        heading_level: 2,
+        children: [
+          {
+            block_type: "heading",
+            content: "Pigments",
+            heading_level: 3,
+            children: [
+              {
+                block_type: "paragraph",
+                content:
+                  "Pigment inks are used more frequently than dyes because they are more color-fast, but they are also more expensive, less consistent in color, and have less of a [[Gamut|color range|64|wiki]] than dyes. Pigments are solid, opaque particles suspended in ink to provide color. Pigment molecules typically link together in [[Crystal|crystalline|65|wiki]] structures that are 0.1–2 [[Micrometre|μm|66|wiki]] in size and comprise 5–30 percent of the ink volume. Qualities such as [[Hue|hue|67|wiki]], [[Saturation_(color_theory)|saturation|68|wiki]], and [[Lightness_(color)|lightness|69|wiki]] vary depending on the source and type of pigment.Solvent-based inks are widely used for high-speed printing and applications that require quick drying times. And the inclusion of TiO2 powder provides superior coverage and vibrant colors.",
+              },
+            ],
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "heading",
+            content: "Dyes",
+            heading_level: 3,
+            children: [
+              {
+                block_type: "paragraph",
+                content:
+                  "Dye-based inks are generally much stronger than pigment-based inks and can produce much more color of a given density per unit of mass. However, because dyes are dissolved in the liquid phase, they have a tendency to soak into paper, potentially allowing the ink to bleed at the edges of an image.",
+              },
+              {
+                block_type: "paragraph",
+                content:
+                  "To circumvent this problem, dye-based inks are made with solvents that dry rapidly or are used with quick-drying methods of printing, such as blowing hot air on the fresh print. Other methods include harder [[Paper|paper|70|wiki]] [[Sizing|sizing|71|wiki]] and more specialized paper coatings. The latter is particularly suited to inks used in non-industrial settings (which must conform to tighter toxicity and emission controls), such as [[Inkjet_printer|inkjet printer|72|wiki]] inks. Another technique involves coating the paper with a charged coating. If the dye has the opposite charge, it is attracted to and retained by this coating, while the solvent soaks into the paper. [[Cellulose|Cellulose|73|wiki]], the wood-derived material most paper is made of, is naturally charged, and so a compound that complexes with both the dye and the paper's surface aids retention at the surface. Such a compound is commonly used in ink-jet printing inks.",
+              },
+              {
+                block_type: "paragraph",
+                content:
+                  "An additional advantage of dye-based ink systems is that the dye [[Molecule|molecules|74|wiki]] can interact with other ink ingredients, potentially allowing greater benefit as compared to pigmented inks from [[Optical_brightener|optical brighteners|75|wiki]] and color-enhancing agents designed to increase the intensity and appearance of dyes.",
+              },
+              {
+                block_type: "paragraph",
+                content:
+                  "Dye-based inks can be used for anti-counterfeit purposes and can be found in some gel inks, fountain pen inks, and inks used for paper currency. These inks react with cellulose to bring about a permanent color change. Dye based inks are used to color hair.",
+              },
+            ],
+          },
+        ],
+      },
+    ],
+  },
+  {
+    block_type: "heading",
+    content: "Health and environmental aspects",
+    heading_level: 1,
+    children: [
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content:
+          "There is a misconception that ink is non-toxic even if swallowed. Once ingested, ink can be hazardous to one's health. Certain inks, such as those used in digital printers, and even those found in a common pen can be harmful. Though ink does not easily cause death, repeated skin contact or ingestion can cause effects such as severe headaches, skin irritation, or nervous system damage. These effects can be caused by solvents, or by pigment ingredients such as *p*-Anisidine, which helps create some inks' color and shine.",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content: "Three main environmental issues with ink are:",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content:
