driftlet 1.2.4 → 1.3.2

package/src/solver.js

@@ -1,232 +1,28 @@
-// Butler–Volmer factor g(a) = e^{αa} − e^{−(1−α)a} = e^{−(1−α)a}·expm1(a) (precise near a = 0),
-// and its derivative g′(a) = α e^{αa} + (1−α) e^{−(1−α)a}.
-function bvFactor(a, alpha) {
-  const e = Math.exp(-(1 - alpha) * a);
-  // (far from equilibrium, the plain difference: the product would give 0·∞ there)
-  const g = Math.abs(a) > 50 ? Math.exp(alpha * a) - e : e * Math.expm1(a);
-  return { g, gp: alpha * Math.exp(alpha * a) + (1 - alpha) * e };
-}
-
-// GMRES(m), restarted, for a real system op(x) = b, op already preconditioned; x holds the
-// starting guess and receives the answer. Returns whether it converged.
-function gmresReal(op, b, x, { m = 10, restarts = 3, tol = 1e-12 } = {}) {
-  const N = b.length;
-  const dot = (a, c) => {
-    let t = 0;
-    for (let j = 0; j < N; j++) t += a[j] * c[j];
-    return t;
-  };
-  const bn = Math.sqrt(dot(b, b)) || 1;
-  for (let cycle = 0; cycle < restarts; cycle++) {
-    const ax = op(x), r = Float64Array.from(b, (v, j) => v - ax[j]);
-    const beta = Math.sqrt(dot(r, r));
-    if (!(beta > tol * bn)) return true;
-    const V = [r.map((v) => v / beta)], H = Array.from({ length: m + 1 }, () => new Float64Array(m));
-    const cs = [], sn = [], g = new Float64Array(m + 1);
-    g[0] = beta;
-    let k = 0, converged = false;
-    for (; k < m; k++) {
-      const w = op(V[k]);
-      for (let i = 0; i <= k; i++) {
-        const h = dot(V[i], w);
-        H[i][k] = h;
-        for (let j = 0; j < N; j++) w[j] -= h * V[i][j];
-      }
-      const hn = Math.sqrt(dot(w, w));
-      V.push(w.map((v) => v / (hn || 1)));
-      for (let i = 0; i < k; i++) {
-        const a = H[i][k], c = H[i + 1][k];
-        H[i][k] = cs[i] * a + sn[i] * c;
-        H[i + 1][k] = -sn[i] * a + cs[i] * c;
-      }
-      const t = Math.hypot(H[k][k], hn), c = t > 0 ? H[k][k] / t : 1, sv = t > 0 ? hn / t : 0;
-      cs.push(c);
-      sn.push(sv);
-      H[k][k] = t;
-      g[k + 1] = -sv * g[k];
-      g[k] *= c;
-      if (!(Math.abs(g[k + 1]) > tol * bn) || !(hn > 0)) {
-        k++;
-        converged = true;
-        break;
-      }
-    }
-    const y = new Float64Array(k);
-    for (let i = k - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
-      let v = g[i];
-      for (let j = i + 1; j < k; j++) v -= H[i][j] * y[j];
-      y[i] = v / H[i][i];
-    }
-    for (let i = 0; i < k; i++) for (let j = 0; j < N; j++) x[j] += y[i] * V[i][j];
-    if (converged) return true;
-  }
-  return false;
-}
-
-// Solve the K×K complex system (Ar + i Ai) x = (last column), partial pivoting by modulus.
-function complexSolve(Ar, Ai, K) {
-  for (let col = 0; col < K; col++) {
-    let p = col;
-    for (let r = col + 1; r < K; r++) if (Math.hypot(Ar[r][col], Ai[r][col]) > Math.hypot(Ar[p][col], Ai[p][col])) p = r;
-    [Ar[col], Ar[p]] = [Ar[p], Ar[col]];
-    [Ai[col], Ai[p]] = [Ai[p], Ai[col]];
-    const dr = Ar[col][col], di = Ai[col][col], d2 = dr * dr + di * di;
-    for (let r = col + 1; r < K; r++) {
-      const fr = (Ar[r][col] * dr + Ai[r][col] * di) / d2, fi = (Ai[r][col] * dr - Ar[r][col] * di) / d2;
-      for (let k = col; k <= K; k++) {
-        const ur = Ar[col][k], ui = Ai[col][k];
-        Ar[r][k] -= fr * ur - fi * ui;
-        Ai[r][k] -= fr * ui + fi * ur;
-      }
-    }
-  }
-  const re = new Float64Array(K), im = new Float64Array(K);
-  for (let r = K - 1; r >= 0; r--) {
-    let vr = Ar[r][K], vi = Ai[r][K];
-    for (let k = r + 1; k < K; k++) {
-      vr -= Ar[r][k] * re[k] - Ai[r][k] * im[k];
-      vi -= Ar[r][k] * im[k] + Ai[r][k] * re[k];
-    }
-    const dr = Ar[r][r], di = Ai[r][r], d2 = dr * dr + di * di;
-    re[r] = (vr * dr + vi * di) / d2;
-    im[r] = (vi * dr - vr * di) / d2;
-  }
-  return { re, im };
-}
-
-// GMRES(m), restarted, for a complex system op(x) = b, with vectors as [re, im] pairs and op
-// already preconditioned; x holds the starting guess and receives the answer. A cycle's own
-// residual estimate can drift far from the true one (a preconditioner nearly singular at low
-// frequency, or an op whose round-off the preconditioner amplifies), so each cycle is judged by
-// the true residual, at the next one's start: it returns once that's below tol, and gives up when
-// two cycles in a row fail to lower it, leaving x at the best iterate. Returns the true residuals (relative
-// to b) at the start and at that iterate.
-function gmres(op, b, x, { m = 12, restarts = 8, tol = 1e-8 } = {}) {
-  const N = b[0].length;
-  const cdot = (a, c) => {
-    let re = 0, im = 0;
-    for (let j = 0; j < N; j++) {
-      re += a[0][j] * c[0][j] + a[1][j] * c[1][j];
-      im += a[0][j] * c[1][j] - a[1][j] * c[0][j];
-    }
-    return [re, im]; // conj(a)·c
-  };
-  const norm = (a) => Math.sqrt(cdot(a, a)[0]);
-  const bn = norm(b) || 1;
-  const best = [Float64Array.from(x[0]), Float64Array.from(x[1])];
-  let initial = Infinity, least = Infinity, idle = 0;
-  for (let cycle = 0; ; cycle++) {
-    const ax = op(x), r = [Float64Array.from(b[0], (v, j) => v - ax[0][j]), Float64Array.from(b[1], (v, j) => v - ax[1][j])];
-    const beta = norm(r) / bn;
-    if (cycle === 0) initial = beta;
-    idle = beta < least ? 0 : idle + 1;
-    if (idle === 0) {
-      least = beta;
-      best[0].set(x[0]);
-      best[1].set(x[1]);
-    }
-    if (!(beta > tol) || cycle === restarts || idle === 2) break;
-    const V = [[r[0].map((v) => v / (beta * bn)), r[1].map((v) => v / (beta * bn))]];
-    const H = Array.from({ length: m + 1 }, () => Array.from({ length: m }, () => [0, 0]));
-    const cs = [], sn = [], g = Array.from({ length: m + 1 }, () => [0, 0]);
-    g[0] = [beta * bn, 0];
-    let k = 0;
-    for (; k < m; k++) {
-      const w = op(V[k]);
-      for (let i = 0; i <= k; i++) {
-        const [hr, hi] = cdot(V[i], w);
-        H[i][k] = [hr, hi];
-        for (let j = 0; j < N; j++) {
-          w[0][j] -= hr * V[i][0][j] - hi * V[i][1][j];
-          w[1][j] -= hr * V[i][1][j] + hi * V[i][0][j];
-        }
-      }
-      const hn = norm(w);
-      H[k + 1][k] = [hn, 0];
-      V.push([w[0].map((v) => v / (hn || 1)), w[1].map((v) => v / (hn || 1))]);
-      // The earlier rotations, then a new one zeroing H[k+1][k]: x' = c x + s y, y' = −s̄ x + c y.
-      for (let i = 0; i < k; i++) {
-        const [xr, xi] = H[i][k], [yr, yi] = H[i + 1][k], c = cs[i], [sr, si] = sn[i];
-        H[i][k] = [c * xr + sr * yr - si * yi, c * xi + sr * yi + si * yr];
-        H[i + 1][k] = [-(sr * xr + si * xi) + c * yr, -(sr * xi - si * xr) + c * yi];
-      }
-      const [ar, ai] = H[k][k], am = Math.hypot(ar, ai), t = Math.hypot(am, hn);
-      const c = t > 0 ? am / t : 1, s = am > 0 ? [(ar / am) * (hn / t), (ai / am) * (hn / t)] : [1, 0];
-      cs.push(c);
-      sn.push(s);
-      H[k][k] = am > 0 ? [(ar / am) * t, (ai / am) * t] : [hn, 0];
-      H[k + 1][k] = [0, 0];
-      const [gr, gi] = g[k];
-      g[k] = [c * gr, c * gi];
-      g[k + 1] = [-(s[0] * gr + s[1] * gi), -(s[0] * gi - s[1] * gr)];
-      if (!(Math.hypot(g[k + 1][0], g[k + 1][1]) > tol * bn)) {
-        k++;
-        break;
-      }
-    }
-    // Back-substitute H y = g over the first k columns, then x += V y.
-    const y = Array.from({ length: k }, () => [0, 0]);
-    for (let i = k - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
-      let [vr, vi] = g[i];
-      for (let j = i + 1; j < k; j++) {
-        const [hr, hi] = H[i][j], [yr, yi] = y[j];
-        vr -= hr * yr - hi * yi;
-        vi -= hr * yi + hi * yr;
-      }
-      const [dr, di] = H[i][i], d2 = dr * dr + di * di;
-      y[i] = [(vr * dr + vi * di) / d2, (vi * dr - vr * di) / d2];
-    }
-    for (let i = 0; i < k; i++) {
-      const [yr, yi] = y[i];
-      for (let j = 0; j < N; j++) {
-        x[0][j] += yr * V[i][0][j] - yi * V[i][1][j];
-        x[1][j] += yr * V[i][1][j] + yi * V[i][0][j];
-      }
-    }
-  }
-  x[0].set(best[0]);
-  x[1].set(best[1]);
-  return { initial, residual: least };
-}
 
-// Discretisation and nonlinear solver.
-//
-// Unknowns, per solver block (M = 1 + nSpecies slots):
-//   grid node: [φ̂, η_1 … η_n], with φ̂ = Fφ/RT and η_i = μ̄_i/RT
-//   flux node: [D, N_1 … N_n, r_1 … r_K], the displacement and particle fluxes through an
-//              interface, and the rate of each reaction at it
-// Every region boundary is a doubled grid node (one per side) with a zero-volume flux node
-// between them in the linear system, so the Jacobian stays block-tridiagonal.
-//
-// Not every slot is an unknown everywhere: an absent species, φ where it's undefined, a blocked
-// interface flux. The state u keeps every slot (one that isn't an unknown just keeps its value),
-// but the residual, the update and the Jacobian hold only the unknowns: block b has as many as
-// it has active slots, and the linear system's block sizes vary from node to node. `loc` maps a
-// slot to its row within its block (or −1), and `rix` to its index in the compact vectors (or
-// the sink, one spare entry at the end that absorbs writes for slots that aren't unknowns).
-//
-// Balance rows (node g, box volume v per unit area):
-//   φ:   D_out − D_in − v·(F Σ z_i c_i + ρ_fixed) = 0
-//   i:   v·(c_i − c_i,old)/dt + N_out − N_in = 0
-// Fluxes along segments are Scharfetter–Gummel. Each flux is computed once per segment and
-// added with opposite signs to both neighbours, so sums over boxes telescope exactly.
-//
-// Concentrations come from each material's statistics, c(ζ) with ζ_i = η_i − μ°_i/RT − z_i φ̂,
-// and K = ∂c/∂ζ. Nodes of ideal materials (c = c_ref e^ζ) take a fast path throughout.
-
-import { BlockTridiagonal, ComplexBlockTridiagonal } from './blockTridiagonal.js';
-import { bernoulli, bernoulliDerivative } from './bernoulli.js';
-import { EPS0, FARADAY } from './constants.js';
+// The numerical core: the Solver's state (laid out in docs/internals.md), its setup, and the
+// drivers around the modules that state their contracts: the equations (src/assemble.js, with
+// src/regions.js and src/boundaries.js, whose methods are the Solver's own), Newton
+// (src/newton.js), time steps (src/timeSteps.js), steady solves (src/steady.js) and the small
+// signal (src/impedance.js), the Solver's own too, the cold start (src/start.js) and the laws
+// (src/laws.js, src/lawRows.js).
+
+import { Assembly } from './assemble.js';
+import { BlockTridiagonal } from './blockTridiagonal.js';
+import { bernoulli, SG_FAR, sgFlux } from './bernoulli.js';
+import { BoundaryTerms } from './boundaries.js';
+import { FARADAY } from './constants.js';
 import { sourceAt } from './device.js';
-import { DifferenceTerms } from './difference.js';
 import { DeviceError } from './errors.js';
-import { chargeOnly, conservedMoieties, feeds, findLaws, noCurrent } from './laws.js';
-import { applyLaws, captureLaws, captureLocal, snapFlat, solveBordered } from './lawRows.js';
-import { advance as advanceFn, integrate as integrateFn, step as stepFn, violentStart } from './timeSteps.js';
-import { powi, powr } from './pow.js';
+import { conservedMoieties, findLaws, noCurrent } from './laws.js';
+import { newton as newtonFn } from './newton.js';
+import { RegionTerms } from './regions.js';
+import { SteadySolves } from './steady.js';
+import { SmallSignal } from './impedance.js';
+import { advance as advanceFn, integrate as integrateFn, step as stepFn } from './timeSteps.js';
+import { initFromComposition as initFromCompositionFn } from './start.js';
 
 // A profile's value at x (c0, kf): piecewise linear, constant beyond its ends.
-function profileAt({ x, values: c }, at) {
+export function profileAt({ x, values: c }, at) {
   if (at <= x[0]) return c[0];
   const last = x.length - 1;
   if (at >= x[last]) return c[last];
@@ -264,26 +60,6 @@ export class SolverError extends Error {
   }
 }
 
-// A gate's rate law (see normalizeGates in device.js) at voltage V: [rate, ∂rate/∂V], 1/s and 1/(s·V).
-function gateRate(law, V) {
-  const { rate, midpoint, scale } = law;
-  if (law.type === 'exp') {
-    // (held finite where Newton's iterates stray to absurd voltages: β_m at −13 V would overflow)
-    const y = (V - midpoint) / scale, v = rate * Math.exp(Math.min(y, 700));
-    return [v, y > 700 ? 0 : v / scale];
-  }
-  if (law.type === 'sigmoid') {
-    const e = Math.exp((midpoint - V) / scale), d = 1 + e;
-    return Number.isFinite(e) ? [rate / d, (rate * e) / (scale * d * d)] : [0, 0];
-  }
-  // expLinear: rate·y/(1 − e^−y), smooth through y = 0 (rate there) and → rate·y for large y
-  const y = (V - midpoint) / scale;
-  if (Math.abs(y) < 1e-6) return [rate * (1 + y / 2), rate / (2 * scale)];
-  if (y < -700) return [0, 0];
-  const em = -Math.expm1(-y), ey = Math.exp(-y); // 1 − e^−y, e^−y
-  return [(rate * y) / em, (rate * (em - y * ey)) / (em * em * scale)];
-}
-
 export class Solver {
   constructor(model) {
     this.model = model;
@@ -449,6 +225,13 @@ export class Solver {
     });
     this._activeSlots();
     this.K = this.anyNonIdeal ? new Float64Array(nNodes * n * n) : null;
+    // Crowded nodes under eddy mixing: K's slope too (_statSlopes), for its mobility's Jacobian.
+    this.nodeDK = new Uint8Array(nNodes);
+    regions.forEach((reg, r) => {
+      if (reg.mixing > 0) for (let g = grid.regionStart[r]; g <= grid.regionEnd[r]; g++) if (!this.nodeIdeal[g]) this.nodeDK[g] = 1;
+    });
+    this.dK = this.nodeDK.some((v) => v) ? new Float64Array(nNodes * n * n * n) : null;
+    if (!this.dK) this.nodeDK = null;
     this.ex = new Float64Array(nNodes * n);
     this.zeta = new Float64Array(n);
     this.scratch = new Map(); // per statistics model: ζ, c, K work arrays
@@ -456,6 +239,7 @@ export class Solver {
     this.dB = new Float64Array(M);
     this.jL = new Float64Array(M);
     this.jR = new Float64Array(M);
+    this.sg = new Float64Array(5); // a Scharfetter–Gummel flux and its derivatives (sgFlux)
     this.time = 0;
     this.lastDt = Infinity;
     this.atSteady = false; // whether the state is a converged steady solve
@@ -507,9 +291,15 @@ export class Solver {
     this.termDX = this.terms.map(() => new Float64Array(this.terms.length));
     this.termRes = new Float64Array(this.terms.length);
     this._refreshSources();
-    // A floating terminal starts level with the first held one (no current).
-    const level = this.termV[this.terms.findIndex((_, k) => !this.floating.includes(k))];
-    for (const k of this.floating) this.termV[k] = this.terms[k].drive.kind === 'V' ? this.termV[k] : level;
+    // A floating terminal starts level with the first held one (no current); where none is held,
+    // with the source behind the first resistance (it was NaN there, and a metal contact's
+    // carrier, its level from that V, asked for a c0 a conductor can't be given), else 0.
+    const heldK = this.terms.findIndex((_, k) => !this.floating.includes(k)), behindR = this.terms.find((t) => t.drive.R > 0);
+    const level = heldK >= 0 ? this.termV[heldK] : behindR ? sourceAt(behindR.drive.src, this.time) : 0;
+    // (One behind a resistance too: at its own source, a silver cell held at 0 V and 16 V behind R
+    // began with 16 V across it; left at 0 V, one behind a −30 V source beside a current began
+    // with 30 V across it. Level, the circuit rows move them from a device at rest.)
+    for (const k of this.floating) this.termV[k] = level;
     // Accepted steps, most recent first: start time, size, start state (for BDF2 and the
     // error estimate of adaptive stepping).
     this.history = [];
@@ -533,10 +323,12 @@ export class Solver {
       nu: Float64Array.from([...rx.reactants.map((p) => p.nu), ...rx.products.map((p) => -p.nu)]),
     }));
 
