js-confuser-vm 0.0.4 → 0.0.6

package/dist/compiler.js

@@ -0,0 +1,1777 @@
+import { parse } from "@babel/parser";
+import traverseImport from "@babel/traverse";
+import { generate } from "@babel/generator";
+import { stripTypeScriptTypes } from "module";
+import * as t from "@babel/types";
+import { ok } from "assert";
+import { obfuscateRuntime } from "./build-runtime.js";
+import { DEFAULT_OPTIONS } from "./options.js";
+import { resolveLabels } from "./transforms/bytecode/resolveLabels.js";
+import { resolveConstants } from "./transforms/bytecode/resolveContants.js";
+import { selfModifying } from "./transforms/bytecode/selfModifying.js";
+import { macroOpcodes } from "./transforms/bytecode/macroOpcodes.js";
+import * as b from "./types.js";
+import { specializedOpcodes } from "./transforms/bytecode/specializedOpcodes.js";
+import { aliasedOpcodes } from "./transforms/bytecode/aliasedOpcodes.js";
+import { getRandomInt } from "./utils/random-utils.js";
+import { U16_MAX } from "./utils/op-utils.js";
+import { concealConstants } from "./transforms/bytecode/concealConstants.js";
+const traverse = traverseImport.default || traverseImport;
+const readVMRuntimeFile = () => "import { OP_ORIGINAL as OP } from \"./compiler.ts\";\nconst BYTECODE = [];\nconst MAIN_START_PC = 0;\nconst MAIN_REG_COUNT = 0;\nconst CONSTANTS = [];\nconst ENCODE_BYTECODE = false;\nconst TIMING_CHECKS = false;\n// The text above is not included in the compiled output - for type intellisense only\n// @START\n\nfunction decodeBytecode(s) {\n  if (!ENCODE_BYTECODE) return s;\n\n  var b =\n    typeof Buffer !== \"undefined\"\n      ? Buffer.from(s, \"base64\")\n      : Uint8Array.from(atob(s), function (c) {\n          return c.charCodeAt(0);\n        });\n  // Each slot is a u16 stored as 2 little-endian bytes.\n  var r = new Uint16Array(b.length / 2);\n  for (var i = 0; i < r.length; i++) r[i] = b[i * 2] | (b[i * 2 + 1] << 8);\n  return r;\n}\n\n// Closure symbol\n// Used to tag shell functions so the VM can fast-path back to the\n// inner Closure instead of going through a sub-VM on internal calls.\nvar CLOSURE_SYM = Symbol(); // Nameless for obfuscation\n\n// Upvalue\n// While the outer frame is alive: reads/writes go to frame.regs[slot].\n// After the outer frame returns (closed): reads/writes hit this._value.\nfunction Upvalue(frame, slot) {\n  this._frame = frame;\n  this._slot = slot;\n  this._closed = false;\n  this._value = undefined;\n}\nUpvalue.prototype._read = function () {\n  return this._closed ? this._value : this._frame.regs[this._slot];\n};\nUpvalue.prototype._write = function (v) {\n  if (this._closed) this._value = v;\n  else this._frame.regs[this._slot] = v;\n};\nUpvalue.prototype._close = function () {\n  this._value = this._frame.regs[this._slot];\n  this._closed = true;\n};\n\n// Closure & Frame\nfunction Closure(fn) {\n  this.fn = fn;\n  this.upvalues = [];\n  this.prototype = {}; // <- default prototype object for `new`\n}\n\nfunction Frame(closure, returnPc, parent, thisVal, retDstReg) {\n  this.closure = closure;\n  this.regs = new Array(closure.fn.regCount).fill(undefined);\n  this._pc = closure.fn.startPc; // <- initialize from fn descriptor\n  this._returnPc = returnPc; // pc to resume in parent frame after RETURN\n  this._parent = parent;\n  this.thisVal = thisVal !== undefined ? thisVal : undefined;\n  this._retDstReg = retDstReg !== undefined ? retDstReg : 0; // register in parent to write return value\n  this._newObj = null; // <- set by NEW so RETURN can see it\n  this._handlerStack = []; // <- exception handlers pushed by TRY_SETUP\n}\n\n// VM\nfunction VM(bytecode, mainStartPc, mainRegCount, constants, globals) {\n  this.bytecode = bytecode;\n  this.constants = constants;\n  this.globals = globals;\n  this._frameStack = [];\n  this._openUpvalues = []; // all currently open Upvalue objects across all frames\n\n  var mainFn = {\n    paramCount: 0,\n    regCount: mainRegCount,\n    startPc: mainStartPc, // <- where main begins\n  };\n  this._currentFrame = new Frame(new Closure(mainFn), null, null, undefined, 0);\n}\n\n// Consume the next slot from the flat bytecode stream and advance the PC.\n// Called by opcode handlers to read each of their operands in order.\nVM.prototype._operand = function () {\n  return this.bytecode[this._currentFrame._pc++];\n};\n\nVM.prototype.captureUpvalue = function (frame, slot) {\n  // Reuse existing open upvalue for this frame+slot if one exists.\n  // This is what makes two closures share the same mutable cell.\n  for (var i = 0; i < this._openUpvalues.length; i++) {\n    var uv = this._openUpvalues[i];\n    if (uv._frame === frame && uv._slot === slot) return uv;\n  }\n  var uv = new Upvalue(frame, slot);\n  this._openUpvalues.push(uv);\n  return uv;\n};\n\n// Reads and decodes a constant from the pool.\n// idx  \u2014 pool index (first operand of the constant pair emitted by resolveConstants).\n// key  \u2014 conceal key (second operand). 0 means no concealment.\n//\n// For integers:  stored value is (original ^ key); XOR again to recover.\n// For strings:   stored value is a base64 string containing u16 LE byte pairs.\n//                Mirrors decodeBytecode: base64 \u2192 bytes \u2192 u16 LE \u2192 XOR with\n//                (key + i) & 0xFFFF to recover the original char codes.\n// idxIn, keyIn are passed in from specializedOpcodes when the operands are determined at compile time.\nVM.prototype._constant = function (idxIn, keyIn) {\n  var idx = idxIn ?? this._operand();\n  var key = keyIn ?? this._operand();\n\n  var v = this.constants[idx];\n  if (!key) return v;\n  if (typeof v === \"number\") return v ^ key;\n  // String: base64-decode to u16 LE byte pairs, then XOR each code with (key+i).\n  var b =\n    typeof Buffer !== \"undefined\"\n      ? Buffer.from(v, \"base64\")\n      : Uint8Array.from(atob(v), function (c) {\n          return c.charCodeAt(0);\n        });\n  var out = \"\";\n  for (var i = 0; i < b.length / 2; i++) {\n    var code = b[i * 2] | (b[i * 2 + 1] << 8); // u16 LE\n    out += String.fromCharCode(code ^ ((key + i) & 0xffff));\n  }\n  return out;\n};\n\nVM.prototype._closeUpvaluesFor = function (frame) {\n  // Called on RETURN - close every upvalue that was pointing into this frame.\n  // After this, closures that captured from the frame read from upvalue.value.\n  this._openUpvalues = this._openUpvalues.filter(function (uv) {\n    if (uv._frame === frame) {\n      uv._close();\n      return false;\n    }\n    return true;\n  });\n};\n\nVM.prototype.run = function () {\n  var now = () => {\n    return performance.now();\n  };\n\n  var lastTime = now();\n\n  while (true) {\n    var frame = this._currentFrame;\n    var bc = this.bytecode;\n    if (frame._pc >= bc.length) break;\n\n    var pc = frame._pc++;\n    var op = this.bytecode[pc];\n    var opcode = this.bytecode[pc];\n    // console.log(\n    //   \"pc=\" + pc,\n    //   \"opcode=\" + opcode,\n    //   Object.keys(OP).find((key) => OP[key] === opcode),\n    // );\n\n    // Debugging protection: Detects debugger by checking for >1s pauses which can only happen from debugger; or extremely slow sync tasks\n    if (TIMING_CHECKS) {\n      var currentTime = now();\n      var isTamper = currentTime - lastTime > 1000;\n      lastTime = currentTime;\n      if (isTamper) {\n        // Poison the bytecode\n        for (var i = 0; i < this.bytecode.length; i++) this.bytecode[i] = 0;\n        // Break the current state\n        frame.regs.fill(undefined);\n        op = OP.JUMP;\n        frame._pc = this.bytecode.length; // jump past end to halt\n      }\n    }\n\n    try {\n      /* @SWITCH */\n      switch (op) {\n        case OP.LOAD_CONST: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          frame.regs[dst] = this._constant();\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.LOAD_INT: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          frame.regs[dst] = this._operand();\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.LOAD_GLOBAL: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var globalName = this._constant();\n\n          if (!(globalName in this.globals)) {\n            throw new ReferenceError(`${globalName} is not defined`);\n          }\n\n          frame.regs[dst] = this.globals[globalName];\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.LOAD_UPVALUE: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          frame.regs[dst] = frame.closure.upvalues[this._operand()]._read();\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.LOAD_THIS: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          frame.regs[dst] = frame.thisVal;\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.MOVE: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          frame.regs[dst] = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.STORE_GLOBAL: {\n          // nameIdx and key are consumed inline so the concealConstants runtime\n          // transform can rewrite this._constant() consistently.\n          this.globals[this._constant()] = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.STORE_UPVALUE: {\n          var uvIdx = this._operand();\n          frame.closure.upvalues[uvIdx]._write(frame.regs[this._operand()]);\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.GET_PROP: {\n          // dst = regs[obj][regs[key]]\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var obj = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var key = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = obj[key];\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.SET_PROP: {\n          // regs[obj][regs[key]] = regs[val]\n          var obj = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var key = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var val = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          // Reflect.set performs [[Set]] without throwing on failure,\n          // correctly simulating sloppy-mode assignment from a strict-mode host.\n          Reflect.set(obj, key, val);\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.DELETE_PROP: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var obj = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var key = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = delete obj[key];\n          break;\n        }\n\n        // \u2500\u2500 Arithmetic  (dst, src1, src2) \u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\n        case OP.ADD: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a + frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.SUB: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a - frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.MUL: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a * frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.DIV: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a / frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.MOD: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a % frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.BAND: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a & frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.BOR: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a | frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.BXOR: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a ^ frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.SHL: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a << frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.SHR: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a >> frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.USHR: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a >>> frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n\n        // \u2500\u2500 Comparison  (dst, src1, src2) \u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\n        case OP.LT: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a < frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.GT: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a > frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.LTE: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a <= frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.GTE: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a >= frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.EQ: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a === frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.NEQ: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a !== frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.LOOSE_EQ: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a == frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.LOOSE_NEQ: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a != frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.IN: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var a = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = a in frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.INSTANCEOF: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var obj = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var ctor = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          if (typeof ctor === \"function\") {\n            frame.regs[dst] = obj instanceof ctor;\n          } else {\n            // VM Closure - walk prototype chain for identity with ctor.prototype.\n            var proto = ctor.prototype;\n            var target = Object.getPrototypeOf(obj);\n            var result = false;\n            while (target !== null) {\n              if (target === proto) {\n                result = true;\n                break;\n              }\n              target = Object.getPrototypeOf(target);\n            }\n            frame.regs[dst] = result;\n          }\n          break;\n        }\n\n        // \u2500\u2500 Unary  (dst, src) \u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\n        case OP.UNARY_NEG: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          frame.regs[dst] = -frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.UNARY_POS: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          frame.regs[dst] = +frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.UNARY_NOT: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          frame.regs[dst] = !frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.UNARY_BITNOT: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          frame.regs[dst] = ~frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.TYPEOF: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          frame.regs[dst] = typeof frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.VOID: {\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          this._operand(); // consume src \u2014 evaluated for side-effects by compiler\n          frame.regs[dst] = undefined;\n          break;\n        }\n        case OP.TYPEOF_SAFE: {\n          // dst, nameConstIdx \u2014 safe typeof for potentially-undeclared globals.