+          "Some regulatory bodies have set standards for the amount of heavy metals in ink. There is a trend toward [[Vegetable_oil|vegetable oils|76|wiki]] rather than [[Petroleum_oil|petroleum oils|77|wiki]] in recent years in response to a demand for better [[Sustainability|environmental sustainability|78|wiki]] performance.",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content:
+          "Ink uses up non-renewable oils and metals, which has a negative impact on the environment.",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "list",
+        content: [
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "1.",
+            content: "[[Heavy_metal_(chemistry)|Heavy metals|79|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "2.",
+            content: "Non-renewable oils",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "3.",
+            content:
+              "[[Volatile_organic_compound|Volatile organic compounds|80|wiki]]",
+          },
+        ],
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "heading",
+        content: "Carbon",
+        heading_level: 2,
+        children: [
+          {
+            block_type: "image",
+            img_src:
+              "https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Redirect/file/Inkstick.jpg",
+            img_caption:
+              "Chinese inkstick; carbon-based and made from soot and animal glue",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "paragraph",
+            content:
+              "Carbon inks were commonly made from lampblack or soot and a binding agent such as [[Gum_arabic|gum arabic|81|wiki]] or [[Animal_glue|animal glue|82|wiki]]. The binding agent keeps carbon particles in suspension and adhered to paper. Carbon particles do not fade over time even when bleached or when in sunlight. One benefit is that carbon ink does not harm paper. Over time, the ink is chemically stable and therefore does not threaten the paper's strength. Despite these benefits, carbon ink is not ideal for permanence and ease of preservation. Carbon ink tends to smudge in humid environments and can be washed off surfaces. The best method of preserving a document written in carbon ink is to store it in a dry environment (Barrow 1972).",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "paragraph",
+            content:
+              "Recently, carbon inks made from carbon nanotubes have been successfully created. They are similar in composition to traditional inks in that they use a polymer to suspend the carbon nanotubes. These inks can be used in inkjet printers and produce electrically conductive patterns.",
+          },
+        ],
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "heading",
+        content: "Iron gall (common ink)",
+        heading_level: 2,
+        children: [
+          {
+            block_type: "paragraph",
+            content:
+              "Iron gall inks became prominent in the early 12th century; they were used for centuries and were widely thought to be the best type of ink. However, iron gall ink is corrosive and damages paper over time (Waters 1940). Items containing this ink can become brittle and the writing fades to brown. The original scores of [[Johann_Sebastian_Bach|Johann Sebastian Bach|83|wiki]] are threatened by the destructive properties of iron gall ink. The majority of his works are held by the German State Library, and about 25% of those are in advanced stages of decay (American Libraries 2000). The rate at which the writing fades is based on several factors, such as proportions of ink ingredients, amount deposited on the paper, and paper composition (Barrow 1972:16). Corrosion is caused by acid catalyzed hydrolysis and iron(II)-catalysed oxidation of cellulose (Rouchon-Quillet 2004:389).",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "paragraph",
+            content:
+              "Treatment is a controversial subject. No treatment undoes damage already caused by acidic ink. Deterioration can only be stopped or slowed. Some think it best not to treat the item at all for fear of the consequences. Others believe that non-aqueous procedures are the best solution. Yet others think an aqueous procedure may preserve items written with iron gall ink. Aqueous treatments include distilled water at different temperatures, calcium hydroxide, calcium bicarbonate, magnesium carbonate, magnesium bicarbonate, and calcium hyphenate. There are many possible side effects from these treatments. There can be mechanical damage, which further weakens the paper. Paper color or ink color may change, and ink may bleed. Other consequences of aqueous treatment are a change of ink texture or formation of plaque on the surface of the ink (Reibland & de Groot 1999).",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "paragraph",
