effect-qb 0.16.0 → 0.19.0

package/src/internal/dialect-renderers/mysql.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,2046 @@
+import * as Schema from "effect/Schema"
+
+import * as Query from "../query.js"
+import * as Expression from "../scalar.js"
+import * as Table from "../table.js"
+import * as QueryAst from "../query-ast.js"
+import { renderDbTypeName, type RenderState, type RenderValueContext, type SqlDialect } from "../dialect.js"
+import * as ExpressionAst from "../expression-ast.js"
+import * as JsonPath from "../json/path.js"
+import { renderMysqlMutationLockMode, renderSelectLockMode } from "../dsl-plan-runtime.js"
+import { expectConflictClause } from "../dsl-mutation-runtime.js"
+import { expectDdlClauseKind, expectTruncateClause, normalizeStatementFlag, normalizeStatementIdentifier, renderTransactionIsolationLevel } from "../dsl-transaction-ddl-runtime.js"
+import {
+  renderJsonSelectSql,
+  renderSelectSql,
+  toDriverValue
+} from "../runtime/driver-value-mapping.js"
+import { normalizeDbValue } from "../runtime/normalize.js"
+import { flattenSelection, type Projection } from "../projections.js"
+import * as SchemaExpression from "../schema-expression.js"
+import { renderReferentialAction, validateOptions, type DdlExpressionLike, type TableOptionSpec } from "../table-options.js"
+import * as Casing from "../casing.js"
+
+const renderDbType = (
+  dialect: SqlDialect,
+  dbType: Expression.DbType.Any
+): string => {
+  if (dialect.name === "mysql" && dbType.kind === "uuid") {
+    return "char(36)"
+  }
+  return renderDbTypeName(dbType.kind)
+}
+
+const isArrayDbType = (dbType: Expression.DbType.Any): boolean =>
+  "element" in dbType
+
+const renderCastType = (
+  dialect: SqlDialect,
+  dbType: unknown
+): string => {
+  const kind = (dbType as { readonly kind?: string } | undefined)?.kind as string
+  if (dialect.name !== "mysql") {
+    return renderDbTypeName(kind)
+  }
+  switch (kind) {
+    case "text":
+      return "char"
+    case "uuid":
+      return "char(36)"
+    case "numeric":
+      return "decimal"
+    case "timestamp":
+      return "datetime"
+    case "bool":
+    case "boolean":
+      return "boolean"
+    case "json":
+      return "json"
+    default:
+      return renderDbTypeName(kind)
+  }
+}
+
+const renderMysqlDdlString = (value: string): string =>
+  `'${value.replaceAll("'", "''")}'`
+
+const renderMysqlDdlBytes = (value: Uint8Array): string =>
+  `x'${Array.from(value, (byte) => byte.toString(16).padStart(2, "0")).join("")}'`
+
+const renderMysqlDdlLiteral = (
+  value: unknown,
+  state: RenderState,
+  context: RenderValueContext = {}
+): string => {
+  const driverValue = toDriverValue(value, {
+    dialect: "mysql",
+    valueMappings: state.valueMappings,
+    ...context
+  })
+  if (driverValue === null) {
+    return "null"
+  }
+  switch (typeof driverValue) {
+    case "boolean":
+      return driverValue ? "true" : "false"
+    case "number":
+      if (!Number.isFinite(driverValue)) {
+        throw new Error("Expected a finite numeric value")
+      }
+      return String(driverValue)
+    case "bigint":
+      return driverValue.toString()
+    case "string":
+      return renderMysqlDdlString(driverValue)
+    case "object":
+      if (driverValue instanceof Uint8Array) {
+        return renderMysqlDdlBytes(driverValue)
+      }
+      break
+  }
+  throw new Error("Unsupported mysql DDL literal value")
+}
+
+const renderDdlExpression = (
+  expression: DdlExpressionLike,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => {
+  if (SchemaExpression.isSchemaExpression(expression)) {
+    return SchemaExpression.render(expression)
+  }
+  return renderExpression(expression, state, {
+    ...dialect,
+    renderLiteral: renderMysqlDdlLiteral
+  })
+}
+
+const renderMysqlMutationLimit = (
+  expression: Expression.Any,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => {
+  const ast = (expression as Expression.Any & {
+    readonly [ExpressionAst.TypeId]: ExpressionAst.Any
+  })[ExpressionAst.TypeId]
+  if (ast.kind === "literal" && typeof ast.value === "number" && Number.isInteger(ast.value) && ast.value >= 0) {
+    return String(ast.value)
+  }
+  return renderExpression(expression, state, dialect)
+}
+
+const casingForTable = (
+  table: Table.AnyTable,
+  state: RenderState
+): Casing.Options | undefined =>
+  Casing.merge(state.casing, table[Table.TypeId].casing)
+
+const casedColumnName = (
+  columnName: string,
+  state: RenderState,
+  tableName?: string
+): string => {
+  if (tableName !== undefined) {
+    const mapped = state.sourceNames?.get(tableName)?.columns.get(columnName)
+    if (mapped !== undefined) {
+      return mapped
+    }
+  }
+  return Casing.applyCategory(state.casing, "columns", columnName)
+}
+
+const casedTableReferenceName = (
+  tableName: string,
+  state: RenderState
+): string =>
+  state.sourceNames?.get(tableName)?.tableName ?? Casing.applyCategory(state.casing, "tables", tableName)
+
+const quoteColumn = (
+  columnName: string,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect,
+  tableName?: string
+): string => dialect.quoteIdentifier(casedColumnName(columnName, state, tableName))
+
+const stateWithTableCasing = (
+  state: RenderState,
+  source: unknown
+): RenderState =>
+  typeof source === "object" && source !== null && Table.TypeId in source
+    ? { ...state, casing: casingForTable(source as Table.AnyTable, state) }
+    : state
+
+const referenceCasing = (
+  reference: { readonly casing?: Casing.Options },
+  state: RenderState
+): Casing.Options | undefined =>
+  Casing.merge(state.casing, reference.casing)
+
+const renderReferenceTable = (
+  reference: {
+    readonly tableName: string
+    readonly schemaName?: string
+    readonly casing?: Casing.Options
+  },
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => {
+  const casing = referenceCasing(reference, state)
+  const tableName = Casing.applyCategory(casing, "tables", reference.tableName)
+  const schemaName = reference.schemaName === undefined
+    ? undefined
+    : Casing.applyCategory(casing, "schemas", reference.schemaName)
+  return dialect.renderTableReference(tableName, tableName, schemaName)
+}
+
+const quoteReferenceColumn = (
+  columnName: string,
+  reference: { readonly casing?: Casing.Options },
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string =>
+  dialect.quoteIdentifier(Casing.applyCategory(referenceCasing(reference, state), "columns", columnName))
+
+const registerSourceReference = (
+  source: unknown,
+  tableName: string,
+  state: RenderState
+): void => {
+  if (typeof source !== "object" || source === null) {
+    return
+  }
+  if (Table.TypeId in source) {
+    const table = source as Table.AnyTable
+    const tableState = table[Table.TypeId]
+    const casing = casingForTable(table, state)
+    const renderedTableName = tableState.kind === "alias"
+      ? tableName
+      : Casing.applyCategory(casing, "tables", tableState.baseName)
+    const columns = new Map(
+      Object.keys(tableState.fields).map((columnName) => [
+        columnName,
+        Casing.applyCategory(casing, "columns", columnName)
+      ] as const)
+    )
+    state.sourceNames?.set(tableName, {
+      tableName: renderedTableName,
+      columns
+    })
+    return
+  }
+  if ("columns" in source && typeof source.columns === "object" && source.columns !== null) {
+    state.sourceNames?.set(tableName, {
+      tableName,
+      columns: new Map(Object.keys(source.columns).map((columnName) => [columnName, columnName] as const))
+    })
+  }
+}
+
+const registerQuerySources = (
+  ast: QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, QueryAst.QueryStatement>,
+  state: RenderState
+): void => {
+  if (ast.from !== undefined) {
+    registerSourceReference(ast.from.source, ast.from.tableName, state)
+  }
+  for (const source of ast.fromSources ?? []) {
+    registerSourceReference(source.source, source.tableName, state)
+  }
+  for (const join of ast.joins) {
+    registerSourceReference(join.source, join.tableName, state)
+  }
+  if (ast.into !== undefined) {
+    registerSourceReference(ast.into.source, ast.into.tableName, state)
+  }
+  if (ast.target !== undefined) {
+    registerSourceReference(ast.target.source, ast.target.tableName, state)
+  }
+  for (const target of ast.targets ?? []) {
+    registerSourceReference(target.source, target.tableName, state)
+  }
+  if (ast.using !== undefined) {
+    registerSourceReference(ast.using.source, ast.using.tableName, state)
+  }
+}
+
+const renderColumnDefinition = (
+  dialect: SqlDialect,
+  state: RenderState,
+  columnName: string,
+  column: Table.AnyTable[typeof Table.TypeId]["fields"][string],
+  tableName?: string,
+  casing?: Casing.Options
+): string => {
+  const expressionState = { ...state, casing, rowLocalColumns: true }
+  if (isArrayDbType(column.metadata.dbType)) {
+    throw new Error("Unsupported mysql array column options")
+  }
+  const clauses = [
+    quoteColumn(columnName, state, dialect, tableName),
+    column.metadata.ddlType === undefined
+      ? renderDbType(dialect, column.metadata.dbType)
+      : renderDbTypeName(column.metadata.ddlType)
+  ]
+  if (column.metadata.identity) {
+    throw new Error("Unsupported mysql identity column options")
+  } else if (column.metadata.generatedValue) {
+    clauses.push(`generated always as (${renderDdlExpression(column.metadata.generatedValue, expressionState, dialect)}) stored`)
+  } else if (column.metadata.defaultValue) {
+    clauses.push(`default ${renderDdlExpression(column.metadata.defaultValue, expressionState, dialect)}`)
+  }
+  if (!column.metadata.nullable) {
+    clauses.push("not null")
+  }
+  return clauses.join(" ")
+}
+
+const renderCreateTableSql = (
+  targetSource: QueryAst.FromClause,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect,
+  ifNotExists: unknown
+): string => {
+  const normalizedIfNotExists = normalizeStatementFlag(ifNotExists)
+  const table = targetSource.source as Table.AnyTable
+  const tableCasing = casingForTable(table, state)
+  const fields = table[Table.TypeId].fields
+  const definitions = Object.entries(fields).map(([columnName, column]) =>
+    renderColumnDefinition(dialect, state, columnName, column, targetSource.tableName, tableCasing)
