matterviz 0.3.1 → 0.3.3

package/dist/math.js

@@ -1,7 +1,20 @@
+// Generate all k-element combinations from an array.
+export function combinations(arr, k) {
+    if (k === 0)
+        return [[]];
+    if (arr.length < k)
+        return [];
+    const [first, ...rest] = arr;
+    return [
+        ...combinations(rest, k - 1).map((combo) => [first, ...combo]),
+        ...combinations(rest, k),
+    ];
+}
 export const LOG_EPS = 1e-9;
 export const EPS = 1e-10;
 export const RAD_TO_DEG = 180 / Math.PI;
 export const DEG_TO_RAD = Math.PI / 180;
+const MAX_MIN_IMAGE_CANDIDATES = 100_000;
 export const to_degrees = (radians) => radians * RAD_TO_DEG;
 export const to_radians = (degrees) => degrees * DEG_TO_RAD;
 // Calculate all lattice parameters in a single efficient pass
@@ -32,21 +45,70 @@ export const euclidean_dist = (vec1, vec2) => {
     }
     return Math.hypot(...vec1.map((x, idx) => x - vec2[idx]));
 };
+const vec3_norm_sq = (vec) => vec[0] ** 2 + vec[1] ** 2 + vec[2] ** 2;
+// Exact minimum-image displacement for row-vector lattices.
+// Rounded fractional wrapping is only approximate for highly skewed cells, so
+// we use it as a starting guess and then search the small set of shifts that
+// can still beat that Cartesian radius.
+export function min_image_displacement(from, to, lattice_matrix, converters, pbc = [true, true, true]) {
+    const { cart_to_frac, frac_to_cart, reciprocal_axis_norms } = converters ?? create_lattice_converters(lattice_matrix);
+    const frac_from = cart_to_frac(from);
+    const frac_to = cart_to_frac(to);
+    const frac_diff = [
+        frac_to[0] - frac_from[0],
+        frac_to[1] - frac_from[1],
+        frac_to[2] - frac_from[2],
+    ];
+    const wrapped_frac_diff = [
+        pbc[0] ? frac_diff[0] - Math.round(frac_diff[0]) : frac_diff[0],
+        pbc[1] ? frac_diff[1] - Math.round(frac_diff[1]) : frac_diff[1],
+        pbc[2] ? frac_diff[2] - Math.round(frac_diff[2]) : frac_diff[2],
+    ];
+    let best_displacement = frac_to_cart(wrapped_frac_diff);
+    let best_dist_sq = vec3_norm_sq(best_displacement);
+    const search_radius = Math.sqrt(best_dist_sq) + EPS;
+    const candidate_shift_ranges = [0, 1, 2].map((axis_idx) => {
+        if (!pbc[axis_idx])
+            return [0, 0];
+        const axis_bound = reciprocal_axis_norms[axis_idx] * search_radius;
+        return [
+            Math.ceil(-frac_diff[axis_idx] - axis_bound),
+            Math.floor(-frac_diff[axis_idx] + axis_bound),
+        ];
+    });
+    let candidate_count = 1;
+    for (const [shift_min, shift_max] of candidate_shift_ranges) {
+        candidate_count *= shift_max - shift_min + 1;
+        if (candidate_count > MAX_MIN_IMAGE_CANDIDATES) {
+            throw new Error(`Minimum-image search would test >${MAX_MIN_IMAGE_CANDIDATES} candidates ` +
+                `for lattice ${JSON.stringify(lattice_matrix)}; reciprocal norms=` +
+                `${JSON.stringify(reciprocal_axis_norms)} ranges=${JSON.stringify(candidate_shift_ranges)}`);
+        }
+    }
+    const [[i_min, i_max], [j_min, j_max], [k_min, k_max]] = candidate_shift_ranges;
+    // Only test integer shifts that reciprocal-space bounds say could still win.