-    // Each reacting port's electrode area per volume at its window's nodes (a profile's mean over
-    // each node's box, as for a rate constant), and its reactions' rates there, mol/(m²·s).
+    // Each reacting port's electrode area per volume at its window's nodes: a profile's mean over
+    // each node's box, as for a rate constant, with no electrode outside the window (the profile's
+    // mean over the part inside, times that part's share of the box, port.fill). And its
+    // reactions' rates there, mol/(m²·s).
     this.portArea = model.ports.map((port) =>
-      port.area === null ? null : Float64Array.from(port.nodes, (g) => port.area.value ?? profileMean(port.area, gx[g] - (g > 0 ? segLength[g - 1] : 0) / 2, gx[g] + (g < segLength.length ? segLength[g] : 0) / 2)),
+      port.area === null ? null : Float64Array.from(port.nodes, (g, w) => (port.area.value ?? profileMean(port.area, port.lo[w], port.hi[w])) * port.fill[w]),
     );
     this.portRates = model.ports.map((port) => port.reactions.map(() => new Float64Array(port.nodes.length)));
 
@@ -566,7 +358,7 @@ export class Solver {
     this.closedEnd = { left: closed('left'), right: closed('right') };
     held[0] = this.closedEnd.left ? 0 : 1;
     held[nNodes - 1] = this.closedEnd.right ? 0 : 1;
-    for (const port of model.ports) if (port.species.some((l) => l.type === 'equilibrium')) for (const g of port.nodes) held[g] = 1;
+    for (const port of model.ports) if (port.species.some((l) => l.type === 'equilibrium')) port.nodes.forEach((g, w) => port.inside[w] && (held[g] = 1));
     this.chargeNode = new Uint8Array(nNodes);
     const neutralFace = (f) => (f === -1 ? this.closedEnd.left : f === model.interfaces.length ? this.closedEnd.right : model.interfaces[f].phi.type === 'neutral');
     regions.forEach((reg, r) => {
@@ -596,7 +388,8 @@ export class Solver {
     this.portHeldEnd = new Uint8Array(2 * n);
     model.ports.forEach((port) => {
       [0, nNodes - 1].forEach((g, k) => {
-        if (!port.nodes.includes(g)) return;
+        const w = port.nodes.indexOf(g);
+        if (w < 0 || !port.inside[w]) return;
         const ct = contacts[k === 0 ? 'left' : 'right'];
         for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) if (port.species[i].type === 'equilibrium' && ct.species[i].type === 'blocked') this.portHeldEnd[k * n + i] = 1;
       });
@@ -844,13 +637,6 @@ export class Solver {
     return { model, n, M, z, nNodes, stretches, stretchOf, flatStretches, rough, surfCols, surfColOf, terms, floating, blockOfNode, blockOfFace, rxsIn, nodeMaterial, phiUndefined };
   }
 
-  // Every stretch either reaches a contact or is kept by a law, and no law is left unkept: the
-  // steady equations can be solved directly (dt = ∞), with the laws in place of their rows. Else
-  // the steady solve goes by time steps, which keep every amount themselves.
-  _directSteady() {
-    return this.unkept.length === 0 && this.stretches.every((st) => st.connected || st.conserved);
-  }
-
   // An electrode surface at its starting coverages at node g: η = μ°/RT + ln(θ/θ₀).
   _surfaceStart(g) {
     const { n, M, u, model } = this, surf = model.ports[this.surfPort[g]].surface, b = this.blockOfNode[g];
@@ -890,50 +676,6 @@ export class Solver {
     this.history = [];
   }
 
-  // After a steady solve: each reaction that alone changes some combination nothing else feeds
-  // (see src/laws.js), whose total rate a steady state therefore sets to zero, but whose affinity has one
-  // sign wherever it acts, so that its total can't be zero. Too slow to show, its rate lost to
-  // round-off, it was left where the solve began: a slow complexation 43 mV off, an electrode
-  // port's slow couple at its starting composition, each converged without a word. (A face
-  // reaction stands on its affinity, so it's only caught here if that couldn't be arranged.)
-  stuckReactions() {
-    const { n, M, u, uLo, model } = this, grid = model.grid, S = this.stretches.length, X = S + this.surfCols.length, out = [];
-    const passes = (k) => !noCurrent(this.terms[k]);
-    const fed = (w) => w.some((x, k) => x !== 0 && ((k >= X && passes(this.carriers[k - X])) || (k < S && this.terms.some((t, j) => t.drive.kind === 'I' && passes(j) && feeds(j, this.stretches[k])))));
-    const needed = (rx) => {
-      const basis = conservedMoieties(this._structure(), { drives: true, skip: rx });
-      return basis.some((w) => !fed(w) && basis.skipped.some((row) => Math.abs(row.reduce((t, x, k) => t + x * w[k], 0)) > 1e-9));
-    };
-    const eta = (g, slot) => u[this.blockOfNode[g] * M + slot] + uLo[this.blockOfNode[g] * M + slot];
-    const report = (where, as) => {
-      if (as.length === 0 || !(as.every((a) => a > 1e-6) || as.every((a) => a < -1e-6))) return;
-      out.push({ where, affinity: as.reduce((m, a) => (Math.abs(a) < Math.abs(m) ? a : m)) });
-    };
-    model.interfaces.forEach((itf, f) => {
-      const gL = grid.regionEnd[f], gR = grid.regionStart[f + 1];
-      itf.reactions.forEach((rx, q) => {
-        if (this.affinities.some((af) => af.rx === rx) || !needed(rx)) return;
-        report(`interfaces[${f}].reactions[${q}]`, [rx.part.reduce((a, p) => a - p.nu * eta(p.side ? gR : gL, 1 + p.i), rx.fixedA)]);
-      });
-    });
-    model.reactions.forEach((mrx, x) => {
-      const rx = this.rxs[x];
-      if (rx.generation || !needed(mrx)) return;
-      const as = [];
-      for (let g = 0; g < this.nNodes; g++) if (rx.kfNode[g] > 0 || rx.srh?.[this.nodeMaterial[g]]) as.push(rx.sp.reduce((a, i, p) => a + rx.nu[p] * eta(g, 1 + i), rx.fixedA));
-      report(`bulkReactions[${x}]`, as);
-    });
-    model.ports.forEach((port, k) => {
-      port.reactions.forEach((rx, q) => {
-        if (!needed(rx)) return;
-        let aV = rx.fixedA;
-        for (const p of rx.part) if (p.side === 1) aV -= p.nu * this.portEta(port, p.i);
-        report(`ports[${k}].reactions[${q}]`, port.nodes.map((g) => rx.part.reduce((a, p) => (p.side === 1 ? a : a - p.nu * eta(g, p.side === 2 ? 1 + n + p.s : 1 + p.i)), aV)));
-      });
-    });
-    return out;
-  }
-
   // How each terminal is driven, as far as the laws care (see src/laws.js): by a voltage or a current,
   // behind a resistance or not, and a current that's held at zero throughout (which feeds a
   // combination nothing, so a reaction's affinity may stand in for its summed balance).
@@ -965,2336 +707,138 @@ export class Solver {
     return z === 0 ? link.mu / this.model.RT : (z * (this.termV[side === 'left' ? 0 : 1] + link.offset)) / this.VT;
   }
 
-  /**
-   * Cold start. Each species takes its region's c0 where one is given (for a spectator, it fixes
-   * the conserved amount), else its contact's level. φ in each region is then chosen for local neutrality (node by node where a
-   * profile varies), or continued across the interface dipole if nothing there responds.
-   */
+  // The cold start (src/start.js).
   initFromComposition() {
-    const { model, n, M, u, z } = this;
-    const { regions, species, interfaces, materials } = model;
-    const grid = model.grid;
-    u.fill(0);
-    this.uLo.fill(0);
-    const eta = new Float64Array(n), cFix = new Float64Array(n), mode = new Int8Array(n); // 1 level, 2 amount
-    // φ̂ runs from the left: from a pinned (or gated) left contact's φ at its zero charge, else 0.
-    const leftPhi = model.contacts.left.phi;
-    let phiHat = leftPhi.type === 'pinned' || leftPhi.type === 'capacitive' ? (this.termV[0] - leftPhi.zeroCharge) / this.VT : 0;
-    for (let r = 0; r < regions.length; r++) {
-      if (r > 0) phiHat += interfaces[r - 1].dipole / this.VT;
-      const reg = regions[r], mat = materials[reg.material];
-      mode.fill(0);
-      const profiled = reg.c0Profile.some((p) => p !== null);
-      for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-        if (!mat.present[i]) continue;
-        const st = this.stretches[this.stretchOf[r * n + i]];
-        if (reg.c0Profile[i] || reg.c0[i] > 0) {
-          // A given c0 is the starting state, even where a contact feeds the species.
-          mode[i] = 2;
-          cFix[i] = reg.c0Profile[i] ? profileAt(reg.c0Profile[i], grid.x[grid.regionStart[r]]) : reg.c0[i];
-        } else if (!st.contactFed && mat.conductor) {
-          // A conductor away from the contacts: start uncharged, with its carrier's level in
-          // equilibrium with the first reaction on its left face that takes it, else at the
-          // running φ.
-          eta[i] = z[i] * phiHat;
-          const rx = r > 0 ? interfaces[r - 1].reactions.find((x) => x.part.some((p) => p.side === 1 && p.i === i)) : undefined;
-          if (rx) {
-            const bn = this.blockOfNode[grid.regionEnd[r - 1]];
-            let a = rx.fixedA, nu = 0; // a = fixedA − Σ ν η = 0, solved for the carrier's η
-            for (const p of rx.part) {
-              if (p.side === 1) nu += p.nu;
-              else a -= p.nu * u[bn * M + 1 + p.i];
-            }
-            eta[i] = a / nu;
-          }
-          mode[i] = 1;
-        } else if (!st.contactFed) {
-          if (!(reg.c0[i] > 0)) {
-            throw new SolverError(
-              `regions[${r}].c0.${species[i].name}: a species that doesn't reach a contact needs its initial concentration` +
-                (st.connected ? ' (reactions make and consume it, so this is only where the solve starts, not an amount it keeps: a tiny value will do)' : ', which fixes the amount it conserves'),
-            );
-          }
-          mode[i] = 2;
-          cFix[i] = reg.c0[i];
-        } else {
-          const left = st.regions[0] === 0 ? this.contactEta('left', i) : NaN;
-          eta[i] = Number.isFinite(left) ? left : this.contactEta('right', i);
-          if (!Number.isFinite(eta[i]) && st.linked.length > 0) eta[i] = this.portEta(model.ports[st.linked[0]], i);
-          mode[i] = 1;
-          if (!Number.isFinite(eta[i])) {
-            // Fed only through reactions (no level held at a contact): start from c0.
-            if (!(reg.c0[i] > 0)) {
-              throw new SolverError(
-                `regions[${r}].c0.${species[i].name}: a species fed only through reactions needs its initial concentration`,
-              );
-            }
-            mode[i] = 2;
-            cFix[i] = reg.c0[i];
-          }
-        }
-      }
-      // Net charge (mol/m³) at trial φ̂; decreasing in φ̂ wherever a level-fixed ion responds.
-      const zeta = new Float64Array(n), cc = new Float64Array(n);
-      const charge = (ph) => {
-        if (!mat.ideal) {
-          this._materialAt(mat, reg.background, eta, mode, cFix, ph, zeta, cc);
-          let q = reg.fixedCharge / FARADAY;
-          for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) if (mat.present[i]) q += z[i] * cc[i];
-          return q;
-        }
-        let q = reg.fixedCharge / FARADAY;
-        for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-          if (mode[i] === 2) q += z[i] * cFix[i];
-          else if (mode[i] === 1 && z[i] !== 0) {
-            const ex = Math.min(700, Math.max(-700, eta[i] - mat.mu0[i] / model.RT - z[i] * ph));
-            q += z[i] * mat.cRef[i] * Math.exp(ex);
-          }
-        }
-        return q;
-      };
-      const responds = mode.some((m, i) => m === 1 && z[i] !== 0);
-      const mustBalance = !responds && !mat.conductor && !mat.phiFree && mat.epsr === 0;
-      const checkNeutral = (where) => {
-        // Strictly neutral, with every charged species' amount given: its c0 must be neutral.
-        let q = reg.fixedCharge / FARADAY, scale = Math.abs(q);
-        for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-          if (mode[i] !== 2 || z[i] === 0) continue;
-          q += z[i] * cFix[i];
-          scale += Math.abs(z[i] * cFix[i]);
-        }
-        if (Math.abs(q) > 1e-9 * scale) {
-          throw new SolverError(
-            `regions[${r}] (${reg.name}): its initial composition carries a net charge of ${q.toPrecision(3)} mol/m³${where} (Σ z·c0, with any fixed charge), ` +
-              'but ε = 0 makes it strictly neutral; adjust c0 so that it balances',
-          );
-        }
-      };
-      if (mustBalance && !profiled) checkNeutral('');
-      if (!mat.phiFree && !responds && mat.ideal && r > 0 && materials[regions[r - 1].material].conductor) {
-        // Nothing here fixes φ, but an electrode on the left does: start with its first reaction
-        // that takes a species from this side at equilibrium (the electrode at its open-circuit
-        // level), rather than φ carried over from the metal, which can be volts away.
-        const bn = this.blockOfNode[grid.regionEnd[r - 1]];
-        for (const rx of interfaces[r - 1].reactions) {
-          let a = rx.fixedA, s = 0;
-          for (const p of rx.part) {
-            if (p.side === 0) a -= p.nu * u[bn * M + 1 + p.i];
-            else if (mode[p.i] === 2) {
-              a -= p.nu * (Math.log(cFix[p.i] / mat.cRef[p.i]) + mat.mu0[p.i] / model.RT);
-              s += p.nu * z[p.i];
-            } else s = NaN;
-          }
-          if (s !== 0 && Number.isFinite(s)) {
-            phiHat = a / s; // a − s·φ̂ = 0
-            break;
-          }
-        }
-      }
-      const electrode = model.ports.find((port) => port.region === r && port.reactions.length > 0);
-      if (!mat.phiFree && !responds && mat.ideal && electrode) {
-        // Nor here, but an electrode spread through it does: start with the port's first reaction
-        // that can be balanced at equilibrium with the port's level (the electrode at open circuit).
-        const bare = 1 - electrode.surface.reduce((t, sp) => t + sp.theta0, 0);
-        for (const rx of electrode.reactions) {
-          let a = rx.fixedA, s = 0;
-          for (const p of rx.part) {
-            if (p.side === 1) a -= p.nu * this.portEta(electrode, p.i);
-            else if (p.side === 2) {
-              const sp = electrode.surface[p.s]; // (at its starting coverage)
-              a -= p.nu * (sp.mu0 / model.RT + Math.log(sp.theta0 / bare));
-            } else if (mode[p.i] === 2) {
-              a -= p.nu * (Math.log(cFix[p.i] / mat.cRef[p.i]) + mat.mu0[p.i] / model.RT);
-              s += p.nu * z[p.i];
-            } else s = NaN;
-          }
-          if (s !== 0 && Number.isFinite(s)) {
-            phiHat = a / s;
-            break;
-          }
-        }
-      }
-      const neutralPhi = (ph) => {
-        let lo = ph - 1, hi = ph + 1;
-        while (charge(lo) < 0 && lo > -1e4) lo -= 2 * (hi - lo);
-        while (charge(hi) > 0 && hi < 1e4) hi += 2 * (hi - lo);
-        // Out of reach (every responding carrier has one sign and nothing balances it, as in an
-        // undoped layer that holds only holes): keep the running φ̂ rather than run it to ±∞.
-        if (charge(lo) < 0 || charge(hi) > 0) return ph;
-        for (let it = 0; it < 200 && hi - lo > 1e-12; it++) {
-          const m = 0.5 * (lo + hi);
-          if (charge(m) > 0) lo = m;
-          else hi = m;
-        }
-        return 0.5 * (lo + hi);
-      };
-      if (!mat.phiFree && responds) phiHat = neutralPhi(phiHat);
-      if (!mat.ideal) this._materialAt(mat, reg.background, eta, mode, cFix, phiHat, zeta, cc);
-      for (let g = grid.regionStart[r]; g <= grid.regionEnd[r]; g++) {
-        if (profiled) {
-          for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) if (reg.c0Profile[i]) cFix[i] = profileAt(reg.c0Profile[i], grid.x[g]);
-          if (mustBalance) checkNeutral(` at x = ${grid.x[g].toPrecision(4)} m`);
-          if (!mat.phiFree && responds) phiHat = neutralPhi(phiHat);
-          if (!mat.ideal) this._materialAt(mat, reg.background, eta, mode, cFix, phiHat, zeta, cc);
-        }
-        const b = this.blockOfNode[g];
-        u[b * M] = mat.conductor ? 0 : phiHat; // a metal's slot 0 is its segment flux
-        for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-          if (mode[i] === 1) u[b * M + 1 + i] = eta[i];
-          else if (mode[i] === 2) {
-            const zt = mat.ideal ? Math.log(cFix[i] / mat.cRef[i]) : zeta[i];
-            u[b * M + 1 + i] = zt + mat.mu0[i] / model.RT + z[i] * phiHat;
-          }
-        }
-      }
-    }
-    // Two strictly neutral regions meeting at a face whose links hold ions in equilibrium: where
-    // c0 leaves the two sides out of it (a different fixed charge or immobile ion on each, so
-    // c₊c₋ differs across it), the face reaches it at t = 0⁺, before anything diffuses, and a
-    // first step made to take that jump met an exactly singular pivot. Start there: the ions the
-    // face passes shared between its two nodes in equilibrium (μ̄ equal across it), each one's
-    // amount over the two nodes kept, everything else as c0 has it. The one unknown is the jump
-    // in φ̂ across it (a Donnan potential), set by neutrality on one side; the other's follows,
-    // the two nodes' charge summing to what it was, zero.
-    for (let f = 0; f < interfaces.length; f++) {
-      const itf = interfaces[f], mL = materials[regions[f].material], mR = materials[regions[f + 1].material];
-      const strict = (m) => m.epsr === 0 && !m.conductor && !m.phiFree && m.ideal;
-      if (itf.phi.type !== 'neutral' || !strict(mL) || !strict(mR)) continue;
-      const gL = grid.regionEnd[f], gR = grid.regionStart[f + 1], bL = this.blockOfNode[gL] * M, bR = this.blockOfNode[gR] * M;
-      const pass = [];
-      for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) if (itf.links[i].type === 'equilibrium' && mL.present[i] && mR.present[i]) pass.push(i);
-      if (!pass.some((i) => z[i] !== 0)) continue;
-      const RT = model.RT, vL = grid.vol[gL], vR = grid.vol[gR];
-      const conc = (m, b, i) => m.cRef[i] * Math.exp(u[b + 1 + i] - m.mu0[i] / RT - z[i] * u[b]);
-      const amount = pass.map((i) => vL * conc(mL, bL, i) + vR * conc(mR, bR, i));
-      let qOther = regions[f].fixedCharge / FARADAY; // (the left node's charge from all it doesn't share)
-      for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) if (mL.present[i] && !pass.includes(i) && z[i] !== 0) qOther += z[i] * conc(mL, bL, i);
-      // At a jump D = φ̂_R − φ̂_L: c_L/c_R = (cRef_L/cRef_R)·exp((μ°_R − μ°_L)/RT + z D), the amount fixing both.
-      const split = (D) =>
-        pass.map((i, j) => {
-          const K = (mL.cRef[i] / mR.cRef[i]) * Math.exp((mR.mu0[i] - mL.mu0[i]) / RT + z[i] * D), cR = amount[j] / (vL * K + vR);
-          return [K * cR, cR];
-        });
-      const qL = (D) => split(D).reduce((q, [cL], j) => q + z[pass[j]] * cL, qOther); // (increasing in D)
-      const D0 = u[bR] - u[bL];
-      let lo = D0 - 1, hi = D0 + 1;
-      while (qL(lo) > 0 && lo > D0 - 1e3) lo -= 2 * (hi - lo);
-      while (qL(hi) < 0 && hi < D0 + 1e3) hi += 2 * (hi - lo);
-      if (!(qL(lo) <= 0 && qL(hi) >= 0)) continue; // (nothing the face shares can balance it: leave c0)
-      for (let it = 0; it < 200 && hi - lo > 1e-13 * Math.max(1, Math.abs(D0)); it++) {
-        const m = 0.5 * (lo + hi);
-        if (qL(m) < 0) lo = m;
-        else hi = m;
-      }
-      const D = 0.5 * (lo + hi), cs = split(D);
-      const keep = Float64Array.from({ length: n }, (_, i) => (mR.present[i] ? conc(mR, bR, i) : 0)); // (the right node's, before φ̂ moves)
-      u[bR] = u[bL] + D;
-      for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) if (mR.present[i] && !pass.includes(i)) u[bR + 1 + i] = Math.log(keep[i] / mR.cRef[i]) + mR.mu0[i] / RT + z[i] * u[bR];
-      pass.forEach((i, j) => {
-        u[bL + 1 + i] = Math.log(cs[j][0] / mL.cRef[i]) + mL.mu0[i] / RT + z[i] * u[bL];
-        u[bR + 1 + i] = Math.log(cs[j][1] / mR.cRef[i]) + mR.mu0[i] / RT + z[i] * u[bR];
-      });
-    }
-    // An insertion host's φ is a gauge: c0 sets only its neutral combination's level, not how that
-    // splits between its ion and its electrons. Start its ion level with the same ion's beside it
-    // across a face (the equilibrium a link or a transfer reaction heads for), so its electrons,
-    // and a floating contact on them, start where the cell's open-circuit voltage puts them, not
-    // volts away. (A shift of φ̂ and each η by z·Δ: the concentrations don't change.)
-    regions.forEach((reg, r) => {
-      const mat = materials[reg.material];
-      if (!mat.phiFree) return;
-      const sides = [[r - 1, grid.regionStart[r], r > 0 ? grid.regionEnd[r - 1] : -1], [r + 1, grid.regionEnd[r], r + 1 < regions.length ? grid.regionStart[r + 1] : -1]];
-      for (const [nr, gIn, gOut] of sides) {
-        if (gOut < 0) continue;
-        const other = materials[regions[nr].material];
-        if (other.phiFree || other.conductor) continue;
-        const i = z.findIndex((zi, j) => zi !== 0 && mat.present[j] && other.present[j]);
-        if (i < 0) continue;
-        const d = (u[this.blockOfNode[gOut] * M + 1 + i] - u[this.blockOfNode[gIn] * M + 1 + i]) / z[i];
-        if (!Number.isFinite(d)) continue;
-        for (let g = grid.regionStart[r]; g <= grid.regionEnd[r]; g++) {
-          const b = this.blockOfNode[g];
-          u[b * M] += d;
-          for (let j = 0; j < n; j++) if (mat.present[j]) u[b * M + 1 + j] += z[j] * d;
-        }
-        return;
-      }
-    });
-    // A floating contact facing a held one starts where the start's own composition puts it: the
-    // held voltage plus the difference between the two terminal species' levels beside each
-    // contact (c0 sets them, and φ was chosen for neutrality, not to match either contact), so
-    // that a transient's first reading means something.
-    const level = (side) => {
-      const ct = model.contacts[side], i = ct.terminal;
-      if (i === null || ct.species[i].type !== 'equilibrium' || z[i] === 0) return NaN;
-      const b = this.blockOfNode[side === 'left' ? 0 : grid.nNodes - 1];
-      return (this.VT * u[b * M + 1 + i]) / z[i] - ct.species[i].offset;
-    };
-    for (const k of this.floating) {
-      const t = this.terms[k], held = k === 0 ? 1 : 0;
-      if (t.kind === 'port' || held >= this.terms.length || this.floating.includes(held)) continue;
-      const shift = level(t.side) - level(this.terms[held].side);
-      if (Number.isFinite(shift)) this.termV[k] = this.termV[held] + shift;
-    }
-    for (let g = 0; g < this.nNodes; g++) if (this.surfPort[g] >= 0) this._surfaceStart(g);
-    this.computeConcentrations();
-    // A floating capacitance starts uncharged (σ = 0 at the window's mean φ), as the starting
-    // composition, neutral without it, assumes; with reactions too, its double layer then charges
-    // toward their mixed potential.
-    for (const k of this.floating) {
-      const t = this.terms[k], port = t.kind === 'port' ? model.ports[t.index] : null;
-      const gate = t.kind === 'contact' ? model.contacts[t.side].phi : null;
-      if (gate?.type === 'capacitive') {
-        // A gate contact likewise: at its zero-charge level from the φ beside it (a pinned
-        // one's charge is the field's, already zero against a neutral start).
-        const g = t.side === 'left' ? 0 : this.nNodes - 1;
-        if (!this.phiUndefined[g]) this.termV[k] = gate.zeroCharge + this.VT * u[this.blockOfNode[g] * M];
-        continue;
-      }
-      if (!port?.capacitance) continue;
-      let w = 0, sum = 0;
-      port.nodes.forEach((g, j) => {
-        if (this.phiUndefined[g]) return;
-        const a = this.model.grid.vol[g] * this.portArea[t.index][j];
-        w += a;
-        sum += a * this.VT * u[this.blockOfNode[g] * M];
-      });
-      if (w > 0) this.termV[k] = port.capacitance.zeroCharge + sum / w;
-    }
-    // A floating port linked to its carrier (no reactions, no double layer: a wire into an
-    // insertion host) starts at that carrier's level across its window, not at 0 V.
-    for (const k of this.floating) {
-      const t = this.terms[k], port = t.kind === 'port' ? model.ports[t.index] : null;
-      const i = port?.terminal, link = i === null || i === undefined ? null : port.species[i];
-      if (!port || port.reactions.length > 0 || port.capacitance || !link || link.type === 'blocked' || z[i] === 0) continue;
-      let w = 0, sum = 0;
-      port.nodes.forEach((g, j) => {
-        const a = this.model.grid.vol[g] * (this.portArea[t.index]?.[j] ?? 1); // (a window with no area: by volume)
-        w += a;
-        sum += (a * this.VT * u[this.blockOfNode[g] * M + 1 + i]) / z[i];
-      });
-      // (Levels at the start mean something only against a held terminal's, as for a contact.)
-      const held = [0, 1].find((h) => !this.floating.includes(h) && Number.isFinite(level(this.terms[h].side)));
-      if (w > 0 && held !== undefined) this.termV[k] = this.termV[held] + sum / w - (link.offset ?? 0) - level(this.terms[held].side);
-    }
-    // Gates start open as far as the starting voltage across their face holds them, α/(α + β).
-    for (const gt of this.gateList) {
-      const { gate, o } = gt, V = this._gateVoltage(gt), a = gateRate(gate.alpha, V)[0], b = gateRate(gate.beta, V)[0];
-      u[o] = a + b > 0 ? a / (a + b) : 0;
-    }
-    // A floating electrode spread through a port (without a double layer) starts where its
-    // reactions pass the current it's set (none, behind a resistance): at its mixed potential in
-    // the start's composition, not level with a held terminal, which can be volts away and pass
-    // an absurd current.
-    for (const k of this.floating) {
-      const t = this.terms[k], port = t.kind === 'port' ? model.ports[t.index] : null;
-      if (!port || port.reactions.length === 0 || port.capacitance) continue;
-      const want = t.drive.kind === 'I' ? sourceAt(t.drive.src, this.time) : 0;
-      const current = (V) => {
-        this.termV[k] = V;
-        let I = 0;
-        port.reactions.forEach((rx) => {
-          let q = 0;
-          for (const p of rx.part) if (p.side === 0) q += p.nu * z[p.i];
-          port.nodes.forEach((g, w) => (I += q * FARADAY * this.model.grid.vol[g] * this.portArea[t.index][w] * this._portRate(port, rx, g)));
-        });
-        return I;
-      };
-      // Current into the device rises with V (oxidation); bracket, then bisect.
-      let lo = this.termV[k] - 1, hi = this.termV[k] + 1;
-      while (current(lo) > want && lo > -1e3) lo -= 2 * (hi - lo);
-      while (current(hi) < want && hi < 1e3) hi += 2 * (hi - lo);
-      for (let it = 0; it < 200 && hi - lo > 1e-12; it++) {
-        const m = 0.5 * (lo + hi);
-        if (current(m) < want) lo = m;
-        else hi = m;
-      }
-      this.termV[k] = 0.5 * (lo + hi);
-    }
+    return initFromCompositionFn(this);
   }
 
