nomen-lang 0.9.0 → 0.10.0

package/core/System/Test.nm

@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ pub mv struct Tester {
 
 	// (harness) Start timing `name` and clear the per-test state. Called by
 	// the `main` that `nomen test` generates — not by test code.
-	pub func begin_test = (ref self, string name) {
+	pub func begin_test = (ref self { current }, string name) {
 		self.has_failed = false
 		self.passed = 0
 		self.failed = 0
@@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ pub mv struct Tester {
 	}
 
 	// (harness) Close the current test and emit its `done` record.
-	pub func end_test = (ref self) {
+	pub func end_test = (ref self {}) {
 		const uint64 elapsed = Time.now_ns() - self.started
 		Console.write_line(
 			"\\nomen|done|" + self.current + "|\{self.passed}|\{self.failed}|\{elapsed}",
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ pub mv struct Tester {
 	 *
 	 *	t.expect(result == 2, "add(1, 1) should be 2")
 	 **/
-	pub func expect = (ref self, bool condition, string message) {
+	pub func expect = (ref self {}, bool condition, string message) {
 		if self.has_failed {
 			return
 		}
@@ -143,7 +143,7 @@ pub mv struct Tester {
 	 *		t.fail("expected to find the key")
 	 *	}
 	 **/
-	pub func fail = (ref self, string message) {
+	pub func fail = (ref self {}, string message) {
 		if self.has_failed {
 			return
 		}
@@ -154,43 +154,43 @@ pub mv struct Tester {
 	//
 	// Nomen has no generic methods, so there is one overload per nullable
 	// type the compiler can compare against `null`.
-	pub func assert = (ref self, int? value, string message) {
+	pub func assert = (ref self {}, int? value, string message) {
 		self.expect(value != null, message)
 	}
 
-	pub func assert = (ref self, uint? value, string message) {
+	pub func assert = (ref self {}, uint? value, string message) {
 		self.expect(value != null, message)
 	}
 
-	pub func assert = (ref self, int64? value, string message) {
+	pub func assert = (ref self {}, int64? value, string message) {
 		self.expect(value != null, message)
 	}
 
-	pub func assert = (ref self, uint64? value, string message) {
+	pub func assert = (ref self {}, uint64? value, string message) {
 		self.expect(value != null, message)
 	}
 
-	pub func assert = (ref self, int8? value, string message) {
+	pub func assert = (ref self {}, int8? value, string message) {
 		self.expect(value != null, message)
 	}
 
-	pub func assert = (ref self, uint8? value, string message) {
+	pub func assert = (ref self {}, uint8? value, string message) {
 		self.expect(value != null, message)
 	}
 
-	pub func assert = (ref self, float? value, string message) {
+	pub func assert = (ref self {}, float? value, string message) {
 		self.expect(value != null, message)
 	}
 
-	pub func assert = (ref self, bool? value, string message) {
+	pub func assert = (ref self {}, bool? value, string message) {
 		self.expect(value != null, message)
 	}
 
-	pub func assert = (ref self, char? value, string message) {
+	pub func assert = (ref self {}, char? value, string message) {
 		self.expect(value != null, message)
 	}
 
-	pub func assert = (ref self, string? value, string message) {
+	pub func assert = (ref self {}, string? value, string message) {
 		self.expect(value != null, message)
 	}
 
@@ -212,7 +212,7 @@ pub mv struct Tester {
 	 * (default 1000, override with `bench_n`) and computes min / median /
 	 * mean / max / stddev over the per-iteration durations.
 	 **/
-	pub func bench = (ref self, string label, func() body) {
+	pub func bench = (ref self { bench_label }, string label, func() body) {
 		if self.has_failed {
 			return
 		}
@@ -226,7 +226,7 @@ pub mv struct Tester {
 	 * for slow functions (where the default 1000 would dominate the suite) or
 	 * for reproducible sample counts.
 	 **/
-	pub func bench_n = (ref self, string label, func() body, int samples) {
+	pub func bench_n = (ref self { bench_label }, string label, func() body, int samples) {
 		if self.has_failed {
 			return
 		}
@@ -244,7 +244,7 @@ pub mv struct Tester {
 	 * this is a no-op.
 	 **/
 	pub func record_bench = (
-		ref self,
+		ref self {},
 		string label,
 		int n,
 		int min,
@@ -263,7 +263,7 @@ pub mv struct Tester {
 		)
 	}
 
