js-confuser-vm 0.0.4 → 0.0.5

package/dist/compiler.js

@@ -0,0 +1,1761 @@
+import { parse } from "@babel/parser";
+import traverseImport from "@babel/traverse";
+import { generate } from "@babel/generator";
+import { stripTypeScriptTypes } from "module";
+import * as t from "@babel/types";
+import { ok } from "assert";
+import { obfuscateRuntime } from "./build-runtime.js";
+import { DEFAULT_OPTIONS } from "./options.js";
+import { resolveLabels } from "./transforms/bytecode/resolveLabels.js";
+import { resolveConstants } from "./transforms/bytecode/resolveContants.js";
+import { selfModifying } from "./transforms/bytecode/selfModifying.js";
+import { macroOpcodes } from "./transforms/bytecode/macroOpcodes.js";
+import * as b from "./types.js";
+import { specializedOpcodes } from "./transforms/bytecode/specializedOpcodes.js";
+import { getRandomInt } from "./transforms/utils/random-utils.js";
+import { U16_MAX } from "./transforms/utils/op-utils.js";
+const traverse = traverseImport.default || traverseImport;
+const readVMRuntimeFile = () => "import { OP_ORIGINAL as OP } from \"./compiler.ts\";\r\nconst BYTECODE = [];\r\nconst MAIN_START_PC = 0;\r\nconst CONSTANTS = [];\r\nconst ENCODE_BYTECODE = false;\r\nconst TIMING_CHECKS = false;\r\n// The text above is not included in the compiled output - for type intellisense only\r\n// @START\r\n\r\nfunction decodeBytecode(s) {\r\n  if (!ENCODE_BYTECODE) return s;\r\n\r\n  var b =\r\n    typeof Buffer !== \"undefined\"\r\n      ? Buffer.from(s, \"base64\")\r\n      : Uint8Array.from(atob(s), function (c) {\r\n          return c.charCodeAt(0);\r\n        });\r\n  // Each slot is a u16 stored as 2 little-endian bytes.\r\n  var r = new Uint16Array(b.length / 2);\r\n  for (var i = 0; i < r.length; i++) r[i] = b[i * 2] | (b[i * 2 + 1] << 8);\r\n  return r;\r\n}\r\n\r\n// Closure symbol\r\n// Used to tag shell functions so the VM can fast-path back to the\r\n// inner Closure instead of going through a sub-VM on internal calls.\r\nvar CLOSURE_SYM = Symbol(); // Nameless for obfuscation\r\n\r\n// Upvalue\r\n// While the outer frame is alive: reads/writes go to frame.locals[slot].\r\n// After the outer frame returns (closed): reads/writes hit this.value.\r\nfunction Upvalue(frame, slot) {\r\n  this._frame = frame;\r\n  this._slot = slot;\r\n  this._closed = false;\r\n  this._value = undefined;\r\n}\r\nUpvalue.prototype._read = function () {\r\n  return this._closed ? this._value : this._frame.locals[this._slot];\r\n};\r\nUpvalue.prototype._write = function (v) {\r\n  if (this._closed) this._value = v;\r\n  else this._frame.locals[this._slot] = v;\r\n};\r\nUpvalue.prototype._close = function () {\r\n  this._value = this._frame.locals[this._slot];\r\n  this._closed = true;\r\n};\r\n\r\n// Closure & Frame\r\nfunction Closure(fn) {\r\n  this.fn = fn;\r\n  this.upvalues = [];\r\n  this.prototype = {}; // <- default prototype object for \\`new\\`\r\n}\r\n\r\nfunction Frame(closure, returnPc, parent, thisVal ) {\r\n  this.closure = closure;\r\n  this.locals = new Array(closure.fn.localCount).fill(undefined);\r\n  this._pc = closure.fn.startPc; // <- initialize from fn descriptor\r\n  this._returnPc = returnPc; // pc to resume in parent frame after RETURN\r\n  this._parent = parent;\r\n  this.thisVal = thisVal !== undefined ? thisVal : undefined;\r\n  this._newObj = null; // <- set by NEW so RETURN can see it\r\n  this._handlerStack = []; // <- exception handlers pushed by TRY_SETUP\r\n}\r\n\r\n// VM\r\nfunction VM(bytecode, mainStartPc, constants, globals) {\r\n  this.bytecode = bytecode;\r\n  this.constants = constants;\r\n  this.globals = globals;\r\n  this._stack = [];\r\n  this._frameStack = [];\r\n  this._openUpvalues = []; // all currently open Upvalue objects across all frames\r\n\r\n  var mainFn = {\r\n    paramCount: 0,\r\n    localCount: 0,\r\n    startPc: mainStartPc, // <- where main begins\r\n  };\r\n  this._currentFrame = new Frame(new Closure(mainFn), null, null);\r\n}\r\n\r\nVM.prototype._push = function (v) {\r\n  this._stack.push(v);\r\n};\r\nVM.prototype._pop = function () {\r\n  return this._stack.pop();\r\n};\r\nVM.prototype.peek = function () {\r\n  return this._stack[this._stack.length - 1];\r\n};\r\n\r\n// Consume the next slot from the flat bytecode stream and advance the PC.\r\n// Called by opcode handlers to read each of their operands in order.\r\nVM.prototype._operand = function () {\r\n  return this.bytecode[this._currentFrame._pc++];\r\n};\r\n\r\nVM.prototype.captureUpvalue = function (frame, slot) {\r\n  // Reuse existing open upvalue for this frame+slot if one exists.\r\n  // This is what makes two closures share the same mutable cell.\r\n  for (var i = 0; i < this._openUpvalues.length; i++) {\r\n    var uv = this._openUpvalues[i];\r\n    if (uv._frame === frame && uv._slot === slot) return uv;\r\n  }\r\n  var uv = new Upvalue(frame, slot);\r\n  this._openUpvalues.push(uv);\r\n  return uv;\r\n};\r\n\r\nVM.prototype._closeUpvaluesFor = function (frame) {\r\n  // Called on RETURN - close every upvalue that was pointing into this frame.\r\n  // After this, closures that captured from the frame read from upvalue.value.\r\n  this._openUpvalues = this._openUpvalues.filter(function (uv) {\r\n    if (uv._frame === frame) {\r\n      uv._close();\r\n      return false;\r\n    }\r\n    return true;\r\n  });\r\n};\r\n\r\nVM.prototype.run = function () {\r\n  var now = () => {\r\n    return performance.now();\r\n  };\r\n\r\n  var lastTime = now();\r\n\r\n  while (true) {\r\n    var frame = this._currentFrame;\r\n    var bc = this.bytecode;\r\n    if (frame._pc >= bc.length) break;\r\n\r\n    var op = this.bytecode[frame._pc++];\r\n\r\n    // console.log(frame._pc - 1, op);\r\n\r\n    // Debugging protection: Detects debugger by checking for >1s pauses which can only happen from debugger; or extremely slow sync tasks\r\n    if (TIMING_CHECKS) {\r\n      var currentTime = now();\r\n      var isTamper = currentTime - lastTime > 1000;\r\n      lastTime = currentTime;\r\n      if (isTamper) {\r\n        // Poison the bytecode\r\n        for (var i = 0; i < this.bytecode.length; i++) this.bytecode[i] = 0;\r\n        // Break the current state\r\n        op = OP.POP;\r\n        this._stack = [];\r\n      }\r\n    }\r\n\r\n    try {\r\n      /* @SWITCH */\r\n      switch (op) {\r\n        case OP.LOAD_CONST:\r\n          this._push(this.constants[this._operand()]);\r\n          break;\r\n\r\n        case OP.LOAD_INT:\r\n          this._push(this._operand());\r\n          break;\r\n\r\n        case OP.LOAD_LOCAL:\r\n          this._push(frame.locals[this._operand()]);\r\n          break;\r\n\r\n        case OP.STORE_LOCAL:\r\n          frame.locals[this._operand()] = this._pop();\r\n          break;\r\n\r\n        case OP.LOAD_GLOBAL:\r\n          this._push(this.globals[this.constants[this._operand()]]);\r\n          break;\r\n\r\n        case OP.STORE_GLOBAL:\r\n          this.globals[this.constants[this._operand()]] = this._pop();\r\n          break;\r\n\r\n        case OP.GET_PROP: {\r\n          // Stack: [..., obj, key] -> [..., obj, obj[key]]\r\n          // obj is PEEKED (not popped) - CALL_METHOD needs it as receiver\r\n          var key = this._pop();\r\n          var obj = this.peek();\r\n          this._push(obj[key]);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.ADD: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() + b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.SUB: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() - b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.MUL: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() * b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.DIV: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() / b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.MOD: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() % b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.BAND: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() & b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.BOR: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() | b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.BXOR: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() ^ b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.SHL: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() << b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.SHR: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() >> b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.USHR: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() >>> b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.LT: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() < b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.GT: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() > b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.EQ: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() === b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.LTE: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() <= b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.GTE: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() >= b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.NEQ: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() !== b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.LOOSE_EQ: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() == b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.LOOSE_NEQ: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() != b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.IN: {\r\n          var b = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(this._pop() in b);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.INSTANCEOF: {\r\n          var ctor = this._pop();\r\n          var obj = this._pop();\r\n          if (typeof ctor === \"function\") {\r\n            // Native constructor (e.g. Array, Date) - native instanceof is fine\r\n            this._push(obj instanceof ctor);\r\n          } else {\r\n            // VM Closure - ctor.prototype was set by MAKE_CLOSURE / user assignment.\r\n            // Walk obj's prototype chain looking for identity with ctor.prototype.\r\n            var proto = ctor.prototype; // the .prototype property on the Closure\r\n            var target = Object.getPrototypeOf(obj);\r\n            var result = false;\r\n            while (target !== null) {\r\n              if (target === proto) {\r\n                result = true;\r\n                break;\r\n              }\r\n              target = Object.getPrototypeOf(target);\r\n            }\r\n            this._push(result);\r\n          }\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.UNARY_NEG:\r\n          this._push(-this._pop());\r\n          break;\r\n        case OP.UNARY_POS:\r\n          this._push(this._pop());\r\n          break;\r\n        case OP.UNARY_NOT:\r\n          this._push(!this._pop());\r\n          break;\r\n        case OP.UNARY_BITNOT:\r\n          this._push(~this._pop());\r\n          break;\r\n        case OP.TYPEOF:\r\n          this._push(typeof this._pop());\r\n          break;\r\n        case OP.VOID:\r\n          this._pop();\r\n          this._push(undefined);\r\n          break;\r\n\r\n        case OP.TYPEOF_SAFE: {\r\n          // operand is a const index holding the variable name string.