\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var name = this._constant();\n          var val = Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(this.globals, name)\n            ? this.globals[name]\n            : undefined;\n          frame.regs[dst] = typeof val;\n          break;\n        }\n\n        // \u2500\u2500 Control flow \u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\n        case OP.JUMP:\n          frame._pc = this._operand();\n          break;\n\n        case OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE: {\n          var src = this._operand();\n          var target = this._operand();\n          if (!frame.regs[src]) frame._pc = target;\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.JUMP_IF_TRUE: {\n          // || short-circuit: if truthy, jump over RHS.\n          var src = this._operand();\n          var target = this._operand();\n          if (frame.regs[src]) frame._pc = target;\n          break;\n        }\n\n        // \u2500\u2500 Calls \u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\n        case OP.CALL: {\n          // dst, calleeReg, argc, [argReg...]\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var callee = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var argc = this._operand();\n          var args = new Array(argc);\n          for (var i = 0; i < argc; i++) args[i] = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n\n          if (callee && callee[CLOSURE_SYM]) {\n            var c = callee[CLOSURE_SYM];\n            var f = new Frame(c, frame._pc, frame, this.globals, dst);\n            for (var i = 0; i < args.length; i++) f.regs[i] = args[i];\n            f.regs[c.fn.paramCount] = args;\n            this._frameStack.push(this._currentFrame);\n            this._currentFrame = f;\n          } else {\n            frame.regs[dst] = callee.apply(null, args);\n          }\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.CALL_METHOD: {\n          // dst, receiverReg, calleeReg, argc, [argReg...]\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var receiver = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var callee = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var argc = this._operand();\n          var args = new Array(argc);\n          for (var i = 0; i < argc; i++) args[i] = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n\n          if (callee && callee[CLOSURE_SYM]) {\n            var c = callee[CLOSURE_SYM];\n            var f = new Frame(c, frame._pc, frame, receiver, dst);\n            for (var i = 0; i < args.length; i++) f.regs[i] = args[i];\n            f.regs[c.fn.paramCount] = args;\n            this._frameStack.push(this._currentFrame);\n            this._currentFrame = f;\n          } else {\n            frame.regs[dst] = callee.apply(receiver, args);\n          }\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.NEW: {\n          // dst, calleeReg, argc, [argReg...]\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var callee = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var argc = this._operand();\n          var args = new Array(argc);\n          for (var i = 0; i < argc; i++) args[i] = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n\n          if (callee && callee[CLOSURE_SYM]) {\n            var c = callee[CLOSURE_SYM];\n            var newObj = Object.create(c.prototype || null);\n            var f = new Frame(c, frame._pc, frame, newObj, dst);\n            f._newObj = newObj;\n            for (var i = 0; i < args.length; i++) f.regs[i] = args[i];\n            f.regs[c.fn.paramCount] = args;\n            this._frameStack.push(this._currentFrame);\n            this._currentFrame = f;\n          } else {\n            // Reflect.construct is required - Object.create+apply does NOT set\n            // internal slots ([[NumberData]], [[StringData]], etc.) for built-ins.\n            frame.regs[dst] = Reflect.construct(callee, args);\n          }\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.RETURN: {\n          var retVal = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          this._closeUpvaluesFor(frame); // must happen before frame is abandoned\n\n          if (this._frameStack.length === 0) return retVal; // main script returning\n\n          // new-call rule: primitive return -> discard, use the constructed object instead\n          if (frame._newObj !== null) {\n            if (typeof retVal !== \"object\" || retVal === null)\n              retVal = frame._newObj;\n          }\n\n          var parentFrame = this._frameStack.pop();\n          parentFrame.regs[frame._retDstReg] = retVal;\n          this._currentFrame = parentFrame;\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.THROW:\n          throw frame.regs[this._operand()];\n\n        // \u2500\u2500 Closures \u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\n        case OP.MAKE_CLOSURE: {\n          // dst, startPc, paramCount, regCount, uvCount, [isLocal, idx, ...]\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var startPc = this._operand();\n          var paramCount = this._operand();\n          var regCount = this._operand();\n          var uvCount = this._operand();\n\n          var uvDescs = new Array(uvCount);\n          for (var i = 0; i < uvCount; i++) {\n            var isLocalRaw = this._operand();\n            var uvIndex = this._operand();\n            uvDescs[i] = { isLocal: isLocalRaw, _index: uvIndex };\n          }\n\n          var fn = {\n            paramCount: paramCount,\n            regCount: regCount,\n            startPc: startPc,\n            upvalueDescriptors: uvDescs,\n          };\n\n          var closure = new Closure(fn);\n          for (var i = 0; i < uvDescs.length; i++) {\n            var uvd = uvDescs[i];\n            if (uvd.isLocal) {\n              closure.upvalues.push(this.captureUpvalue(frame, uvd._index));\n            } else {\n              closure.upvalues.push(frame.closure.upvalues[uvd._index]);\n            }\n          }\n\n          // Wrap in a native callable shell so host code (array methods,\n          // test assertions, setTimeout, etc.) can invoke VM closures.\n          // CLOSURE_SYM lets VM-internal CALL/NEW bypass the sub-VM entirely.\n          var self = this;\n          var shell = (function (c) {\n            return function () {\n              var args = Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments);\n              var sub = new VM(\n                self.bytecode,\n                0,\n                c.fn.regCount,\n                self.constants,\n                self.globals,\n              );\n              var f = new Frame(\n                c,\n                null,\n                null,\n                this == null ? self.globals : this,\n                0,\n              );\n              for (var i = 0; i < args.length; i++) f.regs[i] = args[i];\n              f.regs[c.fn.paramCount] = args;\n              sub._currentFrame = f;\n              return sub.run();\n            };\n          })(closure);\n          shell[CLOSURE_SYM] = closure;\n          shell.prototype = closure.prototype; // unified prototype for new/instanceof\n          frame.regs[dst] = shell;\n          break;\n        }\n\n        // \u2500\u2500 Collections \u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\n        case OP.BUILD_ARRAY: {\n          // dst, count, [elemReg...]\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var count = this._operand();\n          var elems = new Array(count);\n          for (var i = 0; i < count; i++)\n            elems[i] = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          frame.regs[dst] = elems;\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.BUILD_OBJECT: {\n          // dst, pairCount, [keyReg, valReg, ...]\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var pairCount = this._operand();\n          var o = {};\n          for (var i = 0; i < pairCount; i++) {\n            var key = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n            var val = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n            o[key] = val;\n          }\n          frame.regs[dst] = o;\n          break;\n        }\n\n        // \u2500\u2500 Property definitions (getters / setters) \u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\n        case OP.DEFINE_GETTER: {\n          // obj, key, fn\n          var obj = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var key = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var getterFn = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var existingDesc = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(obj, key);\n          var getDesc                     = {\n            get: getterFn,\n            configurable: true,\n            enumerable: true,\n          };\n          if (existingDesc && typeof existingDesc.set === \"function\") {\n            getDesc.set = existingDesc.set;\n          }\n          Object.defineProperty(obj, key, getDesc);\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.DEFINE_SETTER: {\n          // obj, key, fn\n          var obj = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var key = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var setterFn = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var existingDesc = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(obj, key);\n          var setDesc                     = {\n            set: setterFn,\n            configurable: true,\n            enumerable: true,\n          };\n          if (existingDesc && typeof existingDesc.get === \"function\") {\n            setDesc.get = existingDesc.get;\n          }\n          Object.defineProperty(obj, key, setDesc);\n          break;\n        }\n\n        // \u2500\u2500 For-in iteration \u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\n        case OP.FOR_IN_SETUP: {\n          // dst, src \u2014 build iterator object from enumerable keys of regs[src]\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var obj = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var keys = [];\n          if (obj !== null && obj !== undefined) {\n            var seen = Object.create(null);\n            var cur = Object(obj); // box primitives\n            while (cur !== null) {\n              var ownNames = Object.getOwnPropertyNames(cur);\n              for (var i = 0; i < ownNames.length; i++) {\n                var k = ownNames[i];\n                if (!(k in seen)) {\n                  seen[k] = true;\n                  var propDesc = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(cur, k);\n                  if (propDesc && propDesc.enumerable) {\n                    keys.push(k);\n                  }\n                }\n              }\n              cur = Object.getPrototypeOf(cur);\n            }\n          }\n          frame.regs[dst] = { _keys: keys, i: 0 };\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.FOR_IN_NEXT: {\n          // dst, iterReg, exitTarget\n          // Advances iterator; writes next key to dst, or jumps to exitTarget when done.\n          var dst = this._operand();\n          var iter = frame.regs[this._operand()];\n          var exitTarget = this._operand();\n          if (iter.i >= iter._keys.length) {\n            frame._pc = exitTarget;\n          } else {\n            frame.regs[dst] = iter._keys[iter.i++];\n          }\n          break;\n        }\n\n        // \u2500\u2500 Exception handling \u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\n        case OP.TRY_SETUP: {\n          // handlerPc, exceptionReg \u2014 push exception handler record onto current frame.\n          frame._handlerStack.push({\n            handlerPc: this._operand(),\n            exceptionReg: this._operand(),\n            frameStackDepth: this._frameStack.length,\n          });\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.TRY_END: {\n          // Normal exit from a try block \u2014 disarm the exception handler.\n          frame._handlerStack.pop();\n          break;\n        }\n\n        // \u2500\u2500 Self-modifying bytecode \u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\n        case OP.PATCH: {\n          // destPc, sliceStart, sliceEnd\n          var destPc = this._operand();\n          var sliceStart = this._operand();\n          var sliceEnd = this._operand();\n          for (var pi = sliceStart; pi < sliceEnd; pi++) {\n            this.bytecode[destPc + (pi - sliceStart)] = this.bytecode[pi];\n          }\n          break;\n        }\n\n        case OP.DEBUGGER: {\n          debugger;\n          break;\n        }\n\n        default:\n          throw new Error(\n            \"Unknown opcode: \" + op + \" at pc \" + (frame._pc - 1),\n          );\n      }\n    } catch (err) {\n      // Exception handler unwinding (CPython-style frame walk, Lua-style upvalue close).\n      // Walk from the current frame upward until we find a frame that has an open\n      // exception handler (TRY_SETUP without a matching TRY_END).\n      // For every frame we abandon along the way, close its captured upvalues.\n      var handledFrame = null;\n      var searchFrame = this._currentFrame;\n      while (true) {\n        if (searchFrame._handlerStack.length > 0) {\n          handledFrame = searchFrame;\n          break;\n        }\n        // No handler in this frame \u2014 abandon it and walk up.\n        this._closeUpvaluesFor(searchFrame);\n        if (this._frameStack.length === 0) break;\n        searchFrame = this._frameStack.pop();\n        this._currentFrame = searchFrame;\n      }\n\n      if (!handledFrame) throw err; // no handler anywhere \u2014 propagate to host\n\n      var h = handledFrame._handlerStack.pop();\n      // Discard any call-frames that were pushed inside the try body.\n      this._frameStack.length = h.frameStackDepth;\n      // Write the caught exception directly into the designated register.\n      handledFrame.regs[h.exceptionReg] = err;\n      // Jump to the catch block.\n      handledFrame._pc = h.handlerPc;\n      this._currentFrame = handledFrame;\n    }\n  }\n};\n\n// Boot\nvar globals      = {}; // global object for globals\n\n// Always pull built-ins from globalThis so eval() scoping can't shadow them\n// with a local `window` variable (e.g. the test harness fake window).\nfor (var k of Object.getOwnPropertyNames(globalThis)) {\n  globals[k] = globalThis[k];\n}\n// If a window object is in scope (browser or test harness), capture it\n// explicitly so VM code can read/write window.TEST_OUTPUT etc.\nif (typeof window !== \"undefined\") {\n  globals[\"window\"] = window;\n}\n\n// Transfer common primitives\nglobals.undefined = undefined;\nglobals.Infinity = Infinity;\nglobals.NaN = NaN;\n\nvar vm = new VM(\n  decodeBytecode(BYTECODE),\n  MAIN_START_PC,\n  MAIN_REG_COUNT,\n  CONSTANTS,\n  globals,\n);\nvm.run();\n";
+export const VM_RUNTIME = readVMRuntimeFile().split("@START")[1];
+export const SOURCE_NODE_SYM = Symbol("SOURCE_NODE");
+
+// ── Opcodes ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// Register-based encoding.  Operand convention (x86 / CPython style):
+//   destination register first, then source registers, then immediates.