-	func record_failure = (ref self, string message) {
+	func record_failure = (ref self {}, string message) {
 		self.failed += 1
 		self.total_failed += 1
 		self.has_failed = true

package/core/System/Text/Chars.nm

@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ pub struct Chars {
 
 	// The code point at the cursor, advancing past it. Malformed sequences
 	// yield U+FFFD. Panics when exhausted — check has_next first.
-	pub func next = (ref self, out int) {
+	pub func next = (ref self {}, out int) {
 		if self.byte_pos >= self.source.length {
 			panic("Chars exhausted; check has_next first")
 		}

package/core/System/Text/Json.nm

@@ -102,7 +102,7 @@ pub struct Json {
 
 	// Parse a JSON document into tree. The caller provides a JsonTree pool
 	// which is reset and filled. Returns the index of the root node.
-	pub func parse = (string s, ref JsonTree tree, out int) {
+	pub func parse = (string s, ref JsonTree tree { nodes }, out int) {
 		tree.reset()
 		var pos = Buffer<int>()
 		pos.alloc_int(1)
@@ -112,14 +112,14 @@ pub struct Json {
 	}
 
 	// Serialize a node in the tree back to a JSON string.
-	pub func stringify = (ref JsonTree tree, int root, out string) {
+	pub func stringify = (ref JsonTree tree { nodes }, int root, out string) {
 		var sb = StringBuilder()
 		json_ser_value(ref tree, root, ref sb)
 		return sb.to_string()
 	}
 }
 
-func json_skip_ws = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos, int len) {
+func json_skip_ws = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos {}, int len) {
 	while pos.load_int(0) < len {
 		var int i = pos.load_int(0)
 		var int code = s.at(i) as int
@@ -131,7 +131,7 @@ func json_skip_ws = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos, int len) {
 	}
 }
 
-func json_parse_string = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos, int len, ref JsonTree tree, out int) {
+func json_parse_string = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos {}, int len, ref JsonTree tree { nodes }, out int) {
 	var int i = pos.load_int(0)
 	i += 1
 	var sb = StringBuilder()
@@ -193,7 +193,7 @@ func json_parse_string = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos, int len, ref JsonTree t
 	return n
 }
 
-func json_parse_number = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos, int len, ref JsonTree tree, out int) {
+func json_parse_number = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos {}, int len, ref JsonTree tree { nodes }, out int) {
 	var int i = pos.load_int(0)
 	var int start = i
 	while i < len {
@@ -215,7 +215,7 @@ func json_parse_number = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos, int len, ref JsonTree t
 	return n
 }
 
-func json_parse_literal = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos, int len, ref JsonTree tree, out int) {
+func json_parse_literal = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos {}, int len, ref JsonTree tree { nodes }, out int) {
 	var int i = pos.load_int(0)
 	var int code = s.at(i) as int
 	var int n = tree.alloc_node()
@@ -237,7 +237,7 @@ func json_parse_literal = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos, int len, ref JsonTree
 	return n
 }
 
-func json_parse_value = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos, int len, ref JsonTree tree, out int) {
+func json_parse_value = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos {}, int len, ref JsonTree tree { nodes }, out int) {
 	json_skip_ws(s, ref pos, len)
 	var int i = pos.load_int(0)
 	if i >= len {
@@ -267,7 +267,7 @@ func json_parse_value = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos, int len, ref JsonTree tr
 	return json_parse_number(s, ref pos, len, ref tree)
 }
 
-func json_parse_elements = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos, int len, ref JsonTree tree, out int) {
+func json_parse_elements = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos {}, int len, ref JsonTree tree { nodes }, out int) {
 	json_skip_ws(s, ref pos, len)
 	var int i = pos.load_int(0)
 	if i >= len {
@@ -289,7 +289,7 @@ func json_parse_elements = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos, int len, ref JsonTree
 	return elem
 }
 