\r\n          // Mimics JS semantics: typeof undeclaredVar === \"undefined\" (no throw).\r\n          var name = this._pop(); // LOAD_CONST pushed the name - consume it\r\n          var val = Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(this.globals, name)\r\n            ? this.globals[name]\r\n            : undefined;\r\n          this._push(typeof val);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.JUMP:\r\n          frame._pc = this._operand();\r\n          break;\r\n\r\n        case OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE: {\r\n          var target = this._operand();\r\n          if (!this._pop()) frame._pc = target;\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP: {\r\n          // || semantics: if truthy, we're done - leave value, jump over RHS.\r\n          // If falsy, discard it and fall through to evaluate RHS.\r\n          var target = this._operand();\r\n          if (this.peek()) {\r\n            frame._pc = target;\r\n          } else {\r\n            this._pop();\r\n          }\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP: {\r\n          // && semantics: if falsy, we're done - leave value, jump over RHS.\r\n          // If truthy, discard it and fall through to evaluate RHS.\r\n          var target = this._operand();\r\n          if (!this.peek()) {\r\n            frame._pc = target;\r\n          } else {\r\n            this._pop();\r\n          }\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.MAKE_CLOSURE: {\r\n          // Inline operands: startPc, paramCount, localCount, uvCount,\r\n          //                  [isLocal_0, idx_0, isLocal_1, idx_1, ...]\r\n          var startPc = this._operand();\r\n          var paramCount = this._operand();\r\n          var localCount = this._operand();\r\n          var uvCount = this._operand();\r\n\r\n          var uvDescs = new Array(uvCount);\r\n          for (var i = 0; i < uvCount; i++) {\r\n            var isLocalRaw = this._operand();\r\n            var uvIndex = this._operand();\r\n            uvDescs[i] = { isLocal: isLocalRaw, _index: uvIndex };\r\n          }\r\n\r\n          var fn = {\r\n            paramCount: paramCount,\r\n            localCount: localCount,\r\n            startPc: startPc,\r\n            upvalueDescriptors: uvDescs,\r\n          };\r\n\r\n          var closure = new Closure(fn);\r\n          for (var i = 0; i < uvDescs.length; i++) {\r\n            var uvd = uvDescs[i];\r\n            if (uvd.isLocal) {\r\n              // Capture directly from current frame's local slot\r\n              closure.upvalues.push(this.captureUpvalue(frame, uvd._index));\r\n            } else {\r\n              // Relay - take upvalue from the enclosing closure's list\r\n              closure.upvalues.push(frame.closure.upvalues[uvd._index]);\r\n            }\r\n          }\r\n          // Wrap in a native callable shell so host code (array methods,\r\n          // test assertions, setTimeout, etc.) can invoke VM closures.\r\n          // CLOSURE_SYM lets VM-internal CALL/NEW bypass the sub-VM entirely.\r\n          var self = this;\r\n          var shell = (function (c) {\r\n            return function () {\r\n              var args = Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments);\r\n              var sub = new VM(self.bytecode, 0, self.constants, self.globals);\r\n              // Sloppy-mode: null/undefined thisArg \u2192 global object\r\n              var f = new Frame(\r\n                c,\r\n                null,\r\n                null,\r\n                this == null ? self.globals : this,\r\n              );\r\n              for (var i = 0; i < args.length; i++) f.locals[i] = args[i];\r\n              f.locals[c.fn.paramCount] = args;\r\n              sub._currentFrame = f;\r\n              return sub.run();\r\n            };\r\n          })(closure);\r\n          shell[CLOSURE_SYM] = closure;\r\n          shell.prototype = closure.prototype; // unified prototype for new/instanceof\r\n          this._push(shell);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.LOAD_UPVALUE:\r\n          this._push(frame.closure.upvalues[this._operand()]._read());\r\n          break;\r\n\r\n        case OP.STORE_UPVALUE:\r\n          frame.closure.upvalues[this._operand()]._write(this._pop());\r\n          break;\r\n\r\n        case OP.BUILD_ARRAY: {\r\n          var elems = this._stack.splice(this._stack.length - this._operand());\r\n          this._push(elems);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.BUILD_OBJECT: {\r\n          // Stack has: key0, val0, key1, val1 ... keyN, valN  (pushed left->right)\r\n          // Pop all pairs and build the object.\r\n          var pairs = this._stack.splice(\r\n            this._stack.length - this._operand() * 2,\r\n          );\r\n          var o = {};\r\n          for (var i = 0; i < pairs.length; i += 2) {\r\n            o[pairs[i]] = pairs[i + 1]; // key at even index, val at odd\r\n          }\r\n          this._push(o);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.SET_PROP: {\r\n          // Stack: [..., obj, key, val]\r\n          // Leaves val on stack - assignment is an expression in JS.\r\n          var val = this._pop();\r\n          var key = this._pop();\r\n          var obj = this._pop();\r\n          // Reflect.set performs [[Set]] without throwing on failure,\r\n          // correctly simulating sloppy-mode assignment from a strict-mode host\r\n          // (output.js is an ES module). This also properly invokes inherited\r\n          // or prototype-chain setter functions.\r\n          Reflect.set(obj, key, val);\r\n          this._push(val); // assignment expression evaluates to the assigned value\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.GET_PROP_COMPUTED: {\r\n          // Stack: [..., obj, key]  - key is a runtime value (nums[i])\r\n          // Mirrors GET_PROP but pops the key that was pushed dynamically.\r\n          var key = this._pop();\r\n          var obj = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(obj[key]);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        case OP.DELETE_PROP: {\r\n          var key = this._pop();\r\n          var obj = this._pop();\r\n          this._push(delete obj[key]);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.CALL: {\r\n          var args = this._stack.splice(this._stack.length - this._operand());\r\n          var callee = this._pop();\r\n          if (callee && callee[CLOSURE_SYM]) {\r\n            // VM closure - run directly in this VM, no sub-VM overhead\r\n            var c = callee[CLOSURE_SYM];\r\n            // Sloppy-mode: plain function call \u2192 global object as this\r\n            var f = new Frame(c, frame._pc, frame, this.globals);\r\n            for (var i = 0; i < args.length; i++) f.locals[i] = args[i];\r\n            f.locals[c.fn.paramCount] = args;\r\n            this._frameStack.push(this._currentFrame);\r\n            this._currentFrame = f;\r\n          } else {\r\n            // Native function\r\n            this._push(callee.apply(null, args));\r\n          }\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.CALL_METHOD: {\r\n          var args = this._stack.splice(this._stack.length - this._operand());\r\n          var callee = this._pop();\r\n          var receiver = this._pop(); // left on stack by GET_PROP\r\n          if (callee && callee[CLOSURE_SYM]) {\r\n            // VM closure - run directly in this VM with receiver as this\r\n            var c = callee[CLOSURE_SYM];\r\n            var f = new Frame(c, frame._pc, frame, receiver);\r\n            for (var i = 0; i < args.length; i++) f.locals[i] = args[i];\r\n            f.locals[c.fn.paramCount] = args;\r\n            this._frameStack.push(this._currentFrame);\r\n            this._currentFrame = f;\r\n          } else {\r\n            // Native method\r\n            this._push(callee.apply(receiver, args));\r\n          }\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.LOAD_THIS:\r\n          this._push(frame.thisVal);\r\n          break;\r\n\r\n        case OP.NEW: {\r\n          var args = this._stack.splice(this._stack.length - this._operand());\r\n          var callee = this._pop();\r\n          if (callee && callee[CLOSURE_SYM]) {\r\n            // VM closure constructor - prototype is unified via shell.prototype = closure.prototype\r\n            var c = callee[CLOSURE_SYM];\r\n            var newObj = Object.create(c.prototype || null);\r\n            var f = new Frame(c, frame._pc, frame, newObj);\r\n            f._newObj = newObj;\r\n            for (var i = 0; i < args.length; i++) f.locals[i] = args[i];\r\n            f.locals[c.fn.paramCount] = args;\r\n            this._frameStack.push(this._currentFrame);\r\n            this._currentFrame = f;\r\n          } else {\r\n            // Native constructor (e.g. new Error(), new Date()).\r\n            // Reflect.construct is required - Object.create+apply does NOT set\r\n            // internal slots ([[NumberData]], [[StringData]], etc.) for built-ins.\r\n            this._push(Reflect.construct(callee, args));\r\n          }\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.RETURN: {\r\n          var retVal = this._pop();\r\n          this._closeUpvaluesFor(frame); // must happen before frame is abandoned\r\n          if (this._frameStack.length === 0) return retVal;\r\n\r\n          // new-call rule: primitive return -> discard, use the constructed object instead\r\n          if (frame._newObj !== null) {\r\n            if (typeof retVal !== \"object\" || retVal === null)\r\n              retVal = frame._newObj;\r\n          }\r\n\r\n          this._currentFrame = this._frameStack.pop();\r\n          this._push(retVal);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.POP:\r\n          this._pop();\r\n          break;\r\n\r\n        case OP.DUP:\r\n          this._push(this.peek());\r\n          break;\r\n\r\n        case OP.THROW:\r\n          throw this._pop();\r\n\r\n        case OP.FOR_IN_SETUP: {\r\n          // Pop the object; build an ordered list of all enumerable own+inherited\r\n          // string keys by walking the prototype chain manually.\r\n          // Uses getOwnPropertyNames (includes non-enumerable) + descriptor check,\r\n          // so we never rely on Object.keys() and we handle inheritance correctly.\r\n          var obj = this._pop();\r\n          var keys = [];\r\n          if (obj !== null && obj !== undefined) {\r\n            var seen = Object.create(null);\r\n            var cur = Object(obj); // box primitives\r\n            while (cur !