+  )
+  const options = table[Table.OptionsSymbol] as unknown
+  const tableOptions = (Array.isArray(options) ? options : [options]) as readonly TableOptionSpec[]
+  validateOptions(table[Table.TypeId].name, fields, tableOptions)
+  for (const option of tableOptions) {
+    if (typeof option !== "object" || option === null || !("kind" in option)) {
+      continue
+    }
+    switch (option.kind) {
+      case "primaryKey":
+        if (option.deferrable || option.initiallyDeferred) {
+          throw new Error("Unsupported mysql primary key constraint options")
+        }
+        definitions.push(`${option.name ? `constraint ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(Casing.applyCategory(tableCasing, "constraints", option.name))} ` : ""}primary key (${option.columns.map((column) => quoteColumn(column, state, dialect, targetSource.tableName)).join(", ")})${option.deferrable ? ` deferrable${option.initiallyDeferred ? " initially deferred" : ""}` : ""}`)
+        break
+      case "unique":
+        if (option.nullsNotDistinct || option.deferrable || option.initiallyDeferred) {
+          throw new Error("Unsupported mysql unique constraint options")
+        }
+        definitions.push(`${option.name ? `constraint ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(Casing.applyCategory(tableCasing, "constraints", option.name))} ` : ""}unique${option.nullsNotDistinct ? " nulls not distinct" : ""} (${option.columns.map((column) => quoteColumn(column, state, dialect, targetSource.tableName)).join(", ")})${option.deferrable ? ` deferrable${option.initiallyDeferred ? " initially deferred" : ""}` : ""}`)
+        break
+      case "foreignKey": {
+        if (option.deferrable || option.initiallyDeferred) {
+          throw new Error("Unsupported mysql foreign key constraint options")
+        }
+        const reference = typeof option.references === "function"
+          ? option.references()
+          : option.references
+        definitions.push(
+          `${option.name ? `constraint ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(Casing.applyCategory(tableCasing, "constraints", option.name))} ` : ""}foreign key (${option.columns.map((column) => quoteColumn(column, state, dialect, targetSource.tableName)).join(", ")}) references ${renderReferenceTable(reference, state, dialect)} (${reference.columns.map((column) => quoteReferenceColumn(column, reference, state, dialect)).join(", ")})${option.onDelete !== undefined ? ` on delete ${renderReferentialAction(option.onDelete)}` : ""}${option.onUpdate !== undefined ? ` on update ${renderReferentialAction(option.onUpdate)}` : ""}${option.deferrable ? ` deferrable${option.initiallyDeferred ? " initially deferred" : ""}` : ""}`
+        )
+        break
+      }
+      case "check":
+        if (option.noInherit) {
+          throw new Error("Unsupported mysql check constraint options")
+        }
+        definitions.push(
+          `constraint ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(Casing.applyCategory(tableCasing, "constraints", option.name))} check (${renderDdlExpression(option.predicate, { ...state, casing: tableCasing, rowLocalColumns: true }, dialect)})${option.noInherit ? " no inherit" : ""}`
+        )
+        break
+      case "index":
+        break
+      default:
+        throw new Error("Unsupported table option kind")
+    }
+  }
+  return `create table${normalizedIfNotExists ? " if not exists" : ""} ${renderSourceReference(targetSource.source, targetSource.tableName, targetSource.baseTableName, state, dialect)} (${definitions.join(", ")})`
+}
+
+const renderCreateIndexSql = (
+  targetSource: QueryAst.FromClause,
+  ddl: Extract<QueryAst.DdlClause, { readonly kind: "createIndex" }>,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => {
+  const unique = normalizeStatementFlag(ddl.unique)
+  const ifNotExists = normalizeStatementFlag(ddl.ifNotExists)
+  const name = normalizeStatementIdentifier("createIndex", "option 'name'", ddl.name)
+  if (ifNotExists) {
+    throw new Error("Unsupported mysql create index options")
+  }
+  const maybeIfNotExists = dialect.name === "postgres" && ifNotExists ? " if not exists" : ""
+  const table = targetSource.source as Table.AnyTable
+  const tableCasing = casingForTable(table, state)
+  return `create${unique ? " unique" : ""} index${maybeIfNotExists} ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(Casing.applyCategory(tableCasing, "indexes", name))} on ${renderSourceReference(targetSource.source, targetSource.tableName, targetSource.baseTableName, state, dialect)} (${ddl.columns.map((column) => quoteColumn(column, state, dialect, targetSource.tableName)).join(", ")})`
+}
+
+const renderDropIndexSql = (
+  targetSource: QueryAst.FromClause,
+  ddl: Extract<QueryAst.DdlClause, { readonly kind: "dropIndex" }>,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => {
+  const ifExists = normalizeStatementFlag(ddl.ifExists)
+  const name = normalizeStatementIdentifier("dropIndex", "option 'name'", ddl.name)
+  if (ifExists) {
+    throw new Error("Unsupported mysql drop index options")
+  }
+  const table = targetSource.source as Table.AnyTable
+  const tableCasing = casingForTable(table, state)
+  return dialect.name === "postgres"
+    ? `drop index${ifExists ? " if exists" : ""} ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(Casing.applyCategory(tableCasing, "indexes", name))}`
+    : `drop index ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(Casing.applyCategory(tableCasing, "indexes", name))} on ${renderSourceReference(targetSource.source, targetSource.tableName, targetSource.baseTableName, state, dialect)}`
+}
+
+const isExpression = (value: unknown): value is Expression.Any =>
+  value !== null && typeof value === "object" && Expression.TypeId in value
+
+const isJsonDbType = (dbType: Expression.DbType.Any): boolean => {
+  if (dbType.kind === "jsonb" || dbType.kind === "json") {
+    return true
+  }
+  if (!("variant" in dbType)) {
+    return false
+  }
+  const variant = dbType.variant as string
+  return variant === "json" || variant === "jsonb"
+}
+
+const isJsonExpression = (value: unknown): value is Expression.Any =>
+  isExpression(value) && isJsonDbType(value[Expression.TypeId].dbType)
+
+const expectValueExpression = (
+  _functionName: string,
+  value: unknown
+): Expression.Any => value as Expression.Any
+
+const expectBinaryExpressions = (
+  _functionName: string,
+  left: unknown,
+  right: unknown
+): readonly [Expression.Any, Expression.Any] => [left as Expression.Any, right as Expression.Any]
+
+const renderBinaryExpression = (
+  functionName: string,
+  operator: string,
+  left: unknown,
+  right: unknown,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => {
+  const [leftExpression, rightExpression] = expectBinaryExpressions(functionName, left, right)
+  return `(${renderExpression(leftExpression, state, dialect)} ${operator} ${renderExpression(rightExpression, state, dialect)})`
+}
+
+const unsupportedJsonFeature = (
+  dialect: SqlDialect,
+  feature: string
+): never => {
+  const error = new Error(`Unsupported JSON feature for ${dialect.name}: ${feature}`) as Error & {
+    readonly tag: string
+    readonly dialect: string
+    readonly feature: string
+  }
+  Object.assign(error, {
+    tag: `@${dialect.name}/unsupported/json-feature`,
+    dialect: dialect.name,
+    feature
+  })
+  throw error
+}
+
+const extractJsonBase = (node: Record<string, unknown>): unknown =>
+  node.value ?? node.base ?? node.input ?? node.left ?? node.target
+
+const isJsonPathValue = (value: unknown): value is JsonPath.Path<any> =>
+  value !== null && typeof value === "object" && JsonPath.TypeId in value
+
+const isOptionalJsonPathNumber = (value: unknown): boolean =>
+  value === undefined || (typeof value === "number" && Number.isFinite(value))
+
+const isJsonPathSegment = (segment: unknown): boolean => {
+  if (typeof segment === "string") {
+    return true
+  }
+  if (typeof segment === "number") {
+    return Number.isFinite(segment)
+  }
+  if (segment === null || typeof segment !== "object" || !("kind" in segment)) {
+    return false
+  }
+  switch ((segment as { readonly kind?: unknown }).kind) {
+    case "key":
+      return typeof (segment as { readonly key?: unknown }).key === "string"
+    case "index": {
+      const index = (segment as { readonly index?: unknown }).index
+      return typeof index === "number" && Number.isFinite(index)
+    }
+    case "wildcard":
+    case "descend":
+      return true
+    case "slice":
+      return isOptionalJsonPathNumber((segment as { readonly start?: unknown }).start) &&
+        isOptionalJsonPathNumber((segment as { readonly end?: unknown }).end)
+    default:
+      return false
+  }
+}
+
+const validateJsonPathSegments = (segments: unknown): ReadonlyArray<JsonPath.AnySegment> => {
+  if (!Array.isArray(segments)) {
+    throw new Error("JSON path expressions require a segment array")
+  }
+  if (segments.some((segment) => !isJsonPathSegment(segment))) {
+    throw new Error("JSON path segments require string, number, or path segment objects")
+  }
+  return segments as ReadonlyArray<JsonPath.AnySegment>
+}
+
+const extractJsonPathSegments = (node: Record<string, unknown>): ReadonlyArray<JsonPath.AnySegment> => {
+  const path = node.path ?? node.segments ?? node.keys
+  if (isJsonPathValue(path)) {
+    return validateJsonPathSegments(path.segments)
+  }
+  if (Array.isArray(path)) {
+    return validateJsonPathSegments(path)
+  }
+  if (node.segments !== undefined) {
+    return validateJsonPathSegments(node.segments)
+  }
+  if ("key" in node) {
+    return [JsonPath.key(String(node.key))]
+  }
+  if ("segment" in node) {
+    const segment = node.segment
+    if (typeof segment === "string") {
+      return [JsonPath.key(segment)]
+    }
+    if (typeof segment === "number") {
+      return [JsonPath.index(segment)]
+    }
+    if (segment !== null && typeof segment === "object" && JsonPath.SegmentTypeId in segment) {
+      return [segment as JsonPath.AnySegment]
+    }
+    return []
+  }
+  if ("right" in node && isJsonPathValue(node.right)) {
+    return validateJsonPathSegments(node.right.segments)
+  }