+            content:
+              "Iron gall inks require storage in a stable environment, because fluctuating [[Relative_humidity|relative humidity|84|wiki]] increases the rate that formic acid, acetic acid, and furan derivatives form in the material the ink was used on. Sulfuric acid acts as a catalyst to cellulose hydrolysis, and iron (II) sulfate acts as a catalyst to cellulose oxidation. These chemical reactions physically weaken the paper, causing [[Brittle_Books_Program|brittleness|85|wiki]].",
+          },
+        ],
+      },
+    ],
+  },
+  {
+    block_type: "heading",
+    content: "Indelible ink",
+    heading_level: 1,
+    children: [
+      {
+        block_type: "image",
+        img_src:
+          "https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Redirect/file/Un_%C3%A9lecteur_avec_l'_encre_ind%C3%A9l%C3%A9bile_au_pouce%2C_apr%C3%A8s_son_vote_dans_un_centre_dans_la_commune_de_la_Tshopo_%C3%A0_Kisangani_(6418380139).jpg",
+        img_caption: "A voter's thumb stained with indelible ink",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content: "",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content:
+          '*Indelible* means "un-removable". Some types of indelible ink have a very short shelf life because of the quickly evaporating solvents used. India, Mexico, Indonesia, Malaysia and other developing countries have used indelible ink in the form of [[Electoral_stain|electoral stain|86|wiki]] to prevent [[Electoral_fraud|electoral fraud|87|wiki]]. Election ink based on [[Silver_nitrate|silver nitrate|88|wiki]] was first applied in the [[1962_Indian_general_election|1962 Indian general election|89|wiki]], after being developed at the [[National_Physical_Laboratory_of_India|National Physical Laboratory of India|90|wiki]].',
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content:
+          'The election commission in India has used indelible ink for many elections. Indonesia used it in its election in 2014. In Mali, the ink is applied to the fingernail. Indelible ink itself is not infallible as it can be used to commit electoral [[Fraud|fraud|91|wiki]] by marking opponent party members before they have chances to cast their votes. There are also reports of "indelible" ink washing off voters\' fingers in Afghanistan.',
+      },
+    ],
+  },
+  {
+    block_type: "heading",
+    content: "See also",
+    heading_level: 1,
+    children: [
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content: "",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "list",
+        content: [
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "1.",
+            content: "[[Blue_Wool_Scale|Blue Wool Scale|92|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "2.",
+            content: "[[De-inked_pulp|De-inked pulp|93|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "3.",
+            content: "[[Election_ink|Election ink|94|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "4.",
+            content: "[[Fountain_pen_ink|Fountain pen ink|95|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "5.",
+            content: "[[Gel_pen|Gel pen|96|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "6.",
+            content: "[[Ink_eraser|Ink eraser|97|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "7.",
+            content: "[[Inkjet_printing|Inkjet printing|98|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "8.",
+            content: "[[Ecofont|Ecofont|99|wiki]], an inksaving typeface",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "9.",
+            content: "[[Invisible_ink|Invisible ink|100|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "10.",
+            content: "[[Lightfastness|Lightfastness|101|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "11.",
+            content: "[[Pharmaceutical_ink|Pharmaceutical ink|102|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "12.",
+            content:
+              "[[Preservation_(library_and_archival_science)|Preservation (library and archival science)|103|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "13.",
+            content:
+              "[[Preservation_of_illuminated_manuscripts|Preservation of illuminated manuscripts|104|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "14.",
+            content: "[[Soy_ink|Soy ink|105|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "15.",
+            content: "[[Squid_ink|Squid ink|106|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "16.",
+            content: "[[Stark's_ink|Stark's ink|107|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "17.",
+            content: "[[Tattoo_ink|Tattoo ink|108|wiki]]",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "18.",