== null) {\r\n              var ownNames = Object.getOwnPropertyNames(cur);\r\n              for (var i = 0; i < ownNames.length; i++) {\r\n                var k = ownNames[i];\r\n                if (!(k in seen)) {\r\n                  seen[k] = true;\r\n                  var propDesc = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(cur, k);\r\n                  if (propDesc && propDesc.enumerable) {\r\n                    keys.push(k);\r\n                  }\r\n                }\r\n              }\r\n              cur = Object.getPrototypeOf(cur);\r\n            }\r\n          }\r\n          this._push({ _keys: keys, i: 0 });\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.FOR_IN_NEXT: {\r\n          // Operand = jump target for the done case. Must be read before the\r\n          // conditional so the PC stays correctly aligned either way.\r\n          var target = this._operand();\r\n          var iter = this._pop();\r\n          if (iter.i >= iter._keys.length) {\r\n            frame._pc = target;\r\n          } else {\r\n            this._push(iter._keys[iter.i++]);\r\n          }\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.PATCH: {\r\n          // Inline operands: destPc, sliceStart, sliceEnd\r\n          // Copies bytecode[sliceStart..sliceEnd) flat u16 slots to destPc.\r\n          var destPc = this._operand();\r\n          var sliceStart = this._operand();\r\n          var sliceEnd = this._operand();\r\n\r\n          for (var pi = sliceStart; pi < sliceEnd; pi++) {\r\n            this.bytecode[destPc + (pi - sliceStart)] = this.bytecode[pi];\r\n          }\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.TRY_SETUP: {\r\n          // Push an exception handler record onto the current frame.\r\n          // Saves: catch PC (operand), current stack depth, current frame-stack depth.\r\n          // If an exception is thrown before TRY_END fires, the VM jumps here.\r\n          frame._handlerStack.push({\r\n            handlerPc: this._operand(),\r\n            stackDepth: this._stack.length,\r\n            frameStackDepth: this._frameStack.length,\r\n          });\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.TRY_END: {\r\n          // Normal exit from a try block \u2014 disarm the exception handler.\r\n          frame._handlerStack.pop();\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.DEFINE_GETTER: {\r\n          // Stack: [..., obj, key, getterFn]\r\n          // Pops all three; defines an enumerable, configurable getter on obj.\r\n          // If a setter was already defined for this key, it is preserved.\r\n          var getterFn = this._pop();\r\n          var key = this._pop();\r\n          var obj = this._pop();\r\n          var existingDesc = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(obj, key);\r\n          var getDesc                     = {\r\n            get: getterFn,\r\n            configurable: true,\r\n            enumerable: true,\r\n          };\r\n          if (existingDesc && typeof existingDesc.set === \"function\") {\r\n            getDesc.set = existingDesc.set;\r\n          }\r\n          Object.defineProperty(obj, key, getDesc);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.DEFINE_SETTER: {\r\n          // Stack: [..., obj, key, setterFn]\r\n          // Pops all three; defines an enumerable, configurable setter on obj.\r\n          // If a getter was already defined for this key, it is preserved.\r\n          var setterFn = this._pop();\r\n          var key = this._pop();\r\n          var obj = this._pop();\r\n          var existingDesc = Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor(obj, key);\r\n          var setDesc                     = {\r\n            set: setterFn,\r\n            configurable: true,\r\n            enumerable: true,\r\n          };\r\n          if (existingDesc && typeof existingDesc.get === \"function\") {\r\n            setDesc.get = existingDesc.get;\r\n          }\r\n          Object.defineProperty(obj, key, setDesc);\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        case OP.DEBUGGER: {\r\n          debugger;\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n\r\n        default:\r\n          throw new Error(\r\n            \"Unknown opcode: \" + op + \" at pc \" + (frame._pc - 1),\r\n          );\r\n      }\r\n    } catch (err) {\r\n      // Exception handler unwinding (CPython-style frame walk, Lua-style upvalue close).\r\n      // Walk from the current frame upward until we find a frame that has an open\r\n      // exception handler (TRY_SETUP without a matching TRY_END).\r\n      // For every frame we abandon along the way, close its captured upvalues.\r\n      var handledFrame = null;\r\n      var searchFrame = this._currentFrame;\r\n      while (true) {\r\n        if (searchFrame._handlerStack.length > 0) {\r\n          handledFrame = searchFrame;\r\n          break;\r\n        }\r\n        // No handler in this frame \u2014 abandon it and walk up.\r\n        this._closeUpvaluesFor(searchFrame);\r\n        if (this._frameStack.length === 0) break;\r\n        searchFrame = this._frameStack.pop();\r\n        this._currentFrame = searchFrame;\r\n      }\r\n\r\n      if (!handledFrame) throw err; // no handler anywhere \u2014 propagate to host\r\n\r\n      var h = handledFrame._handlerStack.pop();\r\n      // Restore the VM value stack to the depth recorded at TRY_SETUP time,\r\n      // then push the caught exception so the catch binding can store it.\r\n      this._stack.length = h.stackDepth;\r\n      this._push(err);\r\n      // Discard any call-frames that were pushed inside the try body\r\n      // (functions called from within the try block that are still live).\r\n      this._frameStack.length = h.frameStackDepth;\r\n      // Jump to the catch block.\r\n      handledFrame._pc = h.handlerPc;\r\n      this._currentFrame = handledFrame;\r\n    }\r\n  }\r\n};\r\n\r\n// Boot\r\nvar globals      = {}; // global object for globals\r\n\r\n// Always pull built-ins from globalThis so eval() scoping can't shadow them\r\n// with a local `window` variable (e.g. the test harness fake window).\r\nfor (var k of Object.getOwnPropertyNames(globalThis)) {\r\n  globals[k] = globalThis[k];\r\n}\r\n// If a window object is in scope (browser or test harness), capture it\r\n// explicitly so VM code can read/write window.TEST_OUTPUT etc.\r\nif (typeof window !== \"undefined\") {\r\n  globals[\"window\"] = window;\r\n}\r\n\r\n// Transfer common primitives\r\nglobals.undefined = undefined;\r\nglobals.Infinity = Infinity;\r\nglobals.NaN = NaN;\r\n\r\nvar vm = new VM(decodeBytecode(BYTECODE), MAIN_START_PC, CONSTANTS, globals);\r\nvm.run();\r\n";
+export const VM_RUNTIME = readVMRuntimeFile().split("@START")[1];
+export const SOURCE_NODE_SYM = Symbol("SOURCE_NODE"); // Attach source node location to pseudo bytecode instructions
+
+// Opcodes
+export const OP_ORIGINAL = {
+  LOAD_CONST: 0,
+  LOAD_LOCAL: 1,
+  STORE_LOCAL: 2,
+  LOAD_GLOBAL: 3,
+  STORE_GLOBAL: 4,
+  GET_PROP: 5,
+  ADD: 6,
+  // a + b (both are popped)
+  SUB: 7,
+  // a - b
+  MUL: 8,
+  // a * b
+  DIV: 9,
+  // a / b
+  MAKE_CLOSURE: 10,
+  CALL: 11,
+  CALL_METHOD: 12,
+  RETURN: 13,
+  POP: 14,
+  // discard top of stack
+  LT: 15,
+  // pop b, pop a -> push (a < b)
+  GT: 16,
+  // pop b, pop a -> push (a > b)
+  EQ: 17,
+  // pop b, pop a -> push (a === b)
+  JUMP: 18,
+  // unconditional - operand = absolute bytecode index
+  JUMP_IF_FALSE: 19,
+  // pop value; jump if falsy
+  LTE: 20,
+  // a <= b
+  GTE: 21,
+  // a >= b
+  NEQ: 22,
+  // a !== b
+  LOAD_UPVALUE: 23,
+  // push frame.closure.upvalues[operand].read()
+  STORE_UPVALUE: 24,
+  // frame.closure.upvalues[operand].write(pop())
+
+  //  Unary
+  UNARY_NEG: 25,
+  // -x
+  UNARY_POS: 26,
+  // +x
+  UNARY_NOT: 27,
+  // !x
+  UNARY_BITNOT: 28,
+  // ~x
+  TYPEOF: 29,
+  // typeof x
+  VOID: 30,
+  // void x  -> always undefined
+
+  TYPEOF_SAFE: 31,
+  // operand = name constIdx - typeof guard for undeclared globals
+  BUILD_ARRAY: 32,
+  // operand = element count - pops N values -> pushes array
+  BUILD_OBJECT: 33,
+  // operand = pair count   - pops N*2 (key,val) -> pushes object
+  SET_PROP: 34,
+  // pop val, pop key, peek obj -> obj[key] = val (obj stays on stack)
+  GET_PROP_COMPUTED: 35,
+  // pop key, peek obj -> push obj[key]  (computed: nums[i])
+
+  MOD: 36,
+  // a % b
+  BAND: 37,
+  // a & b
+  BOR: 38,
+  // a | b
+  BXOR: 39,
+  // a ^ b
+  SHL: 40,
+  // a << b
+  SHR: 41,
+  // a >> b
+  USHR: 42,
+  // a >>> b
+
+  JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP: 43,
+  // && - if top falsy:  jump (keep), else: pop, eval RHS
+  JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP: 44,
+  // || - if top truthy: jump (keep), else: pop, eval RHS
+
+  DELETE_PROP: 45,
+  IN: 46,
+  // a in b
+  INSTANCEOF: 47,
+  // a instanceof b
+
+  // NEW
+  LOAD_THIS: 48,
+  // push frame.thisVal
+  NEW: 49,
+  // operand = argCount - construct a new object
+  DUP: 50,
+  // duplicate top of stack
+  THROW: 51,
+  // pop value, throw it
+  LOOSE_EQ: 52,
+  // a == b  (abstract equality)
+  LOOSE_NEQ: 53,
+  // a != b  (abstract inequality)
+
+  FOR_IN_SETUP: 54,
+  // pop obj -> build enumerable-key iterator -> push {keys,i}
+  FOR_IN_NEXT: 55,
+  // operand=exit_pc; pop iter; if done->jump; else push next key
+
+  // Self-modifying bytecode
+  PATCH: 56,
+  // pop destPc; constants[operand]=word[]; write words into bytecode[destPc..]
+
+  // Try-Catch
+  TRY_SETUP: 57,
+  // operand = catch_pc; push exception handler onto frame._handlerStack
+  TRY_END: 58,
+  // pop exception handler (normal exit from try body)
+
+  // Getter / Setter (ES5 object literal accessor syntax)
+  DEFINE_GETTER: 59,
+  // pop fn, pop key, pop obj -> Object.defineProperty(obj, key, {get: fn})
+  DEFINE_SETTER: 60,
+  // pop fn, pop key, pop obj -> Object.defineProperty(obj, key, {set: fn})
+
+  DEBUGGER: 61,
+  // emits a "debugger" statement
+
+  // Push the raw integer operand directly onto the stack (no constant pool lookup).
+  // Identical pipeline to JUMP ops: {type:"label"} pseudo-operands resolve to a
+  // raw PC number that becomes the operand, which is pushed as-is at runtime.
+  LOAD_INT: 62
+};
+
+// Scope
+// Each function call gets its own Scope. Locals are resolved to
+// numeric slots at compile time -- zero name lookups at runtime.
+class Scope {
+  constructor(parent = null) {
+    this.parent = parent;
+    this._locals = new Map(); // name -> slot index
+    this._next = 0;
+  }
+  define(name) {
+    if (!this._locals.has(name)) {
+      this._locals.set(name, this._next++);
+    }
+    return this._locals.get(name);
+  }
+
+  // Walk up scope chain. If we fall off the top -> global.
+  resolve(name) {
+    if (this._locals.has(name)) {
+      return {
+        kind: "local",
+        slot: this._locals.get(name)
+      };
+    }
+    if (this.parent) return this.parent.resolve(name);
+    return {
+      kind: "global"
+    };
+  }
+  get localCount() {
+    return this._next;
+  }
+}
+
+// FnContext
+// Compiler-side state for the function currently being compiled.