+//
+//   dst      – register index that receives the result
+//   src      – register index holding an input value
+//   imm/Idx  – immediate integer (constant-pool index, upvalue index, argc …)
+//
+// Every arithmetic/comparison/unary instruction: [op, dst, src1, src2?]
+// Every load:                                    [op, dst, ...]
+// Every store:                                   [op, target, src]
+// Calls:     CALL  [op, dst, callee, argc, arg0, arg1, …]
+//            CALL_METHOD [op, dst, receiver, callee, argc, arg0, …]
+export const OP_ORIGINAL = {
+  // ── Loads ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  LOAD_CONST: 0,
+  // dst, constIdx      regs[dst] = constants[constIdx]
+  LOAD_INT: 1,
+  // dst, imm           regs[dst] = imm  (raw u16 literal)
+  LOAD_GLOBAL: 2,
+  // dst, nameIdx       regs[dst] = globals[constants[nameIdx]]
+  LOAD_UPVALUE: 3,
+  // dst, uvIdx         regs[dst] = upvalues[uvIdx].read()
+  LOAD_THIS: 4,
+  // dst                regs[dst] = frame.thisVal
+  MOVE: 5,
+  // dst, src           regs[dst] = regs[src]
+
+  // ── Stores ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  STORE_GLOBAL: 6,
+  // nameIdx, src       globals[constants[nameIdx]] = regs[src]
+  STORE_UPVALUE: 7,
+  // uvIdx,   src       upvalues[uvIdx].write(regs[src])
+
+  // ── Property access ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  GET_PROP: 8,
+  // dst, obj, key      regs[dst] = regs[obj][regs[key]]
+  SET_PROP: 9,
+  // obj, key, val      regs[obj][regs[key]] = regs[val]  (result stays in val reg)
+  DELETE_PROP: 10,
+  // dst, obj, key      regs[dst] = delete regs[obj][regs[key]]
+
+  // ── Arithmetic / bitwise  (dst, src1, src2) ───────────────────────────────
+  ADD: 11,
+  SUB: 12,
+  MUL: 13,
+  DIV: 14,
+  MOD: 15,
+  BAND: 16,
+  BOR: 17,
+  BXOR: 18,
+  SHL: 19,
+  SHR: 20,
+  USHR: 21,
+  // ── Comparison  (dst, src1, src2) ─────────────────────────────────────────
+  LT: 22,
+  GT: 23,
+  LTE: 24,
+  GTE: 25,
+  EQ: 26,
+  NEQ: 27,
+  LOOSE_EQ: 28,
+  LOOSE_NEQ: 29,
+  IN: 30,
+  INSTANCEOF: 31,
+  // ── Unary  (dst, src) ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  UNARY_NEG: 32,
+  UNARY_POS: 33,
+  UNARY_NOT: 34,
+  UNARY_BITNOT: 35,
+  TYPEOF: 36,
+  // dst, src
+  VOID: 37,
+  // dst, src   – regs[dst] = undefined (src evaluated for side-effects)
+  TYPEOF_SAFE: 38,
+  // dst, nameConstIdx – safe typeof for potentially-undeclared globals
+
+  // ── Control flow ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  JUMP: 39,
+  // target
+  JUMP_IF_FALSE: 40,
+  // src, target    if !regs[src] then pc = target
+  JUMP_IF_TRUE: 41,
+  // src, target    if  regs[src] then pc = target  (|| short-circuit)
+
+  // ── Calls & constructors ──────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  CALL: 42,
+  // dst, callee, argc, [argRegs…]
+  CALL_METHOD: 43,
+  // dst, receiver, callee, argc, [argRegs…]
+  NEW: 44,
+  // dst, callee, argc, [argRegs…]
+  RETURN: 45,
+  // src
+  THROW: 46,
+  // src
+
+  // ── Closures ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  // dst, startPc, paramCount, regCount, uvCount, [isLocal, idx, …]
+  MAKE_CLOSURE: 47,
+  // ── Collections ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  BUILD_ARRAY: 48,
+  // dst, count,     [elemRegs…]
+  BUILD_OBJECT: 49,
+  // dst, pairCount, [keyReg, valReg, …]
+
+  // ── Property definitions (getters / setters) ──────────────────────────────
+  DEFINE_GETTER: 50,
+  // obj, key, fn
+  DEFINE_SETTER: 51,
+  // obj, key, fn
+
+  // ── For-in iteration ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  FOR_IN_SETUP: 52,
+  // dst, src              dst = { _keys: enumKeys(src), i: 0 }
+  FOR_IN_NEXT: 53,
+  // dst, iter, exitTarget
+
+  // ── Exception handling ────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  TRY_SETUP: 54,
+  // handlerPc, exceptionReg
+  TRY_END: 55,
+  // ── Self-modifying bytecode ───────────────────────────────────────────────
+  PATCH: 56,
+  // destPc, sliceStart, sliceEnd
+
+  // ── Debug ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  DEBUGGER: 57
+};
+
+// ── Scope ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// Maps variable names to register indices (slot numbers).
+// Locals are allocated at compile time; zero name lookups at runtime.
+class Scope {
+  constructor(parent = null) {
+    this.parent = parent;
+    this._locals = new Map();
+    this._next = 0;
+  }
+  define(name) {
+    if (!this._locals.has(name)) {
+      this._locals.set(name, this._next++);
+    }
+    return this._locals.get(name);
+  }
+  resolve(name) {
+    if (this._locals.has(name)) {
+      return {
+        kind: "local",
+        slot: this._locals.get(name)
+      };
+    }
+    if (this.parent) return this.parent.resolve(name);
+    return {
+      kind: "global"
+    };
+  }
+  get localCount() {
+    return this._next;
+  }
+}
+
+// ── FnContext ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+// Compiler-side state for the function currently being compiled.
+// Distinct from the runtime Frame — this is compile-time only.
+class FnContext {
+  // Register allocator.  Locals occupy regs[0..scope.localCount-1];
+  // temps are allocated above that and freed at statement boundaries.
+  regTop = 0;
+  maxRegTop = 0;
+  constructor(compiler, parentCtx = null) {
+    this.compiler = compiler;
+    this.parentCtx = parentCtx;
+    this.scope = new Scope();
+    this.bc = [];
+    this.upvalues = [];
+  }
+
+  /** Allocate the next free temp register and return its index. */
+  allocReg() {
+    const r = this.regTop++;
+    if (this.regTop > this.maxRegTop) this.maxRegTop = this.regTop;
+    return r;
+  }
+
+  /** Release all temps above the local region. Called at each statement boundary. */
+  resetTemps() {
+    this.regTop = this.scope.localCount;
+  }
+  addUpvalue(name, isLocal, index) {
+    const existing = this.upvalues.findIndex(u => u.name === name);
+    if (existing !== -1) return existing;
+    const idx = this.upvalues.length;
+    this.upvalues.push({
+      name,
+      isLocal,
+      index
+    });
+    return idx;
+  }
+}
+// ── Compiler ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+export class Compiler {
+  emit(bc, instr, node) {
+    bc.push(instr);
+    instr[SOURCE_NODE_SYM] = node;
+  }
+  constructor(options = DEFAULT_OPTIONS) {
+    this.options = options;
+    this.fnDescriptors = [];
+    this.bytecode = [];
+    this.mainStartPc = 0;
+    this.mainRegCount = 0;
+    this._currentCtx = null;
+    this._loopStack = [];
+    this._pendingLabel = null;
+    this._forInCount = 0;
+    this._labelCount = 0;
+    this.serializer = new Serializer(this);
+    this.MACRO_OPS = {};
+    this.SPECIALIZED_OPS = {};
+    this.ALIASED_OPS = {};
+    this.OP = {
+      ...OP_ORIGINAL
+    };
+    if (this.options.randomizeOpcodes) {
+      let usedNumbers = new Set();
+      for (const key in this.OP) {
+        let val;
+        do {
+          val = getRandomInt(0, U16_MAX);
+        } while (usedNumbers.has(val));
+        usedNumbers.add(val);
+        this.OP[key] = val;
+      }
+    }
+    this.OP_NAME = Object.fromEntries(Object.entries(this.OP).map(([k, v]) => [v, k]));
+    this.JUMP_OPS = new Set([this.OP.JUMP, this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, this.OP.JUMP_IF_TRUE, this.OP.FOR_IN_NEXT, this.OP.TRY_SETUP]);
+  }
+  _makeLabel(hint = "") {
+    return `${hint || "L"}_${this._labelCount++}`;
+  }
+  _resolve(name, ctx) {
+    if (!ctx) return {
+      kind: "global"
+    };
+    if (ctx.scope._locals.has(name)) {
+      return {
+        kind: "local",
+        slot: ctx.scope._locals.get(name)
+      };
+    }
+    if (!ctx.parentCtx) return {
+      kind: "global"
+    };
+    const parentResult = this._resolve(name, ctx.parentCtx);
+    if (parentResult.kind === "global") return {
+      kind: "global"
+    };
+    const isLocal = parentResult.kind === "local";
+    const index = isLocal ? parentResult.slot : parentResult.index;
+    const uvIdx = ctx.addUpvalue(name, isLocal ? 1 : 0, index);
+    return {
+      kind: "upvalue",
+      index: uvIdx
+    };
+  }
+
+  // ── Variable hoisting ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  // Pre-scan a statement list and reserve scope slots for every var declaration,
+  // function declaration, for-in iterator, and try-catch binding.