+    for (let ii = i_min; ii <= i_max; ii++) {
+        for (let jj = j_min; jj <= j_max; jj++) {
+            for (let kk = k_min; kk <= k_max; kk++) {
+                const candidate_frac_diff = [
+                    frac_diff[0] + ii,
+                    frac_diff[1] + jj,
+                    frac_diff[2] + kk,
+                ];
+                const candidate_displacement = frac_to_cart(candidate_frac_diff);
+                const candidate_dist_sq = vec3_norm_sq(candidate_displacement);
+                if (candidate_dist_sq < best_dist_sq) {
+                    best_dist_sq = candidate_dist_sq;
+                    best_displacement = candidate_displacement;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    return best_displacement;
+}
 // Calculate the minimum distance between two points considering periodic boundary conditions.
-export function pbc_dist(pos1, // First position vector (Cartesian coordinates)
-pos2, // Second position vector (Cartesian coordinates)
-lattice_matrix, // 3x3 lattice matrix where each row is a lattice vector
-lattice_inv, // Optional pre-computed inverse matrix for optimization (since lattice is usually constant and repeatedly inverting matrix is expensive)
-pbc = [true, true, true]) {
-    const inv_matrix = lattice_inv ?? matrix_inverse_3x3(lattice_matrix);
-    // Convert Cartesian coordinates to fractional coordinates
-    const [fx1, fy1, fz1] = mat3x3_vec3_multiply(inv_matrix, pos1);
-    const [fx2, fy2, fz2] = mat3x3_vec3_multiply(inv_matrix, pos2);
-    // Apply minimum image convention only for periodic axes
-    const wrapped_frac_diff = [fx1 - fx2, fy1 - fy2, fz1 - fz2].map((diff, idx) => pbc[idx] ? diff - Math.round(diff) : diff);
-    // Convert back to Cartesian coordinates
-    const cart_diff = mat3x3_vec3_multiply(lattice_matrix, wrapped_frac_diff);
-    return Math.hypot(...cart_diff);
+export function pbc_dist(pos1, pos2, lattice_matrix, converters, pbc = [true, true, true]) {
+    return Math.hypot(...min_image_displacement(pos1, pos2, lattice_matrix, converters, pbc));
 }
 export function matrix_inverse_3x3(matrix) {
     const [[m11, m12, m13], [m21, m22, m23], [m31, m32, m33]] = matrix;
@@ -94,7 +156,7 @@ export function add(...vecs) {
             throw new Error(`All vectors must have the same length`);
         }
     }
-    const result = new Array(length).fill(0);
+    const result = Array.from({ length }).fill(0);
     for (const vec of vecs) {
         for (let idx = 0; idx < length; idx++) {
             result[idx] += vec[idx];
@@ -130,16 +192,19 @@ function validate_matrix(mat, name) {
     return cols;
 }
 export function dot(vec1, vec2) {
+    const vec1_is_matrix = vec1.some((entry) => Array.isArray(entry));
+    const vec2_is_matrix = vec2.some((entry) => Array.isArray(entry));
     // Vector dot product
-    if (!Array.isArray(vec1[0]) && !Array.isArray(vec2[0])) {
-        const v1 = vec1;
-        const v2 = vec2;
-        if (v1.length !== v2.length)
+    if (!vec1_is_matrix && !vec2_is_matrix) {
+        const left_vec = vec1;
+        const right_vec = vec2;
+        if (left_vec.length !== right_vec.length) {
             throw new Error(`Vectors must be of same length`);
-        return v1.reduce((sum, val, idx) => sum + val * v2[idx], 0);
+        }
+        return left_vec.reduce((sum, val, idx) => sum + val * right_vec[idx], 0);
     }
     // Matrix-vector multiplication
-    if (Array.isArray(vec1[0]) && !Array.isArray(vec2[0])) {
+    if (vec1_is_matrix && !vec2_is_matrix) {
         const mat = vec1;
         const vec = vec2;
         const cols = validate_matrix(mat, `Matrix`);
@@ -149,7 +214,7 @@ export function dot(vec1, vec2) {