-  // A port reaction's rate per area at node g (mol/(m²·s), forward), at the present state.
-  _portRate(port, rx, g) {
-    const { n, M, u, uLo, c, nSurf, th } = this, b = this.blockOfNode[g], RT = this.model.RT;
-    let pref = rx.k0, a = rx.fixedA;
-    for (const p of rx.part) {
-      if (p.side === 1) {
-        a -= p.nu * this.portEta(port, p.i);
-        continue;
-      }
-      const o = b * M + (p.side === 2 ? 1 + n + p.s : 1 + p.i), e = p.nu < 0 ? -p.nu * (1 - rx.alpha) : p.nu * rx.alpha;
-      a -= p.nu * (u[o] + uLo[o]);
-      pref *= p.side === 2 ? powr(th[g * nSurf + p.s], e) : powr(c[g * n + p.i] / this.cRef[g * n + p.i], e);
-    }
-    if (rx.sites) pref *= powr(this.th0[g], rx.sites);
-    return pref * bvFactor(a, rx.alpha).g;
+  // Newton's iteration on the equations at dt (src/newton.js).
+  newton(dt, opts) {
+    return newtonFn(this, dt, opts);
   }
 
-  // A non-ideal material's composition at φ̂ = ph: level-fixed species (mode 1) at their η,
-  // amount-fixed ones (mode 2) at cFix. Fills ζ and c for every present species.
-  _materialAt(mat, background, eta, mode, cFix, ph, zeta, cc) {
-    const { n, z } = this;
-    const RT = this.model.RT;
-    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-      if (!mat.present[i]) continue;
-      zeta[i] = mode[i] === 2 ? Math.log(cFix[i] / mat.cRef[i]) : eta[i] - mat.mu0[i] / RT - z[i] * ph;
-      if (mat.modelOf[i] < 0) cc[i] = mode[i] === 2 ? cFix[i] : mat.cRef[i] * Math.exp(Math.min(700, zeta[i]));
-    }
-    for (const md of mat.models) {
-      const w = this._work(md), idx = md.idx, k = idx.length;
-      for (let a = 0; a < k; a++) {
-        w.z[a] = zeta[idx[a]];
-        w.fixed[a] = mode[idx[a]] === 2 ? 1 : 0;
-        w.t[a] = cFix[idx[a]];
-      }
-      md.invert(w.z, w.fixed, w.t, background);
-      md.evaluate(w.z, w.c, w.K, background);
-      for (let a = 0; a < k; a++) {
-        zeta[idx[a]] = w.z[a];
-        cc[idx[a]] = w.c[a];
-      }
-    }
+  /**
+   * Advance by dt, splitting the interval into halves (recursively) wherever Newton fails.
+   * The end time is always t + dt; the result reports the substeps taken.
+   */
+  // A time step, halved until it converges (src/timeSteps.js).
+  advance(dt, opts, depth = 0) {
+    return advanceFn(this, dt, opts, depth);
   }
 
-  // Each electrode surface's coverages from its η: Langmuir on shared sites, θ_s = e^{ζ_s}/(1 + Σ e^{ζ}),
-  // ζ = η − μ°/RT (so θ_s/θ₀ = e^{ζ_s}), at every node of a surfaced window.
-  _coverages() {
-    const { n, M, u, uLo, nSurf, th } = this, RT = this.model.RT;
-    for (let g = 0; g < this.nNodes; g++) {
-      const k = this.surfPort[g];
-      if (k < 0) continue;
-      const surf = this.model.ports[k].surface, b = this.blockOfNode[g];
-      let m = 0;
-      for (let q = 0; q < surf.length; q++) m = Math.max(m, u[b * M + 1 + n + q] + uLo[b * M + 1 + n + q] - surf[q].mu0 / RT);
-      let sum = Math.exp(-m);
-      for (let q = 0; q < surf.length; q++) sum += (th[g * nSurf + q] = Math.exp(u[b * M + 1 + n + q] + uLo[b * M + 1 + n + q] - surf[q].mu0 / RT - m));
-      for (let q = 0; q < surf.length; q++) th[g * nSurf + q] /= sum;
-      this.th0[g] = Math.exp(-m) / sum;
-    }
+  // One time step (src/timeSteps.js).
+  step(dt, opts = {}) {
+    return stepFn(this, dt, opts);
   }
 
-  computeConcentrations() {
-    const { n, M, u, uLo, c, z } = this;
-    for (let g = 0; g < this.nNodes; g++) {
-      const b = this.blockOfNode[g];
-      const phiHat = u[b * M];
-      if (!this.nodeIdeal[g]) {
-        this._nodeStatistics(g, b, phiHat);
-        continue;
-      }
-      const im = this.nodeConductor[g];
-      if (im >= 0) {
-        // Excess carriers: zero in the bulk, the surface sheet at a charged face.
-        for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) c[g * n + i] = 0;
-        const f = this.sheetFace[g];
-        if (f >= 0) c[g * n + im] = (this.sheetSign[g] * u[this.blockOfFace[f] * M] * this.model.grid.area[g]) / (z[im] * FARADAY * this.model.grid.vol[g]);
-        continue;
-      }
-      for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-        const k = g * n + i;
-        c[k] = this.present[k] ? this.cRef[k] * Math.exp(u[b * M + 1 + i] + uLo[b * M + 1 + i] - this.mu0hat[k] - z[i] * phiHat) : 0;
-      }
-    }
-    this._coverages();
+  // Adaptive time stepping to tEnd (src/timeSteps.js).
+  integrate(tEnd, opts = {}) {
+    return integrateFn(this, tEnd, opts);
   }
 
-  _work(md) {
-    let w = this.scratch.get(md);
-    if (!w) {
-      const k = md.idx.length;
-      w = { z: new Float64Array(k), c: new Float64Array(k), K: new Float64Array(k * k), fixed: new Uint8Array(k), t: new Float64Array(k) };
-      this.scratch.set(md, w);
-    }
-    return w;
+  // Probes for a transient's trace: { x, species, quantity: 'c' | 'V', region } read after every
+  // accepted step, linearly between the two nodes of x's region around it. At an interface x
+  // belongs to both regions, so `region` (a name or index) picks the side; it defaults to the
+  // first region that holds x.
+  _probes(probes) {
+    if (probes === undefined) return null;
+    const { grid, regions, species } = this.model;
+    const fail = (m) => {
+      throw new DeviceError(m);
+    };
+    if (!Array.isArray(probes)) fail('advance: probes must be an array of { x, species, quantity, region }, or { interface, species } / { interface, gate }');
+    const plan = probes.map((p, k) => {
+      const path = `advance: probes[${k}]`;
+      if (p?.interface !== undefined) {
+        // At a face: a species' flux through it (mol/(m²·s), toward +x), or a gate's fraction open.
+        const f = p.interface, itf = this.model.interfaces[f];
+        if (!(Number.isInteger(f) && itf)) fail(`${path}.interface: no interface ${JSON.stringify(f)} (they're numbered from 0, left to right)`);
+        if (p.gate !== undefined) {
+          const q = itf.gates.findIndex((gt) => gt.name === p.gate);
+          if (q < 0) fail(`${path}.gate: interfaces[${f}] has no gate ${JSON.stringify(p.gate)}${itf.gates.length ? ` (it has ${itf.gates.map((gt) => gt.name).join(', ')})` : ''}`);
+          return { o: this._gateSlot(f, q) };
+        }
+        const i = species.findIndex((sp) => sp.name === p.species);
+        if (i < 0) fail(`${path}.species: no species ${JSON.stringify(p.species)}`);
+        return { o: this.blockOfFace[f] * this.M + 1 + i };
+      }
+      const quantity = p?.quantity ?? 'c';
+      if (quantity !== 'c' && quantity !== 'V' && quantity !== 'phi') fail(`${path}.quantity must be 'c' (mol/m³), 'V' (the species voltage) or 'phi' (φ, V)`);
+      const i = quantity === 'phi' ? -1 : species.findIndex((sp) => sp.name === p?.species);
+      if (quantity !== 'phi' && i < 0) fail(`${path}.species: no species ${JSON.stringify(p?.species)}`);
+      if (quantity === 'V' && species[i].z === 0) fail(`${path}: '${p.species}' is neutral, so it has no voltage; read 'c'`);
+      const x = grid.x, inside = (r) => p.x >= x[grid.regionStart[r]] && p.x <= x[grid.regionEnd[r]];
+      let r;
+      if (p.region !== undefined) {
+        r = typeof p.region === 'number' ? p.region : regions.findIndex((reg) => reg.name === p.region);
+        if (!(r >= 0 && r < regions.length)) fail(`${path}.region: no region ${JSON.stringify(p.region)}`);
+        if (!inside(r)) fail(`${path}.x (${p.x} m) is outside region ${JSON.stringify(p.region)}`);
+      } else {
+        // At a face, the side where the probe has something to read; both, and it must be told.
+        const has = (rr) => {
+          const mat = this.model.materials[regions[rr].material];
+          return i < 0 ? !mat.conductor && !mat.phiFree : mat.present[i];
+        };
+        const sides = regions.flatMap((_, rr) => (inside(rr) ? [rr] : []));
+        if (!(Number.isFinite(p.x) && sides.length)) fail(`${path}.x must be a position in the device, in m (got ${p.x})`);
+        const able = sides.filter(has);
+        if (able.length > 1) fail(`${path}.x (${p.x} m) is on the face between ${able.map((rr) => JSON.stringify(regions[rr].name)).join(' and ')}: give region, the side to read`);
+        r = able[0] ?? sides[0];
+      }
+      if (i >= 0 && !this.model.materials[regions[r].material].present[i]) fail(`${path}: '${p.species}' is absent from region ${JSON.stringify(regions[r].name)}, so there's nothing to read at x = ${p.x} m`);
+      let g = grid.regionStart[r];
+      while (g + 1 < grid.regionEnd[r] && x[g + 1] < p.x) g++;
+      const w = x[g + 1] > x[g] ? (p.x - x[g]) / (x[g + 1] - x[g]) : 0;
+      return { i, g, w, quantity };
+    });
+    const out = plan.map(() => []);
+    const { n, M } = this;
+    const at = (q, g) => {
+      if (q.quantity === 'phi') return this.phiUndefined[g] ? NaN : this.VT * (this.u[this.blockOfNode[g] * M] + this.uLo[this.blockOfNode[g] * M]);
+      if (!this.present[g * n + q.i]) return NaN;
+      if (q.quantity === 'c') return this.c[g * n + q.i];
+      const o = this.blockOfNode[g] * M + 1 + q.i;
+      return (this.VT * (this.u[o] + this.uLo[o])) / this.z[q.i];
+    };
+    return {
+      out,
+      read: () => plan.map((q) => (q.o !== undefined ? (this.loc[q.o] < 0 ? 0 : this.u[q.o]) : (1 - q.w) * at(q, q.g) + q.w * at(q, q.g + 1))),
+      push: (values) => values.forEach((v, k) => out[k].push(v)),
+    };
   }
 