+  // Must be called before compilation begins so that ctx.regTop can be set
+  // safely above ALL locals (including those declared late in the body).
+  _hoistVars(stmts, scope) {
+    for (const stmt of stmts) {
+      switch (stmt.type) {
+        case "VariableDeclaration":
+          for (const decl of stmt.declarations) {
+            if (decl.id.type === "Identifier") scope.define(decl.id.name);
+          }
+          break;
+        case "FunctionDeclaration":
+          if (stmt.id) scope.define(stmt.id.name);
+          break;
+        case "BlockStatement":
+          this._hoistVars(stmt.body, scope);
+          break;
+        case "IfStatement":
+          {
+            const cons = stmt.consequent.type === "BlockStatement" ? stmt.consequent.body : [stmt.consequent];
+            this._hoistVars(cons, scope);
+            if (stmt.alternate) {
+              const alt = stmt.alternate.type === "BlockStatement" ? stmt.alternate.body : [stmt.alternate];
+              this._hoistVars(alt, scope);
+            }
+            break;
+          }
+        case "WhileStatement":
+        case "DoWhileStatement":
+          {
+            const body = stmt.body.type === "BlockStatement" ? stmt.body.body : [stmt.body];
+            this._hoistVars(body, scope);
+            break;
+          }
+        case "ForStatement":
+          {
+            if (stmt.init?.type === "VariableDeclaration") {
+              for (const decl of stmt.init.declarations) {
+                if (decl.id.type === "Identifier") scope.define(decl.id.name);
+              }
+            }
+            const body = stmt.body.type === "BlockStatement" ? stmt.body.body : [stmt.body];
+            this._hoistVars(body, scope);
+            break;
+          }
+        case "ForInStatement":
+          {
+            // Reserve a hidden register for the iterator object.
+            stmt._iterSlot = scope._next++;
+            if (stmt.left.type === "VariableDeclaration") {
+              for (const decl of stmt.left.declarations) {
+                if (decl.id.type === "Identifier") scope.define(decl.id.name);
+              }
+            }
+            const body = stmt.body.type === "BlockStatement" ? stmt.body.body : [stmt.body];
+            this._hoistVars(body, scope);
+            break;
+          }
+        case "SwitchStatement":
+          for (const c of stmt.cases) this._hoistVars(c.consequent, scope);
+          break;
+        case "TryStatement":
+          this._hoistVars(stmt.block.body, scope);
+          if (stmt.handler) {
+            if (stmt.handler.param?.type === "Identifier") {
+              // Catch parameter IS the exception register.
+              scope.define(stmt.handler.param.name);
+            } else {
+              // No catch binding – reserve a dummy slot for the exception value.
+              stmt._exceptionSlot = scope._next++;
+            }
+            this._hoistVars(stmt.handler.body.body, scope);
+          }
+          break;
+        case "LabeledStatement":
+          this._hoistVars([stmt.body], scope);
+          break;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // ── Entry point ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  compile(source) {
+    const ast = parse(source, {
+      sourceType: "script"
+    });
+    return this.compileAST(ast);
+  }
+  compileAST(ast) {
+    traverse(ast, {
+      FunctionDeclaration: path => {
+        if (path.parent.type !== "Program") return;
+        this._compileFunctionDecl(path.node);
+        path.skip();
+      }
+    });
+    this._compileMain(ast.program.body);
+    return this.bytecode;
+  }
+
+  // ── Function compilation ───────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  _compileFunctionDecl(node) {
+    ok(!node.generator, "Generator functions are not supported");
+    ok(!node.async, "Async functions are not supported");
+    var fnIdx = this.fnDescriptors.length;
+    const entryLabel = this._makeLabel(`fn_${fnIdx}`);
+    var desc = {};
+    this.fnDescriptors.push(desc);
+    const ctx = new FnContext(this, this._currentCtx);
+    const savedCtx = this._currentCtx;
+    this._currentCtx = ctx;
+    const savedLoopStack = this._loopStack;
+    this._loopStack = [];
+
+    // 1. Define parameters (occupy regs 0..paramCount-1).
+    for (const param of node.params) {
+      let identifier = param.type === "AssignmentPattern" ? param.left : param;
+      ok(identifier.type === "Identifier", "Only simple identifiers allowed as parameters");
+      ctx.scope.define(identifier.name);
+    }
+
+    // 2. Reserve the `arguments` slot (reg index = paramCount).
+    ctx.scope.define("arguments");
+
+    // 3. Hoist all var declarations so temps start above every local.
+    this._hoistVars(node.body.body, ctx.scope);
+
+    // 4. Temps now start above all locals.
+    ctx.regTop = ctx.scope.localCount;
+    ctx.maxRegTop = ctx.regTop;
+
+    // 5. Emit default-value guards.
+    for (const param of node.params) {
+      if (param.type !== "AssignmentPattern") continue;
+      const slot = ctx.scope._locals.get(param.left.name);
+      const skipLabel = this._makeLabel("param_skip");
+
+      // if (param === undefined) param = <default>
+      const reg_undef = ctx.allocReg();
+      this.emit(ctx.bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, reg_undef, b.constantOperand(undefined)], param);
+      const reg_cmp = ctx.allocReg();
+      this.emit(ctx.bc, [this.OP.EQ, reg_cmp, slot, reg_undef], param);
+      this.emit(ctx.bc, [this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, reg_cmp, {
+        type: "label",
+        label: skipLabel
+      }], param);
+      ctx.resetTemps();
+      const srcReg = this._compileExpr(param.right, ctx.scope, ctx.bc);
+      if (srcReg !== slot) {
+        this.emit(ctx.bc, [this.OP.MOVE, slot, srcReg], param);
+      }
+      ctx.resetTemps();
+      this.emit(ctx.bc, [null, {
+        type: "defineLabel",
+        label: skipLabel
+      }], param);
+    }
+
+    // 6. Compile body.
+    for (const stmt of node.body.body) {
+      this._compileStatement(stmt, ctx.scope, ctx.bc);
+    }
+
+    // Implicit return undefined at end of function.
+    const reg_undef = ctx.allocReg();
+    this.emit(ctx.bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, reg_undef, b.constantOperand(undefined)], node);
+    this.emit(ctx.bc, [this.OP.RETURN, reg_undef], node);
+    this._currentCtx = savedCtx;
+    this._loopStack = savedLoopStack;
+    node._fnIdx = fnIdx;
+    desc.name = node.id?.name || "<anonymous>";
+    desc.entryLabel = entryLabel;
+    desc.bytecode = ctx.bc;
+    desc._fnIdx = fnIdx;
+    desc.paramCount = node.params.length;
+    desc.regCount = ctx.maxRegTop; // total registers needed at runtime
+    desc.upvalues = ctx.upvalues.slice();
+    return desc;
+  }
+
+  // Emit MAKE_CLOSURE with all metadata as inline operands.
+  // Layout: dst, startPc, paramCount, regCount, uvCount, [isLocal, idx, …]
+  _emitMakeClosure(desc, node, bc) {
+    const ctx = this._currentCtx;
+    const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+    const uvOperands = [];
+    for (const uv of desc.upvalues) {
+      uvOperands.push(uv.isLocal ? 1 : 0);
+      uvOperands.push(uv.index);
+    }
+    this.emit(bc, [this.OP.MAKE_CLOSURE, dst, {
+      type: "label",
+      label: desc.entryLabel
+    }, desc.paramCount, desc.regCount, desc.upvalues.length, ...uvOperands], node);
+    return dst;
+  }
+
+  // ── Main (top-level) ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  _compileMain(body) {
+    const mainCtx = new FnContext(this, null);
+    const savedCtx = this._currentCtx;
+    this._currentCtx = mainCtx;
+    var desc = this._compileFunctionDecl({
+      type: "FunctionDeclaration",
+      async: false,
+      generator: false,
+      params: [],
+      id: null,
+      body: t.blockStatement([...body])
+    });
+    for (const descriptor of this.fnDescriptors) {
+      this.bytecode.push([null, {
+        type: "defineLabel",
+        label: descriptor.entryLabel
+      }]);
+      for (const instr of descriptor.bytecode) {
+        this.bytecode.push(instr);
+      }
+    }
+    this.mainRegCount = mainCtx.maxRegTop;
+    this.mainFn = desc;
+    this._currentCtx = savedCtx;
+  }
+
+  // ── Statements ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  // Wrapper that resets temps after every statement so that short-lived
+  // expression temps don't accumulate across statements.
