littlejsengine 1.19.3 → 1.20.0

package/plugins/render3dExtras.js

@@ -0,0 +1,1754 @@
+/*
+ * LittleJS 3D Extras Plugin
+ * - Things built on the 3D renderer that it does not need in order to draw: the rest of the shape builders,
+ *   HeightMap terrain, the camera controls, ParticleEmitter3D and Trail3D, and the OBJ loader
+ * - Requires the Render3D plugin and goes after it, everything here is part of its Render3D namespace
+ */
+
+'use strict';
+
+///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+// Helpers used only here
+
+// gap between lines of 3D text, as a share of the character height; flat text can let lines touch
+// the way the 2D font does, but extruded glyphs seen from an angle then overlap the line below
+const RENDER3D_TEXT_LEADING = 1.3;
+
+// let go of the parent but stay where the object was in the world, which removeChild keeps by itself; a destroyed
+// parent has already let go, so the position remembered by the last update stands in
+function render3DDetach(o)
+{
+    if (o.parent)
+        o.parent.removeChild(o);
+    else if (o.worldPos3D)
+        o.pos3D = o.worldPos3D;
+}
+
+// a soft white dot for untextured particles, made once from a canvas, undefined headless or without a canvas
+let render3DSoftDotTexture;
+function render3DSoftDot()
+{
+    if (render3DSoftDotTexture || !glContext || typeof OffscreenCanvas == 'undefined') return render3DSoftDotTexture;
+    const size = 32, context = createCanvasContext(size);
+    const gradient = context.createRadialGradient(size / 2, size / 2, 0, size / 2, size / 2, size / 2);
+    for (const [stop, alpha] of [[0, 1], [.33, .9], [.67, .7], [1, 0]]) // the same falloff as a soft disc
+        gradient.addColorStop(stop, 'rgba(255,255,255,' + alpha + ')');
+    context.fillStyle = gradient;
+    context.fillRect(0, 0, size, size);
+    return render3DSoftDotTexture = new TextureInfo(context.canvas);
+}
+
+///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+// The rest of the shape builders: buildLathe, buildSphere, buildBox, buildGrid and buildSky live with the
+// renderer, since it hands those out itself
+
+// lathe profile points rounding the corner at [r, y] where two sides leave it along the unit directions d1 and d2,
+// from t along d1 to t along d2; one segment is a flat chamfer, its points doubled so the lathe shades both of its
+// edges hard, more follow the circle that touches both sides
+function render3DBevelProfile(corner, d1, d2, t, segments)
+{
+    const p1 = [corner[0] + d1[0] * t, corner[1] + d1[1] * t];
+    const p2 = [corner[0] + d2[0] * t, corner[1] + d2[1] * t];
+    segments = max(1, segments | 0);
+    if (segments === 1)
+        return [p1, p1, p2, p2];
+
+    // the circle's center is on the line halfway between the sides, as far from each as its radius
+    const half = Math.acos(clamp(d1[0] * d2[0] + d1[1] * d2[1], -1, 1)) / 2;
+    const bx = d1[0] + d2[0], by = d1[1] + d2[1], reach = t / cos(half) / hypot(bx, by);
+    const cx = corner[0] + bx * reach, cy = corner[1] + by * reach, radius = t * tan(half);
+    const start = atan2(p1[1] - cy, p1[0] - cx);
+    const turn = mod(atan2(p2[1] - cy, p2[0] - cx) - start + PI, 2 * PI) - PI; // the short way round
+    const points = [p1];
+    for (let i = 1; i < segments; ++i)
+    {
+        const a = start + turn * i / segments;
+        points.push([cx + cos(a) * radius, cy + sin(a) * radius]);
+    }
+    points.push(p2);
+    return points;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Build a cylinder standing on the Y axis, centered on the origin
+ * @param {number} [size] - Diameter
+ * @param {number} [height]
+ * @param {number} [sides] - Around
+ * @param {boolean} [smooth] - Defaults to render3D.smoothShading
+ * @param {boolean} [capped] - Close the ends
+ * @param {number} [bevel] - Size of the cut on the top and bottom rims, clamped to the radius and half the height
+ * @param {number} [bevelSegments] - Steps around each rim, 1 for a flat chamfer
+ * @return {Mesh}
+ * @memberof Render3D
+ */
+function buildCylinder(size=1, height=1, sides=16, smooth=render3D?.smoothShading, capped=true, bevel=0, bevelSegments=1)
+{
+    ASSERT(isNumber(bevel) && bevel >= 0, 'bevel must be a number, 0 or more');
+    const r = size / 2, h = height / 2, t = min(bevel, r, h);
+    if (!(t > 0))
+        return buildLathe([[r, -h], [r, h]], sides, smooth, capped);
+    return buildLathe([...render3DBevelProfile([r, -h], [-1, 0], [0, 1], t, bevelSegments),
+        ...render3DBevelProfile([r, h], [0, -1], [-1, 0], t, bevelSegments)], sides, smooth, capped);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Build a cone standing on the Y axis, centered on the origin, the point up
+ * @param {number} [size] - Diameter of the base
+ * @param {number} [height]
+ * @param {number} [sides] - Around
+ * @param {boolean} [smooth] - Defaults to render3D.smoothShading
+ * @param {boolean} [capped] - Close the base
+ * @param {number} [bevel] - Size of the cut on the base rim, clamped to the radius and half the slanted side
+ * @param {number} [bevelSegments] - Steps around the rim, 1 for a flat chamfer
+ * @return {Mesh}
+ * @memberof Render3D
+ */
+function buildCone(size=1, height=1, sides=16, smooth=render3D?.smoothShading, capped=true, bevel=0, bevelSegments=1)
+{
+    ASSERT(isNumber(bevel) && bevel >= 0, 'bevel must be a number, 0 or more');
+    const r = size / 2, h = height / 2, slant = hypot(r, height), t = min(bevel, r, slant / 2);
+    if (!(t > 0))
+        return buildLathe([[r, -h], [0, h]], sides, smooth, capped);
+    const up = [-r / slant, height / slant]; // along the slanted side from the rim toward the point
+    return buildLathe([...render3DBevelProfile([r, -h], [-1, 0], up, t, bevelSegments), [0, h]],
+        sides, smooth, capped);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Build a capsule standing on the Y axis, centered on the origin: a cylinder with a half sphere on each end
+ * @param {number} [size] - Diameter
+ * @param {number} [height] - Total height including the rounded ends, at least the size
+ * @param {number} [sides] - Around
+ * @param {number} [rings] - On each end
+ * @param {boolean} [smooth] - Defaults to render3D.smoothShading
+ * @return {Mesh}
+ * @memberof Render3D
+ */
+function buildCapsule(size=1, height=1, sides=16, rings=4, smooth=render3D?.smoothShading)
+{
+    // the rounded ends alone are already the size tall, so a shorter capsule is only a sphere
+    ASSERT(height >= size, 'a capsule is at least as tall as it is wide, the ends take up the size', size, height);
+    const profile = [], r = size / 2, straight = max(0, height - size) / 2;
+    for (let i = 0; i <= rings; ++i)
+    {
+        const a = i / rings * PI / 2;
+        profile.push([r * sin(a), -straight - r * cos(a)]);
+    }
+    for (let i = 0; i <= rings; ++i)
+    {
+        const a = i / rings * PI / 2;
+        profile.push([r * cos(a), straight + r * sin(a)]);
+    }
+    return buildLathe(profile, sides, smooth);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Build a donut lying flat around the Y axis
+ * @param {number} [size] - Diameter of the whole donut, outside edge to outside edge
+ * @param {number} [tubeSize] - Diameter of the tube
+ * @param {number} [sides] - Around the ring
+ * @param {number} [tubeSides] - Around the tube
+ * @param {boolean} [smooth] - Defaults to render3D.smoothShading
+ * @return {Mesh}
+ * @memberof Render3D
+ */
+function buildTorus(size=1, tubeSize=.3, sides=16, tubeSides=8, smooth=render3D?.smoothShading)
+{
+    ASSERT(tubeSize <= size, 'the tube must fit inside the torus');
+    const profile = [], radius = (size - tubeSize) / 2, tubeRadius = tubeSize / 2;
+    for (let i = 0; i <= tubeSides; ++i)
+    {
+        const a = i / tubeSides * 2 * PI;
+        profile.push([radius + tubeRadius * cos(a), tubeRadius * sin(a)]);
+    }
+    return buildLathe(profile, sides, smooth);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Build a lit ribbon along a path, for roads, tracks and walls
+ * - Each segment is a flat quad, the sides are across the path in the plane of the up vector
+ * - doubleSided, so it is seen and lit from below as well
+ * @param {Array<Vector3>} points - Center line in order
+ * @param {number|Array<number>} [width] - Full width, one for all or one per point
+ * @param {Color|Array<Color>} [color] - One for all or one per point
+ * @param {boolean} [closed] - Join the last point back to the first
+ * @param {Vector3} [up] - Which way the ribbon faces
+ * @return {Mesh}
+ * @memberof Render3D
+ * @example
+ * const road = buildRibbon(trackPoints, 8, GRAY, true); // a loop of road
+ */
+function buildRibbon(points, width=1, color=WHITE, closed=false, up=vec3(0, 1, 0))
+{
+    ASSERT(isArray(points) && points.length > 1, 'ribbon needs at least 2 points');
+    const mesh = new Mesh, count = points.length, edges = [];
+    let across = (abs(up.y) < .9 ? vec3(0, 1, 0) : vec3(1, 0, 0)).cross(up).normalize(); // anything across up
+    for (let i = 0; i < count; ++i)
+    {
+        // across the path, from the tangent through this point; a step along up keeps the last across
+        const next = points[closed ? (i + 1) % count : min(i + 1, count - 1)];
+        const last = points[closed ? (i + count - 1) % count : max(i - 1, 0)];
+        const dir = next.subtract(last).cross(up);
+        if (dir.lengthSquared() > 1e-12)
+            across = dir.normalize();
+        const half = across.scale((isArray(width) ? width[i] : width) / 2);
+        edges.push([points[i].subtract(half), points[i].add(half)]);
+    }
+    for (let i = 0; i + 1 < count + (closed ? 1 : 0); ++i)
+    {
+        const j = (i + 1) % count, a = edges[i], b = edges[j];
+        const c = isArray(color) ? [color[i], color[i], color[j], color[j]] : color;
+        mesh.addQuad(a[0], a[1], b[1], b[0], c); // counter clockwise seen from above
+    }
+    mesh.doubleSided = true; // a flat strip, seen from both sides
+    return mesh;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Build a hull from a row of diamond shaped slices along Z, for ships, planes and cars
+ * - Each slice is [z, width, top, bottom, sideHeight]
+ * - sideHeight is 0 to 1 and puts the side corners between the bottom and the top