         return mat.map((row) => row.reduce((sum, val, idx) => sum + val * vec[idx], 0));
     }
     // Matrix-matrix multiplication
-    if (Array.isArray(vec1[0]) && Array.isArray(vec2[0])) {
+    if (vec1_is_matrix && vec2_is_matrix) {
         const mat1 = vec1;
         const mat2 = vec2;
         const mat1_cols = validate_matrix(mat1, `First matrix`);
@@ -177,7 +242,11 @@ export function from_voigt(voigt) {
         throw new Error(`Expected 6-element Voigt vector, got ${voigt.length} elements`);
     }
     const [v1, v2, v3, v4, v5, v6] = voigt;
-    return [[v1, v6, v5], [v6, v2, v4], [v5, v4, v3]];
+    return [
+        [v1, v6, v5],
+        [v6, v2, v4],
+        [v5, v4, v3],
+    ];
 }
 // Convert flat 9-element array to 3x3 tensor (row-major order)
 export function vec9_to_mat3x3(flat_array) {
@@ -185,7 +254,11 @@ export function vec9_to_mat3x3(flat_array) {
         throw new Error(`Expected 9-element array, got ${flat_array.length} elements`);
     }
     const [a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6, a7, a8, a9] = flat_array;
-    return [[a1, a2, a3], [a4, a5, a6], [a7, a8, a9]];
+    return [
+        [a1, a2, a3],
+        [a4, a5, a6],
+        [a7, a8, a9],
+    ];
 }
 // Convert 3x3 tensor to flat 9-element array (row-major order)
 export function tensor_to_flat_array(tensor) {
@@ -201,6 +274,18 @@ export const transpose_3x3_matrix = (matrix) => [
     [matrix[0][1], matrix[1][1], matrix[2][1]],
     [matrix[0][2], matrix[1][2], matrix[2][2]],
 ];
+// Scale each row of a 3x3 matrix by the corresponding element of a Vec3.
+// Used to scale lattice vectors by supercell factors.
+export function scale_lattice_matrix(orig_matrix, scaling_factors) {
+    const [nx, ny, nz] = scaling_factors;
+    const [a, b, c] = orig_matrix;
+    return [
+        [a[0] * nx, a[1] * nx, a[2] * nx],
+        [b[0] * ny, b[1] * ny, b[2] * ny],
+        [c[0] * nz, c[1] * nz, c[2] * nz],
+    ];
+}
+const create_cart_to_frac_matrix = (lattice) => matrix_inverse_3x3(transpose_3x3_matrix(lattice));
 // Curried fractional→Cartesian converter (caches transposed matrix)
 export const create_frac_to_cart = (lattice) => {
     const transposed = transpose_3x3_matrix(lattice);
@@ -208,8 +293,16 @@ export const create_frac_to_cart = (lattice) => {
 };
 // Curried Cartesian→fractional converter (caches inverse transpose)
 export const create_cart_to_frac = (lattice) => {
-    const inv_transposed = matrix_inverse_3x3(transpose_3x3_matrix(lattice));
-    return (cart) => mat3x3_vec3_multiply(inv_transposed, cart);
+    const cart_to_frac_mat = create_cart_to_frac_matrix(lattice);
+    return (cart) => mat3x3_vec3_multiply(cart_to_frac_mat, cart);
+};
+export const create_lattice_converters = (lattice) => {
+    const cart_to_frac_mat = create_cart_to_frac_matrix(lattice);
+    return {
+        cart_to_frac: (cart) => mat3x3_vec3_multiply(cart_to_frac_mat, cart),
+        frac_to_cart: create_frac_to_cart(lattice),
+        reciprocal_axis_norms: cart_to_frac_mat.map((row) => Math.hypot(...row)),
+    };
 };
 // Convert unit cell parameters to lattice matrix (crystallographic convention)
 export function cell_to_lattice_matrix(a, b, c, alpha, beta, gamma) {
@@ -222,11 +315,7 @@ export function cell_to_lattice_matrix(a, b, c, alpha, beta, gamma) {
     const cos_gamma = Math.cos(gamma_rad);
     const sin_gamma = Math.sin(gamma_rad);
     // Calculate volume factor for triclinic system
-    const vol_factor = Math.sqrt(1 -
-        cos_alpha ** 2 -
-        cos_beta ** 2 -
-        cos_gamma ** 2 +
-        2 * cos_alpha * cos_beta * cos_gamma);
+    const vol_factor = Math.sqrt(1 - cos_alpha ** 2 - cos_beta ** 2 - cos_gamma ** 2 + 2 * cos_alpha * cos_beta * cos_gamma);