-func json_parse_pairs = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos, int len, ref JsonTree tree, out int) {
+func json_parse_pairs = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos {}, int len, ref JsonTree tree { nodes }, out int) {
 	json_skip_ws(s, ref pos, len)
 	var int i = pos.load_int(0)
 	if i >= len {
@@ -321,7 +321,7 @@ func json_parse_pairs = (string s, ref Buffer<int> pos, int len, ref JsonTree tr
 	return key
 }
 
-func json_ser_list = (ref JsonTree tree, int first, ref StringBuilder sb) {
+func json_ser_list = (ref JsonTree tree { nodes }, int first, ref StringBuilder sb {}) {
 	json_ser_value(ref tree, first, ref sb)
 	var int next = tree.get_next(first)
 	if next >= 0 {
@@ -330,7 +330,7 @@ func json_ser_list = (ref JsonTree tree, int first, ref StringBuilder sb) {
 	}
 }
 
-func json_ser_pairs = (ref JsonTree tree, int first, ref StringBuilder sb) {
+func json_ser_pairs = (ref JsonTree tree { nodes }, int first, ref StringBuilder sb {}) {
 	sb.append_char('"')
 	sb.append_string_view(tree.get_text_view(first))
 	sb.append_string("\":")
@@ -347,7 +347,7 @@ func json_ser_pairs = (ref JsonTree tree, int first, ref StringBuilder sb) {
 	}
 }
 
-func json_ser_value = (ref JsonTree tree, int n, ref StringBuilder sb) {
+func json_ser_value = (ref JsonTree tree { nodes }, int n, ref StringBuilder sb {}) {
 	var int k = tree.get_kind(n)
 	if k == 0 {
 		sb.append_string("null")

package/core/System/Text/JsonTree.nm

@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ pub mv struct JsonTree {
 	var nodes = StableList<JsonNode>()
 
 	// Append a fresh node and return its index.
-	func alloc_node = (ref self, out int) {
+	func alloc_node = (ref self { nodes }, out int) {
 		self.nodes.push(JsonNode())
 		return self.nodes.length - 1
 	}
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ pub mv struct JsonTree {
 	// Drop the current document: the fresh StableList displaces the old one,
 	// whose destroy frees every node (texts included) and its slabs. The
 	// next parse starts from a clean pool.
-	func reset = (ref self) {
+	func reset = (ref self { nodes }) {
 		self.nodes = StableList<JsonNode>()
 	}
 
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ pub mv struct JsonTree {
 	// once, by the list's destroy or the next text store. For strings
 	// produced by a StringBuilder, `take_text` installs the builder's
 	// buffer with no copy at all.
-	func set_text = (ref self, int idx, mv string text) {
+	func set_text = (ref self {}, int idx, mv string text) {
 		if idx < 0 || idx >= self.nodes.length {
 			panic("index out of range")
 		}
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ pub mv struct JsonTree {
 	// temp free. (A `mv string` parameter cannot do this: the string-arg
 	// ownership convention makes mv string arguments caller-owned
 	// borrows, forcing the callee-side copy this method exists to skip.)
-	func take_text = (ref self, int idx, ref StringBuilder sb) {
+	func take_text = (ref self {}, int idx, ref StringBuilder sb {}) {
 		if idx < 0 || idx >= self.nodes.length {
 			panic("index out of range")
 		}
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ pub mv struct JsonTree {
 		n.text = sb.to_string()
 	}
 
-	func set_kind = (ref self, int idx, int val) {
+	func set_kind = (ref self {}, int idx, int val) {
 		if idx < 0 || idx >= self.nodes.length {
 			panic("index out of range")
 		}
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ pub mv struct JsonTree {
 		n.kind = val
 	}
 
-	func set_child = (ref self, int idx, int val) {
+	func set_child = (ref self {}, int idx, int val) {
 		if idx < 0 || idx >= self.nodes.length {
 			panic("index out of range")
 		}
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ pub mv struct JsonTree {
 		n.child = val
 	}
 
-	func set_next = (ref self, int idx, int val) {
+	func set_next = (ref self {}, int idx, int val) {
 		if idx < 0 || idx >= self.nodes.length {
 			panic("index out of range")
 		}
@@ -107,7 +107,7 @@ pub mv struct JsonTree {
 		n.next = val
 	}
 