+// Distinct from runtime Frame -- this is compile-time only.
+class FnContext {
+  constructor(compiler, parentCtx = null) {
+    this.compiler = compiler;
+    this.parentCtx = parentCtx;
+    this.scope = new Scope();
+    this.bc = [];
+    this.upvalues = []; // { name, isLocal, index }
+  }
+
+  // Find or register a captured variable as an upvalue.
+  // isLocal=true  -> captured directly from parent's locals[index]
+  // isLocal=false -> relayed from parent's own upvalue list[index]
+  addUpvalue(name, isLocal, index) {
+    const existing = this.upvalues.findIndex(u => u.name === name);
+    if (existing !== -1) return existing;
+    const idx = this.upvalues.length;
+    this.upvalues.push({
+      name,
+      isLocal,
+      index: index
+    });
+    return idx;
+  }
+}
+
+// Compiler
+export class Compiler {
+  emit(bc, instr, node) {
+    bc.push(instr);
+    instr[SOURCE_NODE_SYM] = node;
+  }
+
+  // DO NOT USE THIS KEY UNLESS YOU ARE "RESOLVE CONSTANTS"
+  // CONSTANTS DURING COMPILATION MUST BE USED BY REFERENCE WITH b.constantOperand("myConstantHere")
+
+  constructor(options = DEFAULT_OPTIONS) {
+    this.options = options;
+    this.fnDescriptors = []; // populated in pass 1
+    this.bytecode = [];
+    this.mainStartPc = 0;
+    this._currentCtx = null; // FnContext of the function being compiled, null at top-level
+    this._loopStack = []; // per active loop/switch/block/try
+    this._pendingLabel = null;
+    this._forInCount = 0; // counter for synthetic for-in iterator global names
+    this._labelCount = 0; // monotonically increasing counter for unique label names
+
+    this.serializer = new Serializer(this);
+    this.MACRO_OPS = {};
+    this.SPECIALIZED_OPS = {};
+    this.OP = {
+      ...OP_ORIGINAL
+    };
+
+    // Construct randomized opcode mapping
+    if (this.options.randomizeOpcodes) {
+      let usedNumbers = new Set();
+      for (const key in this.OP) {
+        let val;
+        do {
+          val = getRandomInt(0, U16_MAX);
+        } while (usedNumbers.has(val));
+        usedNumbers.add(val);
+        this.OP[key] = val;
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Reverse map for comment generation
+    this.OP_NAME = Object.fromEntries(Object.entries(this.OP).map(([k, v]) => [v, k]));
+    this.JUMP_OPS = new Set([this.OP.JUMP, this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, this.OP.JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP, this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP, this.OP.FOR_IN_NEXT, this.OP.TRY_SETUP // catch_pc operand needs offset adjustment like jump targets
+    ]);
+  }
+
+  // Generate a globally unique label string with an optional hint for readability.
+  _makeLabel(hint = "") {
+    var id = this._labelCount++;
+    return `${hint || "L"}_${id}`;
+  }
+
+  // Variable resolution
+  // Walks up the FnContext chain. Crossing a context boundary means
+  // we're capturing from an outer function - register an upvalue.
+  _resolve(name, ctx) {
+    if (!ctx) return {
+      kind: "global"
+    };
+
+    // 1. Own locals
+    if (ctx.scope._locals.has(name)) {
+      return {
+        kind: "local",
+        slot: ctx.scope._locals.get(name)
+      };
+    }
+
+    // 2. No parent context -> must be global
+    if (!ctx.parentCtx) return {
+      kind: "global"
+    };
+
+    // 3. Ask parent -- recurse up the chain
+    const parentResult = this._resolve(name, ctx.parentCtx);
+    if (parentResult.kind === "global") return {
+      kind: "global"
+    };
+
+    // 4. Parent has it (as local or upvalue) -- register an upvalue here.
+    //    isLocal=true means "take it straight from parent's locals[index]"
+    //    isLocal=false means "relay parent's upvalue[index]" (multi-level capture)
+    const isLocal = parentResult.kind === "local";
+    const index = isLocal ? parentResult.slot : parentResult.index;
+    const uvIdx = ctx.addUpvalue(name, isLocal, index);
+    return {
+      kind: "upvalue",
+      index: uvIdx
+    };
+  }
+
+  // Entry point
+  compile(source) {
+    const ast = parse(source, {
+      sourceType: "script"
+    });
+    return this.compileAST(ast);
+  }
+  compileAST(ast) {
+    // Pass 1 - compile every FunctionDeclaration into a descriptor.
+    //           Traverse finds them regardless of nesting depth.
+    traverse(ast, {
+      FunctionDeclaration: path => {
+        // Only handle top-level functions for this MVP.
+        // (Parent is Program node)
+        if (path.parent.type !== "Program") return;
+        this._compileFunctionDecl(path.node);
+        path.skip(); // don't recurse into nested functions
+      }
+    });
+
+    // Pass 2 -- compile top-level statements into BYTECODE.
+    this._compileMain(ast.program.body);
+    return this.bytecode;
+  }
+
+  // Function Declaration
+
+  _compileFunctionDecl(node) {
+    // Reserve a slot in fnDescriptors NOW, before compiling the body, so that
+    // any nested _compileFunctionDecl calls see the correct .length and get a
+    // distinct _fnIdx.  The placeholder object is mutated in-place below once
+    // the body and header are ready.
+    var fnIdx = this.fnDescriptors.length;
+    const entryLabel = this._makeLabel(`fn_${fnIdx}`);
+    var desc = {}; // placeholder — filled in after compilation
+    this.fnDescriptors.push(desc);
+
+    // Create a context whose parent is whatever we're currently compiling.
+    // This is what lets _resolve cross function boundaries correctly.
+    const ctx = new FnContext(this, this._currentCtx);
+    const savedCtx = this._currentCtx;
+    this._currentCtx = ctx;
+
+    // Isolate the loop stack so that try/loop entries from the outer scope
+    // don't cause spurious TRY_END / extra jumps inside this function body.
+    const savedLoopStack = this._loopStack;
+    this._loopStack = [];
+
+    // Params occupy the first N local slots (args are copied in on CALL)
+    for (const param of node.params) {
+      let identifier = param.type === "AssignmentPattern" ? param.left : param;
+      ok(identifier.type === "Identifier", "Only simple identifiers allowed as parameters");
+      ctx.scope.define(identifier.name);
+    }
+
+    // Reserve the next slot for the implicit `arguments` object.
+    // Slot index will always equal paramCount (params are 0..paramCount-1).
+    ctx.scope.define("arguments");
+
+    // Pass 2: emit default-value guards at top of fn body
+    // Mirrors what JS engines do: if the caller passed undefined (or
+    // nothing), evaluate the default expression and overwrite the slot.
+    for (const param of node.params) {
+      if (param.type !== "AssignmentPattern") continue;
+      const slot = ctx.scope._locals.get(param.left.name);
+      const skipLabel = this._makeLabel("param_skip");
+
+      // if (param === undefined) param = <default expr>
+      this.emit(ctx.bc, [this.OP.LOAD_LOCAL, slot], param);
+      this.emit(ctx.bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(undefined)], param);
+      this.emit(ctx.bc, [this.OP.EQ], param);
+      this.emit(ctx.bc, [this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, {
+        type: "label",
+        label: skipLabel
+      }], param);
+      this._compileExpr(param.right, ctx.scope, ctx.bc); // eval default
+      this.emit(ctx.bc, [this.OP.STORE_LOCAL, slot], param);
+      this.emit(ctx.bc, [null, {
+        type: "defineLabel",
+        label: skipLabel
+      }], param);
+    }
+    for (const stmt of node.body.body) {
+      this._compileStatement(stmt, ctx.scope, ctx.bc);
+    }
+
+    // If we fall off the end of the function, implicitly return undefined.
+    this.emit(ctx.bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(undefined)], node);
+    this.emit(ctx.bc, [this.OP.RETURN], node);
+    this._currentCtx = savedCtx; // restore before touching fnDescriptors
+    this._loopStack = savedLoopStack;
+    node._fnIdx = fnIdx;
+
+    // Fill the placeholder that was reserved at the top of this function.
+    // Metadata (paramCount, localCount, upvalues) is stored on desc and emitted
+    // as inline operands on the MAKE_CLOSURE instruction via _emitMakeClosure.
+    desc.name = node.id?.name || "<anonymous>";
+    desc.entryLabel = entryLabel;
+    desc.bytecode = ctx.bc;
+    desc._fnIdx = fnIdx;
+    desc.paramCount = node.params.length;
+    desc.localCount = ctx.scope.localCount;
+    desc.upvalues = ctx.upvalues.slice();
+    return desc;
+  }
+
+  // Emit a single MAKE_CLOSURE instruction with all closure metadata packed
+  // as inline operands.  The runtime reads them via _operand() — no stack
+  // shuffling needed.
+  //
+  // Flat operand layout:  startPc, paramCount, localCount, uvCount,
+  //                       [isLocal_0, idx_0, isLocal_1, idx_1, ...]
+  _emitMakeClosure(desc, node, bc) {
+    const uvOperands = [];
+    for (const uv of desc.upvalues) {
+      uvOperands.push(uv.isLocal ? 1 : 0);
+      uvOperands.push(uv.index);
+    }
+    this.emit(bc, [this.OP.MAKE_CLOSURE, {
+      type: "label",
+      label: desc.entryLabel
+    }, desc.paramCount, desc.localCount, desc.upvalues.length, ...uvOperands], node);
+  }
+
+  // Main (top-level)
+  _compileMain(body) {
+    const bc = this.bytecode;
+
+    // Hoist all FunctionDeclarations: MAKE_CLOSURE -> STORE_GLOBAL
+    // (mirrors JS hoisting -- functions are available before other code)
+    for (const node of body) {
+      if (node.type !== "FunctionDeclaration") continue;
+      const desc = this.fnDescriptors.find(d => d._fnIdx === node._fnIdx);
+      const nameRef = b.constantOperand(node.id.name);
+      this._emitMakeClosure(desc, node, bc);
+      this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL, nameRef], node);
+    }
+
+    // Compile everything else in order
+    for (const node of body) {
+      if (node.type === "FunctionDeclaration") continue;
+      this._compileStatement(node, null, bc); // null scope -> global context
+    }
+    this.emit(bc, [this.OP.RETURN], null); // end program
+
+    // Append all function bodies. Each function's entryLabel (already generated
+    // in _compileFunctionDecl) points directly to the first body instruction;
+    // metadata is pushed onto the stack at each call site, not stored inline.