     // Standard crystallographic lattice vectors
     const c_x = c * cos_beta;
     const c_y = (c * (cos_alpha - cos_beta * cos_gamma)) / sin_gamma;
@@ -241,7 +330,8 @@ export function det_3x3(matrix) {
     // |A| = a(ei − fh) − b(di − fg) + c(dh − eg)
     // where matrix = [[a, b, c], [d, e, f], [g, h, i]]
     const [[m00, m01, m02], [m10, m11, m12], [m20, m21, m22]] = matrix;
-    return (m00 * (m11 * m22 - m12 * m21) - m01 * (m10 * m22 - m12 * m20) +
+    return (m00 * (m11 * m22 - m12 * m21) -
+        m01 * (m10 * m22 - m12 * m20) +
         m02 * (m10 * m21 - m11 * m20));
 }
 export function get_coefficient_of_variation(values) {
@@ -249,9 +339,7 @@ export function get_coefficient_of_variation(values) {
         return 0;
     const mean = values.reduce((sum, val) => sum + val, 0) / values.length;
     const variance = values.reduce((sum, val) => sum + (val - mean) ** 2, 0) / values.length;
-    return Math.abs(mean) > 1e-10
-        ? Math.sqrt(variance) / Math.abs(mean)
-        : Math.sqrt(variance);
+    return Math.abs(mean) > 1e-10 ? Math.sqrt(variance) / Math.abs(mean) : Math.sqrt(variance);
 }
 // Compute 4x4 determinant (used for 4D barycentric coordinates)
 export function det_4x4(matrix) {
@@ -260,42 +348,38 @@ export function det_4x4(matrix) {
     const [b0, b1, b2, b3] = b_row;
     const [c0, c1, c2, c3] = c_row;
     const [d0, d1, d2, d3] = d_row;
-    return (a0 *
-        (b1 * (c2 * d3 - c3 * d2) - b2 * (c1 * d3 - c3 * d1) + b3 * (c1 * d2 - c2 * d1)) -
-        a1 *
-            (b0 * (c2 * d3 - c3 * d2) - b2 * (c0 * d3 - c3 * d0) + b3 * (c0 * d2 - c2 * d0)) +
-        a2 *
-            (b0 * (c1 * d3 - c3 * d1) - b1 * (c0 * d3 - c3 * d0) + b3 * (c0 * d1 - c1 * d0)) -
+    return (a0 * (b1 * (c2 * d3 - c3 * d2) - b2 * (c1 * d3 - c3 * d1) + b3 * (c1 * d2 - c2 * d1)) -
+        a1 * (b0 * (c2 * d3 - c3 * d2) - b2 * (c0 * d3 - c3 * d0) + b3 * (c0 * d2 - c2 * d0)) +
+        a2 * (b0 * (c1 * d3 - c3 * d1) - b1 * (c0 * d3 - c3 * d0) + b3 * (c0 * d1 - c1 * d0)) -
         a3 * (b0 * (c1 * d2 - c2 * d1) - b1 * (c0 * d2 - c2 * d0) + b2 * (c0 * d1 - c1 * d0)));
 }
 // Compute NxN determinant using LU decomposition with partial pivoting
 // More numerically stable than cofactor expansion for N > 4
 // Returns 0 for singular/near-singular matrices (pivot < EPS ≈ 1e-10)
 export function det_nxn(matrix) {
-    const n = matrix.length;
-    if (n === 0)
+    const mat_size = matrix.length;
+    if (mat_size === 0)
         return 1;
-    if (!matrix.every((row) => row.length === n)) {
+    if (!matrix.every((row) => row.length === mat_size)) {
         throw new Error(`det_nxn requires a square matrix`);
     }
     // Fast paths for small matrices
-    if (n === 1)
+    if (mat_size === 1)
         return matrix[0][0];
-    if (n === 2)
+    if (mat_size === 2)
         return matrix[0][0] * matrix[1][1] - matrix[0][1] * matrix[1][0];
-    if (n === 3)
+    if (mat_size === 3)
         return det_3x3(matrix);
-    if (n === 4)
+    if (mat_size === 4)
         return det_4x4(matrix);
     // LU decomposition with partial pivoting
     // Create a working copy to avoid mutating input
     const lu = matrix.map((row) => [...row]);
     let swaps = 0;
-    for (let col = 0; col < n; col++) {
+    for (let col = 0; col < mat_size; col++) {
         // Find pivot (largest absolute value in column)
-        let max_row = col;
-        let max_val = Math.abs(lu[col][col]);
-        for (let row = col + 1; row < n; row++) {
+        let [max_row, max_val] = [col, Math.abs(lu[col][col])];
+        for (let row = col + 1; row < mat_size; row++) {
             const val = Math.abs(lu[row][col]);