+  return []
+}
+
+const extractJsonKeys = (
+  node: Record<string, unknown>,
+  segments: ReadonlyArray<JsonPath.AnySegment>
+): readonly unknown[] =>
+  Array.isArray(node.keys)
+    ? node.keys
+    : segments.map((segment) =>
+        typeof segment === "object" && segment !== null && segment.kind === "key"
+          ? segment.key
+          : segment
+      )
+
+const extractJsonValue = (node: Record<string, unknown>): unknown =>
+  node.newValue ?? node.insert ?? node.right
+
+const renderJsonPathSegment = (segment: JsonPath.AnySegment | string | number): string => {
+  const renderKey = (value: string): string =>
+    /^[A-Za-z_][A-Za-z0-9_]*$/.test(value)
+      ? `.${value}`
+      : `.${JSON.stringify(value)}`
+  if (typeof segment === "string") {
+    return renderKey(segment)
+  }
+  if (typeof segment === "number") {
+    return `[${segment}]`
+  }
+  switch (segment.kind) {
+    case "key":
+      return renderKey(segment.key)
+    case "index":
+      return `[${segment.index}]`
+    case "wildcard":
+      return "[*]"
+    case "slice":
+      return `[${segment.start ?? 0} to ${segment.end ?? "last"}]`
+    case "descend":
+      return ".**"
+    default:
+      throw new Error("Unsupported JSON path segment")
+  }
+}
+
+const renderMySqlJsonIndex = (index: number): string =>
+  index >= 0 ? String(index) : index === -1 ? "last" : `last-${Math.abs(index) - 1}`
+
+const renderMySqlJsonPathSegment = (segment: JsonPath.AnySegment | string | number): string => {
+  if (typeof segment === "number") {
+    return `[${renderMySqlJsonIndex(segment)}]`
+  }
+  if (typeof segment === "object" && segment !== null && segment.kind === "index") {
+    return `[${renderMySqlJsonIndex(segment.index)}]`
+  }
+  if (typeof segment === "object" && segment !== null && segment.kind === "slice") {
+    return `[${renderMySqlJsonIndex(segment.start ?? 0)} to ${segment.end === undefined ? "last" : renderMySqlJsonIndex(segment.end)}]`
+  }
+  if (typeof segment === "object" && segment !== null && segment.kind === "descend") {
+    return "**"
+  }
+  return renderJsonPathSegment(segment)
+}
+
+const renderJsonPathStringLiteral = (
+  segments: ReadonlyArray<JsonPath.AnySegment | string | number>,
+  renderSegment: (segment: JsonPath.AnySegment | string | number) => string = renderJsonPathSegment
+): string => {
+  let path = "$"
+  for (const segment of segments) {
+    path += renderSegment(segment)
+  }
+  return path
+}
+
+const renderMySqlJsonPath = (
+  segments: ReadonlyArray<JsonPath.AnySegment | string | number>,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => dialect.renderLiteral(renderJsonPathStringLiteral(segments, renderMySqlJsonPathSegment), state)
+
+const isJsonArrayIndexSegment = (segment: JsonPath.AnySegment | string | number | undefined): boolean =>
+  typeof segment === "number" || (typeof segment === "object" && segment !== null && segment.kind === "index")
+
+const isExactJsonPathSegment = (segment: JsonPath.AnySegment | string | number): boolean =>
+  typeof segment === "string" ||
+  typeof segment === "number" ||
+  (typeof segment === "object" && segment !== null && (segment.kind === "key" || segment.kind === "index"))
+
+const assertMySqlJsonMutationPath = (
+  segments: ReadonlyArray<JsonPath.AnySegment | string | number>
+): void => {
+  if (!segments.every(isExactJsonPathSegment)) {
+    throw new Error("MySQL JSON mutation paths require key/index segments")
+  }
+}
+
+const renderMySqlJsonInsertPath = (
+  segments: ReadonlyArray<JsonPath.AnySegment | string | number>,
+  insertAfter: boolean,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => {
+  if (!insertAfter || segments.length === 0) {
+    return renderMySqlJsonPath(segments, state, dialect)
+  }
+  const last = segments[segments.length - 1]
+  const nextSegments = segments.slice(0, -1)
+  if (typeof last === "number") {
+    return renderMySqlJsonPath([...nextSegments, last + 1], state, dialect)
+  }
+  if (typeof last === "object" && last !== null && last.kind === "index") {
+    return renderMySqlJsonPath([...nextSegments, { ...last, index: last.index + 1 }], state, dialect)
+  }
+  return renderMySqlJsonPath(segments, state, dialect)
+}
+
+const renderPostgresJsonPathArray = (
+  segments: ReadonlyArray<JsonPath.AnySegment | string | number>,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => `array[${segments.map((segment) => {
+  if (typeof segment === "string") {
+    return dialect.renderLiteral(segment, state)
+  }
+  if (typeof segment === "number") {
+    return dialect.renderLiteral(String(segment), state)
+  }
+  switch (segment.kind) {
+    case "key":
+      return dialect.renderLiteral(segment.key, state)
+    case "index":
+      return dialect.renderLiteral(String(segment.index), state)
+    default:
+      throw new Error("Postgres JSON traversal requires exact key/index segments")
+  }
+}).join(", ")}]`
+
+const renderPostgresTextLiteral = (
+  value: string,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => `cast(${dialect.renderLiteral(value, state)} as text)`
+
+const renderPostgresJsonAccessStep = (
+  segment: JsonPath.AnySegment,
+  textMode: boolean,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => {
+  switch (segment.kind) {
+    case "key":
+      return `${textMode ? "->>" : "->"} ${dialect.renderLiteral(segment.key, state)}`
+    case "index":
+      return `${textMode ? "->>" : "->"} ${dialect.renderLiteral(String(segment.index), state)}`
+    default:
+      throw new Error("Postgres exact JSON access requires key/index segments")
+  }
+}
+
+const renderPostgresJsonValue = (
+  value: unknown,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => {
+  if (!isExpression(value)) {
+    throw new Error("Expected a JSON expression")
+  }
+  const rendered = renderExpression(value, state, dialect)
+  return value[Expression.TypeId].dbType.kind === "jsonb"
+    ? rendered
+    : `cast(${rendered} as jsonb)`
+}
+
+const expressionDriverContext = (
+  expression: Expression.Any,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+) => ({
+  dialect: dialect.name,
+  valueMappings: state.valueMappings,
+  dbType: expression[Expression.TypeId].dbType,
+  runtimeSchema: expression[Expression.TypeId].runtimeSchema,
+  driverValueMapping: expression[Expression.TypeId].driverValueMapping
+})
+
+const renderMySqlStructuredJsonLiteral = (
+  expression: Expression.Any,
+  state: RenderState
+): string | undefined => {
+  const ast = (expression as Expression.Any & {
+    readonly [ExpressionAst.TypeId]: ExpressionAst.Any
+  })[ExpressionAst.TypeId]
+  if (ast.kind !== "literal" || ast.value === null || typeof ast.value !== "object") {
+    return undefined
+  }
+  state.params.push(JSON.stringify(ast.value))
+  return "cast(? as json)"
+}
+
+const renderJsonInputExpression = (
+  expression: Expression.Any,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => {
+  if (dialect.name === "mysql") {
+    const jsonLiteral = renderMySqlStructuredJsonLiteral(expression, state)
+    if (jsonLiteral !== undefined) {
+      return jsonLiteral
+    }
+  }
+  return renderJsonSelectSql(
+    renderExpression(expression, state, dialect),
+    expressionDriverContext(expression, state, dialect)
+  )
+}
+
+const encodeArrayValues = (
+  values: readonly unknown[],
+  column: Table.AnyTable[typeof Table.TypeId]["fields"][string],
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): readonly unknown[] =>
+  values.map((value) => {
+    if (value === null && column.metadata.nullable) {
+      return null
+    }
+    const runtimeSchemaAccepts = column.schema !== undefined &&
+      (Schema.is(column.schema) as (candidate: unknown) => boolean)(value)
+    const normalizedValue = runtimeSchemaAccepts
+      ? value
+      : normalizeDbValue(column.metadata.dbType, value)
+    const encodedValue = column.schema === undefined || runtimeSchemaAccepts
+      ? normalizedValue
+      : (Schema.decodeUnknownSync as any)(column.schema)(normalizedValue)
+    return toDriverValue(encodedValue, {
+      dialect: dialect.name,
+      valueMappings: state.valueMappings,
+      dbType: column.metadata.dbType,
+      runtimeSchema: column.schema,
+      driverValueMapping: column.metadata.driverValueMapping
+    })
+  })
+
+const renderPostgresJsonKind = (
+  value: Expression.Any
+): "json" | "jsonb" => value[Expression.TypeId].dbType.kind === "jsonb" ? "jsonb" : "json"
+
+const renderJsonOpaquePath = (
+  value: unknown,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => {
+  if (isJsonPathValue(value)) {
+    const renderSegment = dialect.name === "mysql"
+      ? renderMySqlJsonPathSegment
+      : renderJsonPathSegment
+    return dialect.renderLiteral(renderJsonPathStringLiteral(value.segments, renderSegment), state)
+  }
+  if (typeof value === "string") {
+    if (value.trim().length === 0) {
+      throw new Error("SQL/JSON path input must be a non-empty string")
+    }
+    return dialect.renderLiteral(value, state)
+  }
+  if (isExpression(value)) {
+    const ast = (value as Expression.Any & {
+      readonly [ExpressionAst.TypeId]: ExpressionAst.Any
+    })[ExpressionAst.TypeId]
+    if (ast.kind === "literal" && typeof ast.value === "string" && ast.value.trim().length === 0) {
+      throw new Error("SQL/JSON path input must be a non-empty string")
+    }
+    return renderExpression(value, state, dialect)
+  }
+  throw new Error("Unsupported SQL/JSON path input")
+}
+
+const renderFunctionName = (name: unknown): string => {
+  return name as string
+}
+
+const renderExtractField = (field: Expression.Any): string => {
+  const ast = (field as Expression.Any & {
+    readonly [ExpressionAst.TypeId]: ExpressionAst.Any
+  })[ExpressionAst.TypeId] as ExpressionAst.LiteralNode<string>
+  return ast.value
+}
+
+const renderFunctionCall = (
+  name: unknown,
+  args: unknown,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => {
+  const functionName = renderFunctionName(name)
+  const functionArgs = args as readonly Expression.Any[]
+  if (functionName === "array") {
+    return `ARRAY[${functionArgs.map((arg) => renderExpression(arg, state, dialect)).join(", ")}]`
+  }
+  if (functionName === "extract") {
+    const field = functionArgs[0]!
+    const source = functionArgs[1]!