+ * - List the slices nose first, with the nose at the largest z
+ * @param {Array<Array<number>>} stations
+ * @return {Mesh}
+ * @memberof Render3D
+ * @example
+ * const hull = buildLoft([[1.2, .4, .2, -.1], [0, 1.4, .5, -.4], [-1, 1, .3, -.3]]);
+ */
+function buildLoft(stations)
+{
+    ASSERT(isArray(stations) && stations.length > 1, 'loft needs at least 2 stations');
+    // the caps and the winding both assume the nose leads, so the other order turns the hull inside out
+    ASSERT(stations[0][0] > stations[stations.length-1][0], 'loft stations go nose first, from the largest z to the smallest');
+    const mesh = new Mesh;
+    // section points: left, top, right, bottom, wound clockwise seen from +z
+    /** @type {function(Array<number>): Array<Vector3>} */
+    const section = ([z, w, t, b, m=.5])=>
+        [vec3(-w / 2, lerp(b, t, m), z), vec3(0, t, z), vec3(w / 2, lerp(b, t, m), z), vec3(0, b, z)];
+    for (let i = 0; i + 1 < stations.length; ++i)
+    {
+        const s1 = section(stations[i]), s2 = section(stations[i + 1]);
+        for (let k = 0; k < 4; ++k)
+            mesh.addQuad(s1[k], s1[(k + 1) % 4], s2[(k + 1) % 4], s2[k]);
+    }
+    const tail = section(stations[stations.length - 1]), nose = section(stations[0]);
+    mesh.addQuad(tail[0], tail[1], tail[2], tail[3]);
+    mesh.addQuad(nose[3], nose[2], nose[1], nose[0]);
+    return mesh;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Turn a sprite into a 3D block model by giving its pixels thickness
+ * - A pixel counts as solid when it is more than half opaque
+ * - Each pixel keeps its own color, so white art takes the object's tint
+ * - Runs of matching pixels merge into one face, and side walls appear only at the sprite's edges
+ * - A texture's pixels are read once and kept, so redrawing a canvas texture will not change what this builds
+ * - Pixels can also be an array of rows, each a Color, a truthy value for white, or a falsy value for empty
+ * @param {TileInfo|Array<Array<Color|number|boolean>>} pixels - A tile from a loaded texture, or rows of pixels,
+ *  each a Color (empty when see through), a truthy value for white or a falsy value for empty
+ * @param {Vector2} [size] - World width and height of the whole tile, centered like buildBox
+ * @param {number} [depth] - Thickness along Z
+ * @return {Mesh}
+ * @memberof Render3D
+ * @example
+ * new EngineObject3D(vec3(), buildExtrude(tile(3, 16), vec2(2), .5)); // a chunky version of tile 3
+ */
+function buildExtrude(pixels, size=vec2(1), depth=1)
+{
+    let rows = /** @type {Array<Array<Color|number|boolean>>} */ (pixels), width, height;
+    if (pixels instanceof TileInfo)
+    {
+        // colors for the tile's pixels only, undefined where alpha is half or less
+        const image = render3DReadPixels(pixels.textureInfo), data = image.data;
+        const x0 = pixels.pos.x | 0, y0 = pixels.pos.y | 0;
+        width = pixels.size.x | 0, height = pixels.size.y | 0;
+        rows = [];
+        for (let y = 0; y < height; ++y)
+        {
+            const row = rows[y] = [];
+            for (let x = 0; x < width; ++x)
+            {
+                const k = ((y0 + y) * image.width + x0 + x) * 4;
+                row.push(data[k + 3] > 127 ? rgb(data[k] / 255, data[k + 1] / 255, data[k + 2] / 255) : undefined);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    else
+    {
+        ASSERT(isArray(pixels) && pixels.length, 'pixels must be a TileInfo or rows of pixels');
+        height = rows.length, width = rows[0].length;
+    }
+
+    // the color of a solid pixel, undefined outside or where it is empty
+    const solid = (x, y)=>
+    {
+        if (x < 0 || y < 0 || x >= width || y >= height) return;
+        const c = /** @type {Color} */ (rows[y] && rows[y][x]); // or a truthy value for white
+        if (!c) return;
+        return isColor(c) ? (c.a > .5 ? c : undefined) : WHITE; // a see through Color is empty too
+    };
+    const same = (a, b)=> a === b || !!a && !!b && a.rgbaInt() === b.rgbaInt();
+
+    // call emit(start, end, color) for each run of same colored pixels, colorAt(i) undefined breaks the run
+    const runs = (count, colorAt, emit)=>
+    {
+        let start = 0, color;
+        for (let i = 0; i <= count; ++i)
+        {
+            const c = i < count ? colorAt(i) : undefined;
+            if (same(c, color)) continue;
+            if (color) emit(start, i, color);
+            start = i, color = c;
+        }
+    };
+
+    // pixel edges in world space, y runs down the image
+    const mesh = new Mesh, sx = size.x / width, sy = size.y / height, hz = depth / 2;
+    const px = x=> x * sx - size.x / 2, py = y=> size.y / 2 - y * sy;
+    const quad = (origin, right, up, normal, color)=>
+        mesh.addStrip(render3DQuadAxes(origin.add(right.scale(.5)).add(up.scale(.5)), right.scale(.5), up.scale(.5)), normal, RENDER3D_QUAD_UVS, color);
+    const X = vec3(1, 0, 0), Y = vec3(0, 1, 0), Z = vec3(0, 0, 1);
+    for (let y = 0; y < height; ++y)
+    {
+        // front and back faces along each row
+        runs(width, x=> solid(x, y), (a, b, c)=>
+        {
+            const w = X.scale((b - a) * sx), h = Y.scale(sy);
+            quad(vec3(px(a), py(y + 1), hz), w, h, Z, c);
+            quad(vec3(px(b), py(y + 1), -hz), w.scale(-1), h, Z.scale(-1), c);
+        });
+        // walls facing up and down where the pixel above or below is empty
+        runs(width, x=> solid(x, y - 1) ? undefined : solid(x, y), (a, b, c)=>
+            quad(vec3(px(a), py(y), hz), X.scale((b - a) * sx), Z.scale(-depth), Y, c));
+        runs(width, x=> solid(x, y + 1) ? undefined : solid(x, y), (a, b, c)=>
+            quad(vec3(px(a), py(y + 1), -hz), X.scale((b - a) * sx), Z.scale(depth), Y.scale(-1), c));
+    }
+    for (let x = 0; x < width; ++x)
+    {
+        // walls facing left and right where the pixel beside is empty
+        runs(height, y=> solid(x - 1, y) ? undefined : solid(x, y), (a, b, c)=>
+            quad(vec3(px(x), py(b), -hz), Z.scale(depth), Y.scale((b - a) * sy), X.scale(-1), c));
+        runs(height, y=> solid(x + 1, y) ? undefined : solid(x, y), (a, b, c)=>
+            quad(vec3(px(x + 1), py(b), hz), Z.scale(-depth), Y.scale((b - a) * sy), X, c));
+    }
+    return mesh;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Build a mesh of extruded text from an image font, the engine font by default so it needs no assets
+ * - Each glyph is extruded once per font and reused, the block is centered and faces +Z
+ * - Newlines stack downward, spaced a little wider than the character height so the sides do not collide
+ * - Every call builds a new mesh, dispose the old one when text changes often
+ * - Glyphs are white in the engine font, so the object's color tints the text
+ * @param {string|number} text
+ * @param {number} [size] - Character height in world units
+ * @param {number} [depth] - Thickness along Z
+ * @param {ImageFont} [font] - Defaults to engineImageFont
+ * @return {Mesh}
+ * @memberof Render3D
+ * @example
+ * new EngineObject3D(vec3(0, 2, 0), buildText3D('HELLO'), undefined, YELLOW);
+ */
+function buildText3D(text, size=1, depth=.2, font=engineImageFont)
+{
+    ASSERT(font instanceof ImageFont, 'font must be an ImageFont, the engine font loads before gameInit');
+    const tileInfo = font.tileInfo;
+    let glyphs = render3DGlyphCache.get(font); // unit sized, scaled when combined
+    glyphs || render3DGlyphCache.set(font, glyphs = new Map);
+    const charSize = vec2(size * tileInfo.size.x / tileInfo.size.y, size);
+    const mesh = new Mesh, lines = (text + '').split('\n');
+    lines.forEach((line, j)=>
+    {
+        const y = ((lines.length - 1) / 2 - j) * charSize.y * RENDER3D_TEXT_LEADING;
+        for (let i = 0; i < line.length; ++i)
+        {
+            const charCode = line.charCodeAt(i);
+            const index = charCode < 32 || charCode > 127 ? 95 : charCode - 32; // like ImageFont
+            if (!index) continue; // space
+            let glyph = glyphs.get(index);
+            if (!glyph)
+            {
+                const pos = font.getGlyphPos(index); // where ImageFont finds it
+                glyphs.set(index, glyph = buildExtrude(new TileInfo(pos, tileInfo.size, tileInfo.textureInfo)));
+            }
+            const x = (i - (line.length - 1) / 2) * charSize.x;
+            mesh.combine(glyph, buildMatrix(vec3(x, y, 0), undefined, vec3(charSize.x, charSize.y, depth)));
+        }
+    });
+    return mesh;
+}
+
+///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+/**
+ * HeightMap - Terrain from a grid of heights: an object that draws itself, and that objects with collideLevel stand on
+ * - heights is a 2D array [row][column] of 0 to 1 values
+ * - Row 0 is the far edge at -Z and column 0 is the left edge at -X
+ * - It can be an image instead, where the red channel is the height
+ * - colors is an optional 2D array of Colors or an image, sampled per vertex
+ * - images are read through a canvas, so they must be same origin or loaded with crossOrigin set
+ * - pos3D is the center of the map, its grid spans mapSize on X and Z around it, and a full value is height above it
+ * - getHeight, getNormal, getColor and raycast are in world space, with the map's position taken off
+ * - It stays upright and unscaled, its lookups do not turn with it
+ * @extends EngineObject3D
+ * @memberof Render3D
+ * @example
+ * const terrain = new HeightMap(heightImage, vec2(100, 100), 10, colorImage);
+ * const y = terrain.getHeight(x, z); // stand things on it, or give them collideLevel
+ */
+class HeightMap extends EngineObject3D
+{
+    /** Create a height map from an array or an image, it draws itself and joins the level's collision
+     *  @param {Array<Array<number>>|HTMLImageElement|HTMLCanvasElement|OffscreenCanvas|TextureInfo} heights
+     *  @param {Vector2} [mapSize] - World size along X and Z
+     *  @param {number} [height] - World height of a full value
+     *  @param {Array<Array<Color>>|HTMLImageElement|HTMLCanvasElement|OffscreenCanvas|TextureInfo} [colors]
+     *  @param {Vector3} [pos3D] - Center of the map
+     *  @param {boolean} [smooth] - Defaults to render3D.smoothShading */