+            content: "[[Toner_(printing)|Toner (printing)|109|wiki]]",
+          },
+        ],
+      },
+    ],
+  },
+  {
+    block_type: "heading",
+    content: "References",
+    heading_level: 1,
+    children: [],
+  },
+  {
+    block_type: "heading",
+    content: "Sources",
+    heading_level: 1,
+    children: [
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content: "",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "list",
+        content: [
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "1.",
+            content:
+              'Ainsworth, Mitchell, C., "Inks and Their Composition and Manufacture", Charles Griffin and Company Ltd, 1904.',
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "2.",
+            content:
+              "Banerji, Sures Chandra (1989). *A Companion to Sanskrit Literature*. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0063-X.",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "3.",
+            content:
+              'Martín-Gil J., Ramos-Sánchez MC, Martín-Gil FJ and José-Yacamán M. "Chemical composition of a fountain pen ink". *Journal of Chemical Education*, 2006, 83, 1476–78.',
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "4.",
+            content:
+              "Sircar, D. C. (1996).*Indian epigraphy*. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1166-6.",
+          },
+        ],
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "list",
+        content: [
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "1.",
+            content:
+              'Martín-Gil J., Ramos-Sánchez MC, Martín-Gil FJ and José-Yacamán M. "Chemical composition of a fountain pen ink". *Journal of Chemical Education*, 2006, 83, 1476–78.',
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "2.",
+            content:
+              "Sircar, D. C. (1996).*Indian epigraphy*. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1166-6.",
+          },
+        ],
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "list",
+        content: [
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "1.",
+            content:
+              "Sircar, D. C. (1996).*Indian epigraphy*. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1166-6.",
+          },
+        ],
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "list",
+        content: [
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "1.",
+            content:
+              "Sircar, D. C. (1996).*Indian epigraphy*. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1166-6.",
+          },
+        ],
+      },
+    ],
+  },
+  {
+    block_type: "heading",
+    content: "Further reading",
+    heading_level: 1,
+    children: [
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content: "",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "list",
+        content: [
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "1.",
+            content:
+              "Cueppers, Christoph (1989). \"On the Manufacture of Ink.\" *Ancient Nepal – Journal of the Department of Archaeology*, Number 113, August–September 1989, pp. 1–7. [The Tibetan text and translation of a section of the work called, *Bzo gnas nyer mkho'i za ma tog* by 'Jam-mgon 'Ju Mi-pham-rgya-mtsho (1846–1912) describing various traditional Tibetan techniques of making inks from different sources of soot, and from earth, [[Puffball|puffballs|110|wiki]], dung, *ser-sha* – a yellow fungus, and the fruit of *tsi dra ka* (*Ricinus communis*).]",
+          },
+        ],
+      },
+    ],
+  },
+  {
+    block_type: "heading",
+    content: "External links",
+    heading_level: 1,
+    children: [
+      {
+        block_type: "paragraph",
+        content: "",
+      },
+      {
+        block_type: "list",
+        content: [
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "1.",
+            content:
+              "Forty Centuries of Ink (David N. Carvalho); A detailed online textbook (archived 8 June 2003)",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "2.",
+            content:
+              "Roman ink article by Alexander Allen In Smith's Dictionary Greek and Roman Antiquities (1875), in LacusCurtius",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "3.",
+            content: "Ancient and Modern Ink Recipes (David N. Carvalho)",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "4.",
+            content:
+              "[Gorgeous Portrayal Of How Ink Is Made](http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/10/01/gorgeous-portrayal-of-how_n_747665.html?view=print) – video at *[[The_Huffington_Post|The Huffington Post|111|wiki]]*",
+          },
+          {
+            block_type: "list_item",