+    return `extract(${renderExtractField(field)} from ${renderExpression(source, state, dialect)})`
+  }
+  const renderedArgs = functionArgs.map((arg) => renderExpression(arg, state, dialect)).join(", ")
+  if (functionArgs.length === 0) {
+    switch (functionName) {
+      case "current_date":
+      case "current_time":
+      case "current_timestamp":
+      case "localtime":
+      case "localtimestamp":
+        return functionName
+      default:
+        return `${functionName}()`
+    }
+  }
+  return `${functionName}(${renderedArgs})`
+}
+
+const renderJsonExpression = (
+  expression: Expression.Any,
+  ast: Record<string, unknown>,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string | undefined => {
+  const kind = typeof ast.kind === "string" ? ast.kind : undefined
+  if (!kind) {
+    return undefined
+  }
+
+  const base = extractJsonBase(ast)
+  const segments = extractJsonPathSegments(ast)
+  const exact = segments.every((segment) => segment.kind === "key" || segment.kind === "index")
+  const postgresExpressionKind = dialect.name === "postgres" && isJsonExpression(expression)
+    ? renderPostgresJsonKind(expression)
+    : undefined
+  const postgresBaseKind = dialect.name === "postgres" && isJsonExpression(base)
+    ? renderPostgresJsonKind(base)
+    : undefined
+
+  switch (kind) {
+    case "jsonGet":
+    case "jsonPath":
+    case "jsonAccess":
+    case "jsonTraverse":
+    case "jsonGetText":
+    case "jsonPathText":
+    case "jsonAccessText":
+    case "jsonTraverseText": {
+      if (!isExpression(base) || segments.length === 0) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      const baseSql = renderExpression(base, state, dialect)
+      const textMode = kind.endsWith("Text") || ast.text === true || ast.asText === true
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        if (exact) {
+          return segments.length === 1
+            ? `(${baseSql} ${renderPostgresJsonAccessStep(segments[0]!, textMode, state, dialect)})`
+            : `(${baseSql} ${textMode ? "#>>" : "#>"} ${renderPostgresJsonPathArray(segments, state, dialect)})`
+        }
+        const jsonPathLiteral = dialect.renderLiteral(renderJsonPathStringLiteral(segments), state)
+        const queried = `jsonb_path_query_first(${renderPostgresJsonValue(base, state, dialect)}, ${jsonPathLiteral})`
+        return textMode ? `(${queried} #>> '{}')` : queried
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql") {
+        const extracted = `json_extract(${baseSql}, ${renderMySqlJsonPath(segments, state, dialect)})`
+        return textMode ? `json_unquote(${extracted})` : extracted
+      }
+      return undefined
+    }
+    case "jsonHasKey":
+    case "jsonKeyExists":
+    case "jsonHasAnyKeys":
+    case "jsonHasAllKeys": {
+      if (!isExpression(base)) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      const baseSql = dialect.name === "postgres"
+        ? renderPostgresJsonValue(base, state, dialect)
+        : renderExpression(base, state, dialect)
+      const keys = extractJsonKeys(ast, segments)
+      if (keys.length === 0) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      if (keys.some((key) => typeof key !== "string" || key.length === 0)) {
+        throw new Error("json key predicates require string keys")
+      }
+      const keyNames = keys as readonly string[]
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        if (kind === "jsonHasAnyKeys") {
+          return `(${baseSql} ?| array[${keyNames.map((key) => renderPostgresTextLiteral(key, state, dialect)).join(", ")}])`
+        }
+        if (kind === "jsonHasAllKeys") {
+          return `(${baseSql} ?& array[${keyNames.map((key) => renderPostgresTextLiteral(key, state, dialect)).join(", ")}])`
+        }
+        return `(${baseSql} ? ${renderPostgresTextLiteral(keyNames[0]!, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql") {
+        const mode = kind === "jsonHasAllKeys" ? "all" : "one"
+        const modeSql = dialect.renderLiteral(mode, state)
+        const paths = keyNames.map((segment) => renderMySqlJsonPath([segment], state, dialect)).join(", ")
+        return `json_contains_path(${baseSql}, ${modeSql}, ${paths})`
+      }
+      return undefined
+    }
+    case "jsonConcat":
+    case "jsonMerge": {
+      if (!isExpression(ast.left) || !isExpression(ast.right)) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        return `(${renderPostgresJsonValue(ast.left, state, dialect)} || ${renderPostgresJsonValue(ast.right, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql") {
+        return `json_merge_preserve(${renderJsonInputExpression(ast.left, state, dialect)}, ${renderJsonInputExpression(ast.right, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      return undefined
+    }
+    case "jsonBuildObject": {
+      const entries = (ast as { readonly entries: readonly { readonly key: string; readonly value: Expression.Any }[] }).entries
+      const renderedEntries = entries.flatMap((entry) => [
+        dialect.renderLiteral(entry.key, state),
+        renderJsonInputExpression(entry.value, state, dialect)
+      ])
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        return `${postgresExpressionKind === "jsonb" ? "jsonb" : "json"}_build_object(${renderedEntries.join(", ")})`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql") {
+        return `json_object(${renderedEntries.join(", ")})`
+      }
+      return undefined
+    }
+    case "jsonBuildArray": {
+      const values = (ast as { readonly values: readonly Expression.Any[] }).values
+      const renderedValues = values.map((value) => renderJsonInputExpression(value, state, dialect)).join(", ")
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        return `${postgresExpressionKind === "jsonb" ? "jsonb" : "json"}_build_array(${renderedValues})`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql") {
+        return `json_array(${renderedValues})`
+      }
+      return undefined
+    }
+    case "jsonToJson":
+      if (!isExpression(base)) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        return `to_json(${renderJsonInputExpression(base, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql") {
+        return renderMySqlStructuredJsonLiteral(base, state) ?? `cast(${renderExpression(base, state, dialect)} as json)`
+      }
+      return undefined
+    case "jsonToJsonb":
+      if (!isExpression(base)) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        return `to_jsonb(${renderJsonInputExpression(base, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql") {
+        return renderMySqlStructuredJsonLiteral(base, state) ?? `cast(${renderExpression(base, state, dialect)} as json)`
+      }
+      return undefined
+    case "jsonTypeOf":
+      if (!isExpression(base)) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        const baseSql = renderExpression(base, state, dialect)
+        return `${postgresBaseKind === "jsonb" ? "jsonb" : "json"}_typeof(${baseSql})`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql") {
+        return `json_type(${renderExpression(base, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      return undefined
+    case "jsonLength":
+      if (!isExpression(base)) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        const baseSql = renderExpression(base, state, dialect)
+        const typeOf = `${postgresBaseKind === "jsonb" ? "jsonb" : "json"}_typeof`
+        const arrayLength = `${postgresBaseKind === "jsonb" ? "jsonb" : "json"}_array_length`
+        const objectKeys = `${postgresBaseKind === "jsonb" ? "jsonb" : "json"}_object_keys`
+        return `(case when ${typeOf}(${baseSql}) = 'array' then ${arrayLength}(${baseSql}) when ${typeOf}(${baseSql}) = 'object' then (select count(*)::int from ${objectKeys}(${baseSql})) else null end)`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql") {
+        return `json_length(${renderExpression(base, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      return undefined
+    case "jsonKeys":
+      if (!isExpression(base)) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        const baseSql = renderExpression(base, state, dialect)
+        const typeOf = `${postgresBaseKind === "jsonb" ? "jsonb" : "json"}_typeof`
+        const objectKeys = `${postgresBaseKind === "jsonb" ? "jsonb" : "json"}_object_keys`
+        return `(case when ${typeOf}(${baseSql}) = 'object' then array(select ${objectKeys}(${baseSql})) else null end)`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql") {
+        return `json_keys(${renderExpression(base, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      return undefined
+    case "jsonStripNulls":
+      if (!isExpression(base)) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        return `${postgresBaseKind === "jsonb" ? "jsonb" : "json"}_strip_nulls(${renderExpression(base, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      unsupportedJsonFeature(dialect, "jsonStripNulls")
+      return undefined
+    case "jsonDelete":
+    case "jsonDeletePath":
+    case "jsonRemove": {
+      if (!isExpression(base) || segments.length === 0) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        const baseSql = renderPostgresJsonValue(base, state, dialect)
+        if (segments.length === 1 && (segments[0]!.kind === "key" || segments[0]!.kind === "index")) {
+          const segment = segments[0]!
+          return `(${baseSql} - ${segment.kind === "key"
+            ? dialect.renderLiteral(segment.key, state)
+            : dialect.renderLiteral(String(segment.index), state)})`
+        }
+        return `(${baseSql} #- ${renderPostgresJsonPathArray(segments, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql") {
+        assertMySqlJsonMutationPath(segments)
+        return `json_remove(${renderExpression(base, state, dialect)}, ${renderMySqlJsonPath(segments, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      return undefined
+    }
+    case "jsonSet":
+    case "jsonInsert": {
+      if (!isExpression(base) || segments.length === 0) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      const nextValue = extractJsonValue(ast)
+      if (!isExpression(nextValue)) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      const createMissing = ast.createMissing === true
+      const insertAfter = ast.insertAfter === true
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        const functionName = kind === "jsonInsert" ? "jsonb_insert" : "jsonb_set"
+        const extra =
+          kind === "jsonInsert"
+            ? `, ${insertAfter ? "true" : "false"}`
+            : `, ${createMissing ? "true" : "false"}`
+        return `${functionName}(${renderPostgresJsonValue(base, state, dialect)}, ${renderPostgresJsonPathArray(segments, state, dialect)}, ${renderPostgresJsonValue(nextValue, state, dialect)}${extra})`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql") {
+        assertMySqlJsonMutationPath(segments)
+        const renderedBase = renderExpression(base, state, dialect)
+        if (kind === "jsonInsert" && isJsonArrayIndexSegment(segments[segments.length - 1])) {
+          const renderedPath = renderMySqlJsonInsertPath(segments, insertAfter, state, dialect)
+          const renderedValue = renderJsonInputExpression(nextValue, state, dialect)
+          return `json_array_insert(${renderedBase}, ${renderedPath}, ${renderedValue})`
+        }
+        const functionName = kind === "jsonInsert" ? "json_insert" : createMissing ? "json_set" : "json_replace"
+        const renderedPath = renderMySqlJsonPath(segments, state, dialect)
+        const renderedValue = renderJsonInputExpression(nextValue, state, dialect)
+        return `${functionName}(${renderedBase}, ${renderedPath}, ${renderedValue})`
+      }
+      return undefined
+    }
+    case "jsonPathExists": {
+      if (!isExpression(base)) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      const path = ast.path ?? ast.query ?? ast.right
+      if (path === undefined) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        return `(${renderPostgresJsonValue(base, state, dialect)} @? ${renderJsonOpaquePath(path, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql") {
+        return `json_contains_path(${renderExpression(base, state, dialect)}, ${dialect.renderLiteral("one", state)}, ${renderJsonOpaquePath(path, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      return undefined
+    }
+    case "jsonPathMatch": {
+      if (!isExpression(base)) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      const path = ast.path ?? ast.query ?? ast.right
+      if (path === undefined) {
+        return undefined
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        return `(${renderPostgresJsonValue(base, state, dialect)} @@ ${renderJsonOpaquePath(path, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      unsupportedJsonFeature(dialect, "jsonPathMatch")
+    }
+  }
+
+  return undefined
+}
+
+export interface RenderedQueryAst {
+  readonly sql: string
+  readonly projections: readonly Projection[]
+}
+
+const selectionProjections = (selection: Record<string, unknown>): readonly Projection[] =>
+  flattenSelection(selection).map(({ path, alias }) => ({
+    path,
+    alias