+    for (const descriptor of this.fnDescriptors) {
+      this.bytecode.push([null, {
+        type: "defineLabel",
+        label: descriptor.entryLabel
+      }]);
+      for (const instr of descriptor.bytecode) {
+        this.bytecode.push(instr);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Statements
+  _compileStatement(node, scope, bc) {
+    switch (node.type) {
+      case "EmptyStatement":
+        {
+          // nothing to emit -- bare semicolon is a no-op
+          break;
+        }
+      case "DebuggerStatement":
+        this.emit(bc, [this.OP.DEBUGGER], node);
+        break;
+      case "BlockStatement":
+        {
+          for (const stmt of node.body) {
+            this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+          }
+          break;
+        }
+      case "FunctionDeclaration":
+        {
+          // Nested function -- compile it into a descriptor, then emit
+          // MAKE_CLOSURE so it's captured as a live closure at runtime.
+          // (_compileFunctionDecl pushes/pops _currentCtx internally)
+          const desc = this._compileFunctionDecl(node);
+          this._emitMakeClosure(desc, node, bc);
+          if (scope) {
+            const slot = scope.define(node.id.name);
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_LOCAL, slot], node);
+          } else {
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL, b.constantOperand(node.id.name)], node);
+          }
+          break;
+        }
+      case "ThrowStatement":
+        {
+          this._compileExpr(node.argument, scope, bc);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.THROW], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "ReturnStatement":
+        {
+          if (node.argument) {
+            this._compileExpr(node.argument, scope, bc);
+          } else {
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(undefined)], node);
+          }
+          // Disarm any open try handlers before leaving the function.
+          // TRY_END only touches frame._handlerStack, not the value stack,
+          // so the return value sitting on top is safe.
+          for (let _ri = this._loopStack.length - 1; _ri >= 0; _ri--) {
+            if (this._loopStack[_ri].type === "try") {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.TRY_END], node);
+            }
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.RETURN], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "ExpressionStatement":
+        {
+          this._compileExpr(node.expression, scope, bc);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.POP], node); // discard return value of statement-level expressions
+          break;
+        }
+      case "VariableDeclaration":
+        {
+          for (const decl of node.declarations) {
+            // Push the initialiser (or undefined if absent)
+            if (decl.init) {
+              this._compileExpr(decl.init, scope, bc);
+            } else {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(undefined)], node);
+            }
+            ok(decl.id.type === "Identifier", "Only simple identifiers can be declared");
+
+            // Store: local slot if inside a function, global name otherwise
+            if (scope) {
+              const slot = scope.define(decl.id.name);
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_LOCAL, slot], node);
+            } else {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL, b.constantOperand(decl.id.name)], node);
+            }
+          }
+          break;
+        }
+      case "IfStatement":
+        {
+          const elseOrEndLabel = this._makeLabel("if_else");
+          // 1. Compile the test expression -> leaves a value on the stack
+          this._compileExpr(node.test, scope, bc);
+          // 2. Emit JUMP_IF_FALSE to the else branch (or end if no else)
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: elseOrEndLabel
+          }], node);
+          // 3. Compile the consequent block (the "then" branch)
+          const consequentBody = node.consequent.type === "BlockStatement" ? node.consequent.body : [node.consequent];
+          for (const stmt of consequentBody) {
+            this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+          }
+          if (node.alternate) {
+            // 4a. Consequent needs to jump OVER the else block when done
+            const endLabel = this._makeLabel("if_end");
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+              type: "label",
+              label: endLabel
+            }], node);
+            // Mark start of else
+            this.emit(bc, [null, {
+              type: "defineLabel",
+              label: elseOrEndLabel
+            }], node);
+            // 5. Compile the alternate (else) block
+            const altBody = node.alternate.type === "BlockStatement" ? node.alternate.body : [node.alternate]; // handles `else if` -- it's just a nested IfStatement
+            for (const stmt of altBody) {
+              this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+            }
+            // Mark end (consequent's jump lands here)
+            this.emit(bc, [null, {
+              type: "defineLabel",
+              label: endLabel
+            }], node);
+          } else {
+            // 4b. No else -- label lands right after the then block
+            this.emit(bc, [null, {
+              type: "defineLabel",
+              label: elseOrEndLabel
+            }], node);
+          }
+          break;
+        }
+      case "WhileStatement":
+        {
+          const _wLabel = this._pendingLabel;
+          this._pendingLabel = null;
+          const loopTopLabel = this._makeLabel("while_top");
+          const exitLabel = this._makeLabel("while_exit");
+          this._loopStack.push({
+            type: "loop",
+            label: _wLabel,
+            breakLabel: exitLabel,
+            continueLabel: loopTopLabel // continue re-evaluates the test
+          });
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: loopTopLabel
+          }], node);
+          this._compileExpr(node.test, scope, bc);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: exitLabel
+          }], node);
+          const whileBody = node.body.type === "BlockStatement" ? node.body.body : [node.body];
+          for (const stmt of whileBody) {
+            this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: loopTopLabel
+          }], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: exitLabel
+          }], node);
+          this._loopStack.pop();
+          break;
+        }
+      case "DoWhileStatement":
+        {
+          const _dwLabel = this._pendingLabel;
+          this._pendingLabel = null;
+          const loopTopLabel = this._makeLabel("dowhile_top");
+          const continueLabel = this._makeLabel("dowhile_cont");
+          const exitLabel = this._makeLabel("dowhile_exit");
+          this._loopStack.push({
+            type: "loop",
+            label: _dwLabel,
+            breakLabel: exitLabel,
+            continueLabel: continueLabel // continue falls to the test
+          });
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: loopTopLabel
+          }], node);
+          const doWhileBody = node.body.type === "BlockStatement" ? node.body.body : [node.body];
+          for (const stmt of doWhileBody) {
+            this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+          }
+
+          // continue -> skip rest of body, fall through to test
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: continueLabel
+          }], node);
+          this._compileExpr(node.test, scope, bc);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: exitLabel
+          }], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: loopTopLabel
+          }], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: exitLabel
+          }], node);
+          this._loopStack.pop();
+          break;
+        }
+      case "ForStatement":
+        {
+          const _fLabel = this._pendingLabel;
+          this._pendingLabel = null;
+          const loopTopLabel = this._makeLabel("for_top");
+          const exitLabel = this._makeLabel("for_exit");
+          // continue jumps to the update clause if present, else straight to test
+          const updateLabel = node.update ? this._makeLabel("for_update") : loopTopLabel;
+          this._loopStack.push({
+            type: "loop",
+            label: _fLabel,
+            breakLabel: exitLabel,
+            continueLabel: updateLabel
+          });
+          if (node.init) {
+            if (node.init.type === "VariableDeclaration") {
+              this._compileStatement(node.init, scope, bc);
+            } else {
+              this._compileExpr(node.init, scope, bc);
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.POP], node);
+            }
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: loopTopLabel
+          }], node);
+          if (node.test) {
+            this._compileExpr(node.test, scope, bc);
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, {
+              type: "label",
+              label: exitLabel
+            }], node);
+          }
+          const forBody = node.body.type === "BlockStatement" ? node.body.body : [node.body];
+          for (const stmt of forBody) {
+            this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+          }
+
+          // continue -> run update (if any) then back to test
+          if (node.update) {
+            this.emit(bc, [null, {
+              type: "defineLabel",
+              label: updateLabel
+            }], node);
+            this._compileExpr(node.update, scope, bc);
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.POP], node);
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: loopTopLabel
+          }], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: exitLabel
+          }], node);
+          this._loopStack.pop();
+          break;
+        }
+      case "BreakStatement":
+        {
+          // Find the jump target in the loop stack.
+          let _bTargetIdx = -1;
+          if (node.label) {
+            const _bLabelName = node.label.name;
+            for (let _bi = this._loopStack.length - 1; _bi >= 0; _bi--) {
+              if (this._loopStack[_bi].label === _bLabelName) {
+                _bTargetIdx = _bi;
+                break;
+              }
+            }
+            if (_bTargetIdx === -1) throw new Error(`Label '${node.label.name}' not found`);
+          } else {
+            // Find innermost loop/switch/block (skip "try" entries)
+            for (let _bi = this._loopStack.length - 1; _bi >= 0; _bi--) {
+              if (this._loopStack[_bi].type !== "try") {
+                _bTargetIdx = _bi;
+                break;
+              }
+            }
+            if (_bTargetIdx === -1) throw new Error("break outside loop");
+          }
+          // Emit TRY_END for every open try block between here and the target.
+          for (let _bi = this._loopStack.length - 1; _bi > _bTargetIdx; _bi--) {
+            if (this._loopStack[_bi].type === "try") {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.TRY_END], node);
+            }
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: this._loopStack[_bTargetIdx].breakLabel
+          }], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "ContinueStatement":
+        {
+          // Find the target loop in the loop stack.
+          let _cTargetIdx = -1;
+          if (node.label) {
+            const _cLabelName = node.label.name;
+            for (let _ci = this._loopStack.length - 1; _ci >= 0; _ci--) {
+              if (this._loopStack[_ci].label === _cLabelName && this._loopStack[_ci].type === "loop") {
+                _cTargetIdx = _ci;
+                break;
+              }
+            }
+            if (_cTargetIdx === -1) throw new Error(`Label '${node.label.name}' not found for continue`);
+          } else {
+            // Find the innermost loop (skip switch, block, and try contexts)
+            for (let _ci = this._loopStack.length - 1; _ci >= 0; _ci--) {
+              if (this._loopStack[_ci].type === "loop") {
+                _cTargetIdx = _ci;
+                break;
+              }
+            }
+            if (_cTargetIdx === -1) throw new Error("continue outside loop");
+          }
+          // Emit TRY_END for every open try block between here and the target loop.