+    constructor(heights, mapSize=vec2(1), height=1, colors, pos3D=vec3(), smooth=render3D?.smoothShading)
+    {
+        super(pos3D);
+        if (!isArray(heights))
+            heights = render3DImageToArray(heights, (r)=> r / 255);
+        if (colors && !isArray(colors))
+            colors = render3DImageToArray(colors, (r, g, b, a)=> rgb(r / 255, g / 255, b / 255, a / 255));
+        ASSERT(isArray(heights) && heights.length > 1 && isArray(heights[0]) && heights[0].length > 1, 'height map needs at least 2 rows and 2 columns');
+        ASSERT(mapSize.x > 0 && mapSize.y > 0, 'height map size must be positive, a zero size has nowhere to look things up');
+
+        /** @property {Array<Array<number>>} - Heights 0-1 as [row][column], rows along Z, rebuild() after changing them */
+        this.heights = heights;
+        /** @property {Array<Array<Color>>|undefined} - Vertex colors as [row][column], undefined for white
+         *  @type {Array<Array<Color>>|undefined} */
+        this.colors = /** @type {Array<Array<Color>>|undefined} */ (colors);
+        /** @property {Vector2} - World size along X and Z */
+        this.mapSize = mapSize.copy();
+        /** @property {number} - World height of a full value */
+        this.height = height;
+        /** @property {boolean} - Smooth shading, rebuild() after changing it */
+        this.smooth = !!smooth;
+        this.size3D = vec3(mapSize.x, height, mapSize.y);
+        this.rebuild();
+        render3DLevel.push(this);
+    }
+
+    /** Number of rows, along Z
+     *  @return {number} */
+    get rows() { return this.heights.length; }
+
+    /** Number of columns, along X
+     *  @return {number} */
+    get columns() { return this.heights[0].length; }
+
+    /** World height at a position, exactly the height of the mesh buildMesh draws there, clamped at the edges
+     *  @param {number|Vector3} x - X, or a position to take X and Z from
+     *  @param {number} [z]
+     *  @return {number} */
+    getHeight(x, z)
+    {
+        if (x instanceof Vector3)
+            z = x.z, x = x.x; // a position works as well as its two numbers, its own y is ignored
+        const p = this.pos3D;
+        x -= p.x, z -= p.z;
+        const columns = this.columns, rows = this.rows, h = this.heights;
+        const u = clamp((x / this.mapSize.x + .5) * (columns - 1), 0, columns - 1);
+        const v = clamp((z / this.mapSize.y + .5) * (rows - 1), 0, rows - 1);
+        const i = min(floor(u), columns - 2), j = min(floor(v), rows - 2);
+        const fu = u - i, fv = v - j;
+        // each cell is two triangles split from (i, j+1) to (i+1, j), the same split buildGrid's quads use
+        const a = h[j][i], b = h[j+1][i], c = h[j+1][i+1], d = h[j][i+1];
+        const height = fu + fv <= 1 ? a + fu * (d - a) + fv * (b - a) : c + (1 - fu) * (b - c) + (1 - fv) * (d - c);
+        return height * this.height + p.y;
+    }
+
+    /** Surface normal at a position, from the slope across a sample
+     *  @param {number|Vector3} x - X, or a position to take X and Z from
+     *  @param {number} [z]
+     *  @return {Vector3} */
+    getNormal(x, z)
+    {
+        if (x instanceof Vector3)
+            z = x.z, x = x.x;
+        const p = this.pos3D, size = this.mapSize;
+        const ex = size.x / (this.columns - 1) / 2, ez = size.y / (this.rows - 1) / 2;
+        const local = (lx, lz)=> this.getHeight(lx + p.x, lz + p.z);
+        return render3DSlopeNormal(local, x - p.x, z - p.z, ex, ez, size.x / 2, size.y / 2);
+    }
+
+    /** Color of the nearest sample to a position, white when there are no colors
+     *  @param {number|Vector3} x - X, or a position to take X and Z from
+     *  @param {number} [z]
+     *  @return {Color} */
+    getColor(x, z)
+    {
+        if (x instanceof Vector3)
+            z = x.z, x = x.x;
+        const c = this.colors;
+        if (!c) return WHITE;
+        x -= this.pos3D.x, z -= this.pos3D.z;
+        const columns = c[0].length, rows = c.length;
+        const i = clamp(round((x / this.mapSize.x + .5) * (columns - 1)), 0, columns - 1);
+        const j = clamp(round((z / this.mapSize.y + .5) * (rows - 1)), 0, rows - 1);
+        return c[j][i];
+    }
+
+    /** Distance along a ray to where it crosses the terrain surface, or undefined for a miss
+     *  - Exact: the ground is flat inside each triangle, so the ray is checked between each grid line and
+     *    cell diagonal it crosses, and a hill it only grazes is still hit
+     *  - A ray that starts under the ground crosses on its way out, so the hit is still on the surface
+     *  @param {Ray3D} ray - From screenToRay, or any ray
+     *  @return {number|undefined} */
+    raycast(ray)
+    {
+        // in the map's own space, its position taken off the ray
+        const p = this.pos3D, origin = ray.origin.subtract(p), direction = ray.direction;
+        const size = this.mapSize, height = this.height, length = direction.length();
+        if (!length) return;
+
+        // clip to the box around the terrain, from where the ray enters it to where it leaves the map's footprint
+        const start = raycastBox(new Ray3D(origin, direction), vec3(0, height / 2, 0), vec3(size.x, abs(height) + 1e-3, size.y));
+        if (start === undefined || !(size.x > 0 && size.y > 0)) return;
+        let end = start + hypot(size.x, size.y, height) / length;
+        if (direction.x)
+            end = min(end, (sign(direction.x) * size.x / 2 - origin.x) / direction.x);
+        if (direction.z)
+            end = min(end, (sign(direction.z) * size.y / 2 - origin.z) / direction.z);
+
+        // the grid lines and cell diagonals it crosses, in grid units u across the columns and v across the rows,
+        // each linear along the ray; between two of them the ground under it is one flat triangle
+        const scaleU = (this.columns - 1) / size.x, scaleV = (this.rows - 1) / size.y;
+        const u0 = (origin.x / size.x + .5) * (this.columns - 1), u1 = direction.x * scaleU;
+        const v0 = (origin.z / size.y + .5) * (this.rows - 1), v1 = direction.z * scaleV;
+        const breaks = [start, end];
+        for (const [f0, f1] of [[u0, u1], [v0, v1], [u0 + v0, u1 + v1]])
+        {
+            if (!f1) continue;
+            const a = f0 + f1 * start, b = f0 + f1 * end;
+            for (let k = ceil(min(a, b)); k <= max(a, b); ++k)
+                breaks.push((k - f0) / f1);
+        }
+        breaks.sort((a, b)=> a - b);
+
+        // how far above the ground the ray is, straight along each piece, so a crossing is solved exactly;
+        // one that starts under the ground finds where it comes out, the surface it breaks through
+        const above = (at)=>
+        {
+            const q = origin.add(direction.scale(at));
+            return q.y + p.y - this.getHeight(q.x + p.x, q.z + p.z);
+        };
+        // touching the surface counts as a hit too, where it starts, at the map's edge, or grazing it from below
+        const touching = (d)=> abs(d) <= 1e-9;
+        let a = start, da = above(a);
+        if (touching(da)) return start;
+        const startUnder = da <= 0;
+        for (const b of breaks)
+        {
+            if (b <= a || b > end) continue;
+            const db = above(b);
+            if (touching(db)) return b;
+            if (db <= 0 !== startUnder)
+                return da === db ? b : a + (b - a) * da / (da - db);
+            a = b, da = db;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /** Build the terrain mesh, one vertex per sample, centered on the map's own origin
+     *  @param {boolean} [smooth] - Defaults to render3D.smoothShading
+     *  @return {Mesh} */
+    buildMesh(smooth=render3D?.smoothShading)
+    {
+        // flat shading colors each cell from its center, halfway between two samples where rounding could pick
+        // either, so it is nudged a thousandth of a cell back to make it the cell's first corner every time
+        const p = this.pos3D, size = this.mapSize;
+        const nudgeX = smooth ? 0 : size.x / (this.columns - 1) / 1e3;
+        const nudgeZ = smooth ? 0 : size.y / (this.rows - 1) / 1e3;
+        return buildGrid(size, vec2(this.columns - 1, this.rows - 1),
+            this.colors && ((x, z)=> this.getColor(x - nudgeX + p.x, z - nudgeZ + p.z)),
+            (x, z)=> this.getHeight(x + p.x, z + p.z) - p.y, smooth);
+    }
+
+    /** Make the mesh again from the heights and colors, after changing them or smooth */
+    rebuild() { this.setMesh(this.buildMesh(this.smooth)); }
+
+    /** How far along a ray the surface is, for picking, see raycast
+     *  @param {Ray3D} ray
+     *  @return {number|undefined}
+     *  @ignore */
+    levelRaycast3D(ray) { return this.raycast(ray); }
+
+    /** Keep an object above the ground, called by the engine for each object with collideLevel
+     *  @param {EngineObject3D} o
+     *  @param {Vector3} oldPos - Where it was before it moved
+     *  @param {boolean} [wasOn] - It stood on this map last frame
+     *  @ignore */
+    levelCollide3D(o, oldPos, wasOn)
+    {
+        const p = o.pos3D, m = this.pos3D, size = this.mapSize;
+        if (abs(p.x - m.x) > size.x / 2 || abs(p.z - m.z) > size.y / 2) return; // off the map
+        const half = o.size3D.y * abs(o.scale3D.y) / 2, ground = this.getHeight(p.x, p.z);
+        // one that stood on it and is not rising keeps to it going downhill, as far down as it moved across, so it
+        // stays grounded down a slope as steep as 45 degrees instead of falling in small hops
+        const follow = wasOn && o.velocity3D.y <= 0 ? hypot(p.x - oldPos.x, p.z - oldPos.z) : 0;
+        if (p.y - half > ground + follow) return;
+        p.y = ground + half;
+        const v = o.velocity3D;
+        if (v.y < 0)
+            v.y *= -max(o.restitution, this.restitution);
+        o.groundObject = this;
+    }
+
+    /** Keeps an eye on its placement, called automatically each frame */
+    update()
+    {
+        super.update();
+        render3DLevelAssertPlaced(this);
+    }
+
+    /** Destroy the map, it leaves the level's collision
+     *  @param {boolean} [immediate] */
+    destroy(immediate)
+    {
+        render3DLevelLeave(this);
+        super.destroy(immediate);
+    }
+}
+
+// read an image's pixel bytes through the engine's work canvas, as {data, width, height}