-  // c, K and the excess at a node of a non-ideal material.
-  _nodeStatistics(g, b, phiHat) {
-    const { n, M, u, uLo, c, z, K, ex, zeta } = this;
-    const mat = this.model.materials[this.nodeMaterial[g]];
-    const Kg = g * n * n;
-    K.fill(0, Kg, Kg + n * n);
-    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-      const k = g * n + i;
-      ex[k] = 0;
-      if (!this.present[k]) {
-        c[k] = 0;
-        continue;
-      }
-      zeta[i] = u[b * M + 1 + i] + uLo[b * M + 1 + i] - this.mu0hat[k] - z[i] * phiHat;
-      if (mat.modelOf[i] < 0) {
-        c[k] = this.cRef[k] * Math.exp(zeta[i]);
-        K[Kg + i * n + i] = c[k];
+  // Start from another solver's state for the same device on another grid (a refined one): each
+  // node's unknowns interpolated linearly in x within its region, each face's copied, and the
+  // terminals' voltages. A warm start for a steady solve; nothing else is carried over.
+  _warmFrom(src) {
+    const { M, u, uLo } = this, grid = this.model.grid, sg = src.model.grid;
+    if (src.M !== M || sg.regionStart.length !== grid.regionStart.length) throw new Error('_warmFrom: a different device');
+    const value = (b, k) => src.u[b * M + k] + src.uLo[b * M + k];
+    for (let r = 0; r < grid.regionStart.length; r++) {
+      let a = sg.regionStart[r];
+      for (let g = grid.regionStart[r]; g <= grid.regionEnd[r]; g++) {
+        const x = grid.x[g];
+        while (a + 1 < sg.regionEnd[r] && sg.x[a + 1] < x) a++;
+        const b = Math.min(a + 1, sg.regionEnd[r]), h = sg.x[b] - sg.x[a];
+        const w = h > 0 ? Math.min(1, Math.max(0, (x - sg.x[a]) / h)) : 0;
+        const ba = src.blockOfNode[a], bb = src.blockOfNode[b], bg = this.blockOfNode[g];
+        for (let k = 0; k < M; k++) {
+          u[bg * M + k] = (1 - w) * value(ba, k) + w * value(bb, k);
+          uLo[bg * M + k] = 0;
+        }
       }
     }
-    for (const md of mat.models) {
-      const w = this._work(md), idx = md.idx, k = idx.length;
-      for (let a = 0; a < k; a++) w.z[a] = zeta[idx[a]];
-      md.evaluate(w.z, w.c, w.K, this.background[g]);
-      for (let a = 0; a < k; a++) {
-        const i = idx[a], ci = w.c[a];
-        c[g * n + i] = ci;
-        ex[g * n + i] = ci > 0 ? zeta[i] - Math.log(ci / this.cRef[g * n + i]) : 0;
-        for (let q = 0; q < k; q++) K[Kg + i * n + idx[q]] = w.K[a * k + q];
+    for (let f = 0; f < this.nFaces; f++) {
+      for (let k = 0; k < M; k++) {
+        u[this.blockOfFace[f] * M + k] = value(src.blockOfFace[f], k);
+        uLo[this.blockOfFace[f] * M + k] = 0;
       }
     }
-  }
-
-  // Σ_j K_ij z_j at node g (= z_i c_i for ideal statistics).
-  _Kz(g, i) {
-    const { n, z } = this;
-    if (this.nodeIdeal[g]) return z[i] * this.c[g * n + i];
-    let s = 0;
-    const o = g * n * n + i * n;
-    for (let j = 0; j < n; j++) s += this.K[o + j] * z[j];
-    return s;
-  }
-
-  /** zᵀKz at node g (per RT): the charge response that sets the screening length. */
-  screening(g) {
-    let s = 0;
-    for (let i = 0; i < this.n; i++) s += this.z[i] * this._Kz(g, i);
-    return s;
-  }
-
-  // Add w·∂(ln c_i)/∂(slot) at node g into d (slot 0 = φ̂, 1 + j = η_j).
-  _dlnc(g, i, w, d) {
-    const { n, z } = this;
-    if (this.nodeIdeal[g]) {
-      d[1 + i] += w;
-      d[0] -= w * z[i];
-      return;
-    }
-    const ci = this.c[g * n + i];
-    if (!(ci > 0)) return;
-    const o = g * n * n + i * n, f = w / ci;
-    for (let j = 0; j < n; j++) d[1 + j] += f * this.K[o + j];
-    d[0] -= f * this._Kz(g, i);
-  }
-
-  // Add ∂(row rb, slot rs)/∂(block cb, slot cs) to the Jacobian (nothing if either slot isn't
-  // an unknown).
-  _j(rb, rs, cb, cs, v) {
-    const M = this.M, r = this.loc[rb * M + rs], c = this.loc[cb * M + cs];
-    if (r < 0 || c < 0) return;
-    const sys = this.sys, sz = sys.sizes;
-    if (cb === rb) sys.B[sys.offB[rb] + r * sz[rb] + c] += v;
-    else if (cb === rb - 1) sys.A[sys.offA[rb] + r * sz[cb] + c] += v;
-    else if (cb === rb + 1) sys.C[sys.offC[rb] + r * sz[cb] + c] += v;
-    else throw new Error(`internal: non-tridiagonal coupling ${rb}→${cb}`);
-  }
-
-  /** Assemble residual and Jacobian for a backward-Euler step of size dt. */
-  assemble(dt) {
-    const { model, res, sys } = this;
-    const { grid, materials, regions } = model;
-    sys.clear();
-    res.fill(0);
-    this.dtNow = dt;
-    if (this.lin) this.lin.reset(1 / dt);
-    if (this.steady && dt === Infinity) snapFlat(this);
-    this.computeConcentrations();
-
-    // Regions, each assembled by the kernel for its kind: a conductor (its carrier only), a
-    // dilute region (ideal statistics, the fast path) or a concentrated one (any statistics).
-    for (let r = 0; r < regions.length; r++) {
-      const reg = regions[r], mat = materials[reg.material];
-      const g0 = grid.regionStart[r], g1 = grid.regionEnd[r];
-      if (mat.conductor) {
-        for (let g = g0; g <= g1; g++) this._nodeConductor(g, dt);
-        for (let s = g0; s < g1; s++) this._segmentConductor(s, s + r, s + r + 1, mat, grid.segLength[s] / grid.segArea[s]);
-        continue;
-      }
-      if (mat.ideal) this._nodesDilute(g0, g1, dt);
-      else for (let g = g0; g <= g1; g++) this._nodeConcentrated(g, dt);
-      const rxs = this.rxsIn[reg.material];
-      if (rxs.length > 0) for (let g = g0; g <= g1; g++) this._bulkReactions(g, rxs);
-      for (let s = g0; s < g1; s++) {
-        const bL = s + r, bR = bL + 1, h = grid.segLength[s] / grid.segArea[s]; // (a length over the cross-section: fluxes are totals)
-        this._segmentDisplacement(s, bL, bR, mat, h);
-        if (reg.mixing > 0) this._segmentMixing(s, bL, bR, reg.mixing, h, mat);
-        if (!mat.ideal) this._segmentConcentrated(s, bL, bR, mat, h, reg.velocity);
-      }
-      if (mat.ideal) this._segmentsDilute(g0, g1, r, mat, reg.velocity);
-    }
-
-    // Faces: the flux node carries D, the linked species' fluxes and the reaction rates.
-    for (let f = 0; f < this.nFaces; f++) this._face(f);
-
-    // Terminals: ports (after every other term at their nodes, so a held level can read its
-    // flux), then contacts, then the circuit rows of the floating ones.
-    this._terminals(dt);
-    // The laws' rows (src/lawRows.js): a time step's circuit laws; a steady system's levels held
-    // flat, affinities, conserved amounts, islands' balances, and the pins held aside of them.
-    applyLaws(this, dt);
-    this.transformed = this.combining && dt !== Infinity;
-    if (this.transformed) this._chargeRows(dt);
-  }
-
-  // A conductor node: only its carrier's balance (the segment flux J has its own row, in
-  // _segmentConductor). Its bulk stores nothing; a charged face's sheet sits in the edge node.
-  _nodeConductor(g, dt) {
-    const { n, M, res, c, cOld, z } = this, R = this.rix;
-    const b = this.blockOfNode[g], v = this.model.grid.vol[g], im = this.nodeConductor[g];
-    const r = 1 + im, k = g * n + im;
-    res[R[b * M + r]] += (v * (c[k] - cOld[k])) / dt;
-    const f = this.sheetFace[g];
-    if (f >= 0) this._j(b, r, this.blockOfFace[f], 0, (this.sheetSign[g] * this.model.grid.area[g]) / (z[im] * FARADAY * dt));
-  }
-
-  // Whether a port holds species i at node g, a device end node (see portHeldEnd).
-  _portHeldAt(g, i) {
-    return g === 0 ? this.portHeldEnd[i] === 1 : g === this.nNodes - 1 && this.portHeldEnd[this.n + i] === 1;
-  }
-
-  // Dilute nodes g0…g1 (ideal statistics, c = c_ref e^ζ): storage of each species and the space
-  // charge in the Gauss row, written straight into the diagonal blocks by local index. A
-  // dielectric is the case with no species.
-  _nodesDilute(g0, g1, dt) {
-    const { n, M, res, c, cOld, z, sys, loc, present, rhoFixed, blockOfNode, lin } = this, R = this.rix, F = FARADAY;
-    const JB = sys.B, sizes = sys.sizes, offB = sys.offB, vol = this.model.grid.vol;
-    for (let g = g0; g <= g1; g++) {
-      const b = blockOfNode[g], v = vol[g];
-      const m = sizes[b], oB = offB[b], lb = b * M, p = loc[lb]; // p: φ's row, −1 where undefined
-      if (this.combining && this.chargeNode[g] === 1 && dt !== Infinity) {
-        // Storage and neutrality go in later, in _chargeRows; a neutral species' storage here.
-        for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) if (present[g * n + i] && z[i] === 0) this._storage(g, i, dt);
-        continue;
-      }
-      let q = rhoFixed[g], dq = 0;
-      const late = this.combining && this.lateStorage[g] === 1 && dt !== Infinity; // (the ions' storage: in _contact)
-      for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-        const k = g * n + i;
-        if (!present[k]) continue;
-        const ck = c[k], l = loc[lb + 1 + i], stores = !(late && z[i] !== 0 && !this._portHeldAt(g, i));
-        if (stores) res[R[lb + 1 + i]] += (v * (ck - cOld[k])) / dt;
-        q += F * z[i] * ck;
-        dq += F * z[i] * z[i] * ck;
-        if (lin) {
-          lin.node(R[lb + 1 + i], R[lb], z[i], stores ? v * ck : 0, -v * F * z[i] * ck);
-          continue;
-        }
-        if (stores) {
-          JB[oB + l * m + l] += (v * ck) / dt;
-          if (p >= 0 && z[i] !== 0) JB[oB + l * m + p] += (-v * z[i] * ck) / dt;
-        }
-        if (p >= 0 && z[i] !== 0) JB[oB + p * m + l] += -v * F * z[i] * ck;
-      }
-      if (p >= 0) {
-        res[R[lb]] -= v * q;
-        if (!lin) JB[oB + p * m + p] += v * dq;
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  // A concentrated node (any statistics): ∂c_i/∂η_j = K_ij and ∂c_i/∂φ̂ = −(Kz)_i.
-  _nodeConcentrated(g, dt) {
-    const { n, M, res, c, z } = this, R = this.rix, F = FARADAY;
-    const b = this.blockOfNode[g], v = this.model.grid.vol[g];
-    if (this.combining && this.chargeNode[g] === 1 && dt !== Infinity) {
-      // Storage and neutrality go in later, in _chargeRows; a neutral species' storage here.
-      for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) if (this.present[g * n + i] && z[i] === 0) this._storage(g, i, dt);
-      return;
-    }
-    let q = this.rhoFixed[g], dq = 0;
-    const lin = this.lin;
-    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-      const k = g * n + i, r = 1 + i;
-      if (!this.present[k]) continue;
-      const Kz = this._Kz(g, i);
-      if (lin) {
-        // In difference form (see DifferenceTerms): storage of i and its charge, in each
-        // δη_j − z_j δφ̂ through K_ij.
-        res[R[b * M + r]] += (v * (c[k] - this.cOld[k])) / dt;
-        q += F * z[i] * c[k];
-        const Kg = g * n * n + i * n;
-        for (let j = 0; j < n; j++) {
-          const Kij = this.nodeIdeal[g] ? (i === j ? c[k] : 0) : this.K[Kg + j];
-          if (Kij !== 0) lin.node(R[b * M + 1 + j], R[b * M], z[j], v * Kij, -v * F * z[i] * Kij, R[b * M + r]);
-        }
-        continue;
-      }
-      this._storage(g, i, dt, Kz);
-      q += F * z[i] * c[k];
-      dq += F * z[i] * Kz;
-      if (Kz !== 0) this._j(b, 0, b, r, -v * F * Kz); // K symmetric: ∂(Σ z c)/∂η_i = (Kz)_i
-    }
-    // (where no charge responds and no field reaches, φ isn't defined, nor an unknown)
-    if (!this.phiUndefined[g]) {
-      res[R[b * M]] -= v * q;
-      if (!lin) this._j(b, 0, b, 0, v * dq);
-    }
-  }
-
-  // Species i's storage at node g, v(c − c_old)/dt, in its balance row and the Jacobian
-  // (∂c_i/∂η_j = K_ij, ∂c_i/∂φ̂ = −(Kz)_i; for ideal statistics K is diagonal, c_i).
-  _storage(g, i, dt, Kz = this._Kz(g, i)) {
-    const { n, M, res, c, cOld } = this, R = this.rix;
-    const b = this.blockOfNode[g], v = this.model.grid.vol[g], k = g * n + i, r = 1 + i;
-    res[R[b * M + r]] += (v * (c[k] - cOld[k])) / dt;
-    if (this.nodeIdeal[g]) this._j(b, r, b, r, (v * c[k]) / dt);
-    else {
-      const Kg = g * n * n;
-      for (let j = 0; j < n; j++) {
-        const Kij = this.K[Kg + i * n + j];
-        if (Kij !== 0) this._j(b, r, b, 1 + j, (v * Kij) / dt);
-      }
-    }
-    if (Kz !== 0 && !this.phiUndefined[g]) this._j(b, r, b, 0, (-v * Kz) / dt);
-  }
-
-  // Strictly neutral nodes on a transient step, solved in better-conditioned terms. There, a
-  // change of φ̂ with every η_i shifted by z_i times it leaves every concentration as it was, so
-  // storage and neutrality don't see it; but in (φ̂, η) they see it as pairs of huge entries that
-  // cancel, and round-off in that cancellation (storage/flux ~ h²/(D·dt), times the range of
-  // concentrations: a trace ion beside 3 M KCl) swamps the fluxes that do fix it. So, at each node
-  // that stays neutral (see chargeNode), with storage and neutrality left out of assembly:
-  // - rows: the balance of the most abundant charged species (by z²c) becomes Σ (z_i/z_k) × each
-  //   balance, which without storage is current continuity;
-  // - columns: the unknowns become φ̂' and η'_i = η_i − z_i φ̂ (newton() maps the update back),
-  //   in which storage and neutrality have no φ̂' term at all;
-  // - then storage (on the other balances) and neutrality go in, exactly, in those terms.
-  // A start-of-step net charge (round-off in a solved state) isn't carried over: the neutrality
-  // row holds the new state neutral.
-  _chargeRows(dt) {
-    const { n, M, res, c, cOld, z, sys, loc, present, termB, termC } = this, R = this.rix, F = FARADAY, live = this._liveTerms();
-    const { A, B, C, sizes, offA, offB, offC } = sys, vol = this.model.grid.vol, last = this.nB - 1;
-    for (const g of this.chargeNodes) {
-      const b = this.blockOfNode[g], lb = b * M, m = sizes[b], mp = b > 0 ? sizes[b - 1] : 0, mn = b < last ? sizes[b + 1] : 0;
-      const p = loc[lb], gn = g * n;
-      let k = -1, best = -1;
-      for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-        if (!present[gn + i] || z[i] === 0) continue;
-        const w = z[i] * z[i] * c[gn + i];
-        if (w > best) {
-          k = i;
-          best = w;
-        }
-      }
-      if (k < 0 || p < 0) continue;
-      // Rows: the pivot's balance becomes the z-weighted sum (all still without storage).
-      const lk = loc[lb + 1 + k], rk = R[lb + 1 + k];
-      for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-        if (i === k || !present[gn + i] || z[i] === 0) continue;
-        const li = loc[lb + 1 + i], w = z[i] / z[k], ri = R[lb + 1 + i];
-        for (let q = 0, o = offA[b] + lk * mp, s = offA[b] + li * mp; q < mp; q++) A[o + q] += w * A[s + q];
-        for (let q = 0, o = offB[b] + lk * m, s = offB[b] + li * m; q < m; q++) B[o + q] += w * B[s + q];
-        for (let q = 0, o = offC[b] + lk * mn, s = offC[b] + li * mn; q < mn; q++) C[o + q] += w * C[s + q];
-        res[rk] += w * res[ri];
-        for (const t of live) termB[t][rk] += w * termB[t][ri];