+  }))
+
+const renderMutationAssignment = (
+  entry: QueryAst.AssignmentClause,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect,
+  targetTableName?: string
+): string => {
+  const column = entry.tableName && dialect.name === "mysql"
+    ? `${dialect.quoteIdentifier(casedTableReferenceName(entry.tableName, state))}.${quoteColumn(entry.columnName, state, dialect, entry.tableName)}`
+    : quoteColumn(entry.columnName, state, dialect, targetTableName)
+  return `${column} = ${renderExpression(entry.value, state, dialect)}`
+}
+
+const renderJoinSourcesForMutation = (
+  joins: readonly QueryAst.JoinClause[],
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => joins.map((join) =>
+  renderSourceReference(join.source, join.tableName, join.baseTableName, state, dialect)
+).join(", ")
+
+const renderFromSources = (
+  sources: readonly QueryAst.FromClause[],
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => sources.map((source) =>
+  renderSourceReference(source.source, source.tableName, source.baseTableName, state, dialect)
+).join(", ")
+
+const renderJoinPredicatesForMutation = (
+  joins: readonly QueryAst.JoinClause[],
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): readonly string[] =>
+  joins.flatMap((join) =>
+    join.kind === "cross" || !join.on
+      ? []
+      : [renderExpression(join.on, state, dialect)]
+  )
+
+const renderDeleteTargets = (
+  targets: readonly QueryAst.FromClause[],
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => targets.map((target) => dialect.quoteIdentifier(casedTableReferenceName(target.tableName, state))).join(", ")
+
+const renderMysqlMutationLock = (
+  lock: QueryAst.LockClause | undefined,
+  statement: "update" | "delete"
+): string => {
+  if (!lock) {
+    return ""
+  }
+  return renderMysqlMutationLockMode(lock.mode, statement)
+}
+
+const renderTransactionClause = (
+  clause: QueryAst.TransactionClause,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => {
+  switch (clause.kind) {
+    case "transaction": {
+      const modes: string[] = []
+      const isolationLevel = renderTransactionIsolationLevel(clause.isolationLevel)
+      if (isolationLevel) {
+        modes.push(isolationLevel)
+      }
+      if (normalizeStatementFlag(clause.readOnly)) {
+        modes.push("read only")
+      }
+      return modes.length > 0
+        ? `start transaction ${modes.join(", ")}`
+        : "start transaction"
+    }
+    case "commit":
+      return "commit"
+    case "rollback":
+      return "rollback"
+    case "savepoint":
+      return `savepoint ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(normalizeStatementIdentifier("savepoint", "name", clause.name))}`
+    case "rollbackTo":
+      return `rollback to savepoint ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(normalizeStatementIdentifier("rollbackTo", "name", clause.name))}`
+    case "releaseSavepoint":
+      return `release savepoint ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(normalizeStatementIdentifier("releaseSavepoint", "name", clause.name))}`
+  }
+  return "start transaction"
+}
+
+const renderSelectionList = (
+  selection: Record<string, unknown>,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): RenderedQueryAst => {
+  const flattened = flattenSelection(selection)
+  const projections = selectionProjections(selection)
+  const sql = flattened.map(({ expression, alias }) =>
+    `${renderSelectSql(renderExpression(expression, state, dialect), expressionDriverContext(expression, state, dialect))} as ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(alias)}`).join(", ")
+  return {
+    sql,
+    projections
+  }
+}
+
+const nestedRenderState = (state: RenderState): RenderState => ({
+  params: state.params,
+  valueMappings: state.valueMappings,
+  casing: state.casing,
+  ctes: [],
+  cteNames: new Set(state.cteNames),
+  cteSources: new Map(state.cteSources),
+  sourceNames: new Map(state.sourceNames)
+})
+
+export const renderQueryAst = (
+  ast: QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, QueryAst.QueryStatement>,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect,
+  options: { readonly emitCtes?: boolean } = {}
+): RenderedQueryAst => {
+  registerQuerySources(ast, state)
+  let sql = ""
+  let projections: readonly Projection[] = []
+
+  switch (ast.kind) {
+    case "select": {
+      const rendered = renderSelectionList(ast.select as Record<string, unknown>, state, dialect)
+      projections = rendered.projections
+      const selectList = rendered.sql.length > 0 ? ` ${rendered.sql}` : ""
+      const clauses = [
+        ast.distinctOn && ast.distinctOn.length > 0
+          ? `select distinct on (${ast.distinctOn.map((value) => renderExpression(value, state, dialect)).join(", ")})${selectList}`
+          : `select${ast.distinct ? " distinct" : ""}${selectList}`
+      ]
+      if (ast.from) {
+        clauses.push(`from ${renderSourceReference(ast.from.source, ast.from.tableName, ast.from.baseTableName, state, dialect)}`)
+      }
+      for (const join of ast.joins) {
+        if (dialect.name === "mysql" && join.kind === "full") {
+          throw new Error("Unsupported mysql full join")
+        }
+        const source = renderSourceReference(join.source, join.tableName, join.baseTableName, state, dialect)
+        clauses.push(
+          join.kind === "cross"
+            ? `cross join ${source}`
+            : `${join.kind} join ${source} on ${renderExpression(join.on!, state, dialect)}`
+        )
+      }
+      if (ast.where.length > 0) {
+        clauses.push(`where ${ast.where.map((entry: QueryAst.WhereClause) => renderExpression(entry.predicate, state, dialect)).join(" and ")}`)
+      }
+      if (ast.groupBy.length > 0) {
+        clauses.push(`group by ${ast.groupBy.map((value: QueryAst.Ast["groupBy"][number]) => renderExpression(value, state, dialect)).join(", ")}`)
+      }
+      if (ast.having.length > 0) {
+        clauses.push(`having ${ast.having.map((entry: QueryAst.HavingClause) => renderExpression(entry.predicate, state, dialect)).join(" and ")}`)
+      }
+      if (ast.orderBy.length > 0) {
+        clauses.push(`order by ${ast.orderBy.map((entry: QueryAst.OrderByClause) => `${renderExpression(entry.value, state, dialect)} ${entry.direction}`).join(", ")}`)
+      }
+      if (ast.limit) {
+        clauses.push(`limit ${renderExpression(ast.limit, state, dialect)}`)
+      }
+      if (ast.offset) {
+        clauses.push(`offset ${renderExpression(ast.offset, state, dialect)}`)
+      }
+      if (ast.lock) {
+        clauses.push(
+          `${renderSelectLockMode(ast.lock.mode)}${ast.lock.nowait ? " nowait" : ""}${ast.lock.skipLocked ? " skip locked" : ""}`
+        )
+      }
+      sql = clauses.join(" ")
+      break
+    }
+    case "set": {
+      const setAst = ast as QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, "set">
+      const base = renderQueryAst(
+        Query.getAst(setAst.setBase as Query.Plan.Any) as QueryAst.Ast<
+          Record<string, unknown>,
+          any,
+          QueryAst.QueryStatement
+        >,
+        state,
+        dialect
+      )
+      projections = selectionProjections(setAst.select as Record<string, unknown>)
+      sql = [
+        `(${base.sql})`,
+        ...(setAst.setOperations ?? []).map((entry) => {
+          const rendered = renderQueryAst(
+            Query.getAst(entry.query as Query.Plan.Any) as QueryAst.Ast<
+              Record<string, unknown>,
+              any,
+              QueryAst.QueryStatement
+            >,
+            state,
+            dialect
+          )
+          return `${entry.kind}${entry.all ? " all" : ""} (${rendered.sql})`
+        })
+      ].join(" ")
+      break
+    }
+    case "insert": {
+      const insertAst = ast as QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, "insert">
+      const targetSource = insertAst.into!
+      const target = renderSourceReference(targetSource.source, targetSource.tableName, targetSource.baseTableName, state, dialect)
+      const targetCasingState = stateWithTableCasing(state, targetSource.source)
+      const insertSource = insertAst.insertSource
+      const conflict = expectConflictClause(insertAst.conflict)
+      sql = `insert into ${target}`
+      if (insertSource?.kind === "values") {
+        const columns = insertSource.columns.map((column) => quoteColumn(column, state, dialect, targetSource.tableName)).join(", ")
+        const rows = insertSource.rows.map((row) =>
+          `(${row.values.map((entry) => renderExpression(entry.value, targetCasingState, dialect)).join(", ")})`
+        ).join(", ")
+        sql += ` (${columns}) values ${rows}`
+      } else if (insertSource?.kind === "query") {
+        const columns = insertSource.columns.map((column) => quoteColumn(column, state, dialect, targetSource.tableName)).join(", ")
+        const renderedQuery = renderQueryAst(
+          Query.getAst(insertSource.query as Query.Plan.Any) as QueryAst.Ast<
+            Record<string, unknown>,
+            any,
+            QueryAst.QueryStatement
+          >,
+          state,
+          dialect
+        )
+        sql += ` (${columns}) ${renderedQuery.sql}`
+      } else if (insertSource?.kind === "unnest") {
+        const columns = insertSource.columns.map((column) => quoteColumn(column, state, dialect, targetSource.tableName)).join(", ")
+        if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+          const table = targetSource.source as Table.AnyTable
+          const fields = table[Table.TypeId].fields
+          const rendered = insertSource.values.map((entry) =>
+            `cast(${dialect.renderLiteral(encodeArrayValues(entry.values, fields[entry.columnName]!, state, dialect), state)} as ${renderCastType(dialect, fields[entry.columnName]!.metadata.dbType)}[])`
+          ).join(", ")
+          sql += ` (${columns}) select * from unnest(${rendered})`
+        } else {
+          const table = targetSource.source as Table.AnyTable
+          const fields = table[Table.TypeId].fields
+          const encodedValues = insertSource.values.map((entry) => ({
+            columnName: entry.columnName,
+            values: encodeArrayValues(entry.values, fields[entry.columnName]!, state, dialect)
+          }))
+          const rowCount = encodedValues[0]?.values.length ?? 0
+          const rows = Array.from({ length: rowCount }, (_, index) =>
+            `(${encodedValues.map((entry) => dialect.renderLiteral(entry.values[index], state)).join(", ")})`
+          ).join(", ")
+          sql += ` (${columns}) values ${rows}`
+        }
+      } else {
+        const insertValues = insertAst.values ?? []
+        const columns = insertValues.map((entry) => quoteColumn(entry.columnName, state, dialect, targetSource.tableName)).join(", ")
+        const values = insertValues.map((entry) => renderExpression(entry.value, targetCasingState, dialect)).join(", ")
+        if (insertValues.length > 0) {
+          sql += ` (${columns}) values (${values})`
+        } else {
+          sql += " () values ()"
+        }
+      }
+      if (conflict) {
+        const conflictValueState = { ...targetCasingState, allowExcluded: true }
+        const updateValues = (conflict.values ?? []).map((entry) =>
+          `${quoteColumn(entry.columnName, state, dialect, targetSource.tableName)} = ${renderExpression(entry.value, conflictValueState, dialect)}`
+        ).join(", ")
+        if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+          const targetSql = conflict.target?.kind === "constraint"
+            ? ` on conflict on constraint ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(Casing.applyCategory(targetCasingState.casing, "constraints", conflict.target.name))}`
+            : conflict.target?.kind === "columns"
+              ? ` on conflict (${conflict.target.columns.map((column) => quoteColumn(column, state, dialect, targetSource.tableName)).join(", ")})${conflict.target.where ? ` where ${renderExpression(conflict.target.where, targetCasingState, dialect)}` : ""}`
+              : " on conflict"
+          sql += targetSql
+          sql += conflict.action === "doNothing"
+            ? " do nothing"
+            : ` do update set ${updateValues}${conflict.where ? ` where ${renderExpression(conflict.where, conflictValueState, dialect)}` : ""}`
+        } else if (conflict.action === "doNothing") {
+          sql = sql.replace(/^insert/, "insert ignore")
+        } else {
+          sql += ` on duplicate key update ${updateValues}`
+        }
+      }
+      const hasReturning = Object.keys(insertAst.select as Record<string, unknown>).length > 0
+      const returning = hasReturning
+        ? renderSelectionList(insertAst.select as Record<string, unknown>, state, dialect)
+        : { sql: "", projections: [] }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql" && returning.sql.length > 0) {
+        throw new Error("Unsupported mysql returning")
+      }
+      projections = returning.projections
+      if (returning.sql.length > 0) {
+        sql += ` returning ${returning.sql}`
+      }
+      break
+    }
+    case "update": {
+      const updateAst = ast as QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, "update">
+      const targetSource = updateAst.target!