+function render3DImageData(image)
+{
+    if (image instanceof TextureInfo)
+        image = image.image;
+    ASSERT(image && image.width && image.height, 'image is not loaded');
+    ASSERT(workReadCanvas, 'reading an image needs a canvas, pass arrays in headless mode');
+    const width = image.width, height = image.height;
+    workReadCanvas.width = width;
+    workReadCanvas.height = height;
+    workReadContext.drawImage(image, 0, 0);
+    return workReadContext.getImageData(0, 0, width, height);
+}
+
+// read an image into a 2D array [row][column], sample is called with (r, g, b, a) bytes for each pixel
+function render3DImageToArray(image, sample)
+{
+    const {data, width, height} = render3DImageData(image);
+    const rows = [];
+    for (let y = 0; y < height; ++y)
+    {
+        const row = rows[y] = [];
+        for (let x = 0; x < width; ++x)
+        {
+            const k = (y * width + x) * 4;
+            row.push(sample(data[k], data[k+1], data[k+2], data[k+3]));
+        }
+    }
+    return rows;
+}
+
+// extruded glyph meshes by font, and the pixel bytes of a texture, read once per image
+const render3DGlyphCache = new WeakMap, render3DPixelCache = new WeakMap;
+function render3DReadPixels(textureInfo)
+{
+    const image = textureInfo.image;
+    let pixels = render3DPixelCache.get(image);
+    if (!pixels)
+        render3DPixelCache.set(image, pixels = render3DImageData(image));
+    return pixels;
+}
+
+///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+/**
+ * CameraControl3D - Drag to turn the camera around a point, roll the wheel to zoom
+ * - An EngineObject3D, so move its pos3D to follow something, or parent it to an object
+ * - Destroy it to hand the camera back, and it stops driving the camera
+ * - Set persistent to keep it when engineObjectsDestroy clears out a level
+ * - Every part of it is a field, so a game can change the buttons, speeds and limits
+ * @extends EngineObject3D
+ * @memberof Render3D
+ * @example
+ * new CameraControl3D(vec3(0, 1, 0), 15); // look at a point from 15 units away
+ */
+class CameraControl3D extends EngineObject3D
+{
+    /** Create a camera control, it drives render3D.camera every frame
+     *  @param {Vector3} [target] - The point to look at, its pos3D
+     *  @param {number} [distance] - How far the camera sits from the target
+     *  @param {number} [pitch] - Angle above the horizon, PI/2 looks straight down, clamped to pitchRange
+     *  @param {number} [idleSpin] - Turned each frame while not dragging, 0 holds still */
+    constructor(target=vec3(), distance=10, pitch=.4, idleSpin=0)
+    {
+        super(target);
+        this.size3D = vec3(); // not a solid thing to pick or collect
+        /** @property {number} - How far the camera sits from the target */
+        this.distance = distance;
+        /** @property {number} - Angle above the horizon */
+        this.pitch = pitch;
+        /** @property {number} - Turned each frame while not dragging */
+        this.idleSpin = idleSpin;
+        /** @property {number} - Angle around the target, dragging changes it */
+        this.yaw = 0;
+        /** @property {number} - Mouse button that turns the camera, 0 is left and 2 is right */
+        this.dragButton = 0;
+        /** @property {number} - How far dragging a pixel turns the camera */
+        this.dragSpeed = .01;
+        /** @property {number} - How much one wheel notch zooms, 0 turns zooming off */
+        this.zoomSpeed = .1;
+        /** @property {Vector2} - Closest and furthest the wheel can zoom to */
+        this.zoomRange = vec2(distance/4, distance*3);
+        /** @property {Vector2} - Lowest and highest pitch, so it cannot tip over the top, widened to hold the pitch given */
+        this.pitchRange = vec2(min(-.2, pitch), max(1.4, pitch));
+    }
+
+    /** Read the mouse and put the camera on its orbit, called automatically each frame */
+    update()
+    {
+        if (mouseIsDown(this.dragButton))
+        {
+            // the scene follows the drag
+            this.yaw -= mouseDeltaScreen.x * this.dragSpeed;
+            this.pitch += mouseDeltaScreen.y * this.dragSpeed;
+        }
+        else
+            this.yaw += this.idleSpin;
+        this.pitch = clamp(this.pitch, this.pitchRange.x, this.pitchRange.y);
+        if (this.zoomSpeed && mouseWheel)
+            this.distance = clamp(this.distance * (1 + sign(mouseWheel) * this.zoomSpeed), this.zoomRange.x, this.zoomRange.y);
+        render3D.camera.orbit(this.getWorldPos3D(), this.distance, this.yaw, this.pitch);
+    }
+
+    /** Camera controls draw nothing */
+    render3D() {}
+}
+
+///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+/**
+ * FirstPersonCamera3D - Look around with the mouse and move with the keys, with the camera at its position
+ * - Click to capture the mouse so looking needs no button held, Esc lets it go; holding the button looks too, for touch
+ * - WASD or the arrow keys walk level, or move the way it looks when fly is set
+ * - An EngineObject3D that moves by velocity3D, so give it a size3D and call setCollision to walk into solid
+ *   objects instead of through them; walking keeps velocity3D.y, so render3D.gravity can pull it down
+ * - Starts from wherever render3D.camera is, so it can take over from another camera without a jump
+ * - As the child of an EngineObject3D, like a player on a ship, its yaw, pitch and walking are relative to the parent,
+ *   so it turns and moves with it
+ * - Destroy it to hand the camera back
+ * @extends EngineObject3D
+ * @memberof Render3D
+ * @example
+ * const player = new FirstPersonCamera3D(vec3(0, 1.5, 5));
+ * player.size3D = vec3(1); // bump into solid objects
+ * player.collideAsSphere3D = true;
+ * player.setCollision();
+ */
+class FirstPersonCamera3D extends EngineObject3D
+{
+    /** Create a first person camera, it drives render3D.camera every frame
+     *  @param {Vector3} [pos3D] - Where the eye is, defaults to where the camera is now
+     *  @param {number} [yaw] - Radians around Y, defaults to the camera's
+     *  @param {number} [pitch] - Radians up from level, defaults to the camera's */
+    constructor(pos3D=render3D.camera.pos, yaw=render3D.camera.rotation.y, pitch=render3D.camera.rotation.x)
+    {
+        super(pos3D);
+        this.size3D = vec3(); // not a solid thing to pick or collect until it is given a size
+        this.mass = 1; // so solids push it out, and render3D.gravity pulls on it
+        /** @property {number} - Angle around Y, the mouse turns it */
+        this.yaw = yaw;
+        /** @property {number} - Angle up from level, the mouse tilts it */
+        this.pitch = pitch;
+        /** @property {number} - World units per frame at full speed */
+        this.moveSpeed = .1;
+        /** @property {number} - How far a pixel of mouse movement turns the view */
+        this.lookSpeed = .003;
+        /** @property {Vector2} - Lowest and highest pitch */
+        this.pitchRange = vec2(-1.5, 1.5);
+        /** @property {boolean} - Move the way it looks, up and down included, instead of walking level */
+        this.fly = false;
+        /** @property {boolean} - Capture the mouse on a click, so looking needs no button held */
+        this.lockPointer = true;
+        /** @property {number} - Speed of a jump in world units a frame, 0 for none; Space or gamepad button 0 jumps
+         *  while it stands on something, a height map or voxel map it collides with, see collideLevel */
+        this.jumpSpeed = 0;
+        /** @property {number} - How far above its position the eye is, in its own space, so with a size3D the eye can
+         *  sit toward the top of the body instead of its middle; keep it under half the body's height, or the eye is
+         *  outside the body and sees through a ceiling it stands under */
+        this.eyeHeight = 0;
+    }
+
+    /** Move by velocity3D, and fall by render3D.gravity unless flying, called automatically each frame */
+    updatePhysics()
+    {
+        // flying moves the way it looks and nothing else, so gravity does not pull while fly is on; the scale set
+        // on it is put back, for walking
+        const gravityScale = this.gravityScale;
+        if (this.fly)
+            this.gravityScale = 0;
+        super.updatePhysics();
+        this.gravityScale = gravityScale;
+    }
+
+    /** Read the mouse and keys and put the camera at the eye, called automatically each frame */
+    update()
+    {
+        // only a root moves by its own physics, a child follows its parent, so gravity would still pull one that flies
+        ASSERT(!this.fly || !this.parent, 'a flying FirstPersonCamera3D moves on its own, it cannot be a child');
+
+        // a click captures the mouse, then it looks around while captured or while a button is held
+        if (this.lockPointer && mouseWasPressed(0))
+            pointerLockRequest();
+        if (pointerLockIsActive() || mouseIsDown(0))
+        {
+            this.yaw -= mouseDeltaScreen.x * this.lookSpeed;
+            this.pitch -= mouseDeltaScreen.y * this.lookSpeed;
+        }
+        this.pitch = clamp(this.pitch, this.pitchRange.x, this.pitchRange.y);
+
+        // the keys move it level, or the way it looks when flying, and walking keeps its fall
+        const input = keyDirection();
+        const move = vec3(input.x, 0, -input.y).clampLength(1).scale(this.moveSpeed)
+            .rotateX(this.fly ? this.pitch : 0).rotateY(this.yaw);
+        this.velocity3D = this.fly ? move : vec3(move.x, this.velocity3D.y, move.z);
+        // a jump from the ground, level collision sets what it stands on
+        if (this.jumpSpeed && !this.fly && this.groundObject && (keyWasPressed('Space') || gamepadWasPressed(0)))
+            this.velocity3D.y = this.jumpSpeed;
+
+        // the camera sits at the eye, eyeHeight above where this frame's physics left it, looking the way it does in
+        // its parent's space, since a child's velocity3D moves it in that space too
+        const rotation = vec3(this.pitch, this.yaw, 0);
+        render3D.camera.pos = render3DObjectMatrix(this).transformPoint(vec3(0, this.eyeHeight, 0));
+        render3D.camera.rotation = this.parent instanceof EngineObject3D ?