-	func set_val = (ref self, int idx, int val) {
+	func set_val = (ref self {}, int idx, int val) {
 		if idx < 0 || idx >= self.nodes.length {
 			panic("index out of range")
 		}

package/core/System/Text/Regex.nm

@@ -69,7 +69,7 @@ pub struct Regex {
 	pub func captures = (
 		string pattern,
 		string input,
-		ref List<string> dst,
+		ref List<string> dst { items },
 		out bool
 	) { var int pat_len = pattern.length
 		var int len = input.length
@@ -117,7 +117,7 @@ pub struct Regex {
 	// first, so a reused RegexMatch carries nothing over. Scans every
 	// position: the first-byte prefilter would skip nullable patterns'
 	// empty matches at skipped positions, reporting a wrong .start.
-	pub func find = (string pattern, string input, ref RegexMatch dst) {
+	pub func find = (string pattern, string input, ref RegexMatch dst { text }) {
 		dst.found = false
 		dst.start = 0
 		dst.end = 0
@@ -232,13 +232,13 @@ pub struct Regex {
 	}
 
 	// find, ignoring ASCII case.
-	pub func find_ci = (string pattern, string input, ref RegexMatch dst) {
+	pub func find_ci = (string pattern, string input, ref RegexMatch dst { text }) {
 		var string folded = fold_pattern(pattern)
 		Regex.find(folded, input, ref dst)
 	}
 
 	// captures, ignoring ASCII case.
-	pub func captures_ci = (string pattern, string input, ref List<string> dst, out bool) {
+	pub func captures_ci = (string pattern, string input, ref List<string> dst { items }, out bool) {
 		var string folded = fold_pattern(pattern)
 		return Regex.captures(folded, input, ref dst)
 	}
@@ -308,7 +308,7 @@ func fold_pattern = (string pattern, mv out string) {
 