+  _compileStatement(node, scope, bc) {
+    this._compileStatementImpl(node, scope, bc);
+    this._currentCtx?.resetTemps();
+  }
+  _compileStatementImpl(node, scope, bc) {
+    const ctx = this._currentCtx;
+    switch (node.type) {
+      case "EmptyStatement":
+        break;
+      case "DebuggerStatement":
+        this.emit(bc, [this.OP.DEBUGGER], node);
+        break;
+      case "BlockStatement":
+        for (const stmt of node.body) {
+          this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+        }
+        break;
+      case "FunctionDeclaration":
+        {
+          const desc = this._compileFunctionDecl(node);
+          const closureReg = this._emitMakeClosure(desc, node, bc);
+          if (scope) {
+            const slot = scope._locals.get(node.id.name);
+            if (closureReg !== slot) {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.MOVE, slot, closureReg], node);
+            }
+          } else {
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL, b.constantOperand(node.id.name), closureReg], node);
+          }
+          break;
+        }
+      case "ThrowStatement":
+        {
+          const reg = this._compileExpr(node.argument, scope, bc);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.THROW, reg], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "ReturnStatement":
+        {
+          let reg;
+          if (node.argument) {
+            reg = this._compileExpr(node.argument, scope, bc);
+          } else {
+            reg = ctx.allocReg();
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, reg, b.constantOperand(undefined)], node);
+          }
+          for (let _ri = this._loopStack.length - 1; _ri >= 0; _ri--) {
+            if (this._loopStack[_ri].type === "try") {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.TRY_END], node);
+            }
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.RETURN, reg], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "ExpressionStatement":
+        this._compileExpr(node.expression, scope, bc);
+        // Result is discarded; resetTemps in the wrapper handles cleanup.
+        break;
+      case "VariableDeclaration":
+        {
+          for (const decl of node.declarations) {
+            ok(decl.id.type === "Identifier", "Only simple identifiers can be declared");
+            const name = decl.id.name;
+            if (scope) {
+              const slot = scope._locals.get(name); // already defined by _hoistVars
+              if (decl.init) {
+                const srcReg = this._compileExpr(decl.init, scope, bc);
+                if (srcReg !== slot) {
+                  this.emit(bc, [this.OP.MOVE, slot, srcReg], node);
+                }
+              } else {
+                this.emit(bc, [this.OP.MOVE, slot, ctx.allocReg()], node);
+                // Load undefined into the just-allocated temp, then move.
+                // Actually: just emit LOAD_CONST directly into slot.
+                // Undo the allocReg – instead emit directly:
+                ctx.regTop--; // undo the allocReg above
+                const tmp = ctx.allocReg();
+                this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, tmp, b.constantOperand(undefined)], node);
+                if (tmp !== slot) this.emit(bc, [this.OP.MOVE, slot, tmp], node);
+              }
+            } else {
+              if (decl.init) {
+                const srcReg = this._compileExpr(decl.init, scope, bc);
+                this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL, b.constantOperand(name), srcReg], node);
+              } else {
+                const tmp = ctx.allocReg();
+                this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, tmp, b.constantOperand(undefined)], node);
+                this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL, b.constantOperand(name), tmp], node);
+              }
+            }
+          }
+          break;
+        }
+      case "IfStatement":
+        {
+          const elseOrEndLabel = this._makeLabel("if_else");
+          const savedTop = ctx.regTop;
+          const testReg = this._compileExpr(node.test, scope, bc);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, testReg, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: elseOrEndLabel
+          }], node);
+          ctx.regTop = savedTop; // free test temps
+
+          const consequentBody = node.consequent.type === "BlockStatement" ? node.consequent.body : [node.consequent];
+          for (const stmt of consequentBody) {
+            this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+          }
+          if (node.alternate) {
+            const endLabel = this._makeLabel("if_end");
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+              type: "label",
+              label: endLabel
+            }], node);
+            this.emit(bc, [null, {
+              type: "defineLabel",
+              label: elseOrEndLabel
+            }], node);
+            const altBody = node.alternate.type === "BlockStatement" ? node.alternate.body : [node.alternate];
+            for (const stmt of altBody) {
+              this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+            }
+            this.emit(bc, [null, {
+              type: "defineLabel",
+              label: endLabel
+            }], node);
+          } else {
+            this.emit(bc, [null, {
+              type: "defineLabel",
+              label: elseOrEndLabel
+            }], node);
+          }
+          break;
+        }
+      case "WhileStatement":
+        {
+          const _wLabel = this._pendingLabel;
+          this._pendingLabel = null;
+          const loopTopLabel = this._makeLabel("while_top");
+          const exitLabel = this._makeLabel("while_exit");
+          this._loopStack.push({
+            type: "loop",
+            label: _wLabel,
+            breakLabel: exitLabel,
+            continueLabel: loopTopLabel
+          });
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: loopTopLabel
+          }], node);
+          const savedTop = ctx.regTop;
+          const testReg = this._compileExpr(node.test, scope, bc);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, testReg, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: exitLabel
+          }], node);
+          ctx.regTop = savedTop;
+          const whileBody = node.body.type === "BlockStatement" ? node.body.body : [node.body];
+          for (const stmt of whileBody) {
+            this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: loopTopLabel
+          }], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: exitLabel
+          }], node);
+          this._loopStack.pop();
+          break;
+        }
+      case "DoWhileStatement":
+        {
+          const _dwLabel = this._pendingLabel;
+          this._pendingLabel = null;
+          const loopTopLabel = this._makeLabel("dowhile_top");
+          const continueLabel = this._makeLabel("dowhile_cont");
+          const exitLabel = this._makeLabel("dowhile_exit");
+          this._loopStack.push({
+            type: "loop",
+            label: _dwLabel,
+            breakLabel: exitLabel,
+            continueLabel: continueLabel
+          });
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: loopTopLabel
+          }], node);
+          const doWhileBody = node.body.type === "BlockStatement" ? node.body.body : [node.body];
+          for (const stmt of doWhileBody) {
+            this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: continueLabel
+          }], node);
+          const savedTop = ctx.regTop;
+          const testReg = this._compileExpr(node.test, scope, bc);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, testReg, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: exitLabel
+          }], node);
+          ctx.regTop = savedTop;
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: loopTopLabel
+          }], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: exitLabel
+          }], node);
+          this._loopStack.pop();
+          break;
+        }
+      case "ForStatement":
+        {
+          const _fLabel = this._pendingLabel;
+          this._pendingLabel = null;
+          const loopTopLabel = this._makeLabel("for_top");
+          const exitLabel = this._makeLabel("for_exit");
+          const updateLabel = node.update ? this._makeLabel("for_update") : loopTopLabel;
+          this._loopStack.push({
+            type: "loop",
+            label: _fLabel,
+            breakLabel: exitLabel,
+            continueLabel: updateLabel
+          });
+          if (node.init) {
+            if (node.init.type === "VariableDeclaration") {
+              this._compileStatement(node.init, scope, bc);
+            } else {
+              this._compileExpr(node.init, scope, bc);
+              // result discarded; resetTemps in next iteration
+            }
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: loopTopLabel
+          }], node);
+          if (node.test) {
+            const savedTop = ctx.regTop;
+            const testReg = this._compileExpr(node.test, scope, bc);
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, testReg, {
+              type: "label",
+              label: exitLabel
+            }], node);
+            ctx.regTop = savedTop;
+          }
+          const forBody = node.body.type === "BlockStatement" ? node.body.body : [node.body];
+          for (const stmt of forBody) {
+            this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+          }
+          if (node.update) {
+            this.emit(bc, [null, {
+              type: "defineLabel",
+              label: updateLabel
+            }], node);
+            this._compileExpr(node.update, scope, bc);
+            ctx.resetTemps(); // discard update expression result
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: loopTopLabel
+          }], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: exitLabel
+          }], node);
+          this._loopStack.pop();
+          break;
+        }
+      case "BreakStatement":
+        {
+          let _bTargetIdx = -1;
+          if (node.label) {
+            const _bLabelName = node.label.name;
+            for (let _bi = this._loopStack.length - 1; _bi >= 0; _bi--) {
+              if (this._loopStack[_bi].label === _bLabelName) {
+                _bTargetIdx = _bi;
+                break;
+              }
+            }
+            if (_bTargetIdx === -1) throw new Error(`Label '${node.label.name}' not found`);
+          } else {
+            for (let _bi = this._loopStack.length - 1; _bi >= 0; _bi--) {
+              if (this._loopStack[_bi].type !== "try") {
+                _bTargetIdx = _bi;
+                break;
+              }
+            }
+            if (_bTargetIdx === -1) throw new Error("break outside loop");
+          }
+          for (let _bi = this._loopStack.length - 1; _bi > _bTargetIdx; _bi--) {
+            if (this._loopStack[_bi].type === "try") {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.TRY_END], node);
+            }
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: this._loopStack[_bTargetIdx].breakLabel
+          }], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "ContinueStatement":
+        {
+          let _cTargetIdx = -1;
+          if (node.label) {
+            const _cLabelName = node.label.name;
+            for (let _ci = this._loopStack.length - 1; _ci >= 0; _ci--) {
+              if (this._loopStack[_ci].label === _cLabelName && this._loopStack[_ci].type === "loop") {
+                _cTargetIdx = _ci;
+                break;
+              }
+            }
+            if (_cTargetIdx === -1) throw new Error(`Label '${node.label.name}' not found for continue`);
+          } else {
+            for (let _ci = this._loopStack.length - 1; _ci >= 0; _ci--) {
+              if (this._loopStack[_ci].type === "loop") {
+                _cTargetIdx = _ci;
+                break;
+              }
+            }
+            if (_cTargetIdx === -1) throw new Error("continue outside loop");
+          }
+          for (let _ci = this._loopStack.length - 1; _ci > _cTargetIdx; _ci--) {
+            if (this._loopStack[_ci].type === "try") {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.TRY_END], node);
+            }
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: this._loopStack[_cTargetIdx].continueLabel
+          }], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "SwitchStatement":
+        {
+          const _swLabel = this._pendingLabel;
+          this._pendingLabel = null;
+          const switchBreakLabel = this._makeLabel("sw_break");
+          this._loopStack.push({
+            type: "switch",
+            label: _swLabel,
+            breakLabel: switchBreakLabel,
+            continueLabel: switchBreakLabel
+          });
+
+          // Compile discriminant into a register that lives for the whole switch.
+          const discReg = this._compileExpr(node.discriminant, scope, bc);
+          const cases = node.cases;
+          const defaultIdx = cases.findIndex(c => c.test === null);
+          const caseLabels = cases.map((_, i) => this._makeLabel(`sw_case_${i}`));
+
+          // Dispatch: for each non-default case, test and jump.
+          for (let i = 0; i < cases.length; i++) {
+            const cas = cases[i];
+            if (cas.test === null) continue;
+            const nextCheckLabel = this._makeLabel("sw_next");
+            const savedTop = ctx.regTop;
+            const caseValReg = this._compileExpr(cas.test, scope, bc);
+            const cmpReg = ctx.allocReg();
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.EQ, cmpReg, discReg, caseValReg], node);
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, cmpReg, {
+              type: "label",
+              label: nextCheckLabel
+            }], node);
+            ctx.regTop = savedTop;
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+              type: "label",
+              label: caseLabels[i]
+            }], node);
+            this.emit(bc, [null, {
+              type: "defineLabel",
+              label: nextCheckLabel
+            }], node);
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: defaultIdx !== -1 ? caseLabels[defaultIdx] : switchBreakLabel
+          }], node);
+          for (let i = 0; i < cases.length; i++) {
+            this.emit(bc, [null, {
+              type: "defineLabel",
+              label: caseLabels[i]
+            }], node);
+            for (const stmt of cases[i].consequent) {
+              this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+            }
+          }
+
+          // Break lands here – discriminant register is simply abandoned.