+            this.parent.getMatrix().multiply(Matrix4.rotation(rotation)).getRotation() : rotation;
+    }
+
+    /** Let go of the mouse and stop driving the camera
+     *  @param {boolean} [immediate] */
+    destroy(immediate)
+    {
+        this.lockPointer && pointerLockIsActive() && pointerLockExit();
+        super.destroy(immediate);
+    }
+
+    /** Camera controls draw nothing */
+    render3D() {}
+}
+
+///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+// a particle is this many floats of its emitter's particleData: position, velocity, start color, end color, start
+// and end size, life, age, angle, spin, and how many trail points it has in trailData
+const RENDER3D_PARTICLE_FLOATS = 21;
+// the position, color and size of the particle being drawn, shared by every emitter so the draw loop makes no objects
+const render3DParticlePos = vec3(), render3DParticleColor = new Color, render3DParticleSize = vec2();
+
+/**
+ * ParticleEmitter3D - Spawns camera facing particles, the 3D twin of ParticleEmitter
+ * - Each particle is a flat square facing the camera, with a soft round dot when no tile is given
+ * - Set trailTime to draw each particle as a streak along where it has been, for sparks
+ * - Set angleSpeed to tumble them in the camera plane, which the 2D emitter takes as an argument
+ * - Particles shoot out along the emitter's own up axis, turned by rotation3D
+ * - emitConeAngle spreads them, PI sprays in every direction
+ * - Speeds are per frame and sizes are world units, the same as the 2D emitter
+ * - scale3D, its own or a parent's, grows the whole effect: the spawn area, the sizes, the speed and the fall
+ * - gravity here is its own number added to velocity y each frame: it is neither the engine's 2D
+ *   gravity nor render3D.gravity, so an effect keeps its own fall wherever it is used
+ * - An emitter with an emitTime destroys itself once its last particle is gone, like the 2D emitter
+ * @extends EngineObject3D
+ * @memberof Render3D
+ * @example
+ * // fire: a stream upward, yellow fading to transparent red, additive
+ * new ParticleEmitter3D(vec3(), .5, 0, 100, .3, undefined, hsl(.12, 1, .6), hsl(.08, 1, .5), hsl(0, 1, .5, 0), hsl(0, 1, .25, 0), 1, .5, 1.5, .05, .95, 0, .3, .2, true);
+ */
+class ParticleEmitter3D extends EngineObject3D
+{
+    /** Create a particle emitter
+     *  @param {Vector3} [pos3D] - World space position of the emitter
+     *  @param {number|Vector3} [emitSize] - Spawn area, a number for a sphere diameter or a vec3 for a box
+     *  @param {number} [emitTime] - How long to keep emitting, 0 is forever
+     *  @param {number} [emitRate] - Particles per second, 0 does not emit
+     *  @param {number} [emitConeAngle] - Half angle around the emit direction, PI is every direction
+     *  @param {TileInfo|TextureInfo} [tileInfo] - Tile to render particles with, or a whole texture, undefined is untextured
+     *  @param {Color} [colorStartA] - Color at start of life, randomized between the start colors
+     *  @param {Color} [colorStartB]
+     *  @param {Color} [colorEndA] - Color at end of life, randomized between the end colors
+     *  @param {Color} [colorEndB]
+     *  @param {number} [particleTime] - How long particles live in seconds
+     *  @param {number} [sizeStart] - Particle size at start of life
+     *  @param {number} [sizeEnd] - Particle size at end of life
+     *  @param {number} [speed] - Spawn speed in world units per frame
+     *  @param {number} [damping] - Per frame velocity multiplier, 1 is none
+     *  @param {number} [gravity] - Per frame change to velocity y, negative pulls down; its own number,
+     *    not render3D.gravity, so the 2D emitter's gravityScale has no equivalent here
+     *  @param {number} [fadeRate] - Fraction of life spent fading, half in and half out
+     *  @param {number} [randomness] - Extra randomness applied to speed, size and life
+     *  @param {boolean} [additive] - Additive blending */
+    constructor(pos3D=vec3(), emitSize=0, emitTime=0, emitRate=100, emitConeAngle=PI, tileInfo,
+        colorStartA=WHITE, colorStartB=WHITE, colorEndA=CLEAR_WHITE, colorEndB=CLEAR_WHITE,
+        particleTime=.5, sizeStart=.1, sizeEnd=1, speed=.1, damping=1, gravity=0, fadeRate=.1, randomness=.2, additive=false)
+    {
+        super(pos3D, undefined, tileInfo);
+        this.transparent = true;
+        this.castShadow = false;
+        this.size3D = vec3(); // not a solid thing to pick or collect
+
+        /** @property {number|Vector3} - Spawn area, a number for a sphere diameter or a vec3 for a box */
+        this.emitSize = emitSize;
+        /** @property {number} - How long to keep emitting, 0 is forever */
+        this.emitTime = emitTime;
+        /** @property {number} - Particles per second, 0 does not emit */
+        this.emitRate = emitRate;
+        /** @property {number} - Half angle around the emit direction, PI is every direction */
+        this.emitConeAngle = emitConeAngle;
+        /** @property {Color} - Color at start of life, randomized between the start colors */
+        this.colorStartA = colorStartA.copy();
+        /** @property {Color} - Color at start of life, randomized between the start colors */
+        this.colorStartB = colorStartB.copy();
+        /** @property {Color} - Color at end of life, randomized between the end colors */
+        this.colorEndA = colorEndA.copy();
+        /** @property {Color} - Color at end of life, randomized between the end colors */
+        this.colorEndB = colorEndB.copy();
+        /** @property {number} - How long particles live in seconds */
+        this.particleTime = particleTime;
+        /** @property {number} - Particle size at start of life */
+        this.sizeStart = sizeStart;
+        /** @property {number} - Particle size at end of life */
+        this.sizeEnd = sizeEnd;
+        /** @property {number} - Spawn speed in world units per frame */
+        this.speed = speed;
+        /** @property {number} - Per frame velocity multiplier */
+        this.damping = damping;
+        /** @property {number} - Per frame change to velocity y, its own number and not render3D.gravity */
+        this.gravity = gravity;
+        /** @property {number} - Fraction of life spent fading, half in and half out */
+        this.fadeRate = fadeRate;
+        /** @property {number} - Extra randomness applied to speed, size and life */
+        this.randomness = randomness;
+        /** @property {boolean} - Additive blending */
+        this.additive = additive;
+        /** @property {number} - Seconds of each particle's path to draw as a ribbon behind it, 0 draws billboards */
+        this.trailTime = 0;
+        /** @property {number} - Radians per frame each particle turns in the camera plane, either way; 0 is no spin */
+        this.angleSpeed = 0;
+        /** @property {number} - Per frame multiplier on that spin, 1 keeps it */
+        this.angleDamping = 1;
+        /** @property {Float32Array} - The live particles, 21 floats each: position, velocity, start and end color, start
+         *  and end size, life, age, angle, spin, and trail point count; the emitter owns them, nothing else needs to */
+        this.particleData = new Float32Array(64 * RENDER3D_PARTICLE_FLOATS);
+        /** @property {number} - How many particles are alive, the first that many of particleData */
+        this.particleCount = 0;
+        /** @property {Float32Array|undefined} - The trail points of every particle, trailMax per particle oldest first, when trailTime is set
+         *  @type {Float32Array|undefined} */
+        this.trailData = undefined;
+        /** @property {number} - Trail points kept per particle, from trailTime */
+        this.trailMax = 0;
+        /** @property {Vector3|undefined} - Where the emitter was at its last update, for when its parent is destroyed
+         *  @type {Vector3|undefined} */
+        this.worldPos3D = undefined;
+        this.emitTimeBuffer = 0;
+    }
+
+    /** Spawn new particles, move the live ones, and go away when done */
+    update()
+    {
+        // one transform for the frame: where the emitter is, and how big the effect it makes is
+        const matrix = render3DObjectMatrix(this); // the object's own, read only
+        this.worldPos3D = matrix.getTranslation(); // remembered for when the parent is destroyed
+        const scale = render3DMaxScale(matrix.m);
+
+        // emit until the emit time is up, then wait for the last particle and go away
+        if (!this.emitTime || this.getAliveTime() <= this.emitTime)
+        {
+            // a rate of zero is an emitter fed by hand, and the global scale only quiets it,
+            // neither is a reason to stop counting down the emit time
+            if (this.emitRate && particleEmitRateScale)
+            {
+                this.emitTimeBuffer += this.emitRate * particleEmitRateScale * timeDelta;
+                for (; this.emitTimeBuffer >= 1; --this.emitTimeBuffer)
+                    this.emitParticle();
+            }
+        }
+        else if (!this.particleCount)
+            this.destroy();
+
+        // the trail storage follows trailTime, a change starts every trail over
+        const trailMax = this.trailTime ? max(1, round(this.trailTime / timeDelta)) : 0;
+        if (trailMax !== this.trailMax)
+        {
+            this.trailMax = trailMax;
+            this.trailData = trailMax ? new Float32Array(this.particleData.length / RENDER3D_PARTICLE_FLOATS * trailMax * 3) : undefined;
+            for (let k = 20; k < this.particleData.length; k += RENDER3D_PARTICLE_FLOATS)
+                this.particleData[k] = 0;
+        }
+
+        // move the particles and drop the dead ones, all in the typed array: this runs for every particle every frame
+        const F = RENDER3D_PARTICLE_FLOATS, data = this.particleData, trail = this.trailData;
+        const damping = this.damping, gravity = this.gravity * scale, angleDamping = this.angleDamping; // a bigger effect has to fall faster to keep the same arc
+        for (let i = this.particleCount; i--;)
+        {
+            // damped first and gravity added after, the order the 2D particle uses, so the same
+            // damping and gravity give the same arc in both
+            const k = i * F;
+            const vx = data[k+3] *= damping, vy = data[k+4] = data[k+4] * damping + gravity, vz = data[k+5] *= damping;
+            data[k] += vx, data[k+1] += vy, data[k+2] += vz;
+            data[k+18] += data[k+19] *= angleDamping;
+            const t = i * trailMax * 3;
+            if (trailMax)
+            {
+                // remember where it has been, oldest first; a full trail drops its oldest point
+                let n = data[k+20];
+                if (n === trailMax)
+                    trail.copyWithin(t, t + 3, t + n * 3), --n;
+                const j = t + n * 3;
+                trail[j] = data[k], trail[j+1] = data[k+1], trail[j+2] = data[k+2];
+                data[k+20] = n + 1;
+            }
+            if ((data[k+17] += timeDelta) >= data[k+16])
+            {
+                // dead: the last particle takes its slot, trail and all, order does not matter
+                const last = --this.particleCount, kl = last * F;
+                if (i !== last)
+                {
+                    data.copyWithin(k, kl, kl + F);
+                    trailMax && trail.copyWithin(t, last * trailMax * 3, (last + 1) * trailMax * 3);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    /** Stop emitting, and go away once the particles already out have finished like the 2D emitter's do