 // fold a character class [cs..ce): copy its contents, adding the case
 // counterpart of every letter member and mirroring letter ranges.
-func fold_class = (string pattern, int cs, int ce, ref StringBuilder dst) {
+func fold_class = (string pattern, int cs, int ce, ref StringBuilder dst {}) {
 	dst.append_char('[')
 	var int i = cs + 1
 	if i < ce - 1 {
@@ -435,7 +435,7 @@ func collect_first_bytes = (
 	string pattern,
 	int pat_pos,
 	int pat_end,
-	ref StringBuilder sb,
+	ref StringBuilder sb {},
 	out int
 ) {
 	var depth = 0
@@ -482,7 +482,7 @@ func collect_first_bytes = (
 // atom — literal, escaped, class, or group — quantified with '?'/'*' is
 // nullable: what FOLLOWS it can also be first, so the scan continues past it.
 // A wildcard '.' or an empty alternative makes the set indeterminable.
-func alt_first_bytes = (string pattern, int start, int end, ref StringBuilder sb, out int) {
+func alt_first_bytes = (string pattern, int start, int end, ref StringBuilder sb {}, out int) {
 	var int i = start
 	while i < end {
 		var char c = pattern.at(i)
@@ -722,7 +722,7 @@ func add_class_chars = (
 	string pattern,
 	int start,
 	int end,
-	ref StringBuilder sb
+	ref StringBuilder sb {}
 ) { var int cs = start
 	if cs < end {
 		if pattern.at(cs) == '^' {
@@ -777,7 +777,7 @@ func match_here = (
 	string input,
 	int in_pos,
 	int in_len,
-	ref List<int> caps,
+	ref List<int> caps { items },
 	out int: out <= in_len
 ) {
 	// Handle top-level alternation: a '|' at bracket/paren depth 0 splits the
@@ -1036,7 +1036,7 @@ func match_group_then_rest = (
 	string input,
 	int in_pos,
 	int in_len,
-	ref List<int> caps,
+	ref List<int> caps { items },
 	out int
 ) {
 	var int g = group_index_at(pattern, atom_start)
@@ -1127,7 +1127,7 @@ func match_single_atom = (
 	string input,
 	int in_pos,
 	int in_len,
-	ref List<int> caps,
+	ref List<int> caps { items },
 	out int
 ) {
 	var char pc = pattern.at(atom_start)
@@ -1309,7 +1309,7 @@ func match_counted = (
 	int lazy,
 	int count,
 	int in_len,
-	ref List<int> caps,
+	ref List<int> caps { items },
 	out int
 ) {
 	var can_stop = count >= min_count
@@ -1407,7 +1407,7 @@ func match_star = (
 	int min_count,
 	int lazy,
 	int in_len,
-	ref List<int> caps,
+	ref List<int> caps { items },
 	out int
 ) {
 	var char pc = pattern.at(atom_start)
@@ -1490,7 +1490,7 @@ func match_star_group = (
 	int min_count,
 	int lazy,
 	int in_len,
-	ref List<int> caps,
+	ref List<int> caps { items },
 	out int
 ) {
 	if lazy > 0 {
@@ -1559,7 +1559,7 @@ func match_group_iteration = (
 	int min_count,
 	int lazy,
 	int in_len,
-	ref List<int> caps,
+	ref List<int> caps { items },
 	out int
 ) {
 	var int g = group_index_at(pattern, atom_start)
@@ -1626,7 +1626,7 @@ func match_optional = (
 	int in_pos,
 	int lazy,
 	int in_len,
-	ref List<int> caps,
+	ref List<int> caps { items },
 	out int
 ) {
 	if lazy > 0 {
@@ -1899,7 +1899,7 @@ func group_index_at = (string pattern, int open_pos, out int) {
 // group_pos. A later span for the same group supersedes the earlier one, so
 // a repeated group reports its last iteration; a failed group records
 // (-1, -1) so stale spans from an abandoned attempt never surface.
-func record_capture = (ref List<int> caps, int group, int start, int end) {
+func record_capture = (ref List<int> caps { items }, int group, int start, int end) {
 	if group <= 0 {
 		return
 	}
@@ -1958,7 +1958,7 @@ func match_backref = (
 	int group,
 	int in_pos,
 	int in_len,
-	ref List<int> caps,
+	ref List<int> caps {},
 	out int
 ) {
 	var int at = last_capture_index(caps, group)
@@ -1994,7 +1994,7 @@ func match_star_backref = (
 	int min_count,
 	int lazy,
 	int in_len,
-	ref List<int> caps,
+	ref List<int> caps { items },
 	out int
 ) {
 	var int group = backref_group(pattern.at(atom_start + 1))
@@ -2116,7 +2116,7 @@ func matches_shorthand = (char c, char b, out bool) {
 // first-byte charset. Complement shorthands (S/D/W) match "anything else" —
 // not expressible as an inclusion set — so they return -1, which disables
 // the caller's prefilter.
-func shorthand_members = (char c, ref StringBuilder sb, out int) {
+func shorthand_members = (char c, ref StringBuilder sb {}, out int) {
 	var int kind = c as int
 	if kind == 83 || kind == 68 || kind == 87 {
 		return -1