             if (val > max_val) {
                 max_val = val;
@@ -313,17 +397,17 @@ export function det_nxn(matrix) {
         }
         // Eliminate below pivot
         const pivot = lu[col][col];
-        for (let row = col + 1; row < n; row++) {
+        for (let row = col + 1; row < mat_size; row++) {
             const factor = lu[row][col] / pivot;
             lu[row][col] = 0;
-            for (let k = col + 1; k < n; k++) {
+            for (let k = col + 1; k < mat_size; k++) {
                 lu[row][k] -= factor * lu[col][k];
             }
         }
     }
     // Determinant is product of diagonal elements × (-1)^swaps
     let det = swaps % 2 === 0 ? 1 : -1;
-    for (let idx = 0; idx < n; idx++) {
+    for (let idx = 0; idx < mat_size; idx++) {
         det *= lu[idx][idx];
     }
     return det;
@@ -353,6 +437,14 @@ export const centered_frac = (val) => {
         wrapped -= 1;
     return wrapped || 0; // normalize -0 to 0
 };
+// Element-wise equality check for two optional Vec3s.
+// Returns true if both are the same reference, or both are defined with equal components.
+export const vecs_equal = (vec_a, vec_b) => vec_a === vec_b ||
+    (!!vec_a &&
+        !!vec_b &&
+        vec_a[0] === vec_b[0] &&
+        vec_a[1] === vec_b[1] &&
+        vec_a[2] === vec_b[2]);
 // Normalize a Vec3 to unit length, returns zero vector if input is zero
 export function normalize_vec3(vec, fallback) {
     const len = Math.hypot(vec[0], vec[1], vec[2]);
@@ -374,7 +466,230 @@ export function compute_in_plane_basis(normal) {
     ];
     const u_vec = normalize_vec3(u_raw, [0, 1, 0]);
     const v_vec = cross_3d(normal, u_vec);
-    return [u_vec, v_vec];
+    return [u_vec, v_vec]; // u, v basis vectors
+}
+// Check whether N 3D points all lie on the same plane within tolerance.
+// Fewer than 3 points are trivially coplanar.
+// Uses cross product to find a plane normal from non-collinear edges,
+// then checks all remaining points have zero distance to that plane.
+export function are_coplanar(points, tolerance = 1e-6) {
+    if (points.length < 3)
+        return true;
+    const origin = points[0];
+    // Find first pair of edges from origin that are not collinear
+    let normal = null;
+    for (let idx = 1; idx < points.length - 1; idx++) {
+        const edge_a = [
+            points[idx][0] - origin[0],
+            points[idx][1] - origin[1],
+            points[idx][2] - origin[2],
+        ];
+        for (let jdx = idx + 1; jdx < points.length; jdx++) {
+            const edge_b = [
+                points[jdx][0] - origin[0],
+                points[jdx][1] - origin[1],
+                points[jdx][2] - origin[2],
+            ];
+            const cross = cross_3d(edge_a, edge_b);
+            const len = Math.hypot(cross[0], cross[1], cross[2]);
+            if (len > tolerance) {
+                normal = [cross[0] / len, cross[1] / len, cross[2] / len];
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        if (normal)
+            break;
+    }
+    // All edges are collinear -> all points lie on a line -> coplanar
+    if (!normal)
+        return true;
+    const plane_d = dot(normal, origin);
+    for (let idx = 1; idx < points.length; idx++) {
+        const dist = Math.abs(dot(normal, points[idx]) - plane_d);
+        if (dist > tolerance)
+            return false;
+    }
+    return true;
+}
+// Merge coplanar adjacent triangles in a flat non-indexed position array.
+// Takes 9 floats per triangle (3 vertices x 3 coords), groups adjacent coplanar
+// triangles via union-find, then re-triangulates each group with fan triangulation
+// to eliminate internal diagonal edges.