+     *  @param {boolean} [immediate] */
+    destroy(immediate)
+    {
+        if (immediate || !this.particleCount || this.destroyed)
+            return super.destroy(immediate);
+        this.emitTime = -1; // stops emitting, and update destroys it once the particles are gone
+        render3DDetach(this); // the particles are in world space, they no longer need the parent
+    }
+
+    /** Spawn one particle now */
+    emitParticle()
+    {
+        const random = ()=> rand(1 - this.randomness, 1 + this.randomness);
+        const matrix = render3DObjectMatrix(this); // the object's own, read only
+        // the whole effect grows with the emitter, not just the area the particles start in
+        const scale = render3DMaxScale(matrix.m);
+
+        // spawn offset: inside a box or a sphere
+        const size = this.emitSize, box = /** @type {Vector3} */ (size);
+        const offset = isVector3(size) ? vec3(rand(-.5, .5) * box.x, rand(-.5, .5) * box.y, rand(-.5, .5) * box.z)
+            : randInSphere(/** @type {number} */ (size) / 2);
+
+        // direction inside the cone around local +Y
+        const direction = matrix.transformDirection(randVector3(1, this.emitConeAngle)).normalize();
+
+        const pos = matrix.transformPoint(offset), speed = this.speed * random() * scale;
+        const colorStart = randColor(this.colorStartA, this.colorStartB, true), colorEnd = randColor(this.colorEndA, this.colorEndB, true);
+
+        // room for one more, doubling as the set grows, the trails along with it
+        const F = RENDER3D_PARTICLE_FLOATS, k = this.particleCount++ * F;
+        if (k + F > this.particleData.length)
+        {
+            const grown = new Float32Array(this.particleData.length * 2);
+            grown.set(this.particleData);
+            this.particleData = grown;
+            if (this.trailData)
+            {
+                const trails = new Float32Array(this.trailData.length * 2);
+                trails.set(this.trailData);
+                this.trailData = trails;
+            }
+        }
+        const data = this.particleData;
+        data[k] = pos.x, data[k+1] = pos.y, data[k+2] = pos.z;
+        data[k+3] = direction.x * speed, data[k+4] = direction.y * speed, data[k+5] = direction.z * speed;
+        data[k+6] = colorStart.r, data[k+7] = colorStart.g, data[k+8] = colorStart.b, data[k+9] = colorStart.a;
+        data[k+10] = colorEnd.r, data[k+11] = colorEnd.g, data[k+12] = colorEnd.b, data[k+13] = colorEnd.a;
+        data[k+14] = this.sizeStart * random() * scale;
+        data[k+15] = this.sizeEnd * random() * scale;
+        data[k+16] = this.particleTime * random(); // life
+        data[k+17] = 0; // age
+        // a spinning particle starts anywhere and turns either way, one that is not stays at zero
+        data[k+18] = this.angleSpeed ? rand(2*PI) : 0;
+        data[k+19] = this.angleSpeed ? this.angleSpeed * random() * randSign() : 0;
+        data[k+20] = 0; // trail points
+    }
+
+    /** Draw the particles, as flat squares or as streaks when trailTime is set
+     *  - The whole emitter sorts as one thing, its particles are not sorted against each other
+     *  - With render3D.instancing on the squares go out as one instanced draw of render3D.billboardMesh
+     *  @return {void} */
+    render3D()
+    {
+        const r = render3D;
+        if (r.transparentQueue)
+            return r.queueTransparent(this.getWorldPos3D(), ()=> this.render3D());
+        const fade = this.fadeRate / 2, texture = this.tileInfo || render3DSoftDot(); // no dot headless
+        const color = render3DParticleColor, size = render3DParticleSize; // shared, so a particle makes no objects
+
+        // the instanced path: one matrix per particle, its right and up axes the quad's size long, facing the camera,
+        // written straight into the batch; the batch draws at the end so the order of the transparent stage holds
+        const quad = r.billboardMesh, instanced = texture && r.instancing && !r.capture && render3DCanDraw();
+        let data, textureInfo, uv, lit;
+        if (instanced)
+        {
+            render3DMeshUpload(quad);
+            textureInfo = render3DTextureOf(texture);
+            uv = render3DGetTileUVs(texture);
+            lit = r.lighting;
+            r.lighting = r.shadowPass && lit; // unlit on screen, in the shadow map the object's flag decides
+            r.cullBackFaces = r.mirrored = false;
+        }
+        const cb = r.cameraBack;
+        const F = RENDER3D_PARTICLE_FLOATS, particles = this.particleData, trailMax = this.trailMax, pos = render3DParticlePos;
+        try
+        {
+            for (let i = 0, count = this.particleCount; i < count; ++i)
+            {
+                const p = i * F, t = particles[p+17] / particles[p+16];
+                const alpha = t < fade ? t / fade : t > 1 - fade ? (1 - t) / fade : 1;
+                color.r = particles[p+6] + (particles[p+10] - particles[p+6]) * t;
+                color.g = particles[p+7] + (particles[p+11] - particles[p+7]) * t;
+                color.b = particles[p+8] + (particles[p+12] - particles[p+8]) * t;
+                color.a = (particles[p+9] + (particles[p+13] - particles[p+9]) * t) * alpha;
+                const s = size.x = size.y = lerp(particles[p+14], particles[p+15], t), angle = particles[p+18];
+                const trailCount = particles[p+20];
+                if (trailCount > 1)
+                {
+                    // a ribbon from the tail to the head, the tail thins and fades out
+                    const trail = this.trailData, points = [], widths = [], colors = [];
+                    for (let j = 0; j < trailCount; ++j)
+                    {
+                        const f = (j + 1) / trailCount, q = (i * trailMax + j) * 3;
+                        points.push(vec3(trail[q], trail[q+1], trail[q+2]));
+                        widths.push(s * f);
+                        colors.push(color.scale(1, f));
+                    }
+                    r.drawRibbon(points, widths, this.tileInfo, colors);
+                }
+                else if (instanced)
+                {
+                    // the quad's half axes, turned as drawBillboard turns them, doubled for billboardMesh's unit square
+                    const a = render3DBillboardAxes(size, angle, false), k = render3DInstanceSlot(quad, textureInfo);
+                    data = quad.instanceData;
+                    data[k]    = a[0] * 2; data[k+1] = a[1] * 2; data[k+2]  = a[2] * 2; data[k+3]  = 0;
+                    data[k+4]  = a[3] * 2; data[k+5] = a[4] * 2; data[k+6]  = a[5] * 2; data[k+7]  = 0;
+                    data[k+8]  = cb.x;   data[k+9]  = cb.y;   data[k+10] = cb.z;   data[k+11] = 0;
+                    data[k+12] = particles[p]; data[k+13] = particles[p+1]; data[k+14] = particles[p+2]; data[k+15] = 1;
+                    data[k+16] = color.r, data[k+17] = color.g, data[k+18] = color.b, data[k+19] = color.a;
+                    data[k+20] = uv.x; data[k+21] = uv.y; data[k+22] = uv.w; data[k+23] = uv.h;
+                }
+                else
+                {
+                    pos.x = particles[p], pos.y = particles[p+1], pos.z = particles[p+2];
+                    if (texture)
+                        r.drawBillboard(pos, size, texture, color, angle);
+                    else
+                        r.drawSoftDisc(pos, s, color, undefined, 8); // no canvas for the dot, headless
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        finally
+        {
+            if (instanced)
+            {
+                r.lighting = lit;
+                r.flush(); // whatever the stream holds from before this emitter draws first
+                render3DFlushInstances(quad);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+/**
+ * Trail3D - A ribbon through where the object has been, thinning and fading with age
+ * - Records its world position each frame it moves, so parent it to something that moves or set pos3D yourself
+ * - The samples are world space, so width is a world width and scale3D does nothing to the ribbon
+ * - Drawn unlit in the transparent stage, dies down on its own once the object stops
+ * @extends EngineObject3D
+ * @memberof Render3D
+ * @example
+ * const trail = new Trail3D(vec3(), 1, .3, undefined, hsl(.08, 1, .5), hsl(0, 1, .5, 0), true);
+ * ball.addChild(trail); // follows the ball
+ */
+class Trail3D extends EngineObject3D
+{
+    /** Create a trail
+     *  @param {Vector3} [pos3D]
+     *  @param {number} [lifeTime] - Seconds the ribbon takes to thin and fade from head to tail,
+     *    Infinity keeps every sample at full width and never drops one, so it grows as long as the object moves
+     *  @param {number} [width] - Width at the head, it thins to nothing at the tail
+     *  @param {TileInfo|TextureInfo} [tileInfo] - Tile or whole texture stretched along the trail, undefined is untextured
+     *  @param {Color} [color] - Color at the head
+     *  @param {Color} [colorEnd] - Color at the tail
+     *  @param {boolean} [additive] - Additive blending */
+    constructor(pos3D=vec3(), lifeTime=1, width=.2, tileInfo, color=WHITE, colorEnd=CLEAR_WHITE, additive=false)
+    {
+        super(pos3D, undefined, tileInfo, color);
+        this.transparent = true;
+        this.additive = additive;
+        this.castShadow = false;
+        this.size3D = vec3(); // not a solid thing to pick or collect
+        this.finishing = false; // set by destroy, the ribbon fades out then goes away
+
+        /** @property {number} - Seconds the ribbon takes to thin and fade from head to tail, Infinity never drops a sample */
+        this.lifeTime = lifeTime;
+        /** @property {number} - Width at the head */
+        this.width = width;
+        /** @property {Color} - Color at the tail */
+        this.colorEnd = colorEnd.copy();
+        /** @property {Vector3|undefined} - Direction across the ribbon, recorded with each sample, undefined faces the camera
+         *  @type {Vector3|undefined} */
+        this.side = undefined;
+        /** @property {Array<{pos: Vector3, side: Vector3|undefined, time: number}>} - Recorded samples, oldest first
+         *  @type {Array<{pos: Vector3, side: Vector3|undefined, time: number}>} */
+        this.samples = [];
+    }
+
+    /** Forget the trail so far, for when the object teleports */
+    clear() { this.samples.length = 0; }
+
+    /** Stop recording, and go away once the ribbon has faded
+     *  @param {boolean} [immediate] */
+    destroy(immediate)
+    {
+        if (immediate || !this.samples.length || this.destroyed || this.lifeTime == Infinity)
+            return super.destroy(immediate);
+        this.finishing = true;
+        render3DDetach(this); // the samples are in world space, they no longer need the parent
+    }
+
+    /** Record the position when it moved and drop old samples, called automatically each frame */
+    update()
+    {
+        const samples = this.samples;
+        if (!this.finishing)
+        {
+            const pos = this.worldPos3D = this.getWorldPos3D(), last = samples[samples.length - 1];
+            if (!last || pos.distanceSquared(last.pos) > 1e-8)
+                samples.push({pos, side: this.side?.copy(), time});
+        }
+        while (samples.length && time - samples[0].time > this.lifeTime)
+            samples.shift();
+        this.finishing && !samples.length && this.destroy();
+    }
+
+    /** Draw the ribbon
+     *  @return {void} */
+    render3D()
+    {
+        const samples = this.samples;
+        if (samples.length < 2) return;