-        if (this.lin) this.lin.combine(rk, ri, w);
-      }
-      // Columns: φ̂' = φ̂ with η fixed becomes φ̂ with η_i shifted by z_i, wherever node g's
-      // unknowns appear (its own rows, its neighbours', a terminal's current).
-      for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-        if (!present[gn + i] || z[i] === 0) continue;
-        const li = loc[lb + 1 + i], zi = z[i];
-        for (let r = 0, o = offB[b]; r < m; r++) B[o + r * m + p] += zi * B[o + r * m + li];
-        if (b > 0) for (let r = 0, mr = mp, o = offC[b - 1]; r < mr; r++) C[o + r * m + p] += zi * C[o + r * m + li];
-        if (b < last) for (let r = 0, mr = mn, o = offA[b + 1]; r < mr; r++) A[o + r * m + p] += zi * A[o + r * m + li];
-        for (const t of live) termC[t][R[lb]] += zi * termC[t][R[lb + 1 + i]];
-      }
-      // Storage on the other charged balances, and neutrality: no φ̂' terms, exactly.
-      const v = vol[g], oB = offB[b];
-      let q = this.rhoFixed[g];
-      if (this.nodeIdeal[g]) {
-        for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-          if (!present[gn + i] || z[i] === 0) continue;
-          const ci = c[gn + i], li = loc[lb + 1 + i];
-          if (i !== k) {
-            res[R[lb + 1 + i]] += (v * (ci - cOld[gn + i])) / dt;
-            B[oB + li * m + li] += (v * ci) / dt;
-          }
-          q += F * z[i] * ci;
-          B[oB + p * m + li] += -v * F * z[i] * ci;
-        }
-      } else {
-        for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-          if (!present[gn + i]) continue;
-          if (i !== k && z[i] !== 0) this._storage(g, i, dt, 0);
-          q += F * z[i] * c[gn + i];
-          const Kz = this._Kz(g, i); // (nonzero for a neutral species only on a shared lattice)
-          if (Kz !== 0) this._j(b, 0, b, 1 + i, -v * F * Kz);
-        }
-      }
-      res[R[lb]] -= v * q;
-      // The pivot's row (charge continuity) left storage out, the ions' net charge being constant
-      // under neutrality. Against a capacitance it isn't: neutrality makes it −(aσ + ρ_fixed)/F,
-      // so their storage is that less what the step started with, Σ z c_old, over dt (in units
-      // of the pivot's balance).
-      if (this.qgTerms[g].length > 0) {
-        const f = -v / (FARADAY * z[k] * dt);
-        let qOld = this.rhoFixed[g];
-        for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) if (present[gn + i]) qOld += F * z[i] * cOld[gn + i];
-        res[rk] += f * (this.qg[g] + qOld);
-        B[offB[b] + lk * m + p] += -f * this.qgSlope[g] * this.VT;
-        for (const [kq, w] of this.qgTerms[g]) termB[kq][rk] += f * this.portArea[kq - 2][w] * this.model.ports[kq - 2].capacitance.C;
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  // Newton's update in the transformed unknowns (see _chargeRows) back in η: η_i = η'_i + z_i φ̂'.
-  _untransform(delta) {
-    const { n, M, z, loc, present } = this, R = this.rix;
-    for (const g of this.chargeNodes) {
-      const lb = this.blockOfNode[g] * M;
-      if (loc[lb] < 0) continue;
-      const dphi = delta[R[lb]];
-      for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) if (present[g * n + i] && z[i] !== 0) delta[R[lb + 1 + i]] += z[i] * dphi;
-    }
-  }
-
-  // Bulk reactions at node g: r = k_f Π c_R^ν · (−expm1(−a)), with a = A/RT from the
-  // (compensated) η. Reactants are consumed (+v·ν·r in their balance), products made (−v·ν·r).
-  _bulkReactions(g, rxs) {
-    const { n, M, u, uLo, res, c } = this, R = this.rix;
-    const b = this.blockOfNode[g], v = this.model.grid.vol[g];
-    const dr = this.dA;
-    for (let x = 0; x < rxs.length; x++) {
-      const rx = rxs[x];
-      const law = rx.srh?.[this.nodeMaterial[g]];
-      if (law) {
-        // SRH: dr is ∂rate/∂slot directly, from its sensitivities to ln n, ln p and a.
-        let aHi = rx.fixedA, aLo = 0;
-        for (let p = 0; p < rx.sp.length; p++) {
-          aHi += rx.nu[p] * u[b * M + 1 + rx.sp[p]];
-          aLo += rx.nu[p] * uLo[b * M + 1 + rx.sp[p]];
-        }
-        const { rate, Cn, Cp, Ca } = this._srhRate(law, c[g * n + law.n.i], c[g * n + law.p.i], aHi + aLo, ...this._srhDegen(g, g, law));
-        dr.fill(0);
-        this._dlnc(g, law.n.i, Cn, dr);
-        this._dlnc(g, law.p.i, Cp, dr);
-        for (let p = 0; p < rx.sp.length; p++) dr[1 + rx.sp[p]] += Ca * rx.nu[p];
-        for (let p = 0; p < rx.sp.length; p++) {
-          const row = 1 + rx.sp[p], w = v * rx.nu[p];
-          res[R[b * M + row]] += w * rate;
-          for (let k = 0; k < M; k++) if (dr[k] !== 0) this._j(b, row, b, k, w * dr[k]);
-        }
-        continue;
-      }
-      let P = rx.generation ? rx.kfNode[g] * this.generationScale : rx.kfNode[g], aHi = rx.fixedA, aLo = 0;
-      dr.fill(0); // ∂ ln P / ∂slot
-      // Participants: reactants with ν > 0, then products with ν < 0.
-      for (let p = 0; p < rx.sp.length; p++) {
-        const i = rx.sp[p], nu = rx.nu[p];
-        if (nu > 0) {
-          const ci = c[g * n + i];
-          P *= nu === 1 ? ci : powi(ci, nu);
-          this._dlnc(g, i, nu, dr);
-        }
-        aHi += nu * u[b * M + 1 + i];
-        aLo += nu * uLo[b * M + 1 + i];
-      }
-      const a = aHi + aLo;
-      const f = -Math.expm1(-a); // 1 − e^{−a}
-      const rate = P * f;
-      const Pd = P * (1 - f); // P·df/da, df/da = e^{−a}
-      // ∂rate/∂slot = rate·∂lnP + P·f′·∂a
-      for (let k = 0; k < M; k++) dr[k] *= rate;
-      for (let p = 0; p < rx.sp.length; p++) dr[1 + rx.sp[p]] += Pd * rx.nu[p];
-      for (let p = 0; p < rx.sp.length; p++) {
-        const row = 1 + rx.sp[p], w = v * rx.nu[p];
-        res[R[b * M + row]] += w * rate;
-        for (let k = 0; k < M; k++) if (dr[k] !== 0) this._j(b, row, b, k, w * dr[k]);
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  // Displacement along a segment where φ is defined: D = −ε(φ_R − φ_L)/h into the two Gauss rows.
-  _segmentDisplacement(s, bL, bR, mat, h) {
-    const { M, u, res, sys, loc } = this, R = this.rix;
-    const k = this.phiUndefined[s] ? 0 : (mat.epsr * EPS0 * this.VT) / h; // ε = 0: no displacement
-    if (k === 0) return;
-    const D = -k * (u[bR * M] - u[bL * M]);
-    const mL = sys.sizes[bL], mR = sys.sizes[bR], pL = loc[bL * M], pR = loc[bR * M];
-    res[R[bL * M]] += D;
-    res[R[bR * M]] -= D;
-    if (this.lin) return this.lin.displacement(R[bL * M], R[bR * M], k);
-    sys.B[sys.offB[bL] + pL * mL + pL] += k;
-    sys.C[sys.offC[bL] + pL * mR + pR] -= k;
-    sys.A[sys.offA[bR] + pR * mL + pL] -= k;
-    sys.B[sys.offB[bR] + pR * mR + pR] += k;
-  }
-
-  // Scharfetter–Gummel fluxes along a dilute region's segments (nodes g0…g1), written
-  // by local index. The flux
-  // N = g[B(Δ)c_L − B(−Δ)c_R] is rewritten with B(−Δ) = B(Δ)e^Δ and c_R e^Δ = c_L e^{Δη} as
-  // N = −g·B(Δ)·c_L·expm1(Δη). This is precise relative to the quasi-Fermi difference Δη, so tiny
-  // fluxes (e.g. majority carriers carrying a small current) don't vanish in the cancellation of
-  // two huge drift and diffusion terms.
-  _segmentsDilute(g0, g1, region, mat, vel) {
-    const { n, M, u, uLo, res, c, z, sys, loc, lin } = this, R = this.rix;
-    const { A: JA, B: JB, C: JC, sizes, offA, offB, offC } = sys;
-    const { segLength, segArea } = this.model.grid;
-    for (let s = g0; s < g1; s++) {
-      const bL = s + region, bR = bL + 1, h = segLength[s] / segArea[s]; // (fluxes are totals through the cross-section)
-      const mL = sizes[bL], mR = sizes[bR], pL = loc[bL * M], pR = loc[bR * M];
-      const phiL = u[bL * M], phiR = u[bR * M];
-      for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-        if (!mat.present[i] || mat.D[i] === 0) continue;
-        const r = 1 + i, zi = z[i];
-        const cL = c[s * n + i];
-        const g = mat.D[i] / h;
-        const pe = (vel * h) / mat.D[i]; // advection: a Péclet shift of the drift potential
-        const d = zi * (phiR - phiL) - pe;
-        const deta = u[bR * M + r] - u[bL * M + r] + (uLo[bR * M + r] - uLo[bL * M + r]) - pe;
-        const E = Math.expm1(deta);
-        const gBc = g * bernoulli(d) * cL;
-        const N = -gBc * E;
-        const dNdd = -g * bernoulliDerivative(d) * cL * E;
-        const dNdEtaL = gBc;
-        const dNdEtaR = -gBc * (E + 1);
-        const dNdPhiL = -zi * dNdd + zi * gBc * E; // via Δ, and via c_L ∝ e^{−zφ̂_L}
-        const dNdPhiR = zi * dNdd;
-        res[R[bL * M + r]] += N;
-        res[R[bR * M + r]] -= N;
-        if (lin) {
-          lin.segment(R[bL * M + r], R[bR * M + r], R[bL * M], R[bR * M], zi, -gBc * E, dNdEtaR, zi * dNdd);
-          continue;
-        }
-        // Row r of block bL (couplings to itself in B, to bR in C) and of bR (to bL in A).
-        const lL = loc[bL * M + r], lR = loc[bR * M + r];
-        const oBL = offB[bL] + lL * mL, oCL = offC[bL] + lL * mR, oAR = offA[bR] + lR * mL, oBR = offB[bR] + lR * mR;
-        JB[oBL + lL] += dNdEtaL;
-        JC[oCL + lR] += dNdEtaR;
-        JA[oAR + lL] -= dNdEtaL;
-        JB[oBR + lR] -= dNdEtaR;
-        if (zi !== 0 && pL >= 0) {
-          JB[oBL + pL] += dNdPhiL;
-          JC[oCL + pR] += dNdPhiR;
-          JA[oAR + pL] -= dNdPhiL;
-          JB[oBR + pR] -= dNdPhiR;
-        }
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  // A face: its flux node's rows are the interface laws (φ law, species links, reactions), and
-  // its fluxes enter the two edge nodes' balances.
-  _face(f) {
-    const { model, n, M, u, uLo, res, z, VT } = this, R = this.rix, F = FARADAY;
-    const grid = model.grid, interfaces = model.interfaces;
-    const bf = this.blockOfFace[f], bL = bf - 1, bR = bf + 1;
-    const itf = interfaces[f];
-    // φ law: pinned jump (dipole), Helmholtz capacitor, or no charge at all (neutral).
-    const law = itf.phi.type;
-    const condSide = itf.conductor && law !== 'neutral' ? itf.conductor.side : null;
-    if (condSide) {
-      // Against a metal: the other side's φ is tied to the metal's Fermi level V_F = V_T η/z.
-      const im = itf.conductor.i, bm = condSide === 'left' ? bL : bR, bo = condSide === 'left' ? bR : bL;
-      const sg = condSide === 'left' ? 1 : -1;
-      const vf = (u[bm * M + 1 + im] + uLo[bm * M + 1 + im]) / z[im]; // V_F / V_T
-      const gap = vf - itf.zeroCharge / VT - (u[bo * M] + uLo[bo * M]); // (V_F − zeroCharge − φ_edge)/V_T
-      if (law === 'pinned') {
-        res[R[bf * M]] = gap;
-        this._j(bf, 0, bm, 1 + im, 1 / z[im]);
-        this._j(bf, 0, bo, 0, -1);
-      } else {
-        // D toward the other side = C (V_F − zeroCharge − φ_edge); toward +x that's sg times it.
-        const kC = itf.phi.C * VT;
-        res[R[bf * M]] = u[bf * M] - sg * kC * gap;
-        this._j(bf, 0, bf, 0, 1);
-        this._j(bf, 0, bm, 1 + im, (-sg * kC) / z[im]);
-        this._j(bf, 0, bo, 0, sg * kC);
-      }
-    } else if (law === 'neutral') {
-      // D = 0 (not an unknown); the jump is whatever each side's neutrality needs
-    } else {
-      const jump = u[bR * M] - u[bL * M] + (uLo[bR * M] - uLo[bL * M]) - itf.dipole / VT;
-      if (law === 'pinned') {
-        res[R[bf * M]] = jump;
-        this._j(bf, 0, bR, 0, 1);
-        this._j(bf, 0, bL, 0, -1);
-      } else {
-        // D = −C (φ_R − φ_L − dipole): displacement toward +x drops across the layer.
-        const kC = itf.phi.C * VT;
-        res[R[bf * M]] = u[bf * M] + kC * jump;
-        this._j(bf, 0, bf, 0, 1);
-        this._j(bf, 0, bR, 0, kC);
-        this._j(bf, 0, bL, 0, -kC);
-      }
-    }
-    // D_f enters each side's Gauss row; a metal side holds it as surface carriers instead. The
-    // flux node's unknowns are per area, so what they carry is that times the face's area.
-    const gL = grid.regionEnd[f], gR = gL + 1, Af = grid.area[gL];
-    if (this.nodeConductor[gL] < 0) {
-      res[R[bL * M]] += Af * u[bf * M];
-      this._j(bL, 0, bf, 0, Af);
-    }
-    if (this.nodeConductor[gR] < 0) {
-      res[R[bR * M]] -= Af * (u[bf * M] + itf.sheetCharge);
-      this._j(bR, 0, bf, 0, -Af);
-    }
-    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-      const r = 1 + i, o = bf * M + r;
-      const type = itf.links[i].type;
-      const deta = u[bL * M + r] - u[bR * M + r] + (uLo[bL * M + r] - uLo[bR * M + r]); // η_L − η_R
-      if (type === 'blocked') continue;
-      if (type === 'equilibrium') {
-        res[R[o]] = -deta; // μ̄ continuous
-        this._j(bf, r, bR, r, 1);
-        this._j(bf, r, bL, r, -1);
-      } else if (type === 'permeability') {
-        // Electrodiffusion through a thin membrane in a constant field: Scharfetter–Gummel across
-        // the face with D/h → P, its drift taken over the face's whole jump in the standard level
-        // zφ̂ + μ°/RT − ln c_ref (the φ jump of a capacitive face, and any step between the two
-        // materials). Between like solutions it's Goldman–Hodgkin–Katz's flux,
-        //   N = P·zu·(c_L − c_R e^{zu})/(e^{zu} − 1),  u = (φ_R − φ_L)/V_T,
-        // and it's exactly zero where μ̄ is level.
-        const gl = grid.regionEnd[f], gr = gl + 1, kl = gl * n + i, kr = gr * n + i, zi = z[i], link = itf.links[i];
-        const shift = this.mu0hat[kr] - this.mu0hat[kl] - Math.log(this.cRef[kr] / this.cRef[kl]);
-        const d = zi * (u[bR * M] - u[bL * M] + (uLo[bR * M] - uLo[bL * M])) + shift;
-        const E = Math.expm1(-deta); // η_R − η_L
-        // Gated: P × Π x^p, each x taken in [0, 1] (Newton's iterates can stray past its ends).
-        const gated = link.gates ?? [], gx = (q) => u[this._gateSlot(f, q)];
-        const P = link.P * (gated.length ? this._open(gated, gx) : 1);
-        const gBc = P * bernoulli(d) * this.c[kl];
-        const dNdd = -P * bernoulliDerivative(d) * this.c[kl] * E;
-        res[R[o]] = u[o] + gBc * E;
-        this._j(bf, r, bf, r, 1);
-        for (const [q, p] of gated) {
-          const dO = this._dOpen(gated, q, p, gx);
-          if (dO !== 0) this._j(bf, r, bf, 1 + n + itf.reactions.length + q, link.P * bernoulli(d) * this.c[kl] * E * dO);
-        }
-        this._j(bf, r, bL, r, -gBc);
-        this._j(bf, r, bR, r, gBc * (E + 1));
-        if (zi !== 0) {
-          this._j(bf, r, bL, 0, zi * dNdd - zi * gBc * E);
-          this._j(bf, r, bR, 0, -zi * dNdd);
-        }
-      } else {
-        // conductance: J = G (V_L − V_R), V = V_T η / z  ⇒  N = G V_T (η_L − η_R) / (z² F); gated,
-        // G times Π x^p
-        const gated = itf.links[i].gates ?? [], gx = (q) => u[this._gateSlot(f, q)];
-        const gG0 = (itf.links[i].G * VT) / (z[i] * z[i] * F), gG = gG0 * (gated.length ? this._open(gated, gx) : 1);
-        res[R[o]] = u[o] - gG * deta;
-        this._j(bf, r, bf, r, 1);