+export function merge_coplanar_triangles(positions, tolerance = 1e-4) {
+    const n_triangles = Math.floor(positions.length / 9);
+    if (n_triangles === 0)
+        return new Float32Array(positions);
+    const tri_planes = [];
+    for (let tri_idx = 0; tri_idx < n_triangles; tri_idx++) {
+        const base = tri_idx * 9;
+        const va = [positions[base], positions[base + 1], positions[base + 2]];
+        const vb = [positions[base + 3], positions[base + 4], positions[base + 5]];
+        const vc = [positions[base + 6], positions[base + 7], positions[base + 8]];
+        const edge_ab = [vb[0] - va[0], vb[1] - va[1], vb[2] - va[2]];
+        const edge_ac = [vc[0] - va[0], vc[1] - va[1], vc[2] - va[2]];
+        const raw_normal = cross_3d(edge_ab, edge_ac);
+        const len = Math.hypot(raw_normal[0], raw_normal[1], raw_normal[2]);
+        if (len < tolerance) {
+            tri_planes.push({
+                verts: [va, vb, vc],
+                normal: [0, 0, 0],
+                plane_d: 0,
+                degenerate: true,
+            });
+            continue;
+        }
+        // Normalize and canonicalize: first non-zero component must be positive
+        let normal = [raw_normal[0] / len, raw_normal[1] / len, raw_normal[2] / len];
+        const CANON_EPS = 1e-12;
+        const first_nonzero = Math.abs(normal[0]) > CANON_EPS
+            ? normal[0]
+            : Math.abs(normal[1]) > CANON_EPS
+                ? normal[1]
+                : normal[2];
+        if (first_nonzero < 0)
+            normal = [-normal[0], -normal[1], -normal[2]];
+        const plane_d = dot(normal, va);
+        tri_planes.push({ verts: [va, vb, vc], normal, plane_d, degenerate: false });
+    }
+    // === Step 2: Build adjacency via edge hash map ===
+    // Quantize vertex to integer grid for hashing (only used for equality, not coords)
+    const vert_key = (v) => `${Math.round(v[0] / tolerance)},${Math.round(v[1] / tolerance)},${Math.round(v[2] / tolerance)}`;
+    const edge_key = (va, vb) => {
+        const ka = vert_key(va);
+        const kb = vert_key(vb);
+        return ka < kb ? `${ka}|${kb}` : `${kb}|${ka}`;
+    };
+    // Map edge -> list of triangle indices sharing that edge
+    const edge_to_tris = new Map();
+    for (let tri_idx = 0; tri_idx < n_triangles; tri_idx++) {
+        const { verts, degenerate } = tri_planes[tri_idx];
+        if (degenerate)
+            continue;
+        const edges = [
+            edge_key(verts[0], verts[1]),
+            edge_key(verts[1], verts[2]),
+            edge_key(verts[0], verts[2]),
+        ];
+        for (const ek of edges) {
+            const existing = edge_to_tris.get(ek);
+            if (existing)
+                existing.push(tri_idx);
+            else
+                edge_to_tris.set(ek, [tri_idx]);
+        }
+    }
+    // === Step 3: Union-Find grouping of coplanar adjacent triangles ===
+    const parent = new Int32Array(n_triangles);
+    const rank = new Int32Array(n_triangles);
+    for (let idx = 0; idx < n_triangles; idx++)
+        parent[idx] = idx;
+    const find = (x) => {
+        while (parent[x] !== x) {
+            parent[x] = parent[parent[x]]; // path compression
+            x = parent[x];
+        }
+        return x;
+    };
+    const union = (a, b) => {
+        const ra = find(a), rb = find(b);
+        if (ra === rb)
+            return;
+        if (rank[ra] < rank[rb])
+            parent[ra] = rb;
+        else if (rank[ra] > rank[rb])
+            parent[rb] = ra;
+        else {
+            parent[rb] = ra;
+            rank[ra]++;
+        }
+    };
+    for (const tri_list of edge_to_tris.values()) {
+        if (tri_list.length !== 2)
+            continue;
+        const [idx_a, idx_b] = tri_list;
+        const pa = tri_planes[idx_a];
+        const pb = tri_planes[idx_b];
+        if (pa.degenerate || pb.degenerate)
+            continue;