+        const points = [], widths = [], colors = [], sides = this.side ? [] : undefined;
+        for (const s of samples)
+        {
+            const age = clamp((time - s.time) / this.lifeTime);
+            points.push(s.pos);
+            widths.push(this.width * (1 - age));
+            colors.push(this.color.lerp(this.colorEnd, age));
+            sides?.push(s.side);
+        }
+        render3D.drawRibbon(points, widths, this.tileInfo, colors, sides);
+    }
+}
+
+///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+// OBJ meshes
+
+/**
+ * Parse Wavefront OBJ text into a Mesh
+ * - Reads v, vt, vn and f lines with convex polygons of any size, materials and groups are ignored
+ * - Normals come from the file when every corner of a face has one, otherwise from the face
+ * - Use mesh.center() and mesh.fit(size) to bring a model of unknown units to the origin
+ * - Back faces are skipped like any mesh, set doubleSided for a model with open walls or single sided parts
+ * @param {string} text
+ * @param {boolean} [smooth] - Compute smooth normals for the faces the file gives none, defaults to render3D.smoothShading
+ * @return {Mesh}
+ * @memberof Render3D
+ * @example
+ * new EngineObject3D(vec3(), parseOBJ(objText).center().fit(4));
+ */
+function parseOBJ(text, smooth=render3D?.smoothShading)
+{
+    const positions = [], normals = [], uvs = [];
+    const points = [], vertexNormals = [], vertexUVs = [], indices = [], seen = new Map;
+    const fromFile = []; // which vertices have a normal from the file, the rest are smoothed when smooth is on
+    let missingNormals = false, face = 0;
+
+    // OBJ indices count from 1, and a negative one counts back from the end of the list so far
+    const index = (s, list)=> { const i = parseInt(s); return i < 0 ? list.length + i : i - 1; };
+    const lookup = (s, list)=> list[index(s, list)];
+    for (const line of text.split('\n'))
+    {
+        const parts = line.trim().split(/\s+/);
+        switch (parts[0])
+        {
+            case 'v':  positions.push(vec3(+parts[1], +parts[2], +parts[3])); break;
+            case 'vn': normals.push(vec3(+parts[1], +parts[2], +parts[3])); break;
+            case 'vt': uvs.push(vec2(+parts[1], 1 - (+parts[2] || 0))); break; // v runs up and is 0 left out
+            case 'f':
+            {
+                const corners = parts.slice(1).map(c=> c.split('/'));
+                if (corners.length < 3) break;
+                const facePoints = corners.map(c=> lookup(c[0], positions));
+                ASSERT(facePoints.every(isVector3), 'OBJ face uses a vertex index the file does not have', line);
+                const hasNormals = corners.every(c=> c[2]);
+                missingNormals ||= !hasNormals;
+                const faceNormal = hasNormals ? undefined : render3DFaceNormal(facePoints[0], facePoints[1], facePoints[2], facePoints[3]);
+                // a corner is one vertex with the same position, uv and normal; without file normals the face's own
+                // normal keeps its corners apart, unless they will be smoothed, when the position and uv are enough
+                const ids = corners.map((c, i)=>
+                {
+                    // by the vertices they are, a negative index means another vertex as the lists grow
+                    const key = index(c[0], positions) + '/' + (c[1] ? index(c[1], uvs) : '') + '/' +
+                        (hasNormals ? index(c[2], normals) : smooth ? '' : 'f' + face);
+                    let id = seen.get(key);
+                    if (id === undefined)
+                    {
+                        seen.set(key, id = points.length);
+                        points.push(facePoints[i]);
+                        vertexUVs.push(c[1] ? lookup(c[1], uvs) : RENDER3D_DEFAULT_UV);
+                        vertexNormals.push(hasNormals ? lookup(c[2], normals) : faceNormal);
+                        fromFile.push(hasNormals);
+                    }
+                    return id;
+                });
+                // a fan around the second corner, counter clockwise as the file lists them; that cuts a quad along
+                // the same diagonal the strip form did, so a smoothed model shades the same as before
+                for (let k = 2; k < ids.length; ++k)
+                    indices.push(ids[1], ids[k], ids[(k + 1) % ids.length]);
+                ++face;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    const mesh = new Mesh().addTriangles(points, indices, vertexNormals, vertexUVs);
+    if (missingNormals && smooth)
+    {
+        // smooth the faces the file gave no normals, and keep the normals it did give
+        const given = mesh.normals;
+        mesh.computeNormals(true);
+        fromFile.forEach((f, i)=> f && (mesh.normals[i] = given[i]));
+    }
+    return mesh;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Fetch and parse an OBJ file
+ * @param {string} url
+ * @param {boolean} [smooth] - Compute smooth normals when the file has none, defaults to render3D.smoothShading
+ * @return {Promise<Mesh>}
+ * @memberof Render3D
+ * @example
+ * const mesh = await loadOBJ('ship.obj'); // in an async gameInit
+ */
+async function loadOBJ(url, smooth=render3D?.smoothShading)
+{
+    const response = await fetch(url);
+    if (!response.ok)
+        throw new Error('loadOBJ failed: ' + url);
+    return parseOBJ(await response.text(), smooth);
+}
+
+///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
+// CSG: union, subtract and intersect of closed meshes with BSP trees, after Evan Wallace's csg.js (MIT license);
+// the trees are walked with stacks, so a deep one can not overflow the call stack
+
+const RENDER3D_CSG_EPSILON = 1e-5; // closer than this to a plane counts as on it
+
+// a vertex of a CSG polygon, its values lerped where a cut splits an edge
+class Render3DCSGVertex
+{
+    constructor(pos, normal, uv, color) { this.pos = pos; this.normal = normal; this.uv = uv; this.color = color; }
+    lerp(v, t)
+    { return new Render3DCSGVertex(this.pos.lerp(v.pos, t), this.normal.lerp(v.normal, t), this.uv.lerp(v.uv, t), this.color.lerp(v.color, t)); }
+    flipped() { return new Render3DCSGVertex(this.pos, this.normal.scale(-1), this.uv, this.color); }
+}
+
+// a convex polygon, its vertices counter clockwise from the front, and the plane it lies on
+class Render3DCSGPolygon
+{
+    constructor(vertices, plane) { this.vertices = vertices; this.plane = plane; }
+    flipped()
+    {
+        const plane = {normal: this.plane.normal.scale(-1), w: -this.plane.w};
+        return new Render3DCSGPolygon(this.vertices.map(v=> v.flipped()).reverse(), plane);
+    }
+}
+
+// a node of a BSP tree: a plane, the polygons that lie on it, and the trees in front of and behind it
+class Render3DCSGNode
+{
+    constructor()
+    {
+        this.plane = undefined;
+        this.front = undefined;
+        this.back = undefined;
+        this.polygons = [];
+    }
+}
+
+// the plane through three points, facing the side they run counter clockwise from, undefined when they are in a
+// line, or so nearly that the plane would lean any way
+function render3DCSGPlane(a, b, c)
+{
+    const n = b.subtract(a).cross(c.subtract(a));
+    if (n.lengthSquared() < 1e-18) return;
+    const normal = n.normalize();
+    return {normal, w: normal.dot(a)};
+}
+
+// sort a polygon against a plane into the lists, cutting it in two when it spans the plane
+function render3DCSGSplit(plane, polygon, coplanarFront, coplanarBack, front, back)
+{
+    const COPLANAR = 0, FRONT = 1, BACK = 2, SPANNING = 3;
+    const {normal, w} = plane, vertices = polygon.vertices, types = [];
+    let polygonType = COPLANAR;
+    for (const v of vertices)
+    {
+        const t = normal.dot(v.pos) - w;
+        const type = t < -RENDER3D_CSG_EPSILON ? BACK : t > RENDER3D_CSG_EPSILON ? FRONT : COPLANAR;
+        polygonType |= type;
+        types.push(type);
+    }
+    if (polygonType === COPLANAR)
+        (normal.dot(polygon.plane.normal) > 0 ? coplanarFront : coplanarBack).push(polygon);
+    else if (polygonType === FRONT)
+        front.push(polygon);
+    else if (polygonType === BACK)
+        back.push(polygon);
+    else
+    {
+        const f = [], b = [];
+        for (let i = 0; i < vertices.length; ++i)
+        {
+            const j = (i + 1) % vertices.length, ti = types[i], tj = types[j], vi = vertices[i], vj = vertices[j];
+            if (ti !== BACK) f.push(vi);
+            if (ti !== FRONT) b.push(vi);
+            if ((ti | tj) === SPANNING)
+            {
+                const v = vi.lerp(vj, (w - normal.dot(vi.pos)) / normal.dot(vj.pos.subtract(vi.pos)));
+                f.push(v);
+                b.push(v);
+            }
+        }
+        f.length >= 3 && front.push(new Render3DCSGPolygon(f, polygon.plane));
+        b.length >= 3 && back.push(new Render3DCSGPolygon(b, polygon.plane));
+    }
+}
+
+// every node of a tree
+function render3DCSGNodes(root)
+{
+    const nodes = [], stack = [root];
+    while (stack.length)
+    {
+        const node = stack.pop();
+        nodes.push(node);
+        node.front && stack.push(node.front);
+        node.back && stack.push(node.back);
+    }
+    return nodes;
+}
+
+// add polygons to a tree, each node splitting what reaches it by its plane
+function render3DCSGBuild(root, polygons)
+{
+    const stack = [[root, polygons]];
+    while (stack.length)
+    {
+        const [node, list] = stack.pop();
+        if (!list.length) continue;
+        node.plane ||= list[0].plane;
+        const front = [], back = [];
+        for (const polygon of list)
+            render3DCSGSplit(node.plane, polygon, node.polygons, node.polygons, front, back);
+        front.length && stack.push([node.front ||= new Render3DCSGNode, front]);
+        back.length && stack.push([node.back ||= new Render3DCSGNode, back]);
+    }
+}
+
+// turn the solid a tree bounds inside out, its planes facing the other way
+function render3DCSGInvert(root)
+{
+    for (const node of render3DCSGNodes(root))
+    {
+        node.plane &&= {normal: node.plane.normal.scale(-1), w: -node.plane.w};
+        [node.front, node.back] = [node.back, node.front];
+    }
+}
+
+// the parts of the polygons outside the solid a tree bounds
+function render3DCSGClipPolygons(root, polygons)
+{
+    const result = [], stack = [[root, polygons]];
+    while (stack.length)
+    {
+        const [node, list] = stack.pop();
+        if (!node.plane)
+        {
+            for (const polygon of list) result.push(polygon);
+            continue;
+        }
+        const front = [], back = [];
+        for (const polygon of list)
+            render3DCSGSplit(node.plane, polygon, front, back, front, back);
+        if (node.front)
+            stack.push([node.front, front]);
+        else
+            for (const polygon of front) result.push(polygon);
+        node.back && stack.push([node.back, back]); // behind a leaf is inside the solid, and goes
+    }
+    return result;
+}
+
+// the polygons split into the parts inside the box around the other polygons and the parts beyond it, a polygon
+// that reaches into the box cut at its faces, so the cuts made inside it stay inside it; a part on a face, within
+// the epsilon, counts as inside
+function render3DCSGNear(polygons, polygonsOther)
+{
+    const lo = vec3(Infinity), hi = vec3(-Infinity);
+    for (const polygon of polygonsOther)
+    for (const {pos} of polygon.vertices)
+    {
+        lo.x = min(lo.x, pos.x); lo.y = min(lo.y, pos.y); lo.z = min(lo.z, pos.z);
+        hi.x = max(hi.x, pos.x); hi.y = max(hi.y, pos.y); hi.z = max(hi.z, pos.z);