-        this._j(bf, r, bL, r, -gG);
-        this._j(bf, r, bR, r, gG);
-        for (const [q, p] of gated) {
-          const dO = this._dOpen(gated, q, p, gx);
-          if (dO !== 0) this._j(bf, r, bf, 1 + n + itf.reactions.length + q, -gG0 * deta * dO);
-        }
-      }
-      res[R[bL * M + r]] += Af * u[o];
-      this._j(bL, r, bf, r, Af);
-      res[R[bR * M + r]] -= Af * u[o];
-      this._j(bR, r, bf, r, -Af);
-    }
-    itf.reactions.forEach((rx, k) => this._faceReaction(rx, k, f, bf, bL, bR, Af));
-    if (itf.gates.length > 0) this._faceGates(f, bf, bL, bR);
-  }
-
-  // Full index of face f's gate q (its fraction open).
-  _gateSlot(f, q) {
-    return this.blockOfFace[f] * this.M + 1 + this.n + this.model.interfaces[f].reactions.length + q;
-  }
-
-  // The voltage a gate follows: across its face, or across its port's capacitance at its node.
-  _gateVoltage(gt) {
-    return gt.port === undefined ? this._faceVoltage(gt.f) : this._portVoltage(gt.port, gt.g);
-  }
-
-  // The voltage across port k's capacitance at node g, φ − (V − zeroCharge) (V): a membrane's,
-  // inside (the region) minus outside.
-  _portVoltage(k, g) {
-    const { M, u, uLo, VT } = this, b = this.blockOfNode[g], port = this.model.ports[k];
-    return VT * (u[b * M] + uLo[b * M]) - (this.termV[2 + k] - port.capacitance.zeroCharge);
-  }
-
-  // The voltage across face f, φ_right − φ_left (V).
-  _faceVoltage(f) {
-    const { M, u, uLo, VT } = this, bf = this.blockOfFace[f], bL = bf - 1, bR = bf + 1;
-    return VT * (u[bR * M] - u[bL * M] + (uLo[bR * M] - uLo[bL * M]));
-  }
-
-  // Face f's gates, each a row (x − x_old)/dt = α(1 − x) − βx in the voltage across the face.
-  _faceGates(f, bf, bL, bR) {
-    const { res, VT } = this, R = this.rix, itf = this.model.interfaces[f], dt = this.dtNow;
-    const V = this._faceVoltage(f), k0 = 1 + this.n + itf.reactions.length;
-    itf.gates.forEach((gate, q) => {
-      const o = this._gateSlot(f, q), x = this.u[o];
-      const [a, da] = gateRate(gate.alpha, V), [b, db] = gateRate(gate.beta, V);
-      const store = Number.isFinite(dt) ? 1 / dt : 0, j = this.gateIndex[f] + q;
-      res[R[o]] = store * (x - this.gateOld[j]) - (a * (1 - x) - b * x);
-      this._j(bf, k0 + q, bf, k0 + q, store + a + b);
-      const dV = -(da * (1 - x) - db * x) * VT; // per unit φ̂_R, and minus that per unit φ̂_L
-      this._j(bf, k0 + q, bR, 0, dV);
-      this._j(bf, k0 + q, bL, 0, -dV);
-    });
-  }
-
-  // Scharfetter–Gummel with non-ideal statistics. The excess ex = ζ − ln(c/c_ref) acts as an
-  // extra potential, linear along the segment like φ, so Δ = zΔφ̂ + Δex and
-  //   N = −(D/h)·B(Δ)·c_L·expm1(η_R − η_L),
-  // still exactly zero at equilibrium. c_L and ex depend on every ζ at their node through K.
-  _segmentConcentrated(s, bL, bR, mat, h, vel) {
-    const R = this.rix;
-    const { n, M, res, z, K } = this;
-    const KL = s * n * n, KR = (s + 1) * n * n;
-    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-      if (!mat.present[i] || mat.D[i] === 0) continue;
-      const r = 1 + i, zi = z[i];
-      const { N, E, gBc, dNdd, fL, cR } = this._fluxConcentrated(s, bL, bR, mat, h, vel, i);
-      res[R[bL * M + r]] += N;
-      res[R[bR * M + r]] -= N;
-      if (this.lin) {
-        // In difference form (see DifferenceTerms): b on Δη_i and z_i·∂N/∂d on Δφ̂, and the rest
-        // as side terms in each δη_j − z_j δφ̂ at either end (c_L and the excess potentials).
-        const rL = R[bL * M + r], rR = R[bR * M + r], pL = R[bL * M], pR = R[bR * M];
-        this.lin.segment(rL, rR, pL, pR, zi, 0, -gBc * (E + 1), zi * dNdd);
-        for (let j = 0; j < n; j++) {
-          const wL = fL * K[KL + i * n + j] - (j === i ? dNdd : 0);
-          const wR = cR > 0 ? dNdd * ((j === i ? 1 : 0) - K[KR + i * n + j] / cR) : 0;
-          if (wL !== 0) this.lin.side(rL, rR, R[bL * M + 1 + j], pL, z[j], wL);
-          if (wR !== 0) this.lin.side(rL, rR, R[bR * M + 1 + j], pR, z[j], wR);
-        }
-        continue;
-      }
-      const { jL, jR } = this;
-      for (let k = 0; k < M; k++) {
-        if (jL[k] !== 0) {
-          this._j(bL, r, bL, k, jL[k]);
-          this._j(bR, r, bL, k, -jL[k]);
-        }
-        if (jR[k] !== 0) {
-          this._j(bL, r, bR, k, jR[k]);
-          this._j(bR, r, bR, k, -jR[k]);
-        }
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  // Species i's flux across segment s of a non-ideal region, toward +x, and its derivatives in
-  // this.jL and this.jR (over the unknowns of the blocks bL and bR).
-  _fluxConcentrated(s, bL, bR, mat, h, vel, i) {
-    const { n, M, u, uLo, c, z, K, ex, jL, jR } = this;
-    const gL = s, gR = s + 1, KL = gL * n * n, KR = gR * n * n, r = 1 + i, zi = z[i];
-    const cL = c[gL * n + i], cR = c[gR * n + i];
-    const g = mat.D[i] / h;
-    const pe = (vel * h) / mat.D[i];
-    const d = zi * (u[bR * M] - u[bL * M]) + ex[gR * n + i] - ex[gL * n + i] - pe;
-    const deta = u[bR * M + r] - u[bL * M + r] + (uLo[bR * M + r] - uLo[bL * M + r]) - pe;
-    const E = Math.expm1(deta);
-    const B = bernoulli(d), Bp = bernoulliDerivative(d);
-    const gBc = g * B * cL;
-    const N = -gBc * E;
-    const dNdd = -g * Bp * cL * E;
-    // Left node: ∂N/∂ζ_Lj = −gE(B + B′)K_L,ij − dNdd·δ_ij, plus the direct η_L,i term.
-    const fL = -g * E * (B + Bp);
-    jL[0] = -fL * this._Kz(gL, i);
-    for (let j = 0; j < n; j++) jL[1 + j] = fL * K[KL + i * n + j];
-    jL[r] += -dNdd + gBc * (E + 1);
-    // Right node: ∂N/∂ζ_Rj = dNdd·(δ_ij − K_R,ij/c_R), plus the direct η_R,i term.
-    jR.fill(0);
-    if (cR > 0) {
-      const fR = -dNdd / cR;
-      jR[0] = -fR * this._Kz(gR, i);
-      for (let j = 0; j < n; j++) jR[1 + j] = fR * K[KR + i * n + j];
-    } else {
-      jR[0] = dNdd * zi; // K/c → δ as c → 0
-      jR[r] -= dNdd;
-    }
-    jR[r] += dNdd - gBc * (E + 1);
-    return { N, E, gBc, dNdd, fL, cR };
-  }
-
-  // Ohmic conduction in a metal, in mixed form. The flux J (slot 0 of the left node) obeys
-  //   η_R − η_L + J/g = 0,  g = σ RT/(z²F² h)   (Ohm's law, J = −g Δη),
-  // and enters the two nodes' carrier balances as outflow and inflow.
-  _segmentConductor(s, bL, bR, mat, h) {
-    const R = this.rix;
-    const { M, u, uLo, res, z } = this;
-    const i = mat.conductor.i, r = 1 + i;
-    const g = (mat.conductor.sigma * this.model.RT) / (z[i] * z[i] * FARADAY * FARADAY * h);
-    const J = u[bL * M];
-    res[R[bL * M]] = u[bR * M + r] - u[bL * M + r] + (uLo[bR * M + r] - uLo[bL * M + r]) + J / g;
-    this._j(bL, 0, bR, r, 1);
-    this._j(bL, 0, bL, r, -1);
-    this._j(bL, 0, bL, 0, 1 / g);
-    res[R[bL * M + r]] += J;
-    res[R[bR * M + r]] -= J;
-    this._j(bL, r, bL, 0, 1);
-    this._j(bR, r, bL, 0, -1);
-  }
-
-  // Eddy mixing: N = −(D_mix/RT) P ∇μ̄ with P = C − (Cz)(Cz)ᵀ/(zᵀCz), C = diag(c). It mixes
-  // composition without carrying current (zᵀP = 0) and vanishes exactly at equilibrium. On a
-  // segment, N_i = −(D_mix/h) Σ_j P̄_ij Δη_j, with P̄ from the logarithmic mean of each c, so a
-  // neutral species gets exactly −D_mix Δc/h. Only mobile species (D > 0) take part.
-  _segmentMixing(s, bL, bR, Dm, h, mat) {
-    const R = this.rix;
-    const { n, M, u, uLo, res, c, z } = this;
-    const gL = s, gR = s + 1, k0 = Dm / h;
-    const on = mat.mobile ?? (mat.mobile = [...Array(n).keys()].filter((i) => mat.present[i] && mat.D[i] > 0));
-    if (on.length === 0) return;
-    const w = this.mixWork ?? (this.mixWork = [0, 1, 2, 3].map(() => new Float64Array(n)));
-    const [cb, dLa, dLb, de] = w;
-    let S = 0, Q = 0;
-    for (const k of on) {
-      const a = c[gL * n + k], b = c[gR * n + k];
-      // l = ln(c_R/c_L), from the compensated potentials where statistics are ideal
-      const l = this.nodeIdeal[gL]
-        ? u[bR * M + 1 + k] - u[bL * M + 1 + k] + (uLo[bR * M + 1 + k] - uLo[bL * M + 1 + k]) - z[k] * (u[bR * M] - u[bL * M])
-        : Math.log(b / a);
-      // L = a·f(l), f = expm1(l)/l; ∂L/∂a = f − f′, ∂L/∂b = a f′/b
-      let f, fp;
-      if (Math.abs(l) < 1e-3) {
-        f = 1 + l / 2 + (l * l) / 6 + (l * l * l) / 24;
-        fp = 0.5 + l / 3 + (l * l) / 8 + (l * l * l) / 30;
-      } else {
-        const em = Math.expm1(l);
-        f = em / l;
-        fp = (l * (em + 1) - em) / (l * l);
-      }
-      cb[k] = a * f;
-      dLa[k] = f - fp;
-      dLb[k] = b > 0 ? (a * fp) / b : 0.5;
-      de[k] = u[bR * M + 1 + k] - u[bL * M + 1 + k] + (uLo[bR * M + 1 + k] - uLo[bL * M + 1 + k]);
-      S += z[k] * z[k] * cb[k];
-      Q += z[k] * cb[k] * de[k];
-    }
-    const q = S > 0 ? Q / S : 0;
-    const { jL, jR } = this;
-    const dcL = this.dA, dcR = this.dB; // ∂c_k/∂slot at each end
-    for (const i of on) {
-      const r = 1 + i;
-      const N = -k0 * cb[i] * (de[i] - z[i] * q);
-      jL.fill(0);
-      jR.fill(0);
-      for (const j of on) {
-        // direct dependence on Δη_j
-        const P = cb[i] * ((i === j ? 1 : 0) - (S > 0 ? (z[i] * z[j] * cb[j]) / S : 0));
-        jL[1 + j] += k0 * P;
-        jR[1 + j] -= k0 * P;
-      }
-      // through c̄_k: ∂a_i/∂c̄_k = δ_ik (Δη_i − z_i q) − c̄_i z_i (z_k Δη_k − q z_k²)/S
-      for (const k of on) {
-        let da = (i === k ? de[i] - z[i] * q : 0) - (S > 0 ? (cb[i] * z[i] * (z[k] * de[k] - q * z[k] * z[k])) / S : 0);
-        if (da === 0) continue;
-        da *= -k0;
-        this._dc(gL, k, dcL);
-        this._dc(gR, k, dcR);
-        for (let t = 0; t < M; t++) {
-          jL[t] += da * dLa[k] * dcL[t];
-          jR[t] += da * dLb[k] * dcR[t];
-        }
-      }
-      res[R[bL * M + r]] += N;
-      res[R[bR * M + r]] -= N;
-      for (let t = 0; t < M; t++) {
-        if (jL[t] !== 0) {
-          this._j(bL, r, bL, t, jL[t]);
-          this._j(bR, r, bL, t, -jL[t]);
-        }
-        if (jR[t] !== 0) {
-          this._j(bL, r, bR, t, jR[t]);
-          this._j(bR, r, bR, t, -jR[t]);
-        }
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  // ∂c_k/∂slot at node g into d (slot 0 = φ̂, 1 + j = η_j).
-  _dc(g, k, d) {
-    const { n } = this;
-    d.fill(0);
-    if (this.nodeIdeal[g]) {
-      const ck = this.c[g * n + k];
-      d[1 + k] = ck;
-      d[0] = -this.z[k] * ck;
-      return;
-    }
-    const o = g * n * n + k * n;
-    for (let j = 0; j < n; j++) d[1 + j] = this.K[o + j];
-    d[0] = -this._Kz(g, k);
-  }
-
-  // A bulk reaction's rate at node g (mol/(m³·s), forward), as assembled: for the solution.
-  bulkRate(rx, g) {
-    const { n, M, u, uLo, c } = this, b = this.blockOfNode[g];
-    let aHi = rx.fixedA, aLo = 0;
-    for (let p = 0; p < rx.sp.length; p++) {
-      aHi += rx.nu[p] * u[b * M + 1 + rx.sp[p]];
-      aLo += rx.nu[p] * uLo[b * M + 1 + rx.sp[p]];
-    }
-    const law = rx.srh?.[this.nodeMaterial[g]];
-    if (law) return this._srhRate(law, c[g * n + law.n.i], c[g * n + law.p.i], aHi + aLo, ...this._srhDegen(g, g, law)).rate;
-    let P = rx.generation ? rx.kfNode[g] * this.generationScale : rx.kfNode[g];
-    for (let p = 0; p < rx.sp.length; p++) if (rx.nu[p] > 0) P *= rx.nu[p] === 1 ? c[g * n + rx.sp[p]] : powi(c[g * n + rx.sp[p]], rx.nu[p]);
-    return P * -Math.expm1(-(aHi + aLo));
-  }
-
-  // A bulk reaction's forward one-way rate at node g (mol/(m³·s)); its backward one is that
-  // times e^{−a}, so their difference is bulkRate's.
-  bulkForward(rx, g) {
-    const { n, M, u, uLo, c } = this, b = this.blockOfNode[g];
-    const law = rx.srh?.[this.nodeMaterial[g]];
-    if (law) {
-      let a = rx.fixedA;
-      for (let p = 0; p < rx.sp.length; p++) a += rx.nu[p] * (u[b * M + 1 + rx.sp[p]] + uLo[b * M + 1 + rx.sp[p]]);
-      return this._srhRate(law, c[g * n + law.n.i], c[g * n + law.p.i], a, ...this._srhDegen(g, g, law)).forward;
-    }
-    let P = rx.generation ? rx.kfNode[g] * this.generationScale : rx.kfNode[g];
-    for (let p = 0; p < rx.sp.length; p++) if (rx.nu[p] > 0) P *= rx.nu[p] === 1 ? c[g * n + rx.sp[p]] : powi(c[g * n + rx.sp[p]], rx.nu[p]);
-    return P;
-  }
-
-  // The larger of a bulk reaction's two one-way rates at node g (mol/(m³·s)): the scale its net
-  // rate is read against (in equilibrium the net rate is their round-off).
-  bulkOneWay(rx, g) {
-    const { n, M, u, uLo, c } = this, b = this.blockOfNode[g];
-    let a = rx.fixedA;
-    for (let p = 0; p < rx.sp.length; p++) a += rx.nu[p] * (u[b * M + 1 + rx.sp[p]] + uLo[b * M + 1 + rx.sp[p]]);
-    const law = rx.srh?.[this.nodeMaterial[g]];
-    if (law) return this._srhRate(law, c[g * n + law.n.i], c[g * n + law.p.i], a, ...this._srhDegen(g, g, law)).oneWay;
-    let P = rx.generation ? rx.kfNode[g] * this.generationScale : rx.kfNode[g];
-    for (let p = 0; p < rx.sp.length; p++) if (rx.nu[p] > 0) P *= rx.nu[p] === 1 ? c[g * n + rx.sp[p]] : powi(c[g * n + rx.sp[p]], rx.nu[p]);
-    return P * Math.max(1, Math.exp(-a));
-  }
-
-  // SRH kinetics (see srhLaw in device.js): the rate, and its sensitivities to ln n, ln p and
-  // a = A/RT. With no n₁ given, the trap is midgap: n₁ = p₁ = n_i = √(n p e^{−a}).
-  // SRH at electron and hole concentrations cn, cp and affinity a. n₁p₁ = n p e^{−a} (n_i² for
-  // Boltzmann carriers), and under degeneracy each carrier's emission scales with its own
-  // γ = e^{−ex} (its excess chemical potential ex, c/K = ∂ln c/∂ζ its slope): n₁ = γ_n n₁₀ and
-  // p₁ = γ_p p₁₀, n₁₀ the law's n1, or n_i at midgap. (γ_n γ_p split evenly onto both, as it was,
-  // put a degenerate n⁺ region's γ_n on its holes' emission too.) The rate's derivatives in ln n,
-  // ln p and a. For large negative a (strong extraction), np·(1 − e^{−a}) as −n p e^{−a}.
-  _srhRate(law, cn, cp, a, xn = 0, xp = 0, sn = 1, sp = 1) {
-    const { tn, tp } = law, lnnp = Math.log(cn) + Math.log(cp);
-    let lnn1, kN = 0, kP = 0, kA = 0; // ln n₁ = kN ln n + kP ln p + kA a + const
-    if (Number.isNaN(law.n1)) {
-      lnn1 = (lnnp - a - xn + xp) / 2; // γ_n n_i, with n_i² = n p e^{−a}/(γ_n γ_p)
-      kN = (2 - sn) / 2;
-      kP = sp / 2;
-      kA = -0.5;
-    } else {
-      lnn1 = Math.log(law.n1) - xn;
-      kN = 1 - sn;
-    }
-    const n1 = Math.exp(lnn1), p1 = Math.exp(lnnp - a - lnn1), np = cn * cp;
-    const den = tp * (cn + n1) + tn * (cp + p1);
-    // np(1 − e^{−a}), with e^{−a} folded into np where it would overflow
-    const f = -Math.expm1(-a), num = a > -700 ? np * f : np - Math.exp(lnnp - a);
-    const rate = num / den;
-    const dDn = tp * cn + tp * n1 * kN + tn * p1 * (1 - kN);
-    const dDp = tp * n1 * kP + tn * cp + tn * p1 * (1 - kP);
-    const dDa = tp * n1 * kA + tn * p1 * (-1 - kA);
-    return { rate, forward: np / den, oneWay: a > -700 ? (np / den) * Math.max(1, Math.exp(-a)) : Math.exp(lnnp - a) / den, Cn: rate * (1 - dDn / den), Cp: rate * (1 - dDp / den), Ca: (a > -700 ? (np / den) * (1 - f) : Math.exp(lnnp - a) / den) - (rate * dDa) / den };