+        // Check coplanarity: same canonical normal direction AND same plane distance
+        const normal_dot = pa.normal[0] * pb.normal[0] + pa.normal[1] * pb.normal[1] + pa.normal[2] * pb.normal[2];
+        if (Math.abs(normal_dot) < 1 - tolerance)
+            continue;
+        if (Math.abs(pa.plane_d - pb.plane_d) > tolerance)
+            continue;
+        union(idx_a, idx_b);
+    }
+    // === Step 4: Collect groups ===
+    const groups = new Map();
+    for (let idx = 0; idx < n_triangles; idx++) {
+        const root = find(idx);
+        const group = groups.get(root);
+        if (group)
+            group.push(idx);
+        else
+            groups.set(root, [idx]);
+    }
+    // === Step 5: Merge each group and re-triangulate ===
+    const output = [];
+    // Push a triangle's 3 vertices (9 floats) to the output
+    const emit_tri = (va, vb, vc) => {
+        output.push(va[0], va[1], va[2], vb[0], vb[1], vb[2], vc[0], vc[1], vc[2]);
+    };
+    const emit_original = (members) => {
+        for (const tri_idx of members) {
+            const { verts } = tri_planes[tri_idx];
+            emit_tri(verts[0], verts[1], verts[2]);
+        }
+    };
+    for (const members of groups.values()) {
+        if (members.length === 1) {
+            emit_original(members);
+            continue;
+        }
+        const { normal } = tri_planes[members[0]];
+        // Collect all unique vertices from the group
+        const seen_keys = new Map();
+        for (const tri_idx of members) {
+            for (const vert of tri_planes[tri_idx].verts) {
+                const key = vert_key(vert);
+                if (!seen_keys.has(key))
+                    seen_keys.set(key, vert);
+            }
+        }
+        const unique_verts = [...seen_keys.values()];
+        if (unique_verts.length < 3) {
+            emit_original(members);
+            continue;
+        }
+        // Project to 2D using in-plane basis
+        const [u_vec, v_vec] = compute_in_plane_basis(normal);
+        const pts_2d = unique_verts.map((vertex) => [dot(u_vec, vertex), dot(v_vec, vertex)]);
+        const hull = convex_hull_2d(pts_2d);
+        if (hull.length < 3) {
+            emit_original(members);
+            continue;
+        }
+        // Map 2D hull vertices back to nearest 3D vertex
+        const hull_3d = hull.map((pt) => {
+            let best_dist = Infinity;
+            let best_idx = 0;
+            for (let idx = 0; idx < pts_2d.length; idx++) {
+                const du = pts_2d[idx][0] - pt[0];
+                const dv = pts_2d[idx][1] - pt[1];
+                const dist = du * du + dv * dv;
+                if (dist < best_dist) {
+                    best_dist = dist;
+                    best_idx = idx;
+                }
+            }
+            return unique_verts[best_idx];
+        });
+        // Fan-triangulate from hull vertex 0
+        for (let idx = 1; idx < hull_3d.length - 1; idx++) {
+            emit_tri(hull_3d[0], hull_3d[idx], hull_3d[idx + 1]);
+        }
+    }
+    return new Float32Array(output);
 }
 // Compute axis-aligned bounding box of Vec3 vertices
 export function compute_bounding_box(vertices) {
@@ -418,7 +733,7 @@ export function point_in_polygon(point_x, point_y, vertices) {
         const [x_i, y_i] = vertices[idx];
         const [x_j, y_j] = vertices[prev_idx];
         // Check if horizontal ray from point crosses this edge
-        if (y_i !== y_j && (y_i > point_y) !== (y_j > point_y)) {
+        if (y_i !== y_j && y_i > point_y !== y_j > point_y) {
             const x_intersect = ((x_j - x_i) * (point_y - y_i)) / (y_j - y_i) + x_i;
             if (point_x < x_intersect)
                 inside = !inside;
@@ -477,3 +792,105 @@ export function polygon_centroid(vertices) {
     const factor = 1 / (6 * signed_area);
     return [cx * factor, cy * factor];
 }
+// Solve linear system Ax = b via LU decomposition with partial pivoting.