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: switchBreakLabel
+          }], node);
+          this._loopStack.pop();
+          break;
+        }
+      case "LabeledStatement":
+        {
+          const _lName = node.label.name;
+          const _lBody = node.body;
+          const _lIsLoop = _lBody.type === "ForStatement" || _lBody.type === "WhileStatement" || _lBody.type === "DoWhileStatement" || _lBody.type === "ForInStatement";
+          const _lIsSwitch = _lBody.type === "SwitchStatement";
+          if (_lIsLoop || _lIsSwitch) {
+            this._pendingLabel = _lName;
+            this._compileStatement(_lBody, scope, bc);
+            this._pendingLabel = null;
+          } else {
+            const blockBreakLabel = this._makeLabel("block_break");
+            this._loopStack.push({
+              type: "block",
+              label: _lName,
+              breakLabel: blockBreakLabel,
+              continueLabel: blockBreakLabel
+            });
+            this._compileStatement(_lBody, scope, bc);
+            this._loopStack.pop();
+            this.emit(bc, [null, {
+              type: "defineLabel",
+              label: blockBreakLabel
+            }], node);
+          }
+          break;
+        }
+      case "ForInStatement":
+        {
+          const _fiLabel = this._pendingLabel;
+          this._pendingLabel = null;
+
+          // Iterator register was reserved by _hoistVars.
+          const iterSlot = node._iterSlot;
+
+          // FOR_IN_SETUP dst, src
+          const objReg = this._compileExpr(node.right, scope, bc);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.FOR_IN_SETUP, iterSlot, objReg], node);
+          const loopTopLabel = this._makeLabel("forin_top");
+          const exitLabel = this._makeLabel("forin_exit");
+          this._loopStack.push({
+            type: "loop",
+            label: _fiLabel,
+            breakLabel: exitLabel,
+            continueLabel: loopTopLabel
+          });
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: loopTopLabel
+          }], node);
+
+          // FOR_IN_NEXT keyDst, iter, exitTarget
+          const keyReg = ctx.allocReg();
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.FOR_IN_NEXT, keyReg, iterSlot, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: exitLabel
+          }], node);
+
+          // Assign the key to the loop variable.
+          if (node.left.type === "VariableDeclaration") {
+            const identifier = node.left.declarations[0].id;
+            ok(identifier.type === "Identifier", "Only simple identifiers can be declared in for-in loops");
+            const name = identifier.name;
+            if (scope) {
+              const slot = scope._locals.get(name);
+              if (keyReg !== slot) this.emit(bc, [this.OP.MOVE, slot, keyReg], node);
+            } else {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL, b.constantOperand(name), keyReg], node);
+            }
+          } else if (node.left.type === "Identifier") {
+            const res = this._resolve(node.left.name, this._currentCtx);
+            if (res.kind === "local") {
+              if (keyReg !== res.slot) this.emit(bc, [this.OP.MOVE, res.slot, keyReg], node);
+            } else if (res.kind === "upvalue") {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_UPVALUE, res.index, keyReg], node);
+            } else {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL, b.constantOperand(node.left.name), keyReg], node);
+            }
+          } else {
+            const src = generate(node.left).code;
+            throw new Error(`Unsupported for-in left-hand side: ${node.left.type}\n  -> ${src}`);
+          }
+          const fiBody = node.body.type === "BlockStatement" ? node.body.body : [node.body];
+          for (const stmt of fiBody) {
+            this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: loopTopLabel
+          }], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: exitLabel
+          }], node);
+          this._loopStack.pop();
+          break;
+        }
+      case "TryStatement":
+        {
+          if (node.finalizer) {
+            throw new Error("try..finally is not supported. Use a helper function instead");
+          }
+          if (!node.handler) {
+            throw new Error("try without catch is not supported (requires finally).");
+          }
+          const catchLabel = this._makeLabel("catch");
+          const afterCatchLabel = this._makeLabel("after_catch");
+
+          // Determine where the caught exception is written.
+          const exceptionReg = node.handler.param?.type === "Identifier" ? scope?._locals.get(node.handler.param.name) ?? ctx.allocReg() // shouldn't normally reach here
+          : node._exceptionSlot;
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.TRY_SETUP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: catchLabel
+          }, exceptionReg], node);
+          this._loopStack.push({
+            type: "try",
+            label: null,
+            breakLabel: "",
+            continueLabel: ""
+          });
+          for (const stmt of node.block.body) {
+            this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+          }
+          this._loopStack.pop();
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.TRY_END], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: afterCatchLabel
+          }], node);
+
+          // Catch block: exceptionReg already holds the caught value.
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: catchLabel
+          }], node);
+
+          // If no param binding, just ignore the exception (it's in the dummy slot).
+          for (const stmt of node.handler.body.body) {
+            this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: afterCatchLabel
+          }], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      default:
+        {
+          const src = generate(node).code;
+          throw new Error(`Unsupported statement: ${node.type}\n  -> ${src}`);
+        }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // ── Expressions ───────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+  // Returns the register index that holds the result.
+  // For local variables: returns their slot directly (no instruction emitted).
+  // For all others: allocates a fresh temp register, emits the instruction(s),
+  // and returns the allocated register.
+  _compileExpr(node, scope, bc) {
+    const ctx = this._currentCtx;
+    switch (node.type) {
+      case "NumericLiteral":
+      case "StringLiteral":
+      case "BooleanLiteral":
+        {
+          const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, dst, b.constantOperand(node.value)], node);
+          return dst;
+        }
+      case "NullLiteral":
+        {
+          const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, dst, b.constantOperand(null)], node);
+          return dst;
+        }
+      case "Identifier":
+        {
+          const res = this._resolve(node.name, this._currentCtx);
+          if (res.kind === "local") return res.slot; // register IS the local
+          if (res.kind === "upvalue") {
+            const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_UPVALUE, dst, res.index], node);
+            return dst;
+          }
+          // global
+          const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_GLOBAL, dst, b.constantOperand(node.name)], node);
+          return dst;
+        }
+      case "ThisExpression":
+        {
+          const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_THIS, dst], node);
+          return dst;
+        }
+      case "NewExpression":
+        {
+          const calleeReg = this._compileExpr(node.callee, scope, bc);
+          const argRegs = node.arguments.map(a => this._compileExpr(a, scope, bc));
+          const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.NEW, dst, calleeReg, node.arguments.length, ...argRegs], node);
+          return dst;
+        }
+      case "SequenceExpression":
+        {
+          const exprs = node.expressions;
+          for (let i = 0; i < exprs.length - 1; i++) {
+            const savedTop = ctx.regTop;
+            this._compileExpr(exprs[i], scope, bc);
+            ctx.regTop = savedTop; // discard intermediate result
+          }
+          return this._compileExpr(exprs[exprs.length - 1], scope, bc);
+        }
+      case "ConditionalExpression":
+        {
+          const n = node;
+          const elseLabel = this._makeLabel("ternary_else");
+          const endLabel = this._makeLabel("ternary_end");
+
+          // Compile test; free its temps after the jump is emitted.
+          const baseTop = ctx.regTop;
+          const testReg = this._compileExpr(n.test, scope, bc);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, testReg, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: elseLabel
+          }], node);
+          ctx.regTop = baseTop; // free test temps
+
+          // Reserve reg_result at the base of the temp space.
+          const reg_result = ctx.allocReg();
+
+          // Consequent branch.
+          const consReg = this._compileExpr(n.consequent, scope, bc);
+          if (consReg !== reg_result) this.emit(bc, [this.OP.MOVE, reg_result, consReg], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: endLabel
+          }], node);
+
+          // Alternate branch: reset to baseTop then re-reserve reg_result.
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: elseLabel
+          }], node);
+          ctx.regTop = baseTop;
+          ctx.allocReg(); // re-occupy reg_result slot
+          const altReg = this._compileExpr(n.alternate, scope, bc);
+          if (altReg !== reg_result) this.emit(bc, [this.OP.MOVE, reg_result, altReg], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: endLabel
+          }], node);
+
+          // Leave reg_result allocated above baseTop.
+          ctx.regTop = baseTop + 1;
+          return reg_result;
+        }
+      case "LogicalExpression":
+        {
+          const n = node;
+          const endLabel = this._makeLabel("logical_end");
+          const isOr = n.operator === "||";
+          if (!isOr && n.operator !== "&&") throw new Error(`Unsupported logical operator: ${n.operator}`);
+          const baseTop = ctx.regTop;
+          const lhsReg = this._compileExpr(n.left, scope, bc);
+          ctx.regTop = baseTop;
+          const reg_result = ctx.allocReg();
+          if (lhsReg !== reg_result) this.emit(bc, [this.OP.MOVE, reg_result, lhsReg], node);
+
+          // For ||: if truthy keep LHS, jump past RHS.
+          // For &&: if falsy keep LHS, jump past RHS.
+          this.emit(bc, [isOr ? this.OP.JUMP_IF_TRUE : this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, reg_result, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: endLabel
+          }], node);
+
+          // Compile RHS into reg_result.