+      const target = renderSourceReference(targetSource.source, targetSource.tableName, targetSource.baseTableName, state, dialect)
+      const targets = updateAst.targets ?? [targetSource]
+      const fromSources = updateAst.fromSources ?? []
+      const assignments = updateAst.set!.map((entry) =>
+        renderMutationAssignment(entry, state, dialect, targetSource.tableName)).join(", ")
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql") {
+        const modifiers = renderMysqlMutationLock(updateAst.lock, "update")
+        const extraSources = renderFromSources(fromSources, state, dialect)
+        const joinSources = updateAst.joins.map((join) =>
+          join.kind === "full"
+            ? (() => {
+              throw new Error("Unsupported mysql full join")
+            })()
+            : join.kind === "cross"
+              ? `cross join ${renderSourceReference(join.source, join.tableName, join.baseTableName, state, dialect)}`
+              : `${join.kind} join ${renderSourceReference(join.source, join.tableName, join.baseTableName, state, dialect)} on ${renderExpression(join.on!, state, dialect)}`
+        ).join(" ")
+        const targetList = [
+          ...targets.map((entry) =>
+            renderSourceReference(entry.source, entry.tableName, entry.baseTableName, state, dialect)
+          ),
+          ...(extraSources.length > 0 ? [extraSources] : [])
+        ].join(", ")
+        sql = `update${modifiers} ${targetList}${joinSources.length > 0 ? ` ${joinSources}` : ""} set ${assignments}`
+      } else {
+        sql = `update ${target} set ${assignments}`
+        const mutationSources = [
+          ...(fromSources.length > 0 ? [renderFromSources(fromSources, state, dialect)] : []),
+          ...(updateAst.joins.length > 0 ? [renderJoinSourcesForMutation(updateAst.joins, state, dialect)] : [])
+        ].filter((part) => part.length > 0)
+        if (mutationSources.length > 0) {
+          sql += ` from ${mutationSources.join(", ")}`
+        }
+      }
+      const whereParts = [
+        ...(dialect.name === "postgres" ? renderJoinPredicatesForMutation(updateAst.joins, state, dialect) : []),
+        ...updateAst.where.map((entry: QueryAst.WhereClause) => renderExpression(entry.predicate, state, dialect))
+      ]
+      if (whereParts.length > 0) {
+        sql += ` where ${whereParts.join(" and ")}`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql" && updateAst.orderBy.length > 0) {
+        sql += ` order by ${updateAst.orderBy.map((entry: QueryAst.OrderByClause) => `${renderExpression(entry.value, state, dialect)} ${entry.direction}`).join(", ")}`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql" && updateAst.limit) {
+        sql += ` limit ${renderMysqlMutationLimit(updateAst.limit, state, dialect)}`
+      }
+      const hasReturning = Object.keys(updateAst.select as Record<string, unknown>).length > 0
+      const returning = hasReturning
+        ? renderSelectionList(updateAst.select as Record<string, unknown>, state, dialect)
+        : { sql: "", projections: [] }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql" && returning.sql.length > 0) {
+        throw new Error("Unsupported mysql returning")
+      }
+      projections = returning.projections
+      if (returning.sql.length > 0) {
+        sql += ` returning ${returning.sql}`
+      }
+      break
+    }
+    case "delete": {
+      const deleteAst = ast as QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, "delete">
+      const targetSource = deleteAst.target!
+      const target = renderSourceReference(targetSource.source, targetSource.tableName, targetSource.baseTableName, state, dialect)
+      const targets = deleteAst.targets ?? [targetSource]
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql") {
+        const modifiers = renderMysqlMutationLock(deleteAst.lock, "delete")
+        const hasJoinedSources = deleteAst.joins.length > 0 || targets.length > 1
+        const targetList = renderDeleteTargets(targets, state, dialect)
+        const fromSources = targets.map((entry) =>
+          renderSourceReference(entry.source, entry.tableName, entry.baseTableName, state, dialect)
+        ).join(", ")
+        const joinSources = deleteAst.joins.map((join) =>
+          join.kind === "full"
+            ? (() => {
+              throw new Error("Unsupported mysql full join")
+            })()
+            : join.kind === "cross"
+              ? `cross join ${renderSourceReference(join.source, join.tableName, join.baseTableName, state, dialect)}`
+              : `${join.kind} join ${renderSourceReference(join.source, join.tableName, join.baseTableName, state, dialect)} on ${renderExpression(join.on!, state, dialect)}`
+        ).join(" ")
+        sql = hasJoinedSources
+          ? `delete${modifiers} ${targetList} from ${fromSources}${joinSources.length > 0 ? ` ${joinSources}` : ""}`
+          : `delete${modifiers} from ${fromSources}`
+      } else {
+        sql = `delete from ${target}`
+        if (deleteAst.joins.length > 0) {
+          sql += ` using ${renderJoinSourcesForMutation(deleteAst.joins, state, dialect)}`
+        }
+      }
+      const whereParts = [
+        ...(dialect.name === "postgres" ? renderJoinPredicatesForMutation(deleteAst.joins, state, dialect) : []),
+        ...deleteAst.where.map((entry: QueryAst.WhereClause) => renderExpression(entry.predicate, state, dialect))
+      ]
+      if (whereParts.length > 0) {
+        sql += ` where ${whereParts.join(" and ")}`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql" && deleteAst.orderBy.length > 0) {
+        sql += ` order by ${deleteAst.orderBy.map((entry: QueryAst.OrderByClause) => `${renderExpression(entry.value, state, dialect)} ${entry.direction}`).join(", ")}`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql" && deleteAst.limit) {
+        sql += ` limit ${renderMysqlMutationLimit(deleteAst.limit, state, dialect)}`
+      }
+      const hasReturning = Object.keys(deleteAst.select as Record<string, unknown>).length > 0
+      const returning = hasReturning
+        ? renderSelectionList(deleteAst.select as Record<string, unknown>, state, dialect)
+        : { sql: "", projections: [] }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql" && returning.sql.length > 0) {
+        throw new Error("Unsupported mysql returning")
+      }
+      projections = returning.projections
+      if (returning.sql.length > 0) {
+        sql += ` returning ${returning.sql}`
+      }
+      break
+    }
+    case "truncate": {
+      const truncateAst = ast as QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, "truncate">
+      const truncate = expectTruncateClause(truncateAst.truncate)
+      const targetSource = truncateAst.target!
+      const restartIdentity = truncate.restartIdentity
+      const cascade = truncate.cascade
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql" && (restartIdentity || cascade)) {
+        throw new Error("Unsupported mysql truncate options")
+      }
+      sql = `truncate table ${renderSourceReference(targetSource.source, targetSource.tableName, targetSource.baseTableName, state, dialect)}`
+      if (restartIdentity) {
+        sql += " restart identity"
+      }
+      if (cascade) {
+        sql += " cascade"
+      }
+      break
+    }
+    case "merge": {
+      if (dialect.name !== "postgres") {
+        throw new Error(`Unsupported merge statement for ${dialect.name}`)
+      }
+      const mergeAst = ast as QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, "merge">
+      const targetSource = mergeAst.target!
+      const usingSource = mergeAst.using!
+      const merge = mergeAst.merge!