+    }
+    // the box's faces as planes facing out, a part in front of any of them is beyond it
+    const near = [], far = [];
+    const faces = [[vec3(1, 0, 0), hi.x], [vec3(-1, 0, 0), -lo.x], [vec3(0, 1, 0), hi.y],
+        [vec3(0, -1, 0), -lo.y], [vec3(0, 0, 1), hi.z], [vec3(0, 0, -1), -lo.z]];
+    for (const polygon of polygons)
+    {
+        let inside = [polygon];
+        for (const [normal, w] of faces)
+        {
+            const next = [];
+            for (const part of inside)
+                render3DCSGSplit({normal, w}, part, next, next, far, next);
+            inside = next;
+        }
+        for (const part of inside) near.push(part);
+    }
+    return [near, far];
+}
+
+// a function giving a point the first point it was given within distance of it, or the point itself when there is
+// none, through a grid of cells that size, so points closer than distance come out as one
+function render3DCSGPlacer(distance)
+{
+    const cells = new Map, cellKey = (x, y, z)=> x + ',' + y + ',' + z;
+    return (p)=>
+    {
+        const cx = floor(p.x / distance), cy = floor(p.y / distance), cz = floor(p.z / distance);
+        for (let x = cx - 1; x <= cx + 1; ++x)
+        for (let y = cy - 1; y <= cy + 1; ++y)
+        for (let z = cz - 1; z <= cz + 1; ++z)
+            for (const q of cells.get(cellKey(x, y, z)) || [])
+                if (q.distanceSquared(p) < distance ** 2)
+                    return q;
+        const k = cellKey(cx, cy, cz);
+        cells.has(k) || cells.set(k, []);
+        cells.get(k).push(p);
+        return p;
+    };
+}
+
+// whether an indexed mesh is closed around an inside: the areas of a closed surface, each facing out, add up to
+// nothing, and an opening or a face turned the wrong way leaves an area over; CSG run on its own results can leave
+// gaps a few epsilons wide, which come to next to nothing, so a sliver of the whole is allowed
+function render3DMeshIsClosed(mesh)
+{
+    const points = mesh.points, indices = mesh.indices;
+    let x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, total = 0;
+    for (let t = 0; t < indices.length; t += 3)
+    {
+        const a = points[indices[t]], n = points[indices[t + 1]].subtract(a).cross(points[indices[t + 2]].subtract(a));
+        x += n.x, y += n.y, z += n.z;
+        total += n.length();
+    }
+    return total > 0 && hypot(x, y, z) <= total * 1e-4;
+}
+
+// the triangles of a closed mesh placed by a matrix, as CSG polygons
+function render3DCSGPolygons(mesh, matrix)
+{
+    ASSERT(mesh instanceof Mesh, 'CSG takes a Mesh');
+    ASSERT(!mesh.doubleSided, 'CSG needs closed meshes, a doubleSided one like buildGrid has no inside');
+    const list = new Mesh().combine(mesh, matrix).toIndexed();
+    ASSERT(!list.points.length || render3DMeshIsClosed(list), 'CSG needs closed meshes, every edge shared by two triangles');
+    const vertex = (i)=> new Render3DCSGVertex(list.points[i], list.normals[i], list.uvs[i], list.colors[i]);
+    const polygons = [];
+    for (let t = 0; t < list.indices.length; t += 3)
+    {
+        const i = list.indices[t], j = list.indices[t + 1], k = list.indices[t + 2];
+        const plane = render3DCSGPlane(list.points[i], list.points[j], list.points[k]);
+        plane && polygons.push(new Render3DCSGPolygon([vertex(i), vertex(j), vertex(k)], plane)); // no area, no face
+    }
+    return polygons;
+}
+
+// a mesh from CSG polygons: points close together made one, and each edge given the points other polygons have
+// along it, so neighbors meet at every point with no crack between them; each polygon then as a fan of triangles
+function render3DCSGMesh(polygons)
+{
+    // points within the epsilon made one, the first found standing for the rest; moving one any farther would take
+    // it off its plane by more than the epsilon, and the next cut through it would split it again; a point on an
+    // edge, whose ends may each have moved that far, is looked for a few times that far from its line
+    const reach = RENDER3D_CSG_EPSILON * 4, placer = render3DCSGPlacer(RENDER3D_CSG_EPSILON), placed = new Set;
+    const cellKey = (x, y, z)=> x + ',' + y + ',' + z;
+    const place = (p)=>
+    {
+        const q = placer(p);
+        placed.add(q); // polygons share points, so one can be placed more than once
+        return q;
+    };
+    const loops = polygons.map(polygon=>
+    {
+        const loop = [];
+        for (const v of polygon.vertices)
+        {
+            const pos = place(v.pos);
+            if (loop.length && loop[loop.length - 1].pos === pos) continue; // a sliver edge closed up
+            loop.push(new Render3DCSGVertex(pos, v.normal, v.uv, v.color));
+        }
+        loop.length > 1 && loop[0].pos === loop[loop.length - 1].pos && loop.pop();
+        return loop;
+    });
+
+    // the places in a coarser grid, sized so a cell holds a few, to find the ones lying along each edge
+    const places = [...placed];
+    let lo = vec3(Infinity), hi = vec3(-Infinity);
+    for (const p of places)
+    {
+        lo = vec3(min(lo.x, p.x), min(lo.y, p.y), min(lo.z, p.z));
+        hi = vec3(max(hi.x, p.x), max(hi.y, p.y), max(hi.z, p.z));
+    }
+    const span = places.length ? max(hi.x - lo.x, hi.y - lo.y, hi.z - lo.z) : 0;
+    const size = max(span / Math.cbrt(places.length || 1), reach), grid = new Map;
+    const gridKey = (p)=> cellKey(floor((p.x - lo.x) / size), floor((p.y - lo.y) / size), floor((p.z - lo.z) / size));
+    for (const p of places)
+    {
+        const k = gridKey(p);
+        grid.has(k) || grid.set(k, []);
+        grid.get(k).push(p);
+    }
+    const onEdge = (a, b)=>
+    {
+        // the places strictly between a and b, within reach of the line, in order from a
+        const found = [], ab = b.subtract(a), length2 = ab.lengthSquared();
+        const x0 = floor((min(a.x, b.x) - lo.x - reach) / size), x1 = floor((max(a.x, b.x) - lo.x + reach) / size);
+        const y0 = floor((min(a.y, b.y) - lo.y - reach) / size), y1 = floor((max(a.y, b.y) - lo.y + reach) / size);
+        const z0 = floor((min(a.z, b.z) - lo.z - reach) / size), z1 = floor((max(a.z, b.z) - lo.z + reach) / size);
+        for (let x = x0; x <= x1; ++x)
+        for (let y = y0; y <= y1; ++y)
+        for (let z = z0; z <= z1; ++z)
+            for (const p of grid.get(cellKey(x, y, z)) || [])
+            {
+                if (p === a || p === b) continue;
+                const t = p.subtract(a).dot(ab) / length2;
+                if (t <= 0 || t >= 1) continue;
+                if (a.add(ab.scale(t)).distanceSquared(p) < reach ** 2)
+                    found.push([t, p]);
+            }
+        return found.sort((f, g)=> f[0] - g[0]);
+    };
+
+    // the mesh, each vertex once: vertices at one place that are the same in every value are shared
+    const mesh = new Mesh, shared = new Map;
+    mesh.indices = [];
+    const vertexIndex = (v)=>
+    {
+        const n = v.normal.lengthSquared() ? v.normal.normalize() : RENDER3D_DEFAULT_NORMAL, c = v.color;
+        const key = [n.x, n.y, n.z, v.uv.x, v.uv.y, c.r, c.g, c.b, c.a].map(x=> round(x * 1e6)).join();
+        let atPlace = shared.get(v.pos), i;
+        atPlace || shared.set(v.pos, atPlace = new Map);
+        if ((i = atPlace.get(key)) === undefined)
+        {
+            atPlace.set(key, i = mesh.points.length);
+            mesh.points.push(v.pos.copy());
+            mesh.normals.push(n);
+            mesh.uvs.push(v.uv.copy());
+            mesh.colors.push(c.copy());
+        }
+        return i;
+    };
+
+    // each loop with the points along its edges put in, as a fan
+    const flat = (a, b, c)=> b.subtract(a).cross(c.subtract(a)).lengthSquared() < 1e-18;
+    for (const loop of loops)
+    {
+        if (loop.length < 3) continue;
+        const full = [];
+        for (let i = 0; i < loop.length; ++i)
+        {
+            const a = loop[i], b = loop[(i + 1) % loop.length];
+            full.push(a);
+            for (const [t, p] of onEdge(a.pos, b.pos))
+            {
+                const v = a.lerp(b, t);
+                full.push(new Render3DCSGVertex(p, v.normal, v.uv, v.color));
+            }
+        }
+        // a polygon with no area, its points in a line, is no surface, and its neighbors have its points along
+        // their edges, so it goes
+        const n = full.length, pos = (i)=> full[i % n].pos;
+        let area = vec3();
+        for (let j = 1; j < n - 1; ++j)
+            area = area.add(pos(j).subtract(pos(0)).cross(pos(j + 1).subtract(pos(0))));
+        if (area.lengthSquared() < 1e-18) continue;
+
+        // cut off one corner at a time, one that makes a triangle with some area with its neighbors and leaves the
+        // rest some area too, so the points put in along the sides make no flat triangles; areas add, so what is
+        // left is the whole less the corner
+        const ring = full.map(v=> ({pos: v.pos, id: vertexIndex(v)}));
+        const earArea = (i)=>
+        {
+            const a = ring[(i + ring.length - 1) % ring.length].pos, b = ring[i].pos, c = ring[(i + 1) % ring.length].pos;
+            return b.subtract(a).cross(c.subtract(a));
+        };
+        while (ring.length > 3)
+        {
+            let i = ring.findIndex((_, i)=>
+            {
+                const ear = earArea(i);
+                return ear.lengthSquared() >= 1e-18 && area.subtract(ear).lengthSquared() >= 1e-18;
+            });
+            i < 0 && (i = 0); // no corner leaves area, a sliver, cut off the first
+            area = area.subtract(earArea(i));
+            mesh.indices.push(ring[(i + ring.length - 1) % ring.length].id, ring[i].id, ring[(i + 1) % ring.length].id);
+            ring.splice(i, 1);
+        }
+        mesh.indices.push(ring[0].id, ring[1].id, ring[2].id);
+    }
+    mesh.dirty = true;
+    return mesh;
+}
+
+// a new mesh of a and b placed by matrix: 0 their union, 1 a with b cut out, 2 what is in both
+// - csg.js's steps with the polygons kept in lists: the trees only tell inside from outside, and only the polygons
+//   that reach into the other mesh's box are cut, one beyond it is all outside and is kept or dropped whole, so a
+//   shape cut again and again only splits where each cut is
+// - the clip twice through the same tree, with a flip between, drops the one of two coplanar faces that would
+//   double up
+function render3DMeshCSG(a, b, matrix, operation)
+{
+    const polygonsA = render3DCSGPolygons(a), polygonsB = render3DCSGPolygons(b, matrix);
+    const [nearA, farA] = render3DCSGNear(polygonsA, polygonsB), [nearB, farB] = render3DCSGNear(polygonsB, polygonsA);
+    const treeA = new Render3DCSGNode, treeB = new Render3DCSGNode;
+    render3DCSGBuild(treeA, polygonsA);
+    render3DCSGBuild(treeB, polygonsB);
+    const clip = render3DCSGClipPolygons, flip = (list)=> list.map(polygon=> polygon.flipped());
+    let polygons;
+    if (operation === 0)
+    {
+        // each outside the other
+        polygons = [...farA, ...clip(treeB, nearA), ...farB, ...flip(clip(treeA, flip(clip(treeA, nearB))))];
+    }
+    else if (operation === 1)
+    {
+        // a outside b, and b inside a turned to face out
+        render3DCSGInvert(treeA);
+        polygons = [...farA, ...flip(clip(treeB, flip(nearA))), ...clip(treeA, flip(clip(treeA, nearB)))];
+    }
+    else
+    {
+        // each inside the other
+        render3DCSGInvert(treeA);
+        render3DCSGInvert(treeB);
+        polygons = [...flip(clip(treeB, flip(nearA))), ...flip(clip(treeA, flip(clip(treeA, nearB))))];
+    }
+    return render3DCSGMesh(polygons);
+}