+          for (let _ci = this._loopStack.length - 1; _ci > _cTargetIdx; _ci--) {
+            if (this._loopStack[_ci].type === "try") {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.TRY_END], node);
+            }
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: this._loopStack[_cTargetIdx].continueLabel
+          }], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "SwitchStatement":
+        {
+          const _swLabel = this._pendingLabel;
+          this._pendingLabel = null;
+          const switchBreakLabel = this._makeLabel("sw_break");
+          this._loopStack.push({
+            type: "switch",
+            label: _swLabel,
+            breakLabel: switchBreakLabel,
+            continueLabel: switchBreakLabel // not used for switch
+          });
+
+          // Compile the discriminant and leave it on the stack
+          this._compileExpr(node.discriminant, scope, bc);
+          const cases = node.cases;
+          const defaultIdx = cases.findIndex(c => c.test === null);
+
+          // Pre-allocate a label for each case body so dispatch can reference them
+          const caseLabels = cases.map((_, i) => this._makeLabel(`sw_case_${i}`));
+
+          // Dispatch section: for each non-default case, check and jump to its body
+          for (let i = 0; i < cases.length; i++) {
+            const cas = cases[i];
+            if (cas.test === null) continue; // skip default in dispatch
+
+            const nextCheckLabel = this._makeLabel("sw_next");
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.DUP], node);
+            this._compileExpr(cas.test, scope, bc);
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.EQ], node);
+            // If not matched, fall through to the next check
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, {
+              type: "label",
+              label: nextCheckLabel
+            }], node);
+            // If matched, jump directly to this case's body
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+              type: "label",
+              label: caseLabels[i]
+            }], node);
+            this.emit(bc, [null, {
+              type: "defineLabel",
+              label: nextCheckLabel
+            }], node);
+          }
+
+          // No case matched: jump to default body or exit (which pops discriminant)
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: defaultIdx !== -1 ? caseLabels[defaultIdx] : switchBreakLabel
+          }], node);
+
+          // Body section: compile all case bodies in source order (fallthrough intact)
+          for (let i = 0; i < cases.length; i++) {
+            this.emit(bc, [null, {
+              type: "defineLabel",
+              label: caseLabels[i]
+            }], node);
+            for (const stmt of cases[i].consequent) {
+              this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+            }
+          }
+
+          // break label lands here; pop the discriminant and continue after switch
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: switchBreakLabel
+          }], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.POP], node);
+          this._loopStack.pop();
+          break;
+        }
+      case "LabeledStatement":
+        {
+          const _lName = node.label.name;
+          const _lBody = node.body;
+          const _lIsLoop = _lBody.type === "ForStatement" || _lBody.type === "WhileStatement" || _lBody.type === "DoWhileStatement" || _lBody.type === "ForInStatement";
+          const _lIsSwitch = _lBody.type === "SwitchStatement";
+          if (_lIsLoop || _lIsSwitch) {
+            // Pass label down to the loop/switch handler via _pendingLabel
+            this._pendingLabel = _lName;
+            this._compileStatement(_lBody, scope, bc);
+            this._pendingLabel = null; // safety clear if handler didn't consume it
+          } else {
+            // Non-loop labeled statement (e.g. labeled block) -- only break is valid
+            const blockBreakLabel = this._makeLabel("block_break");
+            this._loopStack.push({
+              type: "block",
+              label: _lName,
+              breakLabel: blockBreakLabel,
+              continueLabel: blockBreakLabel // unused
+            });
+            this._compileStatement(_lBody, scope, bc);
+            this._loopStack.pop();
+            this.emit(bc, [null, {
+              type: "defineLabel",
+              label: blockBreakLabel
+            }], node);
+          }
+          break;
+        }
+      case "ForInStatement":
+        {
+          const _fiLabel = this._pendingLabel;
+          this._pendingLabel = null;
+
+          // Evaluate the object expression -> on stack
+          this._compileExpr(node.right, scope, bc);
+          // FOR_IN_SETUP: pops obj, pushes iterator {keys, i}
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.FOR_IN_SETUP], node);
+
+          // Store iterator in a hidden slot so break/continue need no cleanup
+          let emitLoadIter;
+          let emitStoreIter;
+          if (scope) {
+            // Reserve a hidden local slot (no name mapping needed)
+            const iterSlot = scope._next++;
+            emitLoadIter = () => this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_LOCAL, iterSlot], node);
+            emitStoreIter = () => this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_LOCAL, iterSlot], node);
+          } else {
+            // Top level -- use a synthetic global that won't collide with user code
+            const iterNameIdx = b.constantOperand("__fi" + this._forInCount++);
+            emitLoadIter = () => this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_GLOBAL, iterNameIdx], node);
+            emitStoreIter = () => this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL, iterNameIdx], node);
+          }
+          emitStoreIter();
+          const loopTopLabel = this._makeLabel("forin_top");
+          const exitLabel = this._makeLabel("forin_exit");
+          this._loopStack.push({
+            type: "loop",
+            label: _fiLabel,
+            breakLabel: exitLabel,
+            continueLabel: loopTopLabel // continue re-checks the iterator
+          });
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: loopTopLabel
+          }], node);
+
+          // Load iterator, attempt to get next key
+          emitLoadIter();
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.FOR_IN_NEXT, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: exitLabel
+          }], node);
+
+          // Assign the key (now on top of stack) to the loop variable
+          if (node.left.type === "VariableDeclaration") {
+            const identifier = node.left.declarations[0].id;
+            ok(identifier.type === "Identifier", "Only simple identifiers can be declared in for-in loops");
+            const name = identifier.name;
+            if (scope) {
+              const slot = scope.define(name);
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_LOCAL, slot], node);
+            } else {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL, b.constantOperand(name)], node);
+            }
+          } else if (node.left.type === "Identifier") {
+            const res = this._resolve(node.left.name, this._currentCtx);
+            if (res.kind === "local") {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_LOCAL, res.slot], node);
+            } else if (res.kind === "upvalue") {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_UPVALUE, res.index], node);
+            } else {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL, b.constantOperand(node.left.name)], node);
+            }
+          } else {
+            const src = generate(node.left).code;
+            throw new Error(`Unsupported for-in left-hand side: ${node.left.type}\n  -> ${src}`);
+          }
+
+          // Compile the loop body
+          const fiBody = node.body.type === "BlockStatement" ? node.body.body : [node.body];
+          for (const stmt of fiBody) {
+            this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: loopTopLabel
+          }], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: exitLabel
+          }], node);
+          this._loopStack.pop();
+          break;
+        }
+      case "TryStatement":
+        {
+          if (node.finalizer) {
+            throw new Error("try..finally is not supported. Use a helper function instead");
+          }
+          if (!node.handler) {
+            // try without catch requires finally — not supported
+            throw new Error("try without catch is not supported (requires finally).");
+          }
+          const catchLabel = this._makeLabel("catch");
+          const afterCatchLabel = this._makeLabel("after_catch");
+
+          // Emit TRY_SETUP with the catch block's label as the handler PC.
+          // At runtime: saves stack depth + frame stack depth, pushes handler.
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.TRY_SETUP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: catchLabel
+          }], node);
+
+          // Track the open try block so that break/continue/return inside the
+          // try body can emit the matching TRY_END before their jump.
+          this._loopStack.push({
+            type: "try",
+            label: null,
+            breakLabel: "",
+            // unused
+            continueLabel: "" // unused
+          });
+
+          // Compile try body
+          for (const stmt of node.block.body) {
+            this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+          }
+
+          // Done compiling the try body — pop the tracking entry.
+          this._loopStack.pop();
+
+          // Normal exit: disarm the exception handler.
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.TRY_END], node);
+
+          // Jump over the catch block on normal path.
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: afterCatchLabel
+          }], node);
+
+          // Catch block: exception is on top of the stack (pushed by the VM).
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: catchLabel
+          }], node);
+          const handler = node.handler;
+          if (handler.param) {
+            // Bind the exception value to the catch variable.
+            const name = handler.param.name;
+            if (scope) {
+              const slot = scope.define(name);
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_LOCAL, slot], node);
+            } else {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL, b.constantOperand(name)], node);
+            }
+          } else {
+            // Optional catch binding (catch without a variable — ES2019+)
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.POP], node);
+          }
+
+          // Compile catch body
+          for (const stmt of handler.body.body) {
+            this._compileStatement(stmt, scope, bc);
+          }
+
+          // Normal-path jump lands here (after the catch block).
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: afterCatchLabel
+          }], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      default:
+        {
+          // Use @babel/generator to reproduce the source of unsupported nodes
+          // so we can emit a clear error with context.