-  }
-
-  // _srhRate's degeneracy arguments: the electrons' at node gn, the holes' at gq.
-  _srhDegen(gn, gq, law) {
-    const [xn, sn] = this._degen(gn, law.n.i), [xp, sp] = this._degen(gq, law.p.i);
-    return [xn, xp, sn, sp];
-  }
-
-  // A carrier's excess chemical potential at node g and ∂ln c/∂ζ there (0 and 1 if ideal).
-  _degen(g, i) {
-    if (this.nodeIdeal[g]) return [0, 1];
-    const n = this.n, c = this.c[g * n + i], K = this.K[g * n * n + i * n + i];
-    return [this.ex[g * n + i], c > 0 && K > 0 ? c / K : 1];
-  }
-
-  // A face reaction (see normalizeFaceReactions). Its rate r_k is an unknown of the face block,
-  // with the row r_k − rate(u_L, u_R) = 0, and each participant's edge node takes ν·r_k (made
-  // there when ν > 0). The rate couples the two edge nodes only through the face block between
-  // them, which keeps the system block-tridiagonal.
-  _faceReaction(rx, k, f, bf, bL, bR, Af) {
-    const { n, M, u, uLo, c, res } = this;
-    const R = this.rix;
-    const grid = this.model.grid;
-    const gL = grid.regionEnd[f], gR = grid.regionStart[f + 1];
-    const al = rx.alpha;
-    const dL = this.dA.fill(0), dR = this.dB.fill(0); // ∂ ln(prefactor)/∂slot, per side
-    let pref = rx.k0, aHi = rx.fixedA, aLo = 0, rate;
-    for (const p of rx.part) {
-      const g = p.side ? gR : gL, b = p.side ? bR : bL, o = b * M + 1 + p.i;
-      aHi -= p.nu * u[o];
-      aLo -= p.nu * uLo[o];
-      if (rx.srh || rx.vmax || this.nodeConductor[g] === p.i) continue; // a conductor's carrier has activity 1
-      const e = p.nu < 0 ? -p.nu * (1 - al) : p.nu * al;
-      pref *= powr(c[g * n + p.i] / this.cRef[g * n + p.i], e);
-      this._dlnc(g, p.i, e, p.side ? dR : dL);
-    }
-    if (rx.vmax) {
-      // Saturating: r = vmax Π (c/(c + K))^{|ν|} (1 − e^{−a}); ∂ln S/∂ln c = |ν| K/(c + K).
-      let S = 1;
-      rx.part.forEach((p, q) => {
-        if (p.nu >= 0) return;
-        const g = p.side ? gR : gL, cc = c[g * n + p.i], K = rx.K[q];
-        S *= powi(cc / (cc + K), -p.nu);
-        this._dlnc(g, p.i, (-p.nu * K) / (cc + K), p.side ? dR : dL);
-      });
-      const a = aHi + aLo, back = Math.exp(-a);
-      rate = rx.vmax * S * -Math.expm1(-a);
-      for (let s = 0; s < M; s++) {
-        dL[s] *= rate;
-        dR[s] *= rate;
-      }
-      for (const p of rx.part) (p.side ? dR : dL)[1 + p.i] -= rx.vmax * S * back * p.nu;
-    } else if (rx.srh) {
-      // SRH, with n and p each at its own side's edge node.
-      const { n: pn, p: pp } = rx.srh, gn = pn.side ? gR : gL, gq = pp.side ? gR : gL;
-      const s = this._srhRate(rx.srh, c[gn * n + pn.i], c[gq * n + pp.i], aHi + aLo, ...this._srhDegen(gn, gq, { n: pn, p: pp }));
-      rate = s.rate;
-      this._dlnc(gn, pn.i, s.Cn, pn.side ? dR : dL);
-      this._dlnc(gq, pp.i, s.Cp, pp.side ? dR : dL);
-      for (const p of rx.part) (p.side ? dR : dL)[1 + p.i] -= s.Ca * p.nu;
-    } else {
-      const { g: bv, gp } = bvFactor(aHi + aLo, al);
-      rate = pref * bv;
-      // ∂rate/∂slot = rate·∂ln(prefactor) + pref·g′·∂a, with ∂a/∂η_i = −ν
-      for (let s = 0; s < M; s++) {
-        dL[s] *= rate;
-        dR[s] *= rate;
-      }
-      for (const p of rx.part) (p.side ? dR : dL)[1 + p.i] -= pref * gp * p.nu;
-    }
-    const slot = 1 + n + k, o = bf * M + slot;
-    res[R[o]] = u[o] - rate;
-    this._j(bf, slot, bf, slot, 1);
-    for (let s = 0; s < M; s++) {
-      if (dL[s] !== 0) this._j(bf, slot, bL, s, -dL[s]);
-      if (dR[s] !== 0) this._j(bf, slot, bR, s, -dR[s]);
-    }
-    for (const p of rx.part) {
-      const b = p.side ? bR : bL;
-      res[R[b * M + 1 + p.i]] -= Af * p.nu * u[o];
-      this._j(b, 1 + p.i, bf, slot, -Af * p.nu);
-    }
-  }
-
-  // The terminals whose ∂res/∂V (termB) and ∂I/∂x (termC) are kept, exactly: the floating ones,
-  // which the Newton solve borders on, or all of them (allTerminals: for the impedance, which reads
-  // its terminal's). A held terminal's are otherwise left as they fall (written but not kept
-  // consistent), which spares a device with dozens of ports (an axon's nodes of Ranvier) the cost
-  // of carrying each one's two dense vectors through every assembly.
-  _liveTerms() {
-    if (this.allTerminals) return this._allTerms ?? (this._allTerms = this.terms.map((_, k) => k));
-    return this.floating;
-  }
-
-  // Every terminal's terms: its voltage held or floating, how the residual depends on it
-  // (termB), its current into the device (termI) and how that depends on the state (termC).
-  _terminals(dt) {
-    this._refreshSources();
-    for (const k of this._liveTerms()) {
-      this.termB[k].fill(0);
-      this.termC[k].fill(0);
-    }
-    this.termDI.fill(0);
-    for (const x of this.termDX) x.fill(0);
-    this.termI.fill(0);
-    this.qg.fill(0);
-    this.qgSlope.fill(0);
-    this.model.ports.forEach((port, k) => this._port(port, this.portFlux[k], 2 + k, dt, false));
-    this.model.ports.forEach((port, k) => this._port(port, this.portFlux[k], 2 + k, dt, true));
-    this._contact('left', dt);
-    this._contact('right', dt);
-    for (const k of this.floating) this._circuit(k);
-  }
-
-  // A floating terminal's circuit law: I − I_set = 0 (driven by a current), or I − (V_src − V)/R = 0
-  // (a source behind a resistance).
-  _circuit(k) {
-    const d = this.terms[k].drive, src = sourceAt(d.src, this.sourceTime, this.sourceBefore);
-    if (d.kind === 'I') this.termRes[k] = this.termI[k] - src;
-    else {
-      this.termRes[k] = this.termI[k] - (src - this.termV[k]) / d.R;
-      this.termDI[k] += 1 / d.R;
-    }
-  }
-
-  // into += w × (the Jacobian row of block b, slot s), over compact columns.
-  _captureRow(b, s, w, into) {
-    const l = this.loc[b * this.M + s];
-    if (l < 0 || w === 0) return;
-    if (this.lin) this.lin.capture(this.rix[b * this.M + s], w, this.lin.rate, into);
-    const { sys, nB } = this, { sizes, offA, offB, offC, offX } = sys, m = sizes[b];
-    for (const [X, nb, off] of [['A', b - 1, offA], ['B', b, offB], ['C', b + 1, offC]]) {
-      if (nb < 0 || nb >= nB) continue;
-      const mc = sizes[nb], o = off[b] + l * mc, arr = sys[X], c0 = offX[nb];
-      for (let c = 0; c < mc; c++) if (arr[o + c] !== 0) into[c0 + c] += w * arr[o + c];
-    }
-    return m;
-  }
-
-  // An internal port (terminal k): its exchange with each node of its window, as a source per
-  // volume. A held ('equilibrium') level replaces the node's balance row; the source is then that
-  // row's residual, read just before. Its current into the device is Σ z F × the sources. In two
-  // passes over the ports: everything else, then the held levels (`holds`), so that a level reads
-  // every other port's terms at its nodes, and none is added into its row after.
-  _port(port, flux, k, dt, holds) {
-    const R = this.rix;
-    const { n, M, u, uLo, res, z, VT } = this;
-    const F = FARADAY, vol = this.model.grid.vol;
-    const B = this.termB[k], C = this.termC[k];
-    if (!holds) flux.fill(0);
-    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-      const link = port.species[i];
-      if (link.type === 'blocked' || (link.type === 'equilibrium') !== holds) continue;
-      const r = 1 + i, target = this.portEta(port, i), zF = z[i] * F;
-      for (const g of port.nodes) {
-        const b = this.blockOfNode[g], o = b * M + r, v = vol[g];
-        const deta = target - u[o] - uLo[o]; // (μ̄_out − μ̄)/RT
-        if (link.type === 'equilibrium') {
-          // a device end node's level is its contact's business, where the contact links it
-          if ((g === 0 && this.model.contacts.left.species[i].type !== 'blocked') || (g === this.nNodes - 1 && this.model.contacts.right.species[i].type !== 'blocked')) continue;
-          flux[i] += res[R[o]];
-          this._captureRow(b, r, zF, C);
-          this._replaceRow(b, r);
-          for (const Bk of this.termB) Bk[R[o]] = 0; // (other ports' terms in the row replaced)
-          this._j(b, r, b, r, 1);
-          res[R[o]] = -deta;
-          B[R[o]] += -z[i] / VT;
-          continue;
-        }
-        // conductance: s = G V_T (η_out − η)/(z² F); exchange: s = k (η_out − η). Gated, G times
-        // Π x^p, the gates at this node (each taken in [0, 1]).
-        const kk0 = link.type === 'conductance' ? (link.G * VT) / (z[i] * z[i] * F) : link.k;
-        const gated = link.gates ?? [], q0 = 1 + n + port.surface.length;
-        const open = gated.length ? this._open(gated, (q) => u[b * M + q0 + q]) : 1, kk = kk0 * open;
-        res[R[o]] -= v * kk * deta;
-        this._j(b, r, b, r, v * kk);
-        flux[i] += v * kk * deta;
-        if (z[i] !== 0) {
-          B[R[o]] += (-v * kk * z[i]) / VT;
-          C[R[o]] += -zF * v * kk;
-          this.termDI[k] += (zF * v * kk * z[i]) / VT;
-        }
-        for (const [q, p] of gated) {
-          const d = this._dOpen(gated, q, p, (qq) => u[b * M + q0 + qq]);
-          if (d === 0) continue;
-          this._j(b, r, b, q0 + q, -v * kk0 * deta * d);
-          if (z[i] !== 0) C[R[b * M + q0 + q]] += zF * v * kk0 * deta * d;
-        }
-      }
-    }
-    if (holds) {
-      for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) this.termI[k] += z[i] * F * flux[i];
-      return;
-    }
-    port.reactions.forEach((rx, x) => this._portReaction(port, rx, this.portArea[k - 2], this.portRates[k - 2][x], flux, k));
-    if (port.capacitance) this._portCapacitance(port, k, dt);
-    if (port.gates.length > 0) this._portGates(port, k, dt);
-    if (port.surface.length > 0 && Number.isFinite(dt)) this._surfaceStorage(port, dt);
-  }
-
-  // A port's reaction at each node of its window: Butler–Volmer per area, as at a face, against
-  // the electrode's carrier at the port's level (activity 1), times the electrode's area per
-  // volume. Each node's rate is explicit (no unknown of its own): it enters the balances of the
-  // species it makes and consumes, and the port's current.
-  _portReaction(port, rx, area, rates, flux, k) {
-    const { n, M, u, uLo, c, res, z, VT, nSurf, th } = this, R = this.rix, F = FARADAY, vol = this.model.grid.vol, RT = this.model.RT;
-    const B = this.termB[k], C = this.termC[k], al = rx.alpha, d = this.dA, surf = port.surface;
-    // The carrier's part of the affinity, and how it moves with the port's voltage.
-    let aV = rx.fixedA, daV = 0, q = 0; // q: charge the forward reaction brings into the device, per event
-    for (const p of rx.part) {
-      if (p.side === 1) {
-        aV -= p.nu * this.portEta(port, p.i);
-        daV -= (p.nu * z[p.i]) / VT;
-      } else if (p.side === 0) q += p.nu * z[p.i];
-    }
-    const slot = (p) => (p.side === 2 ? 1 + n + p.s : 1 + p.i);
-    port.nodes.forEach((g, w) => {
-      const b = this.blockOfNode[g], s = vol[g] * area[w];
-      d.fill(0);
-      let pref = rx.k0, aHi = aV, aLo = 0;
-      for (const p of rx.part) {
-        if (p.side === 1) continue;
-        const o = b * M + slot(p);
-        aHi -= p.nu * u[o];
-        aLo -= p.nu * uLo[o];
-        const e = p.nu < 0 ? -p.nu * (1 - al) : p.nu * al;
-        if (p.side === 2) {
-          // a surface species at its coverage θ = θ₀e^ζ, with ∂ln θ_s/∂η_x = δ_sx − θ_x
-          pref *= powr(th[g * nSurf + p.s], e);
-          d[1 + n + p.s] += e;
-          for (let x = 0; x < surf.length; x++) d[1 + n + x] -= e * th[g * nSurf + x];
-        } else {
-          pref *= powr(c[g * n + p.i] / this.cRef[g * n + p.i], e);
-          this._dlnc(g, p.i, e, d);
-        }
-      }
-      if (rx.sites) {
-        // the bare sites its transition state holds: θ₀ = 1 − Σθ, with ∂ln θ₀/∂η_s = −θ_s
-        for (let x = 0; x < surf.length; x++) d[1 + n + x] -= rx.sites * th[g * nSurf + x];
-        pref *= powr(this.th0[g], rx.sites);
-      }
-      const { g: bv, gp } = bvFactor(aHi + aLo, al);
-      const rate = pref * bv;
-      rates[w] = rate;
-      // ∂rate/∂slot = rate·∂ln(prefactor) + pref·g′·∂a, with ∂a/∂η = −ν
-      for (let t = 0; t < M; t++) d[t] *= rate;
-      for (const p of rx.part) if (p.side !== 1) d[slot(p)] -= pref * gp * p.nu;
-      const dV = pref * gp * daV;
-      for (const p of rx.part) {
-        if (p.side === 1) continue;
-        // the region's species per volume of the window; a surface's per area of electrode
-        const row = slot(p), o = b * M + row, f = p.side === 2 ? 1 : s;
-        res[R[o]] -= f * p.nu * rate;
-        if (p.side === 0) flux[p.i] += s * p.nu * rate;
-        for (let t = 0; t < M; t++) if (d[t] !== 0) this._j(b, row, b, t, -f * p.nu * d[t]);
-        B[R[o]] -= f * p.nu * dV;
-      }
-      for (let t = 0; t < M; t++) if (d[t] !== 0) C[R[b * M + t]] += q * F * s * d[t];
-      this.termDI[k] += q * F * s * dV;
-    });
-  }
-
-  // A capacitance spread through a port's window: per area of electrode, σ = C (V − zeroCharge − φ)
-  // on the port's side, so each node's charge balance (its φ row) gains vol·a·σ, and the port
-  // passes the charging current d(Σ vol·a·σ)/dt (none in a steady state). An end node whose φ its
-  // contact sets is left to the contact.
-  // A membrane port's gates, at each node of its window: (x − x_old)/dt = α(1 − x) − βx in the
-  // voltage across its capacitance there, φ − (V − zeroCharge).
-  _portGates(port, k, dt) {
-    const { n, res, VT } = this, R = this.rix, B = this.termB[k], store = Number.isFinite(dt) ? 1 / dt : 0, q0 = 1 + n + port.surface.length;
-    port.nodes.forEach((g, w) => {
-      const b = this.blockOfNode[g], V = this._portVoltage(k - 2, g);
-      port.gates.forEach((gate, q) => {
-        const o = b * this.M + q0 + q, x = this.u[o], j = this.portGateIndex[k - 2] + w * port.gates.length + q;
-        const [a, da] = gateRate(gate.alpha, V), [bb, db] = gateRate(gate.beta, V);
-        res[R[o]] = store * (x - this.gateOld[j]) - (a * (1 - x) - bb * x);
-        this._j(b, q0 + q, b, q0 + q, store + a + bb);
-        const s = -(da * (1 - x) - db * x); // ∂/∂V_m, with V_m = V_T φ̂ − V + zeroCharge
-        this._j(b, q0 + q, b, 0, s * VT);
-        B[R[o]] += -s;
-      });
-    });
-  }
-
-  // Π x^p over a link's gates (each x taken in [0, 1]), and its derivative in gate q.
-  _open(gated, x) {
-    let open = 1;
-    for (const [q, p] of gated) open *= powi(Math.min(1, Math.max(0, x(q))), p);
-    return open;
-  }
-  _dOpen(gated, q, p, x) {
-    const xq = x(q);
-    if (!(xq > 0 && xq < 1)) return 0;
-    let others = 1;
-    for (const [q2, p2] of gated) if (q2 !== q) others *= powi(Math.min(1, Math.max(0, x(q2))), p2);
-    return p * powi(xq, p - 1) * others;
-  }
-