+            list_type: "ordered",
+            marker: "5.",
+            content:
+              '["A Light Note on the Science of Writing and Inks"](http://www.wdl.org/en/item/3176) is a manuscript, in Arabic, from 1852. It discusses the process of making inks.',
+          },
+        ],
+      },
+    ],
+  },
+];
 const headings = [
-    "Etymology",
-    
-    "History"
-    ,
-    "Overview"
-    ,
-    "Industrial"
-    ,
-    "Competing half-reactions in solution electrolysis"
-    ,
-    "Research trends"
-    ,
-    "See also"
-    ,
-    "References",
+  "History",
+  "Types",
+  "Health and environmental aspects",
+  "Indelible ink",
+  "See also",
+  "References",
+  "Sources",
+  "Further reading",
+  "External links",
 ];
 
-export function returnSourceData(){
-    return sourceString;
+export function returnFields() {
+  return [
+    "Sciences",
+    "Technology & Engineering",
+    "Humanities & Cultural Studies",
+    "Social Sciences & Global Studies",
+    "Business & Management",
+    "Health & Medicine",
+    "Environmental Studies & Earth Sciences",
+    "Education, Learning & Personal Development",
+    "Creative & Performing Arts",
+    "Law, Governance & Ethics",
+    "Recreation, Lifestyle & Practical Skills",
+    "Technology & Media Literacy",
+    "Philosophy & Critical Thinking",
+    "Space & Astronomical Sciences",
+    "Agriculture & Food Sciences",
+    "Trades & Craftsmanship",
+    "Reference & Indexing",
+    "Other",
+  ];
+}
+
+const sourceContent = {
+  type: "source",
+  title: "Ink",
+  headings: headings,
+  content: sourceString,
+  fields: returnFields(),
+  taxonomy: {},
+};
+
+export function returnSourceData() {
+  return sourceContent;
+}
+
+export function returnHeadings() {
+  return headings;
 }
 
-export function returnHeadings(){
-    return headings;
+export function returnCardResponse() {
+  return cardResponse;
 }
 
+let cardResponse = {
+  status_code: 200,
+  metadata: {},
+  usage_data: {
+    prompt_tokens: 23234,
+    completion_tokens: 2796,
+    total_tokens: 26030,
+  },
+  generated_content: {
+    test_cards: [
+      {
+        type: "mcq",
+        card_content: {
+          prompt:
+            "Which term is used to refer to the largest branch of Islam, followed by 85-90% of Muslims worldwide?",
+          choices: [
+            { choice: "Sunni Islam", is_correct: true },
+            { choice: "Shia Islam", is_correct: false },
+            { choice: "Kharijites", is_correct: false },
+            { choice: "Ibadi", is_correct: false },
+          ],
+        },
+        concepts: [
+          {
+            concept_text: "Definition of Sunni Islam",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Terminology",
+          },
+        ],
+        facts: [
+          {
+            fact_text: "85-90% of Muslims are Sunni.",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Terminology",
+          },
+        ],
+        bloom_level: 1,
+      },
+      {
+        type: "mcq",
+        card_content: {
+          prompt: "Who were the first four caliphs recognized by Sunnis?",
+          choices: [
+            { choice: "Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Ali", is_correct: true },
+            { choice: "Ali, Hasan, Husayn, Yazid", is_correct: false },
+            { choice: "Umar, Uthman, Muawiya, Yazid", is_correct: false },
+            { choice: "Hasan, Husayn, Abu Bakr, Umar", is_correct: false },
+          ],
+        },
+        concepts: [
+          {
+            concept_text: "History of Sunni beliefs",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#History",
+          },
+        ],
+        facts: [
+          {
+            fact_text:
+              "The first four caliphs are Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Ali.",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#History",
+          },
+        ],
+        bloom_level: 1,
+      },
+      {
+        type: "cloze",
+        card_content: {
+          prompt: "The six _____ of imān are key beliefs in Sunni Islam.",
+          options: [
+            { option: "pillars", cloze: "c0" },
+            { option: "caliphs", cloze: "null" },
+            { option: "sections", cloze: "null" },
+            { option: "rules", cloze: "null" },
+          ],
+        },
+        concepts: [
+          {
+            concept_text: "Principal articles of Sunni faith",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Pillars of iman",
+          },
+        ],
+        facts: [
+          {
+            fact_text:
+              "The six pillars of imān are key beliefs in Sunni Islam.",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Pillars of iman",