+      sql = `merge into ${renderSourceReference(targetSource.source, targetSource.tableName, targetSource.baseTableName, state, dialect)} using ${renderSourceReference(usingSource.source, usingSource.tableName, usingSource.baseTableName, state, dialect)} on ${renderExpression(merge.on, state, dialect)}`
+      if (merge.whenMatched) {
+        sql += " when matched"
+        if (merge.whenMatched.predicate) {
+          sql += ` and ${renderExpression(merge.whenMatched.predicate, state, dialect)}`
+        }
+        if (merge.whenMatched.kind === "delete") {
+          sql += " then delete"
+        } else {
+          sql += ` then update set ${merge.whenMatched.values.map((entry) =>
+            `${dialect.quoteIdentifier(entry.columnName)} = ${renderExpression(entry.value, state, dialect)}`
+          ).join(", ")}`
+        }
+      }
+      if (merge.whenNotMatched) {
+        sql += " when not matched"
+        if (merge.whenNotMatched.predicate) {
+          sql += ` and ${renderExpression(merge.whenNotMatched.predicate, state, dialect)}`
+        }
+        sql += ` then insert (${merge.whenNotMatched.values.map((entry) => dialect.quoteIdentifier(entry.columnName)).join(", ")}) values (${merge.whenNotMatched.values.map((entry) => renderExpression(entry.value, state, dialect)).join(", ")})`
+      }
+      break
+    }
+    case "transaction":
+    case "commit":
+    case "rollback":
+    case "savepoint":
+    case "rollbackTo":
+    case "releaseSavepoint": {
+      sql = renderTransactionClause(ast.transaction!, dialect)
+      break
+    }
+    case "createTable": {
+      const createTableAst = ast as QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, "createTable">
+      const ddl = expectDdlClauseKind(createTableAst.ddl, "createTable")
+      sql = renderCreateTableSql(createTableAst.target!, state, dialect, ddl.ifNotExists)
+      break
+    }
+    case "dropTable": {
+      const dropTableAst = ast as QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, "dropTable">
+      const ddl = expectDdlClauseKind(dropTableAst.ddl, "dropTable")
+      const ifExists = normalizeStatementFlag(ddl.ifExists)
+      sql = `drop table${ifExists ? " if exists" : ""} ${renderSourceReference(dropTableAst.target!.source, dropTableAst.target!.tableName, dropTableAst.target!.baseTableName, state, dialect)}`
+      break
+    }
+    case "createIndex": {
+      const createIndexAst = ast as QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, "createIndex">
+      sql = renderCreateIndexSql(
+        createIndexAst.target!,
+        expectDdlClauseKind(createIndexAst.ddl, "createIndex"),
+        state,
+        dialect
+      )
+      break
+    }
+    case "dropIndex": {
+      const dropIndexAst = ast as QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, "dropIndex">
+      sql = renderDropIndexSql(
+        dropIndexAst.target!,
+        expectDdlClauseKind(dropIndexAst.ddl, "dropIndex"),
+        state,
+        dialect
+      )
+      break
+    }
+    default: {
+      if (ast.transaction !== undefined) {
+        sql = renderTransactionClause(ast.transaction, dialect)
+      }
+      break
+    }
+  }
+
+  if (state.ctes.length === 0 || options.emitCtes === false) {
+    return {
+      sql,
+      projections
+    }
+  }
+  return {
+    sql: `with${state.ctes.some((entry) => entry.recursive) ? " recursive" : ""} ${state.ctes.map((entry) => `${dialect.quoteIdentifier(entry.name)} as (${entry.sql})`).join(", ")} ${sql}`,
+    projections
+  }
+}
+
+const renderSourceReference = (
+  source: unknown,
+  tableName: string,
+  baseTableName: string,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => {
+  const renderSelectRows = (
+    rows: readonly Record<string, Expression.Any>[],
+    columnNames: readonly string[]
+  ): string => {
+    const renderedRows = rows.map((row) =>
+      `select ${columnNames.map((columnName) =>
+        `${renderExpression(row[columnName]!, state, dialect)} as ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(columnName)}`
+      ).join(", ")}`
+    )
+    return `(${renderedRows.join(" union all ")}) as ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(tableName)}(${columnNames.map((columnName) => dialect.quoteIdentifier(columnName)).join(", ")})`
+  }
+
+  const renderUnnestRows = (
+    arrays: Readonly<Record<string, readonly Expression.Any[]>>,
+    columnNames: readonly string[]
+  ): string => {
+    const rowCount = arrays[columnNames[0]!]!.length
+    const rows = Array.from({ length: rowCount }, (_, index) =>
+      Object.fromEntries(columnNames.map((columnName) => [columnName, arrays[columnName]![index]!] as const)) as Record<string, Expression.Any>
+    )
+    return renderSelectRows(rows, columnNames)
+  }
+
+  if (typeof source === "object" && source !== null && "kind" in source && (source as { readonly kind?: string }).kind === "cte") {
+    const cte = source as unknown as {
+      readonly name: string
+      readonly plan: Query.Plan.Any
+      readonly recursive?: boolean
+    }
+    const registeredCteSource = state.cteSources.get(cte.name)
+    if (registeredCteSource !== undefined && registeredCteSource !== cte.plan) {
+      throw new Error(`common table expression name is already registered with a different plan: ${cte.name}`)
+    }
+    if (!state.cteNames.has(cte.name)) {
+      state.cteNames.add(cte.name)
+      state.cteSources.set(cte.name, cte.plan)
+      const statement = Query.getQueryState(cte.plan).statement
+      if (statement !== "select" && statement !== "set") {
+        const cteAst = Query.getAst(cte.plan) as QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, QueryAst.QueryStatement>
+        if (Object.keys((cteAst.select ?? {}) as Record<string, unknown>).length > 0) {
+          throw new Error("Unsupported mysql returning")
+        }
+        throw new Error("Unsupported mysql data-modifying cte")
+      }
+      const rendered = renderQueryAst(
+        Query.getAst(cte.plan) as QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, QueryAst.QueryStatement>,
+        state,
+        dialect,
+        { emitCtes: false }
+      )
+      state.ctes.push({
+        name: cte.name,
+        sql: rendered.sql,
+        recursive: cte.recursive
+      })
+    }
+    return dialect.quoteIdentifier(cte.name)
+  }
+  if (typeof source === "object" && source !== null && "kind" in source && (source as { readonly kind?: string }).kind === "derived") {
+    const derived = source as unknown as {
+      readonly name: string
+      readonly plan: Query.Plan.Any
+    }
+    if (!state.cteNames.has(derived.name)) {
+      // derived tables are inlined, so no CTE registration is needed
+    }
+    return `(${renderQueryAst(Query.getAst(derived.plan) as QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, QueryAst.QueryStatement>, nestedRenderState(state), dialect).sql}) as ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(derived.name)}`
+  }
+  if (typeof source === "object" && source !== null && "kind" in source && (source as { readonly kind?: string }).kind === "lateral") {
+    const lateral = source as unknown as {
+      readonly name: string
+      readonly plan: Query.Plan.Any
+    }
+    return `lateral (${renderQueryAst(Query.getAst(lateral.plan) as QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, QueryAst.QueryStatement>, nestedRenderState(state), dialect).sql}) as ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(lateral.name)}`
+  }
+  if (typeof source === "object" && source !== null && (source as { readonly kind?: string }).kind === "values") {
+    const values = source as unknown as {
+      readonly columns: Record<string, Expression.Any>
+      readonly rows: readonly Record<string, Expression.Any>[]
+    }
+    return renderSelectRows(values.rows, Object.keys(values.columns))
+  }
+  if (typeof source === "object" && source !== null && (source as { readonly kind?: string }).kind === "unnest") {
+    const unnest = source as unknown as {
+      readonly columns: Record<string, Expression.Any>
+      readonly arrays: Readonly<Record<string, readonly Expression.Any[]>>
+    }
+    return renderUnnestRows(unnest.arrays, Object.keys(unnest.columns))
+  }
+  if (typeof source === "object" && source !== null && (source as { readonly kind?: string }).kind === "tableFunction") {
+    const tableFunction = source as unknown as {
+      readonly name: string
+      readonly columns: Record<string, Expression.Any>
+      readonly functionName: string
+      readonly args: readonly Expression.Any[]
+    }
+    if (dialect.name !== "postgres") {
+      throw new Error("Unsupported table function source for SQL rendering")
+    }
+    const functionName = renderFunctionName(tableFunction.functionName)
+    const columnNames = Object.keys(tableFunction.columns)
+    return `${functionName}(${tableFunction.args.map((arg) => renderExpression(arg, state, dialect)).join(", ")}) as ${dialect.quoteIdentifier(tableFunction.name)}(${columnNames.map((columnName) => dialect.quoteIdentifier(columnName)).join(", ")})`
+  }
+  const schemaName = typeof source === "object" && source !== null && Table.TypeId in source
+    ? (source as Table.AnyTable)[Table.TypeId].schemaName
+    : undefined
+  if (typeof source === "object" && source !== null && Table.TypeId in source) {
+    const table = source as Table.AnyTable
+    const tableState = table[Table.TypeId]
+    const casing = casingForTable(table, state)
+    const renderedTableName = tableState.kind === "alias"
+      ? tableName
+      : Casing.applyCategory(casing, "tables", baseTableName)
+    const renderedBaseName = Casing.applyCategory(casing, "tables", baseTableName)
+    const renderedSchemaName = schemaName === undefined
+      ? undefined
+      : Casing.applyCategory(casing, "schemas", schemaName)
+    return dialect.renderTableReference(renderedTableName, renderedBaseName, renderedSchemaName)
+  }
+  return dialect.renderTableReference(
+    Casing.applyCategory(state.casing, "tables", tableName),
+    Casing.applyCategory(state.casing, "tables", baseTableName),
+    schemaName === undefined ? undefined : Casing.applyCategory(state.casing, "schemas", schemaName)
+  )
+}
+
+const renderSubqueryExpressionPlan = (
+  plan: Query.Plan.Any,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => {
+  const statement = Query.getQueryState(plan).statement
+  if (statement !== "select" && statement !== "set") {
+    throw new Error("subquery expressions only accept select-like query plans")
+  }
+  return renderQueryAst(
+    Query.getAst(plan) as QueryAst.Ast<Record<string, unknown>, any, QueryAst.QueryStatement>,
+    state,
+    dialect
+  ).sql
+}
+
+/**
+ * Renders a scalar expression AST into SQL text.
+ *
+ * This is parameterized by a runtime dialect so the same expression walker can
+ * be reused across dialect-specific renderers while still delegating quoting
+ * and literal serialization to the concrete dialect implementation.
+ */
+export const renderExpression = (
+  expression: Expression.Any,
+  state: RenderState,
+  dialect: SqlDialect
+): string => {
+  const rawAst = (expression as Expression.Any & {
+    readonly [ExpressionAst.TypeId]: ExpressionAst.Any
+  })[ExpressionAst.TypeId] as ExpressionAst.Any | Record<string, unknown>
+  const jsonSql = renderJsonExpression(expression, rawAst as Record<string, unknown>, state, dialect)
+  if (jsonSql !== undefined) {
+    return jsonSql
+  }
+  const ast = rawAst as ExpressionAst.Any
+  const renderComparisonOperator = (operator: unknown): "=" | "<>" | "<" | "<=" | ">" | ">=" =>
+    ({
+      eq: "=",
+      neq: "<>",
+      lt: "<",
+      lte: "<=",
+      gt: ">",
+      gte: ">="
+    } as const)[operator as "eq" | "neq" | "lt" | "lte" | "gt" | "gte"]!