+          ctx.regTop = baseTop;
+          ctx.allocReg(); // re-occupy reg_result
+          const rhsReg = this._compileExpr(n.right, scope, bc);
+          if (rhsReg !== reg_result) this.emit(bc, [this.OP.MOVE, reg_result, rhsReg], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: endLabel
+          }], node);
+          ctx.regTop = baseTop + 1;
+          return reg_result;
+        }
+      case "BinaryExpression":
+        {
+          const n = node;
+          const lhsReg = this._compileExpr(n.left, scope, bc);
+          const rhsReg = this._compileExpr(n.right, scope, bc);
+          const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+          const op = {
+            "+": this.OP.ADD,
+            "-": this.OP.SUB,
+            "*": this.OP.MUL,
+            "/": this.OP.DIV,
+            "%": this.OP.MOD,
+            "&": this.OP.BAND,
+            "|": this.OP.BOR,
+            "^": this.OP.BXOR,
+            "<<": this.OP.SHL,
+            ">>": this.OP.SHR,
+            ">>>": this.OP.USHR,
+            "<": this.OP.LT,
+            ">": this.OP.GT,
+            "===": this.OP.EQ,
+            "==": this.OP.LOOSE_EQ,
+            "<=": this.OP.LTE,
+            ">=": this.OP.GTE,
+            "!==": this.OP.NEQ,
+            "!=": this.OP.LOOSE_NEQ,
+            in: this.OP.IN,
+            instanceof: this.OP.INSTANCEOF
+          }[n.operator];
+          if (op === undefined) throw new Error(`Unsupported operator: ${n.operator}`);
+          this.emit(bc, [op, dst, lhsReg, rhsReg], node);
+          return dst;
+        }
+      case "UpdateExpression":
+        {
+          const n = node;
+          ok(n.argument.type === "Identifier", "UpdateExpression requires identifier");
+          const name = n.argument.name;
+          const res = this._resolve(name, this._currentCtx);
+          const bumpOp = n.operator === "++" ? this.OP.ADD : this.OP.SUB;
+
+          // Load current value into a register (locals are already in place)
+          let curReg;
+          if (res.kind === "local") {
+            curReg = res.slot;
+          } else if (res.kind === "upvalue") {
+            curReg = ctx.allocReg();
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_UPVALUE, curReg, res.index], node);
+          } else {
+            curReg = ctx.allocReg();
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_GLOBAL, curReg, b.constantOperand(name)], node);
+          }
+
+          // For postfix we need to preserve the *old* value as the result
+          let resultReg;
+          if (!n.prefix) {
+            resultReg = ctx.allocReg();
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.MOVE, resultReg, curReg], node);
+          } else {
+            resultReg = -1; // placeholder – will become newReg below
+          }
+          const oneReg = ctx.allocReg();
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, oneReg, b.constantOperand(1)], node);
+
+          // Compute new value (always into a fresh register)
+          const newReg = ctx.allocReg();
+          this.emit(bc, [bumpOp, newReg, curReg, oneReg], node);
+
+          // Write the new value back (local = MOVE, others = STORE_xxx)
+          if (res.kind === "local") {
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.MOVE, res.slot, newReg], node);
+          } else if (res.kind === "upvalue") {
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_UPVALUE, res.index, newReg], node);
+          } else {
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL, b.constantOperand(name), newReg], node);
+          }
+
+          // Prefix returns the *new* value (we already have it in newReg – no reload needed)
+          if (n.prefix) {
+            resultReg = newReg;
+          }
+          return resultReg;
+        }
+      case "AssignmentExpression":
+        {
+          const n = node;
+          const compoundOp = {
+            "+=": this.OP.ADD,
+            "-=": this.OP.SUB,
+            "*=": this.OP.MUL,
+            "/=": this.OP.DIV,
+            "%=": this.OP.MOD,
+            "&=": this.OP.BAND,
+            "|=": this.OP.BOR,
+            "^=": this.OP.BXOR,
+            "<<=": this.OP.SHL,
+            ">>=": this.OP.SHR,
+            ">>>=": this.OP.USHR
+          }[n.operator];
+          const isCompound = compoundOp !== undefined;
+          if (n.operator !== "=" && !isCompound) throw new Error(`Unsupported assignment operator: ${n.operator}`);
+
+          // Member assignment: obj.x = val  or  arr[i] = val
+          if (n.left.type === "MemberExpression") {
+            const objReg = this._compileExpr(n.left.object, scope, bc);
+            let keyReg;
+            if (n.left.computed) {
+              keyReg = this._compileExpr(n.left.property, scope, bc);
+            } else {
+              keyReg = ctx.allocReg();
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, keyReg, b.constantOperand(n.left.property.name)], node);
+            }
+            let valReg;
+            if (isCompound) {
+              const curReg = ctx.allocReg();
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.GET_PROP, curReg, objReg, keyReg], node);
+              const rhsReg = this._compileExpr(n.right, scope, bc);
+              valReg = ctx.allocReg();
+              this.emit(bc, [compoundOp, valReg, curReg, rhsReg], node);
+            } else {
+              valReg = this._compileExpr(n.right, scope, bc);
+            }
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.SET_PROP, objReg, keyReg, valReg], node);
+            return valReg;
+          }
+
+          // Plain identifier assignment.
+          const res = this._resolve(n.left.name, this._currentCtx);
+          let rhsReg;
+          if (isCompound) {
+            // Load current value of the variable.
+            let curReg;
+            if (res.kind === "local") {
+              curReg = res.slot;
+            } else if (res.kind === "upvalue") {
+              curReg = ctx.allocReg();
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_UPVALUE, curReg, res.index], node);
+            } else {
+              curReg = ctx.allocReg();
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_GLOBAL, curReg, b.constantOperand(n.left.name)], node);
+            }
+            const rhs2 = this._compileExpr(n.right, scope, bc);
+            rhsReg = ctx.allocReg();
+            this.emit(bc, [compoundOp, rhsReg, curReg, rhs2], node);
+          } else {
+            rhsReg = this._compileExpr(n.right, scope, bc);
+          }
+
+          // Store result and return it.
+          if (res.kind === "local") {
+            if (rhsReg !== res.slot) this.emit(bc, [this.OP.MOVE, res.slot, rhsReg], node);
+            return res.slot;
+          } else if (res.kind === "upvalue") {
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_UPVALUE, res.index, rhsReg], node);
+            return rhsReg;
+          } else {
+            const nameIdx = b.constantOperand(n.left.name);
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL, nameIdx, rhsReg], node);
+            return rhsReg;
+          }
+        }
+      case "CallExpression":
+        {
+          const n = node;
+          if (n.callee.type === "MemberExpression") {
+            // Method call: receiver.method(args)
+            const receiverReg = this._compileExpr(n.callee.object, scope, bc);
+            let methodKeyReg;
+            if (n.callee.computed) {
+              methodKeyReg = this._compileExpr(n.callee.property, scope, bc);
+            } else {
+              methodKeyReg = ctx.allocReg();
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, methodKeyReg, b.constantOperand(n.callee.property.name)], node);
+            }
+            const calleeReg = ctx.allocReg();
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.GET_PROP, calleeReg, receiverReg, methodKeyReg], node);
+            const argRegs = n.arguments.map(a => this._compileExpr(a, scope, bc));
+            const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.CALL_METHOD, dst, receiverReg, calleeReg, n.arguments.length, ...argRegs], node);
+            return dst;
+          } else {
+            // Plain call: fn(args)
+            const calleeReg = this._compileExpr(n.callee, scope, bc);
+            const argRegs = n.arguments.map(a => this._compileExpr(a, scope, bc));
+            const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.CALL, dst, calleeReg, n.arguments.length, ...argRegs], node);
+            return dst;
+          }
+        }
+      case "UnaryExpression":
+        {
+          const n = node;
+
+          // typeof on a potentially-undeclared global -- safe guard.
+          if (n.operator === "typeof" && n.argument.type === "Identifier") {
+            const res = this._resolve(n.argument.name, this._currentCtx);
+            if (res.kind === "global") {
+              const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.TYPEOF_SAFE, dst, b.constantOperand(n.argument.name)], node);
+              return dst;
+            }
+          }
+
+          // delete expression.
+          if (n.operator === "delete") {
+            const arg = n.argument;
+            if (arg.type === "MemberExpression") {
+              const objReg = this._compileExpr(arg.object, scope, bc);
+              let keyReg;
+              if (arg.computed) {
+                keyReg = this._compileExpr(arg.property, scope, bc);
+              } else {
+                keyReg = ctx.allocReg();
+                this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, keyReg, b.constantOperand(arg.property.name)], node);
+              }
+              const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.DELETE_PROP, dst, objReg, keyReg], node);
+              return dst;
+            } else {
+              // delete x or delete 0 -- always true in sloppy mode.
+              const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, dst, b.constantOperand(true)], node);
+              return dst;
+            }
+          }
+
+          // All other unary operators.
+          const srcReg = this._compileExpr(n.argument, scope, bc);
+          const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+          const unaryOp = {
+            "-": this.OP.UNARY_NEG,
+            "+": this.OP.UNARY_POS,
+            "!": this.OP.UNARY_NOT,
+            "~": this.OP.UNARY_BITNOT,
+            typeof: this.OP.TYPEOF,
+            void: this.OP.VOID
+          }[n.operator];
+          if (unaryOp === undefined) throw new Error(`Unsupported unary operator: ${n.operator}`);
+          this.emit(bc, [unaryOp, dst, srcReg], node);
+          return dst;
+        }
+      case "RegExpLiteral":
+        {
+          const n = node;
+          // new RegExp(pattern, flags)
+          const regExpReg = ctx.allocReg();
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_GLOBAL, regExpReg, b.constantOperand("RegExp")], node);
+          const patternReg = ctx.allocReg();
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, patternReg, b.constantOperand(n.pattern)], node);
+          const flagsReg = ctx.allocReg();
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, flagsReg, b.constantOperand(n.flags)], node);
+          const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.NEW, dst, regExpReg, 2, patternReg, flagsReg], node);
+          return dst;
+        }
+      case "FunctionExpression":
+        {
+          const desc = this._compileFunctionDecl(node);
+          return this._emitMakeClosure(desc, node, bc);
+        }
+      case "MemberExpression":
+        {
+          const n = node;
+          const objReg = this._compileExpr(n.object, scope, bc);
+          let keyReg;
+          if (n.computed) {
+            keyReg = this._compileExpr(n.property, scope, bc);
+          } else {
+            keyReg = ctx.allocReg();
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, keyReg, b.constantOperand(n.property.name)], node);
+          }
+          const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.GET_PROP, dst, objReg, keyReg], node);
+          return dst;
+        }
+      case "ArrayExpression":
+        {
+          const n = node;
+          const elemRegs = n.elements.map(el => {
+            if (el === null) {
+              const r = ctx.allocReg();
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, r, b.constantOperand(undefined)], node);
+              return r;
+            }
+            return this._compileExpr(el, scope, bc);
+          });
+          const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.BUILD_ARRAY, dst, n.elements.length, ...elemRegs], node);
+          return dst;
+        }
+      case "ObjectExpression":
+        {
+          const n = node;
+          const regularProps = [];
+          const accessorProps = [];
+          for (const prop of n.properties) {
+            if (prop.type === "SpreadElement") throw new Error("Object spread not supported");
+            if (prop.type === "ObjectMethod") {
+              if (prop.kind === "get" || prop.kind === "set") {
+                if (prop.computed) throw new Error("Computed getter/setter keys are not supported");
+                accessorProps.push(prop);
+              } else {
+                throw new Error("Shorthand method syntax is not supported");
+              }
+            } else {
+              regularProps.push(prop);
+            }
+          }
+
+          // Build flat [key, val, key, val, …] register list.
+          const pairRegs = [];
+          for (const prop of regularProps) {
+            let keyStr;
+            const key = prop.key;
+            if (key.type === "Identifier") keyStr = key.name;else if (key.type === "StringLiteral" || key.type === "NumericLiteral") keyStr = String(key.value);else throw new Error(`Unsupported object key type: ${key.type}`);
+            const keyReg = ctx.allocReg();
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, keyReg, b.constantOperand(keyStr)], node);
+            const valReg = this._compileExpr(prop.value, scope, bc);
+            pairRegs.push(keyReg, valReg);
+          }
+          const dst = ctx.allocReg();
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.BUILD_OBJECT, dst, regularProps.length, ...pairRegs], node);
+
+          // Define accessors on the object now sitting in `dst`.