+          },
+        ],
+        bloom_level: 1,
+      },
+      {
+        type: "mcq",
+        card_content: {
+          prompt: "Which institution is considered a leading Sunni university?",
+          choices: [
+            { choice: "Azhar University", is_correct: true },
+            { choice: "Harvard University", is_correct: false },
+            { choice: "Oxford University", is_correct: false },
+            { choice: "Yale University", is_correct: false },
+          ],
+        },
+        concepts: [
+          {
+            concept_text: "Sunni organizations and institutions",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Sunni State institutions",
+          },
+        ],
+        facts: [
+          {
+            fact_text: "Azhar University is a leading Sunni institution.",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Sunni State institutions",
+          },
+        ],
+        bloom_level: 1,
+      },
+      {
+        type: "mcq",
+        card_content: {
+          prompt:
+            "What is a fundamental self-image of Sunni Muslims concerning their religious identity?",
+          choices: [
+            { choice: "They are the saved sect", is_correct: true },
+            { choice: "They are the oppressed sect", is_correct: false },
+            { choice: "They are the innovators", is_correct: false },
+            { choice: "They are the deviants", is_correct: false },
+          ],
+        },
+        concepts: [
+          {
+            concept_text: "Identity as the 'saved sect'",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Self-image of the Sunnis",
+          },
+        ],
+        facts: [
+          {
+            fact_text: "Sunnis view themselves as the saved sect.",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Self-image of the Sunnis",
+          },
+        ],
+        bloom_level: 1,
+      },
+      {
+        type: "mcq",
+        card_content: {
+          prompt: "What major rivalry exists within Sunni Islam?",
+          choices: [
+            { choice: "Between Ashʿarīya and Salafīya", is_correct: true },
+            { choice: "Between Sufis and Wahhabis", is_correct: false },
+            { choice: "Between Hanafis and Malikis", is_correct: false },
+            { choice: "Between Shafi'is and Hanbalis", is_correct: false },
+          ],
+        },
+        concepts: [
+          {
+            concept_text: "Rivalry between Sunni theological schools",
+            reference:
+              "Sunni Islam#Rivalry between Ashʿarīya and Salafīya and the 2016 Sunni conferences",
+          },
+        ],
+        facts: [],
+        bloom_level: 1,
+      },
+      {
+        type: "cloze",
+        card_content: {
+          prompt: "Sunni Islam centers around four {{c0: legal schools}}.",
+          options: [
+            { option: "legal schools", cloze: "c0" },
+            { option: "pillars of faith", cloze: "null" },
+            { option: "caliphs", cloze: "null" },
+            { option: "sects", cloze: "null" },
+          ],
+        },
+        concepts: [
+          {
+            concept_text: "Sunni jurisprudence and its sources",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Jurisprudence",
+          },
+        ],
+        facts: [
+          {
+            fact_text: "Sunni Islam centers around four legal schools.",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Jurisprudence",
+          },
+        ],
+        bloom_level: 1,
+      },
+      {
+        type: "match",
+        card_content: [
+          { left_item: "Ash'ari", right_item: ["Stresses divine revelation"] },
+          {
+            left_item: "Maturidi",
+            right_item: ["Emphasizes reason with revelation"],
+          },
+          {
+            left_item: "Athari",
+            right_item: ["Strict textualism in interpretation"],
+          },
+        ],
+        concepts: [
+          {
+            concept_text: "Rivalry between Sunni theological schools",
+            reference:
+              "Sunni Islam#Rivalry between Ashʿarīya and Salafīya and the 2016 Sunni conferences",
+          },
+        ],
+        facts: [],
+        bloom_level: 2,
+      },
+      {
+        type: "mcq",
+        card_content: {
+          prompt:
+            "Which of the following is NOT one of the six principal articles of faith in Sunni Islam?",
+          choices: [
+            { choice: "Belief in the Prophets of God", is_correct: false },
+            { choice: "Belief in Angels", is_correct: false },
+            { choice: "Belief in Trinity", is_correct: true },
+            { choice: "Belief in Resurrection after Death", is_correct: false },