+          const src = generate(node).code;
+          throw new Error(`Unsupported statement: ${node.type}\n  -> ${src}`);
+        }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Expressions
+  _compileExpr(node, scope, bc) {
+    switch (node.type) {
+      case "NumericLiteral":
+      case "StringLiteral":
+        {
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(node.value)], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "BooleanLiteral":
+        {
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(node.value)], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "NullLiteral":
+        {
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(null)], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "Identifier":
+        {
+          // scope=null means we're at the top-level -> always global
+          const res = this._resolve(node.name, this._currentCtx);
+          if (res.kind === "local") {
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_LOCAL, res.slot], node);
+          } else if (res.kind === "upvalue") {
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_UPVALUE, res.index], node);
+          } else {
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_GLOBAL, b.constantOperand(node.name)], node);
+          }
+          break;
+        }
+      case "ThisExpression":
+        {
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_THIS], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "NewExpression":
+        {
+          // Push callee, then args -- identical layout to CALL but uses NEW opcode
+          this._compileExpr(node.callee, scope, bc);
+          for (const arg of node.arguments) this._compileExpr(arg, scope, bc);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.NEW, node.arguments.length], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "SequenceExpression":
+        {
+          // (a, b, c)  ->  eval a -> POP, eval b -> POP, eval c -> leave on stack
+          for (let i = 0; i < node.expressions.length - 1; i++) {
+            this._compileExpr(node.expressions[i], scope, bc);
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.POP], node); // discard intermediate result
+          }
+          // Last expression -- its value is the result of the whole sequence
+          this._compileExpr(node.expressions[node.expressions.length - 1], scope, bc);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "ConditionalExpression":
+        {
+          // test ? consequent : alternate
+          const elseLabel = this._makeLabel("ternary_else");
+          const endLabel = this._makeLabel("ternary_end");
+          this._compileExpr(node.test, scope, bc);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: elseLabel
+          }], node);
+          this._compileExpr(node.consequent, scope, bc);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP, {
+            type: "label",
+            label: endLabel
+          }], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: elseLabel
+          }], node);
+          this._compileExpr(node.alternate, scope, bc);
+          this.emit(bc, [null, {
+            type: "defineLabel",
+            label: endLabel
+          }], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "LogicalExpression":
+        {
+          // Pattern (CPython-style):
+          //   eval LHS
+          //   JUMP_IF_*_OR_POP  -> target (past RHS)
+          //   eval RHS          ← only reached if LHS didn't short-circuit
+          //   [target lands here, stack top is the result either way]
+
+          this._compileExpr(node.left, scope, bc);
+          if (node.operator === "||") {
+            // Short-circuit if LHS is TRUTHY -- keep it, skip RHS
+            const endLabel = this._makeLabel("or_end");
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP, {
+              type: "label",
+              label: endLabel
+            }], node);
+            this._compileExpr(node.right, scope, bc);
+            this.emit(bc, [null, {
+              type: "defineLabel",
+              label: endLabel
+            }], node);
+          } else if (node.operator === "&&") {
+            // Short-circuit if LHS is FALSY -- keep it, skip RHS
+            const endLabel = this._makeLabel("and_end");
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP, {
+              type: "label",
+              label: endLabel
+            }], node);
+            this._compileExpr(node.right, scope, bc);
+            this.emit(bc, [null, {
+              type: "defineLabel",
+              label: endLabel
+            }], node);
+          } else {
+            throw new Error(`Unsupported logical operator: ${node.operator}`);
+          }
+          break;
+        }
+      case "BinaryExpression":
+        {
+          this._compileExpr(node.left, scope, bc);
+          this._compileExpr(node.right, scope, bc);
+          const arithOp = {
+            "+": this.OP.ADD,
+            "-": this.OP.SUB,
+            "*": this.OP.MUL,
+            "/": this.OP.DIV,
+            "%": this.OP.MOD,
+            "&": this.OP.BAND,
+            "|": this.OP.BOR,
+            "^": this.OP.BXOR,
+            "<<": this.OP.SHL,
+            ">>": this.OP.SHR,
+            ">>>": this.OP.USHR
+          }[node.operator];
+          const cmpOp = {
+            "<": this.OP.LT,
+            ">": this.OP.GT,
+            "===": this.OP.EQ,
+            "==": this.OP.LOOSE_EQ,
+            "<=": this.OP.LTE,
+            ">=": this.OP.GTE,
+            "!==": this.OP.NEQ,
+            "!=": this.OP.LOOSE_NEQ,
+            in: this.OP.IN,
+            // ← add
+            instanceof: this.OP.INSTANCEOF // ← add
+          }[node.operator];
+          const resolvedOp = arithOp ?? cmpOp;
+          if (resolvedOp === undefined) throw new Error(`Unsupported operator: ${node.operator}`);
+          this.emit(bc, [resolvedOp], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "UpdateExpression":
+        {
+          const res = this._resolve(node.argument.name, this._currentCtx);
+          const bumpOp = node.operator === "++" ? this.OP.ADD : this.OP.SUB;
+          const one = b.constantOperand(1);
+
+          // Helper closures: emit load / store for whichever resolution kind we have
+          const emitLoad = () => {
+            if (res.kind === "local") this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_LOCAL, res.slot], node);else if (res.kind === "upvalue") this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_UPVALUE, res.index], node);else this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_GLOBAL, b.constantOperand(node.argument.name)], node);
+          };
+          const emitStore = () => {
+            if (res.kind === "local") this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_LOCAL, res.slot], node);else if (res.kind === "upvalue") this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_UPVALUE, res.index], node);else this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL, b.constantOperand(node.argument.name)], node);
+          };
+          emitLoad();
+          if (!node.prefix) this.emit(bc, [this.OP.DUP], node); // post: save old value before mutating
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, one], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [bumpOp], node);
+          emitStore();
+          if (node.prefix) emitLoad(); // pre: reload new value as result
+
+          break;
+        }
+      case "AssignmentExpression":
+        {
+          const compoundOp = {
+            "+=": this.OP.ADD,
+            "-=": this.OP.SUB,
+            "*=": this.OP.MUL,
+            "/=": this.OP.DIV,
+            "%=": this.OP.MOD,
+            "&=": this.OP.BAND,
+            "|=": this.OP.BOR,
+            "^=": this.OP.BXOR,
+            "<<=": this.OP.SHL,
+            ">>=": this.OP.SHR,
+            ">>>=": this.OP.USHR
+          }[node.operator];
+          const isCompound = compoundOp !== undefined;
+          if (node.operator !== "=" && !isCompound) {
+            throw new Error(`Unsupported assignment operator: ${node.operator}`);
+          }
+
+          // Member assignment: obj.x = val  or  arr[i] = val
+          if (node.left.type === "MemberExpression") {
+            this._compileExpr(node.left.object, scope, bc); // push obj
+
+            if (node.left.computed) {
+              this._compileExpr(node.left.property, scope, bc); // push key (runtime)
+            } else {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(node.left.property.name)], node);
+            }
+            if (isCompound) {
+              // Duplicate obj+key on the stack so we can read before we write.
+              // Stack before DUP2: [..., obj, key]
+              // We need: [..., obj, key, obj, key] -> GET_PROP_COMPUTED -> [..., obj, key, currentVal]
+              // Cheapest approach without a DUP opcode: re-compile the member read.
+              // (emits obj + key again; a future peephole pass could DUP instead)
+              this._compileExpr(node.left.object, scope, bc);
+              if (node.left.computed) {
+                this._compileExpr(node.left.property, scope, bc);
+              } else {
+                this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(node.left.property.name)], node);
+              }
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.GET_PROP_COMPUTED], node); // [..., obj, key, currentVal]
+              this._compileExpr(node.right, scope, bc); // [..., obj, key, currentVal, rhs]
+              this.emit(bc, [compoundOp], node); // [..., obj, key, newVal]
+            } else {
+              this._compileExpr(node.right, scope, bc); // [..., obj, key, val]
+            }
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.SET_PROP], node); // obj[key] = val, leaves val on stack
+            break;
+          }
+
+          // Plain identifier assignment
+          const res = this._resolve(node.left.name, this._currentCtx);
+          if (isCompound) {
+            // Load the current value of the target first
+            if (res.kind === "local") {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_LOCAL, res.slot], node);
+            } else if (res.kind === "upvalue") {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_UPVALUE, res.index], node);
+            } else {
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_GLOBAL, b.constantOperand(node.left.name)], node);
+            }
+          }
+          this._compileExpr(node.right, scope, bc); // push RHS
+
+          if (isCompound) {
+            this.emit(bc, [compoundOp], node); // apply binary op -> leaves newVal on stack
+          }
+
+          // Store & leave value on stack (assignment is an expression)
+          if (res.kind === "local") {
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_LOCAL, res.slot], node);
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_LOCAL, res.slot], node);
+          } else if (res.kind === "upvalue") {
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_UPVALUE, res.index], node);
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_UPVALUE, res.index], node);
+          } else {
+            const nameIdx = b.constantOperand(node.left.name);
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL, nameIdx], node);
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_GLOBAL, nameIdx], node);
+          }
+          break;
+        }
+      case "CallExpression":
+        {
+          if (node.callee.type === "MemberExpression") {
+            // ── Method call: console.log(...)
+            // Push receiver first (GET_PROP leaves it; CALL_METHOD pops it as `this`)
+            this._compileExpr(node.callee.object, scope, bc);
+            const prop = node.callee.property.name;
+            const propIdx = b.constantOperand(prop);
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, propIdx], node);
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.GET_PROP], node);
+            for (const arg of node.arguments) this._compileExpr(arg, scope, bc);
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.CALL_METHOD, node.arguments.length], node);
+          } else {
+            // ── Plain call: add(5, 10)
+            this._compileExpr(node.callee, scope, bc);
+            for (const arg of node.arguments) this._compileExpr(arg, scope, bc);
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.CALL, node.arguments.length], node);
+          }
+          break;
+        }
+      case "UnaryExpression":
+        {
+          // Special case: typeof on a bare identifier must not throw if undeclared.
+          // We emit TYPEOF_SAFE (operand = name constant index) instead of
+          // compiling the argument first. The VM does the guard itself.
+          if (node.operator === "typeof" && node.argument.type === "Identifier") {
+            const res = this._resolve(node.argument.name, this._currentCtx);
+            if (res.kind === "global") {
+              // Potentially undeclared -- let VM guard it
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(node.argument.name)], node);
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.TYPEOF_SAFE], node);
+              break;
+            }
+            // Known local or upvalue -- safe to load first, then typeof
+          }
+
+          // Special case: delete -- argument must NOT be pre-evaluated.
+          if (node.operator === "delete") {
+            const arg = node.argument;
+            if (arg.type === "MemberExpression") {
+              this._compileExpr(arg.object, scope, bc);
+              if (arg.computed) {
+                this._compileExpr(arg.property, scope, bc);
+              } else {
+                this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(arg.property.name)], node);
+              }
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.DELETE_PROP], node);
+            } else {
+              // delete x, delete 0, etc. -- always true in non-strict, just push true
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(true)], node);
+            }
+            break;
+          }
+
+          // All other unary ops: compile argument first, then apply operator
+          this._compileExpr(node.argument, scope, bc);
+          switch (node.operator) {
+            case "-":
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.UNARY_NEG], node);
+              break;
+            case "+":
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.UNARY_POS], node);
+              break;
+            case "!":
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.UNARY_NOT], node);
+              break;
+            case "~":
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.UNARY_BITNOT], node);
+              break;
+            case "typeof":
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.TYPEOF], node);
+              break;
+            case "void":
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.VOID], node);
+              break;
+            default:
+              throw new Error(`Unsupported unary operator: ${node.operator}`);
+          }
+          break;
+        }
+      case "RegExpLiteral":
+        {
+          // Emit: new RegExp(pattern, flags)
+          // Fresh object per evaluation -- correct for stateful g/y flags.
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_GLOBAL, b.constantOperand("RegExp")], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(node.pattern)], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(node.flags)], node);
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.NEW, 2], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "FunctionExpression":
+        {
+          // Compile into a descriptor exactly like a declaration,
+          // but leave the resulting closure ON THE STACK -- no store.
+          // The surrounding expression (assignment, call arg, return) consumes it.
+          const desc = this._compileFunctionDecl(node);
+          this._emitMakeClosure(desc, node, bc);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "MemberExpression":
+        {
+          this._compileExpr(node.object, scope, bc);
+          if (node.computed) {
+            // nums[i] -- key is runtime value
+            this._compileExpr(node.property, scope, bc);
+          } else {
+            // point.x -- push key as string, same opcode handles both
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(node.property.name)], node);
+          }
+
+          // GET_PROP_COMPUTED pops the object -- correct for value access.
+          // GET_PROP (peek) is only used in CallExpression's method call path
+          // where the receiver must survive on the stack for CALL_METHOD.
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.GET_PROP_COMPUTED], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "ArrayExpression":
+        {
+          // Compile each element left->right, then BUILD_ARRAY collapses them.
+          // Sparse arrays (holes) get explicit undefined per slot.
+          for (const el of node.elements) {
+            if (el === null) {
+              // hole: e.g. [1,,3]
+              this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(undefined)], node);
+            } else {
+              this._compileExpr(el, scope, bc);
+            }
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.BUILD_ARRAY, node.elements.length], node);
+          break;
+        }
+      case "ObjectExpression":
+        {
+          // Separate regular data properties from ES5 accessor methods (get/set).
+          const regularProps = [];
+          const accessorProps = [];
+          for (const prop of node.properties) {
+            if (prop.type === "SpreadElement") {
+              throw new Error("Object spread not supported");
+            }
+            if (prop.type === "ObjectMethod") {
+              if (prop.kind === "get" || prop.kind === "set") {
+                if (prop.computed) {
+                  throw new Error("Computed getter/setter keys are not supported");
+                }
+                accessorProps.push(prop);
+              } else {
+                throw new Error(`Shorthand method syntax is not supported`);
+              }
+            } else {
+              regularProps.push(prop);
+            }
+          }
+
+          // Build the base object from data properties.