package/core/System/Thread.nm

@@ -82,9 +82,13 @@ pub mv struct Thread<T> : Spawnable<T> {
 	// fields, so #destroy becomes a no-op afterwards. The future's refs
 	// account for the trampoline, the returned handle, and the nursery (when
 	// captured).
-	pub func start = (ref self, mv out Task<T>) {
+	pub func start = (ref self {}, mv out Task<T>) {
 		```
 		#arch: c
+		// Single-launch contract: a consumed construction (started) owns
+		// nothing — the handles below are zeroed, and writing the ref count
+		// through the null future would fault. Abort with the reason.
+		if (self->started) __nomen_spawn_double_start_abort();
 		struct nomen_future *_f = (struct nomen_future *)self->future;
 		_f->refs = self->nursery_futures ? 3 : 2;
 		__nomen_pool_submit((struct nomen_closure *)self->task);
@@ -94,7 +98,12 @@ pub mv struct Thread<T> : Spawnable<T> {
 		```
 		```
 		#arch: aarch64
-		// x19 = self. f = self->future (#32); nursery_futures at #48.
+		// x19 = self. started at #40; f = self->future (#32); nursery_futures
+		// at #48. Single-launch contract first: a consumed construction has
+		// zeroed handles, and the ref-store below would write through null.
+		ldrb w9, [x19, #40]
+		cbnz w9, .Lnomen_start_double
+		// f = self->future (#32); nursery_futures at #48.
 		ldr x0, [x19, #32]
 		ldr x1, [x19, #48]
 		mov w2, #2
@@ -113,6 +122,10 @@ pub mv struct Thread<T> : Spawnable<T> {
 		ldr x3, [x19, #32]
 		bl ___nomen_nursery_track
 		.Lnomen_start_notrack:
+		b .Lnomen_start_done
+		.Lnomen_start_double:
+		bl ___nomen_spawn_double_start_abort
+		.Lnomen_start_done:
 		```
 		// The handle is a fresh heap Task built through the internal #init;
 		// the caller owns it (a discarded statement form is reclaimed at
@@ -136,9 +149,12 @@ pub mv struct Thread<T> : Spawnable<T> {
 	// mid-execution BY DESIGN. The unused future (a Thread always carries
 	// the full machinery) is released — first detaching the closure from it,
 	// so the daemon runner owns the closure now.
-	pub func detach = (ref self) {
+	pub func detach = (ref self {}) {
 		```
 		#arch: c
+		// Single-launch contract (see .start): a consumed construction has
+		// zeroed handles, and detaching the null closure would crash a worker.
+		if (self->started) __nomen_spawn_double_start_abort();
 		struct nomen_future *_uf = (struct nomen_future *)self->future;
 		if (_uf) {
 			_uf->owner_args = NULL;
@@ -148,6 +164,9 @@ pub mv struct Thread<T> : Spawnable<T> {
 		```
 		```
 		#arch: aarch64
+		// Single-launch contract first (see .start): started at #40.
+		ldrb w9, [x19, #40]
+		cbnz w9, .Lnomen_detach_double
 		// if (self->future) { owner_args = NULL; release it }
 		ldr x0, [x19, #32]
 		cbz x0, .Lnomen_detach_nofut
@@ -157,6 +176,10 @@ pub mv struct Thread<T> : Spawnable<T> {
 		// __nomen_task_detach(self->task)
 		ldr x0, [x19, #8]
 		bl ___nomen_task_detach
+		b .Lnomen_detach_done
+		.Lnomen_detach_double:
+		bl ___nomen_spawn_double_start_abort
+		.Lnomen_detach_done:
 		```
 		self.task = 0
 		self.future = 0

package/core/System/Tree.nm

@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ pub mv struct Tree<T>: Enumerable {
 	var parents = Buffer<int>()
 	var count = 0
 
-	pub func add = (ref self, mv T value) {
+	pub func add = (ref self { lefts, parents, rights, values }, mv T value) {
 		const int idx = self.count
 		self.values.grow_int(idx + 1)
 		const int v = value
@@ -27,12 +27,12 @@ pub mv struct Tree<T>: Enumerable {
 		self.count = self.count + 1
 	}
 
-	pub func set_left = (ref self, int idx, int left) {
+	pub func set_left = (ref self { lefts, parents }, int idx, int left) {
 		self.lefts.store_int(idx, left)
 		self.parents.store_int(left, idx)
 	}
 
-	pub func set_right = (ref self, int idx, int right) {
+	pub func set_right = (ref self { parents, rights }, int idx, int right) {
 		self.rights.store_int(idx, right)
 		self.parents.store_int(right, idx)
 	}
@@ -57,6 +57,22 @@ pub mv struct Tree<T>: Enumerable {
 		return self.values.load_int(idx)
 	}
 
+	// Bounds-checked access: `fallback` when idx is outside [0, self.count).
+	pub func at_or = (self, int idx, T fallback, out T) {
+		if idx >= 0 && idx < self.count {
+			return self.at(idx)
+		}
+		return fallback
+	}
+
+	// Bounds-checked access that traps when idx is outside [0, self.count).
+	pub func at_or_panic = (self, int idx, out T) {
+		if idx >= 0 && idx < self.count {
+			return self.at(idx)
+		}
+		panic("index out of range")
+	}
+
 	pub func count_nodes = (self, int idx, out int) {
 		if idx == -1 {
 			return 0