+          ],
+        },
+        concepts: [
+          {
+            concept_text: "Principal articles of Sunni faith",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Pillars of iman",
+          },
+        ],
+        facts: [],
+        bloom_level: 2,
+      },
+      {
+        type: "cloze",
+        card_content: {
+          prompt:
+            "A well-known Hadith says that the Muslim Umma will split into 73 sects, only one of which will be {{c0: saved}}.",
+          options: [
+            { option: "saved", cloze: "c0" },
+            { option: "punished", cloze: "null" },
+            { option: "enriched", cloze: "null" },
+            { option: "condemned", cloze: "null" },
+          ],
+        },
+        concepts: [
+          {
+            concept_text: "Identity as the 'saved sect'",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Self-image of the Sunnis",
+          },
+        ],
+        facts: [],
+        bloom_level: 2,
+      },
+      {
+        type: "mcq",
+        card_content: {
+          prompt:
+            "What does 'jama' in the phrase 'ahl as-sunna wal-jama' signify?",
+          choices: [
+            { choice: "Community", is_correct: true },
+            { choice: "Unity", is_correct: false },
+            { choice: "Faith", is_correct: false },
+            { choice: "Law", is_correct: false },
+          ],
+        },
+        concepts: [
+          {
+            concept_text: "Definition of Sunni Islam",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Terminology",
+          },
+        ],
+        facts: [],
+        bloom_level: 1,
+      },
+      {
+        type: "mcq",
+        card_content: {
+          prompt:
+            "Which of the following sources forms the basis for Sunni jurisprudence?",
+          choices: [
+            { choice: "The Quran and Hadith", is_correct: true },
+            { choice: "Solely Quran", is_correct: false },
+            { choice: "Only the Hadith", is_correct: false },
+            { choice: "The Quran and Sira", is_correct: false },
+          ],
+        },
+        concepts: [
+          {
+            concept_text: "Sunni jurisprudence and its sources",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Jurisprudence",
+          },
+        ],
+        facts: [],
+        bloom_level: 2,
+      },
+      {
+        type: "cloze",
+        card_content: {
+          prompt:
+            "Sunni Muslims accept the {{c0: hadith}} collections of Bukhari and Muslim as the most authentic.",
+          options: [
+            { option: "hadith", cloze: "c0" },
+            { option: "Qur'an", cloze: "null" },
+            { option: "tafsir", cloze: "null" },
+            { option: "fatwa", cloze: "null" },
+          ],
+        },
+        concepts: [
+          {
+            concept_text: "Sunni view of hadith",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Sunni view of hadith",
+          },
+        ],
+        facts: [],
+        bloom_level: 1,
+      },
+      {
+        type: "cloze",
+        card_content: {
+          prompt:
+            "Sunni jurisprudence is derived from the Quran, hadith, {{c0: juristic consensus}}, and analogical reasoning.",
+          options: [
+            { option: "juristic consensus", cloze: "c0" },
+            { option: "personal opinion", cloze: "null" },
+            { option: "cultural practice", cloze: "null" },
+            { option: "political authority", cloze: "null" },
+          ],
+        },
+        concepts: [
+          {
+            concept_text: "Sunni jurisprudence and its sources",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Jurisprudence",
+          },
+        ],
+        facts: [],
+        bloom_level: 3,
+      },
+      {
+        type: "cloze",
+        card_content: {
+          prompt:
+            "One of the most important teaching institutions of Sunni Islam worldwide is the {{c0: Azhar}} in Egypt.",
+          options: [
+            { option: "Azhar", cloze: "c0" },
+            { option: "Al-Haram", cloze: "null" },
+            { option: "Al-Aqsa", cloze: "null" },
+            { option: "Blue Mosque", cloze: "null" },
+          ],
+        },
+        concepts: [
+          {
+            concept_text: "Sunni organizations and institutions",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Sunni State institutions",
+          },
+        ],
+        facts: [
+          {
+            fact_text: "Azhar University is a leading Sunni institution.",
+            reference: "Sunni Islam#Sunni State institutions",
+          },
+        ],
+        bloom_level: 2,
+      },
+    ],
+  },
+  generated_at: "2024-09-11T08:26:12.000Z",
+};