+          for (const prop of regularProps) {
+            const key = prop.key;
+            let keyStr;
+            if (key.type === "Identifier") {
+              keyStr = key.name;
+            } else if (key.type === "StringLiteral" || key.type === "NumericLiteral") {
+              keyStr = String(key.value);
+            } else {
+              throw new Error(`Unsupported object key type: ${key.type}`);
+            }
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(keyStr)], node);
+            this._compileExpr(prop.value, scope, bc);
+          }
+          this.emit(bc, [this.OP.BUILD_OBJECT, regularProps.length], node);
+
+          // Define each accessor on the object that is now on top of the stack.
+          // Stack after BUILD_OBJECT: [..., obj]
+          // For each accessor: DUP obj, push key, compile fn, DEFINE_GETTER/DEFINE_SETTER
+          // DEFINE_GETTER/DEFINE_SETTER pops fn+key+obj, leaving the original obj.
+          for (const prop of accessorProps) {
+            const key = prop.key;
+            let keyStr;
+            if (key.type === "Identifier") {
+              keyStr = key.name;
+            } else if (key.type === "StringLiteral" || key.type === "NumericLiteral") {
+              keyStr = String(key.value);
+            } else {
+              throw new Error(`Unsupported object key type: ${key.type}`);
+            }
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.DUP], node); // dup so the original obj stays after the define
+            this.emit(bc, [this.OP.LOAD_CONST, b.constantOperand(keyStr)], node);
+
+            // Compile the accessor body as an anonymous function descriptor.
+            const desc = this._compileFunctionDecl(prop);
+            this._emitMakeClosure(desc, prop, bc);
+            this.emit(bc, [prop.kind === "get" ? this.OP.DEFINE_GETTER : this.OP.DEFINE_SETTER], node);
+          }
+          break;
+        }
+      default:
+        {
+          throw new Error(`Unsupported expression: ${node.type}`);
+        }
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+// Serializer
+// Turns the compiled output into a commented JS source string.
+// Expects fully-resolved bytecode (all label refs and constant refs already
+// converted to plain integers by resolveLabels + resolveConstants passes).
+class Serializer {
+  constructor(compiler) {
+    this.compiler = compiler;
+  }
+  get options() {
+    return this.compiler.options;
+  }
+  get OP() {
+    return this.compiler.OP;
+  }
+  get OP_NAME() {
+    return this.compiler.OP_NAME;
+  }
+  get JUMP_OPS() {
+    return this.compiler.JUMP_OPS;
+  }
+
+  // Produce a JS literal for a constant pool entry
+  _serializeConst(val) {
+    if (val === null) return "null";
+    if (val === undefined) return "undefined";
+    return JSON.stringify(val); // number / string / bool
+  }
+
+  // One instruction -> "[op, op1, op2, ...]  // MNEMONIC description"
+  // Expects a fully-resolved instruction: all operands are plain numbers.
+  // Returns { text, values } where values is the flat u16 slots for this
+  // instruction (opcode first, then one entry per operand).
+  _serializeInstr(instr, constants) {
+    const op = instr[0];
+    const operands = instr.slice(1);
+    const resolvedOperands = operands.filter(operand => operand?.placeholder !== true).map(o => o?.resolvedValue ?? o);
+    for (const o of resolvedOperands) {
+      ok(typeof o === "number", "Unresolved operand: " + JSON.stringify(o));
+      ok(o >= 0 && o <= 0xffff, `Operand overflow (max 0xFFFF u16): ${o}`);
+    }
+    ok(op >= 0 && op <= 0xffff, `Opcode overflow (max 0xFFFF u16): ${op}`);
+    const operand = resolvedOperands[0]; // first operand for single-operand comment cases
+    const name = this.OP_NAME[op] || `OP_${op}`;
+    let comment = name;
+    const sourceNode = instr[SOURCE_NODE_SYM];
+    const sourceLocation = sourceNode ? sourceNode.loc.start?.line + ":" + sourceNode.loc.start?.column + "-" + (sourceNode.loc.end?.line + ":" + sourceNode.loc.end?.column) : "";
+
+    // Annotate with human-readable operand meaning
+    if (resolvedOperands.length > 0) {
+      switch (op) {
+        case this.OP.LOAD_CONST:
+          {
+            const val = constants[operand];
+            comment += `  ${this._serializeConst(val)}`;
+            break;
+          }
+        case this.OP.MAKE_CLOSURE:
+          {
+            comment += `  PC ${operand} (params=${resolvedOperands[1]} locals=${resolvedOperands[2]} upvalues=${resolvedOperands[3]})`;
+            break;
+          }
+        case this.OP.LOAD_LOCAL:
+        case this.OP.STORE_LOCAL:
+          comment += `  slot[${operand}]`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.LOAD_UPVALUE:
+        case this.OP.STORE_UPVALUE:
+          comment += `  upvalue[${operand}]`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.LOAD_GLOBAL:
+        case this.OP.STORE_GLOBAL:
+          comment += `  "${constants[operand]}"`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.CALL:
+        case this.OP.CALL_METHOD:
+          comment += `  (${operand} args)`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.BUILD_ARRAY:
+          comment += `  (${operand} elements)`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.BUILD_OBJECT:
+          comment += `  (${operand} pairs)`;
+          break;
+        case this.OP.NEW:
+          comment += `  (${operand} args)`;
+          break;
+        default:
+          comment += resolvedOperands.length === 1 ? `  ${operand}` : `  [${resolvedOperands.join(", ")}]`;
+      }
+    }
+    comment = comment.padEnd(40) + sourceLocation;
+    const values = [op, ...resolvedOperands];
+    const instrText = `[${values.join(", ")}]`;
+    const text = `${(instrText + ",").padEnd(12)} ${comment}`;
+    return {
+      text,
+      values
+    };
+  }
+
+  // Serialize the CONSTANTS array
+  _serializeConstants(constants) {
+    const lines = ["var CONSTANTS = ["];
+    constants.forEach((val, idx) => {
+      lines.push(`  /* ${idx} */  ${this._serializeConst(val)},`);
+    });
+    lines.push("];");
+    return lines.join("\n");
+  }
+
+  // Filter out any remaining null-opcode pseudo-instructions.
+  // (defineLabel pseudo-ops are already stripped by resolveLabels.)
+  _serializeBytecode(bytecode, compiler) {
+    const serialized = [];
+    for (const instr of bytecode) {
+      if (instr[0] === null) continue;
+      const specializedOpInfo = compiler.SPECIALIZED_OPS[instr[0]];
+      if (specializedOpInfo) {
+        const resolvedValue = instr[1]?.resolvedValue ?? instr[1];
+        const originalName = compiler.OP_NAME[specializedOpInfo.originalOp];
+        compiler.OP_NAME[instr[0]] = `${originalName}_${resolvedValue}`;
+        specializedOpInfo.resolvedOperand = instr[1];
+      }
+      serialized.push(instr);
+    }
+    return {
+      bytecode: serialized
+    };
+  }
+  _encodeBytecode(flat) {
+    // Encode as little-endian Uint16Array -> base64.
+    const buf = new Uint8Array(flat.length * 2);
+    flat.forEach((w, i) => {
+      buf[i * 2] = w & 0xff;
+      buf[i * 2 + 1] = w >>> 8 & 0xff;
+    });
+    return Buffer.from(buf).toString("base64");
+  }
+  serialize(bytecode, constants, compiler) {
+    const mainStartPc = compiler.mainStartPc;
+    let sections = [];
+    var textForm = [];
+    var initBody = [];
+    var bytecodeResult = this._serializeBytecode(bytecode, compiler);
+    for (const instr of bytecodeResult.bytecode) {
+      const serialized = this._serializeInstr(instr, constants);
+      textForm.push(serialized.text);
+    }
+    initBody.push(textForm.map(line => `// ${line}`).join("\n"));
+    const flat = bytecodeResult.bytecode.flatMap(instr => {
+      let filtered = instr.filter(x => x?.placeholder !== true);
+      let resolved = filtered.map(x => x?.resolvedValue ?? x);
+      return resolved;
+    });
+    if (this.options.encodeBytecode) {
+      sections.push(`var BYTECODE = "${this._encodeBytecode(flat)}";`);
+    } else {
+      // Flatten each [op, ...operands] instruction into individual u16 slots.
+
+      sections.push(`var BYTECODE = [${flat.join(",")}]`);
+    }
+
+    // MAIN_START_PC
+    sections.push(`var MAIN_START_PC = ${mainStartPc};`);
+    sections.push(`var ENCODE_BYTECODE = ${!!this.options.encodeBytecode};`);
+    sections.push(`var TIMING_CHECKS = ${!!this.options.timingChecks};`);
+    // Opcodes
+    const object = t.objectExpression(Object.entries(this.OP).map(([name, value]) => t.objectProperty(t.identifier(name), t.numericLiteral(value))));
+    sections.push(`var OP = ${generate(object).code};`);
+
+    // Constants must be defined before the bytecode
+    initBody.push(this._serializeConstants(constants));
+    sections = [...initBody, ...sections];
+
+    // VM runtime
+    sections.push(VM_RUNTIME);
+    return sections.join("\n\n");
+  }
+}
+export async function compileAndSerialize(sourceCode, options) {
+  const compiler = new Compiler(options);
+  let bytecode = compiler.compile(sourceCode);
+
+  // User transform passes (operate on unresolved IR with label/constant refs)
+  // macroOpcodes must run after selfModifying (so PATCH-stub bodies are in place)
+  const passes = [];
+
+  // Due to current implementation, specialized must run BEFORE macroOpcodes
+  if (options.specializedOpcodes) {
+    passes.push(specializedOpcodes);
+  }
+  if (options.macroOpcodes) {
+    passes.push(macroOpcodes);
+  }
+  if (options.selfModifying) {
+    passes.push(selfModifying);
+  }
+  for (const pass of passes) {
+    const passResult = pass(bytecode, compiler);
+    bytecode = passResult.bytecode;
+  }
+
+  // Assembler phases: resolve IR operands to plain integers before printing
+  const {
+    bytecode: labelResolved
+  } = resolveLabels(bytecode, compiler);
+  let {
+    bytecode: finalBytecode,
+    constants
+  } = resolveConstants(labelResolved);
+  const output = compiler.serializer.serialize(finalBytecode, constants, compiler);
+  const finalOutput = await obfuscateRuntime(output, finalBytecode, options, compiler);
+  return {
+    code: finalOutput
+  };
+}