+// Returns null if the system is singular (no unique solution).
+// Fast-paths for 2x2 (Cramer's rule) and 3x3 (matrix inverse).
+export function solve_linear_system(A, // NxN coefficient matrix
+b) {
+    const n = A.length;
+    if (n === 0 || b.length !== n || !A.every((row) => row.length === n))
+        return null;
+    // 2x2 fast path via Cramer's rule
+    if (n === 2) {
+        const det = A[0][0] * A[1][1] - A[0][1] * A[1][0];
+        if (Math.abs(det) < EPS)
+            return null;
+        return [(b[0] * A[1][1] - b[1] * A[0][1]) / det, (A[0][0] * b[1] - A[1][0] * b[0]) / det];
+    }
+    // 3x3 fast path via matrix inverse
+    if (n === 3) {
+        const det = det_3x3(A);
+        if (Math.abs(det) < EPS)
+            return null;
+        const inv = matrix_inverse_3x3(A);
+        return mat3x3_vec3_multiply(inv, b);
+    }
+    // General NxN: LU decomposition with partial pivoting + forward/back substitution
+    const lu = A.map((row) => [...row]);
+    const perm = Array.from({ length: n }, (_, idx) => idx);
+    for (let col = 0; col < n; col++) {
+        // Find pivot
+        let [max_row, max_val] = [col, Math.abs(lu[col][col])];
+        for (let row = col + 1; row < n; row++) {
+            const val = Math.abs(lu[row][col]);
+            if (val > max_val)
+                [max_val, max_row] = [val, row];
+        }
+        if (max_val < EPS)
+            return null; // singular
+        // Swap rows
+        if (max_row !== col) {
+            ;
+            [lu[col], lu[max_row]] = [lu[max_row], lu[col]];
+            [perm[col], perm[max_row]] = [perm[max_row], perm[col]];
+        }
+        // Eliminate below pivot
+        const pivot = lu[col][col];
+        for (let row = col + 1; row < n; row++) {
+            const factor = lu[row][col] / pivot;
+            lu[row][col] = factor; // store L factor in lower triangle
+            for (let k = col + 1; k < n; k++) {
+                lu[row][k] -= factor * lu[col][k];
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    // Apply permutation to b
+    const pb = perm.map((idx) => b[idx]);
+    // Forward substitution (Ly = Pb)
+    for (let row = 1; row < n; row++) {
+        for (let col = 0; col < row; col++) {
+            pb[row] -= lu[row][col] * pb[col];
+        }
+    }
+    // Back substitution (Ux = y)
+    const x = Array.from({ length: n }).fill(0);
+    for (let row = n - 1; row >= 0; row--) {
+        let sum = pb[row];
+        for (let col = row + 1; col < n; col++) {
+            sum -= lu[row][col] * x[col];
+        }
+        x[row] = sum / lu[row][row];
+    }
+    return x;
+}
+// Full 2D convex hull via Andrew's monotone chain algorithm.
+// Returns vertices in counter-clockwise order.
+export function convex_hull_2d(points) {
+    if (points.length < 3)
+        return [...points];
+    const sorted = points.toSorted((a, b) => a[0] - b[0] || a[1] - b[1]);
+    const cross = (o, a, b) => (a[0] - o[0]) * (b[1] - o[1]) - (a[1] - o[1]) * (b[0] - o[0]);
+    // Lower hull
+    const lower = [];
+    for (const pt of sorted) {
+        while (lower.length >= 2 &&
+            cross(lower[lower.length - 2], lower[lower.length - 1], pt) <= 0) {
+            lower.pop();
+        }
+        lower.push(pt);
+    }
+    // Upper hull
+    const upper = [];
+    for (let idx = sorted.length - 1; idx >= 0; idx--) {
+        const pt = sorted[idx];
+        while (upper.length >= 2 &&
+            cross(upper[upper.length - 2], upper[upper.length - 1], pt) <= 0) {
+            upper.pop();
+        }
+        upper.push(pt);
+    }
+    // Remove last point of each half (it's the first point of the other)
+    lower.pop();
+    upper.pop();
+    return [...lower, ...upper];
+}