+          for (const prop of accessorProps) {
+            const key = prop.key;
+            let keyStr;
+            if (key.type === "Identifier") keyStr = key.name;else if (key.type === "StringLiteral" || key.type === "NumericLiteral") keyStr = String(key.value);else throw new Error(`Unsupported object key type: ${key.type}`);
+            const keyReg = ctx.allocReg();
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, keyReg, b.constantOperand(keyStr)], node);
+            const fnReg = this._emitMakeClosure(this._compileFunctionDecl(prop), prop, bc);
+            this.emit(bc, [prop.kind === "get" ? this.OP.DEFINE_GETTER : this.OP.DEFINE_SETTER, dst, keyReg, fnReg], node);
+          }
+          return dst;
+        }
+      default:
+        {
+          throw new Error(`Unsupported expression: ${node.type}`);
+        }
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+// ── Serializer ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+class Serializer {
+  constructor(compiler) {
+    this.compiler = compiler;
+  }
+  get options() {
+    return this.compiler.options;
+  }
+  get OP() {
+    return this.compiler.OP;
+  }
+  get OP_NAME() {
+    return this.compiler.OP_NAME;
+  }
+  get JUMP_OPS() {
+    return this.compiler.JUMP_OPS;
+  }
+  _serializeConst(val) {
+    if (val === null) return "null";
+    if (val === undefined) return "undefined";
+    return JSON.stringify(val);
+  }
+
+  // Reverse the concealment applied by resolveConstants so disassembly comments
+  // always show the plaintext value regardless of the concealConstants option.
+  _decryptConst(constants, idx, key) {
+    const v = constants[idx];
+    if (!key) return v;
+    if (typeof v === "number") return v ^ key;
+    // String: base64 → u16 LE byte pairs → XOR with (key + i) (mirrors _readConstant)
+    const bytes = Buffer.from(v, "base64");
+    let out = "";
+    for (let i = 0; i < bytes.length / 2; i++) {
+      const code = bytes[i * 2] | bytes[i * 2 + 1] << 8;
+      out += String.fromCharCode(code ^ key + i & 0xffff);
+    }
+    return out;
+  }
+  _serializeInstr(instr, constants) {
+    const op = instr[0];
+    const operands = instr.slice(1);
+    const resolvedOperands = operands.filter(operand => operand?.placeholder !== true).map(o => o?.resolvedValue ?? o);
+    for (const o of resolvedOperands) {
+      ok(typeof o === "number", "Unresolved operand: " + JSON.stringify(o));
+      ok(o >= 0 && o <= 0xffff, `Operand overflow (max 0xFFFF u16): ${o}`);
+    }
+    ok(op >= 0 && op <= 0xffff, `Opcode overflow (max 0xFFFF u16): ${op}`);
+    const name = this.OP_NAME[op] || `OP_${op}`;
+    let comment = name;
+    function formatLoc(loc) {
+      return loc ? `${loc.line}:${loc.column}` : "";
+    }
+    const sourceNode = instr[SOURCE_NODE_SYM];
+    const sourceLocation = sourceNode?.loc ? [formatLoc(sourceNode.loc.start), formatLoc(sourceNode.loc.end)].filter(Boolean).join("-") : "";
+    if (resolvedOperands.length > 0) {
+      // Operand[0] is always `dst` for instruction types that produce a value.
+      const dst = resolvedOperands[0];
+      switch (op) {
+        case this.OP.LOAD_CONST:
+          {
+            // resolvedOperands: [dst, constIdx, concealKey]
+            const val = this._decryptConst(constants, resolvedOperands[1], resolvedOperands[2]);
+            comment += `  reg[${dst}] = ${this._serializeConst(val)}`;
+            break;
+          }
+        case this.OP.LOAD_GLOBAL:
+          // resolvedOperands: [dst, constIdx, concealKey]
+          comment += `  reg[${dst}] = ${this._decryptConst(constants, resolvedOperands[1], resolvedOperands[2])}`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL:
+          // resolvedOperands: [constIdx, concealKey, srcReg]
+          comment += `  ${this._decryptConst(constants, resolvedOperands[0], resolvedOperands[1])} = reg[${resolvedOperands[2]}]`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.LOAD_UPVALUE:
+          comment += `  reg[${dst}] = upvalue[${resolvedOperands[1]}]`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.STORE_UPVALUE:
+          comment += `  upvalue[${resolvedOperands[0]}] = reg[${resolvedOperands[1]}]`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.MOVE:
+          comment += `  reg[${dst}] = reg[${resolvedOperands[1]}]`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.MAKE_CLOSURE:
+          comment += `  reg[${dst}] PC=${resolvedOperands[1]} (params=${resolvedOperands[2]} regs=${resolvedOperands[3]} upvalues=${resolvedOperands[4]})`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.CALL:
+          comment += `  reg[${dst}] = call(reg[${resolvedOperands[1]}], ${resolvedOperands[2]} args)`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.CALL_METHOD:
+          comment += `  reg[${dst}] = method(recv=reg[${resolvedOperands[1]}], fn=reg[${resolvedOperands[2]}], ${resolvedOperands[3]} args)`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.NEW:
+          comment += `  reg[${dst}] = new reg[${resolvedOperands[1]}](${resolvedOperands[2]} args)`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.RETURN:
+          comment += `  reg[${resolvedOperands[0]}]`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.BUILD_ARRAY:
+          comment += `  reg[${dst}] = [${resolvedOperands[2]} elems]`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.BUILD_OBJECT:
+          comment += `  reg[${dst}] = {${resolvedOperands[1]} pairs}`;
+          break;
+        default:
+          comment += resolvedOperands.length === 1 ? `  ${resolvedOperands[0]}` : `  [${resolvedOperands.join(", ")}]`;
+      }
+    }
+    comment = comment.padEnd(50) + sourceLocation;
+    const values = [op, ...resolvedOperands];
+    const instrText = `[${values.join(", ")}]`;
+    const text = `${(instrText + ",").padEnd(20)} ${comment}`;
+    return {
+      text,
+      values
+    };
+  }
+  _serializeConstants(constants) {
+    const lines = ["var CONSTANTS = ["];
+    constants.forEach((val, idx) => {
+      lines.push(`  /* ${idx} */  ${this._serializeConst(val)},`);
+    });
+    lines.push("];");
+    return lines.join("\n");
+  }
+  _serializeBytecode(bytecode, compiler) {
+    const serialized = [];
+    for (const instr of bytecode) {
+      if (instr[0] === null) continue;
+      const specializedOpInfo = compiler.SPECIALIZED_OPS[instr[0]];
+      if (specializedOpInfo) {
+        const operands = instr.slice(1);
+        const resolvedValues = operands.map(o => o?.resolvedValue ?? o);
+        const originalName = compiler.OP_NAME[specializedOpInfo.originalOp];
+        compiler.OP_NAME[instr[0]] = `${originalName}_${resolvedValues.join("_")}`;
+        specializedOpInfo.resolvedOperands = operands;
+      }
+      serialized.push(instr);
+    }
+    return {
+      bytecode: serialized
+    };
+  }
+  _encodeBytecode(flat) {
+    const buf = new Uint8Array(flat.length * 2);
+    flat.forEach((w, i) => {
+      buf[i * 2] = w & 0xff;
+      buf[i * 2 + 1] = w >>> 8 & 0xff;
+    });
+    return Buffer.from(buf).toString("base64");
+  }
+  serialize(bytecode, constants, compiler) {
+    const mainStartPc = compiler.mainStartPc;
+    const mainRegCount = compiler.mainRegCount;
+    let sections = [];
+    var textForm = [];
+    var initBody = [];
+    var bytecodeResult = this._serializeBytecode(bytecode, compiler);
+    for (const instr of bytecodeResult.bytecode) {
+      const serialized = this._serializeInstr(instr, constants);
+      textForm.push(serialized.text);
+    }
+    initBody.push(textForm.map(line => `// ${line}`).join("\n"));
+    const flat = bytecodeResult.bytecode.flatMap(instr => {
+      let filtered = instr.filter(x => x?.placeholder !== true);
+      let resolved = filtered.map(x => x?.resolvedValue ?? x);
+      return resolved;
+    });
+    if (this.options.encodeBytecode) {
+      sections.push(`var BYTECODE = "${this._encodeBytecode(flat)}";`);
+    } else {
+      sections.push(`var BYTECODE = [${flat.join(",")}]`);
+    }
+    sections.push(`var MAIN_START_PC = ${mainStartPc};`);
+    sections.push(`var MAIN_REG_COUNT = ${mainRegCount};`);
+    sections.push(`var ENCODE_BYTECODE = ${!!this.options.encodeBytecode};`);
+    sections.push(`var TIMING_CHECKS = ${!!this.options.timingChecks};`);
+    const object = t.objectExpression(Object.entries(this.OP).map(([name, value]) => t.objectProperty(t.identifier(name), t.numericLiteral(value))));
+    sections.push(`var OP = ${generate(object).code};`);
+    initBody.push(this._serializeConstants(constants));
+    sections = [...initBody, ...sections];
+    sections.push(VM_RUNTIME);
+    return sections.join("\n\n");
+  }
+}
+export async function compileAndSerialize(sourceCode, options) {
+  const compiler = new Compiler(options);
+  let bytecode = compiler.compile(sourceCode);
+  const passes = [];
+  passes.push(concealConstants);
+  if (options.specializedOpcodes) {
+    passes.push(specializedOpcodes);
+  }
+  if (options.macroOpcodes) {
+    passes.push(macroOpcodes);
+  }
+  if (options.selfModifying) {
+    passes.push(selfModifying);
+  }
+  if (options.aliasedOpcodes) {
+    passes.push(aliasedOpcodes);
+  }
+  for (const pass of passes) {
+    const passResult = pass(bytecode, compiler);
+    bytecode = passResult.bytecode;
+  }
+
+  // Resolve label references to flat bytecode indices.
+  const labelsResult = resolveLabels(bytecode, compiler);
+  bytecode = labelsResult.bytecode;
+
+  // Set mainStartPc from the first function descriptor (or 0 for top-level start).
+  compiler.mainStartPc = compiler.mainFn.startPc;
+
+  // Resolve constant references to pool indices (+ conceal key operand).
+  const constResult = resolveConstants(bytecode, compiler);
+  bytecode = constResult.bytecode;
+  compiler.constants = constResult.constants;
+
+  // Build and obfuscate the runtime.
+  const runtimeSource = compiler.serializer.serialize(bytecode, constResult.constants, compiler);
+  const code = await obfuscateRuntime(runtimeSource, bytecode, options, compiler);
+  return {
+    code
+  };
+}