+  switch (ast.kind) {
+    case "column":
+      return state.rowLocalColumns || ast.tableName.length === 0
+        ? quoteColumn(ast.columnName, state, dialect, ast.tableName)
+        : `${dialect.quoteIdentifier(casedTableReferenceName(ast.tableName, state))}.${quoteColumn(ast.columnName, state, dialect, ast.tableName)}`
+    case "literal":
+      if (typeof ast.value === "number" && !Number.isFinite(ast.value)) {
+        throw new Error("Expected a finite numeric value")
+      }
+      return dialect.renderLiteral(ast.value, state, expression[Expression.TypeId])
+    case "excluded":
+      if (state.allowExcluded !== true) {
+        throw new Error("excluded(...) is only supported inside insert conflict handlers")
+      }
+      return dialect.name === "mysql"
+        ? `values(${quoteColumn(ast.columnName, state, dialect)})`
+        : `excluded.${quoteColumn(ast.columnName, state, dialect)}`
+    case "cast":
+      return `cast(${renderExpression(expectValueExpression("cast", ast.value), state, dialect)} as ${renderCastType(dialect, ast.target)})`
+    case "function":
+      return renderFunctionCall(ast.name, ast.args, state, dialect)
+    case "eq":
+      return renderBinaryExpression("eq", "=", ast.left, ast.right, state, dialect)
+    case "neq":
+      return renderBinaryExpression("neq", "<>", ast.left, ast.right, state, dialect)
+    case "lt":
+      return renderBinaryExpression("lt", "<", ast.left, ast.right, state, dialect)
+    case "lte":
+      return renderBinaryExpression("lte", "<=", ast.left, ast.right, state, dialect)
+    case "gt":
+      return renderBinaryExpression("gt", ">", ast.left, ast.right, state, dialect)
+    case "gte":
+      return renderBinaryExpression("gte", ">=", ast.left, ast.right, state, dialect)
+    case "like":
+      return renderBinaryExpression("like", "like", ast.left, ast.right, state, dialect)
+    case "ilike": {
+      const [left, right] = expectBinaryExpressions("ilike", ast.left, ast.right)
+      return dialect.name === "postgres"
+        ? `(${renderExpression(left, state, dialect)} ilike ${renderExpression(right, state, dialect)})`
+        : `(lower(${renderExpression(left, state, dialect)}) like lower(${renderExpression(right, state, dialect)}))`
+    }
+    case "regexMatch": {
+      const [left, right] = expectBinaryExpressions("regexMatch", ast.left, ast.right)
+      return dialect.name === "postgres"
+        ? `(${renderExpression(left, state, dialect)} ~ ${renderExpression(right, state, dialect)})`
+        : `(${renderExpression(left, state, dialect)} regexp ${renderExpression(right, state, dialect)})`
+    }
+    case "regexIMatch": {
+      const [left, right] = expectBinaryExpressions("regexIMatch", ast.left, ast.right)
+      return dialect.name === "postgres"
+        ? `(${renderExpression(left, state, dialect)} ~* ${renderExpression(right, state, dialect)})`
+        : `(${renderExpression(left, state, dialect)} regexp ${renderExpression(right, state, dialect)})`
+    }
+    case "regexNotMatch": {
+      const [left, right] = expectBinaryExpressions("regexNotMatch", ast.left, ast.right)
+      return dialect.name === "postgres"
+        ? `(${renderExpression(left, state, dialect)} !~ ${renderExpression(right, state, dialect)})`
+        : `(${renderExpression(left, state, dialect)} not regexp ${renderExpression(right, state, dialect)})`
+    }
+    case "regexNotIMatch": {
+      const [left, right] = expectBinaryExpressions("regexNotIMatch", ast.left, ast.right)
+      return dialect.name === "postgres"
+        ? `(${renderExpression(left, state, dialect)} !~* ${renderExpression(right, state, dialect)})`
+        : `(${renderExpression(left, state, dialect)} not regexp ${renderExpression(right, state, dialect)})`
+    }
+    case "isDistinctFrom": {
+      const [left, right] = expectBinaryExpressions("isDistinctFrom", ast.left, ast.right)
+      return dialect.name === "mysql"
+        ? `(not (${renderExpression(left, state, dialect)} <=> ${renderExpression(right, state, dialect)}))`
+        : `(${renderExpression(left, state, dialect)} is distinct from ${renderExpression(right, state, dialect)})`
+    }
+    case "isNotDistinctFrom": {
+      const [left, right] = expectBinaryExpressions("isNotDistinctFrom", ast.left, ast.right)
+      return dialect.name === "mysql"
+        ? `(${renderExpression(left, state, dialect)} <=> ${renderExpression(right, state, dialect)})`
+        : `(${renderExpression(left, state, dialect)} is not distinct from ${renderExpression(right, state, dialect)})`
+    }
+    case "contains": {
+      const [leftExpression, rightExpression] = expectBinaryExpressions("contains", ast.left, ast.right)
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        const left = isJsonExpression(leftExpression)
+          ? renderPostgresJsonValue(leftExpression, state, dialect)
+          : renderExpression(leftExpression, state, dialect)
+        const right = isJsonExpression(rightExpression)
+          ? renderPostgresJsonValue(rightExpression, state, dialect)
+          : renderExpression(rightExpression, state, dialect)
+        return `(${left} @> ${right})`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql" && isJsonExpression(leftExpression) && isJsonExpression(rightExpression)) {
+        return `json_contains(${renderJsonInputExpression(leftExpression, state, dialect)}, ${renderJsonInputExpression(rightExpression, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      throw new Error("Unsupported container operator for SQL rendering")
+    }
+    case "containedBy": {
+      const [leftExpression, rightExpression] = expectBinaryExpressions("containedBy", ast.left, ast.right)
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        const left = isJsonExpression(leftExpression)
+          ? renderPostgresJsonValue(leftExpression, state, dialect)
+          : renderExpression(leftExpression, state, dialect)
+        const right = isJsonExpression(rightExpression)
+          ? renderPostgresJsonValue(rightExpression, state, dialect)
+          : renderExpression(rightExpression, state, dialect)
+        return `(${left} <@ ${right})`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql" && isJsonExpression(leftExpression) && isJsonExpression(rightExpression)) {
+        return `json_contains(${renderJsonInputExpression(rightExpression, state, dialect)}, ${renderJsonInputExpression(leftExpression, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      throw new Error("Unsupported container operator for SQL rendering")
+    }
+    case "overlaps": {
+      const [leftExpression, rightExpression] = expectBinaryExpressions("overlaps", ast.left, ast.right)
+      if (dialect.name === "postgres") {
+        const left = isJsonExpression(leftExpression)
+          ? renderPostgresJsonValue(leftExpression, state, dialect)
+          : renderExpression(leftExpression, state, dialect)
+        const right = isJsonExpression(rightExpression)
+          ? renderPostgresJsonValue(rightExpression, state, dialect)
+          : renderExpression(rightExpression, state, dialect)
+        return `(${left} && ${right})`
+      }
+      if (dialect.name === "mysql" && isJsonExpression(leftExpression) && isJsonExpression(rightExpression)) {
+        return `json_overlaps(${renderJsonInputExpression(leftExpression, state, dialect)}, ${renderJsonInputExpression(rightExpression, state, dialect)})`
+      }
+      throw new Error("Unsupported container operator for SQL rendering")
+    }
+    case "isNull":
+      return `(${renderExpression(expectValueExpression("isNull", ast.value), state, dialect)} is null)`
+    case "isNotNull":
+      return `(${renderExpression(expectValueExpression("isNotNull", ast.value), state, dialect)} is not null)`
+    case "not":
+      return `(not ${renderExpression(expectValueExpression("not", ast.value), state, dialect)})`
+    case "upper":
+      return `upper(${renderExpression(expectValueExpression("upper", ast.value), state, dialect)})`
+    case "lower":
+      return `lower(${renderExpression(expectValueExpression("lower", ast.value), state, dialect)})`
+    case "count":
+      return `count(${renderExpression(expectValueExpression("count", ast.value), state, dialect)})`
+    case "max":
+      return `max(${renderExpression(expectValueExpression("max", ast.value), state, dialect)})`
+    case "min":
+      return `min(${renderExpression(expectValueExpression("min", ast.value), state, dialect)})`
+    case "and":
+      return `(${ast.values.map((value: Expression.Any) => renderExpression(value, state, dialect)).join(" and ")})`
+    case "or":
+      return `(${ast.values.map((value: Expression.Any) => renderExpression(value, state, dialect)).join(" or ")})`
+    case "coalesce":
+      return `coalesce(${ast.values.map((value: Expression.Any) => renderExpression(value, state, dialect)).join(", ")})`
+    case "in":
+      return `(${renderExpression(ast.values[0]!, state, dialect)} in (${ast.values.slice(1).map((value: Expression.Any) => renderExpression(value, state, dialect)).join(", ")}))`
+    case "notIn":
+      return `(${renderExpression(ast.values[0]!, state, dialect)} not in (${ast.values.slice(1).map((value: Expression.Any) => renderExpression(value, state, dialect)).join(", ")}))`
+    case "between":
+      return `(${renderExpression(ast.values[0]!, state, dialect)} between ${renderExpression(ast.values[1]!, state, dialect)} and ${renderExpression(ast.values[2]!, state, dialect)})`
+    case "concat":
+      return dialect.renderConcat(ast.values.map((value: Expression.Any) => renderExpression(value, state, dialect)))
+    case "case":
+      return `case ${ast.branches.map((branch) =>
+        `when ${renderExpression(branch.when, state, dialect)} then ${renderExpression(branch.then, state, dialect)}`
+      ).join(" ")} else ${renderExpression(ast.else, state, dialect)} end`
+    case "exists":
+      return `exists (${renderSubqueryExpressionPlan(ast.plan, state, dialect)})`
+    case "scalarSubquery":
+      return `(${renderSubqueryExpressionPlan(ast.plan, state, dialect)})`
+    case "inSubquery":
+      return `(${renderExpression(expectValueExpression("inSubquery", ast.left), state, dialect)} in (${renderSubqueryExpressionPlan(ast.plan, state, dialect)}))`
+    case "comparisonAny":
+      return `(${renderExpression(expectValueExpression("compareAny", ast.left), state, dialect)} ${renderComparisonOperator(ast.operator)} any (${renderSubqueryExpressionPlan(ast.plan, state, dialect)}))`
+    case "comparisonAll":
+      return `(${renderExpression(expectValueExpression("compareAll", ast.left), state, dialect)} ${renderComparisonOperator(ast.operator)} all (${renderSubqueryExpressionPlan(ast.plan, state, dialect)}))`
+    case "window": {
+      const partitionBy = ast.partitionBy as readonly Expression.Any[]
+      const orderBy = ast.orderBy as readonly {
+        readonly value: Expression.Any
+        readonly direction: string
+      }[]
+      const clauses: string[] = []
+      if (partitionBy.length > 0) {
+        clauses.push(`partition by ${partitionBy.map((value) => renderExpression(value, state, dialect)).join(", ")}`)
+      }
+      if (orderBy.length > 0) {
+        clauses.push(`order by ${orderBy.map((entry) =>
+          `${renderExpression(entry.value, state, dialect)} ${entry.direction}`
+        ).join(", ")}`)
+      }
+      const specification = clauses.join(" ")
+      switch (ast.function) {
+        case "rowNumber":
+          return `row_number() over (${specification})`
+        case "rank":
+          return `rank() over (${specification})`
+        case "denseRank":
+          return `dense_rank() over (${specification})`
+        case "over":
+          return `${renderExpression(ast.value as Expression.Any, state, dialect)} over (${specification})`
+      }
+      break
+    }
+  }
+  throw new Error("Unsupported expression for SQL rendering")
+}