-  _portCapacitance(port, k, dt) {
-    const { M, u, uLo, res, VT } = this, R = this.rix, vol = this.model.grid.vol, area = this.portArea[k - 2];
-    const { C: Cs, zeroCharge } = port.capacitance, V = this.termV[k], B = this.termB[k], Ct = this.termC[k];
-    const sets = (side) => ['pinned', 'bulk'].includes(this.model.contacts[side].phi.type);
-    // Its current, the charging (Q − Q at the step's start)/dt; or, steady at no current, the
-    // charge it keeps in place of that (see captureLaws in src/lawRows.js).
-    const rate = Number.isFinite(dt) ? 1 / dt : this.steady && this.chargeRefs.has(k) ? 1 : 0;
-    let Q = 0, dQdV = 0;
-    port.nodes.forEach((g, w) => {
-      if ((g === 0 && sets('left')) || (g === this.nNodes - 1 && sets('right')) || this.phiUndefined[g]) return;
-      const b = this.blockOfNode[g], s = vol[g] * area[w] * Cs;
-      const q = s * (V - zeroCharge - VT * (u[b * M] + uLo[b * M]));
-      this.qg[g] += area[w] * Cs * (V - zeroCharge - VT * (u[b * M] + uLo[b * M]));
-      this.qgSlope[g] += area[w] * Cs;
-      Q += q;
-      dQdV += s;
-      res[R[b * M]] -= q;
-      this._j(b, 0, b, 0, s * VT);
-      B[R[b * M]] -= s;
-      if (rate > 0) Ct[R[b * M]] += -s * VT * rate;
-    });
-    this.portQ[k - 2] = Q;
-    if (rate > 0) {
-      this.termI[k] += (Q - (dt < Infinity ? this.portQStart[k - 2] : this.chargeRefs.get(k))) * rate;
-      this.termDI[k] += dQdV * rate;
-    }
-  }
-
-  // An electrode surface's storage, per area of electrode: Γ (θ_s − θ_s,old)/dt in each surface
-  // species' row, with ∂θ_s/∂η_x = θ_s (δ_sx − θ_x).
-  _surfaceStorage(port, dt) {
-    const { n, M, res, nSurf, th, thOld } = this, R = this.rix, surf = port.surface, G = surf[0].capacity;
-    for (const g of port.nodes) {
-      const b = this.blockOfNode[g];
-      // Near full coverage θ − θ_old cancels (both ~1, the change ~θ₀): the dominant species'
-      // change comes from the small ones instead, Δθ = −Δθ₀ − Σ_others Δθ.
-      let top = 0;
-      for (let q = 1; q < surf.length; q++) if (th[g * nSurf + q] > th[g * nSurf + top]) top = q;
-      for (let q = 0; q < surf.length; q++) {
-        const tq = th[g * nSurf + q];
-        let change = tq - thOld[g * nSurf + q];
-        if (q === top && tq > 0.5) {
-          change = -(this.th0[g] - this.th0Old[g]);
-          for (let x = 0; x < surf.length; x++) if (x !== q) change -= th[g * nSurf + x] - thOld[g * nSurf + x];
-        }
-        res[R[b * M + 1 + n + q]] += (G * change) / dt;
-        for (let x = 0; x < surf.length; x++) this._j(b, 1 + n + q, b, 1 + n + x, ((G * tq) / dt) * ((q === x ? 1 : 0) - th[g * nSurf + x]));
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  // One contact (terminal 0 or 1): record the flux through its outer face and the current into
-  // the device (read from the end box before anything here is added: whatever the box needs
-  // comes through the contact), then add its exchange terms, its equilibrium links and its φ law.
-  _contact(side, dt) {
-    const R = this.rix;
-    const { model, n, M, u, uLo, res, c, z, VT } = this;
-    const F = FARADAY;
-    const ct = model.contacts[side];
-    const k = side === 'left' ? 0 : 1, Vt = this.termV[k];
-    const B = this.termB[k], C = this.termC[k];
-    const g = side === 'left' ? 0 : this.nNodes - 1;
-    const b = this.blockOfNode[g];
-    const sgn = side === 'left' ? 1 : -1;
-    const flux = this.contactFlux[side];
-    const Ac = model.grid.area[g]; // the links' laws are per area: what they pass is that times A here
-    const dyn = Number.isFinite(dt);
-
-    // Before anything is added, each balance residual is the flux into the device here. (A
-    // closed end solved in charge rows has its ions' storage left out until later: none of them
-    // passes, so their flux is zero.)
-    const closedIons = this.combining && dyn && this.chargeNode[g] === 1;
-    let I = 0;
-    const held = this.portHeldEnd.subarray(k * n, (k + 1) * n);
-    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-      const active = this.loc[b * M + 1 + i] >= 0 && !(closedIons && z[i] !== 0) && !held[i];
-      const nIn = active ? res[R[b * M + 1 + i]] : 0;
-      flux[i] = sgn * nIn; // (toward +x)
-      if (active && z[i] !== 0) {
-        I += z[i] * F * nIn;
-        this._captureRow(b, 1 + i, z[i] * F, C);
-      }
-    }
-    // The ions' storage, left out until now (see lateStorage): in each balance, and in what
-    // each species brings in, but not in the current.
-    if (this.combining && dyn && this.lateStorage[g] === 1) {
-      const v = model.grid.vol[g], { cOld } = this;
-      for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-        if (z[i] === 0 || this.loc[b * M + 1 + i] < 0 || held[i]) continue;
-        const ci = c[g * n + i], st = (v * (ci - cOld[g * n + i])) / dt;
-        res[R[b * M + 1 + i]] += st;
-        flux[i] += sgn * st;
-        this._j(b, 1 + i, b, 1 + i, (v * ci) / dt);
-        this._j(b, 1 + i, b, 0, (-v * z[i] * ci) / dt);
-      }
-    }
-
-    // Conductance links: J (toward the device) = G (V_out − V_i), V_out = V_t + offset; exchange
-    // links (neutral species): N_in = k (μ_out − μ)/RT; velocity links, v (c_eq − c).
-    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-      const link = ct.species[i];
-      const o = b * M + 1 + i;
-      if (link.type === 'exchange') {
-        res[R[o]] -= Ac * link.k * (link.mu / model.RT - u[o] - uLo[o]);
-        this._j(b, 1 + i, b, 1 + i, Ac * link.k);
-      } else if (link.type === 'conductance') {
-        const Vi = (VT * (u[o] + uLo[o])) / z[i];
-        res[R[o]] -= (Ac * link.G * (Vt + link.offset - Vi)) / (z[i] * F);
-        this._j(b, 1 + i, b, 1 + i, (Ac * link.G * VT) / (z[i] * z[i] * F));
-        B[R[o]] += (-Ac * link.G) / (z[i] * F);
-      } else if (link.type === 'velocity') {
-        // N_in = v c (e^(η_out − η) − 1): v (c_eq − c), c_eq in equilibrium with the outside.
-        const ci = c[g * n + i], E = Math.exp(Math.min(this.contactEta(side, i) - u[o] - uLo[o], 700));
-        const N = Ac * link.v * ci * (E - 1), d = this.dA;
-        res[R[o]] -= N;
-        d.fill(0);
-        this._dlnc(g, i, 1, d);
-        for (let s = 0; s <= n; s++) if (d[s] !== 0) this._j(b, 1 + i, b, s, -N * d[s]);
-        this._j(b, 1 + i, b, 1 + i, Ac * link.v * ci * E);
-        if (z[i] !== 0) B[R[o]] += (-Ac * link.v * ci * E * z[i]) / VT;
-      }
-    }
-
-    // Equilibrium links: Dirichlet on the known outside level.
-    for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-      const link = ct.species[i];
-      if (link.type !== 'equilibrium') continue;
-      const o = b * M + 1 + i;
-      this._replaceRow(b, 1 + i);
-      this._j(b, 1 + i, b, 1 + i, 1);
-      res[R[o]] = u[o] - this.contactEta(side, i) + uLo[o]; // (the big terms first: u + uLo rounds to u)
-      if (z[i] !== 0) B[R[o]] += -z[i] / VT;
-    }
-
-    // φ law (none where φ is undefined: nothing at the end node responds to it). The displacement
-    // into the device, D_in = sgn·D, adds (D_in − D_in at the step's start)/dt to the current.
-    const link = ct.phi, Dstart = sgn * this.contactDStart[side];
-    // (In a steady solve, what a law in this circuit row counts of D_in: see applyConstraints in
-    // src/lawRows.js.)
-    const q = !dyn && this.steady && this.contactLaw[k] ? (this.contactQ[k] ??= { row: new Float64Array(this.sys.size + 1), D: 0, dV: 0 }) : null;
-    if (q) {
-      q.row.fill(0);
-      q.D = 0;
-      q.dV = 0;
-    }
-    if (this.phiUndefined[g]) {
-      this.contactD[side] = 0;
-    } else if (link.type === 'capacitive') {
-      // Gate, or metal across a Stern layer, at φ_g = V_t − zeroCharge. D toward +x.
-      const Din = Ac * link.C * (Vt - link.zeroCharge - VT * u[b * M]);
-      res[R[b * M]] -= Din;
-      this._j(b, 0, b, 0, Ac * link.C * VT);
-      B[R[b * M]] += -Ac * link.C;
-      this.contactD[side] = sgn * Din;
-      if (q && this.loc[b * M] >= 0) [q.D, q.row[R[b * M]], q.dV] = [Din, -Ac * link.C * VT, Ac * link.C];
-      // Its current, the charging (D_in − D_in at the step's start)/dt; or, steady at no current,
-      // the charge it keeps in place of that (see captureLaws in src/lawRows.js).
-      const rate = dyn ? 1 / dt : this.steady && this.chargeRefs.has(k) ? 1 : 0;
-      if (rate > 0) {
-        I += (Din - (dyn ? Dstart : this.chargeRefs.get(k))) * rate;
-        C[R[b * M]] += -Ac * link.C * VT * rate;
-        this.termDI[k] += Ac * link.C * rate;
-      }
-    } else if (link.type === 'pinned' || link.type === 'bulk') {
-      // The Poisson residual is the outside's charge, D_in.
-      const Din = res[R[b * M]];
-      this.contactD[side] = sgn * Din;
-      if (q) {
-        q.D = Din;
-        this._captureRow(b, 0, 1, q.row);
-      }
-      if (dyn && !(this.combining && this.lateStorage[g] === 1)) {
-        I += (Din - Dstart) / dt;
-        this._captureRow(b, 0, 1 / dt, C);
-      } else if (!dyn && this.steady && this.chargeRefs.has(k)) {
-        I += Din - this.chargeRefs.get(k);
-        this._captureRow(b, 0, 1, C);
-      }
-      this._replaceRow(b, 0);
-      if (link.type === 'pinned') {
-        // φ_edge = V_t − zeroCharge (the C → ∞ limit).
-        this._j(b, 0, b, 0, 1);
-        res[R[b * M]] = u[b * M] - (Vt - link.zeroCharge) / VT + uLo[b * M];
-        B[R[b * M]] += -1 / VT;
-      } else {
-        // Plain bulk: local neutrality.
-        let q = this.rhoFixed[g], dq = 0;
-        for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-          const kk = g * n + i;
-          if (!this.present[kk]) continue;
-          const Kz = this._Kz(g, i);
-          q += F * z[i] * c[kk];
-          dq -= F * z[i] * Kz;
-          if (Kz !== 0) this._j(b, 0, b, 1 + i, F * Kz);
-        }
-        this._j(b, 0, b, 0, dq);
-        res[R[b * M]] = q;
-      }
-    } else {
-      this.contactD[side] = 0;
-    }
-    this.termI[k] = I;
-  }
-
-
-
-
-  // Zero one row of the Jacobian (all three blocks), ready to be replaced.
-  _replaceRow(b, rs) {
-    const l = this.loc[b * this.M + rs];
-    if (l < 0) return;
-    if (this.lin) this.lin.kill(this.rix[b * this.M + rs]);
-    const { sys, nB } = this, sz = sys.sizes, m = sz[b];
-    sys.B.fill(0, sys.offB[b] + l * m, sys.offB[b] + (l + 1) * m);
-    if (b > 0) sys.A.fill(0, sys.offA[b] + l * sz[b - 1], sys.offA[b] + (l + 1) * sz[b - 1]);
-    if (b < nB - 1) sys.C.fill(0, sys.offC[b] + l * sz[b + 1], sys.offC[b] + (l + 1) * sz[b + 1]);
-  }
-
-  // Scale every row by its largest Jacobian entry (in place, residual too), dividing by it: its
-  // reciprocal overflows where it's subnormal (a co-ion crowded out of a double layer, ~1e-310).
-  _equilibrate() {
-    const { nB, sys, res, termB } = this, live = this._liveTerms();
-    const { A, B, C, sizes, offA, offB, offC, offX } = sys;
-    for (let b = 0; b < nB; b++) {
-      const m = sizes[b], mp = b > 0 ? sizes[b - 1] : 0, mn = b < nB - 1 ? sizes[b + 1] : 0;
-      for (let r = 0; r < m; r++) {
-        const oa = offA[b] + r * mp, ob = offB[b] + r * m, oc = offC[b] + r * mn;
-        let mx = 0;
-        for (let k = 0; k < mp; k++) mx = Math.max(mx, Math.abs(A[oa + k]));
-        for (let k = 0; k < m; k++) mx = Math.max(mx, Math.abs(B[ob + k]));
-        for (let k = 0; k < mn; k++) mx = Math.max(mx, Math.abs(C[oc + k]));
-        if (mx === 0) {
-          this.rowDiv[offX[b] + r] = 1;
-          continue;
-        }
-        const d = mx;
-        this.rowDiv[offX[b] + r] = d;
-        for (let k = 0; k < mp; k++) A[oa + k] /= d;
-        for (let k = 0; k < m; k++) B[ob + k] /= d;
-        for (let k = 0; k < mn; k++) C[oc + k] /= d;
-        res[offX[b] + r] /= d;
-        for (const k of live) termB[k][offX[b] + r] /= d; // (each terminal's ∂/∂V)
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  // The Jacobian at dt with the dilute kernels' terms kept aside in difference form (see
-  // DifferenceTerms), the rest assembled into a matrix of its own. The residual and terminal terms
-  // come out as from assemble(dt); the Newton matrix is left as it was.
-  _assembleDifference(dt) {
-    const keep = this.sys;
-    const rest = this.sysRest ?? (this.sysRest = new BlockTridiagonal(keep.n, keep.sizes));
-    const n = this.n, nN = this.nNodes;
-    const lin = this.diffTerms ?? (this.diffTerms = new DifferenceTerms(keep.size, nN * n * n, nN * n, 2 * nN * n * n));
-    this.sys = rest;
-    this.lin = lin;
-    try {
-      this.assemble(dt);
-    } finally {
-      this.sys = keep;
-      this.lin = null;
-    }
-    return { rest, lin };
-  }
-
-  // A Newton solve refined by GMRES: the factorised Jacobian as the preconditioner, and J·x
-  // exact, with the dilute kernels' terms in difference form (see DifferenceTerms), as the
-  // impedance does. The assembled J holds a flux's dependence on η at its two ends as two
-  // entries; where they're huge (an inversion layer's 0.1 nm cells, a conductance ~1e11 against
-  // the layer's own storage and the trickle from the bulk), eliminating them loses the layer's
-  // overall level to round-off, and Newton rattles there. delta and deltaV come in as the plain
-  // solve's and leave refined (in the transformed unknowns, as solveBordered gives them); false
-  // if refining didn't help, leaving them as they came.
-  _refine(dt, delta, deltaV) {
-    const { res, termRes, termB, termC, termDI, rowDiv, floating: fl } = this;
-    const N = this.sys.size, K = fl.length, pins = this.pins, R = this.rix;
-    const save = { res: Float64Array.from(res), termRes: Float64Array.from(termRes), termB: termB.map((b) => Float64Array.from(b)), termC: termC.map((c) => Float64Array.from(c)), termDI: Float64Array.from(termDI), termDX: this.termDX.map((x) => Float64Array.from(x)), transformed: this.transformed, pinRes: this.pins.map((p) => p.res) };
-    const restoreArrays = () => {
-      res.set(save.res);
-      termRes.set(save.termRes);
-      save.termB.forEach((b, k) => termB[k].set(b));
-      save.termC.forEach((c, k) => termC[k].set(c));
-      termDI.set(save.termDI);
-      save.termDX.forEach((x, k) => this.termDX[k].set(x));
-      this.transformed = save.transformed;
-      this.pins.forEach((p, a) => (p.res = save.pinRes[a]));
-    };
-    // The same system, its terms kept apart: the rest, and each floating terminal's (unscaled).
-    const { rest, lin } = this._assembleDifference(dt);
-    const Bk = fl.map((k) => Float64Array.from(termB[k])), Ck = fl.map((k) => Float64Array.from(termC[k])), Dk = fl.map((k) => termDI[k]);
-    restoreArrays();
-    const v = new Float64Array(N + 1), jv = new Float64Array(N);
-    const op = (x) => {
-      for (let j = 0; j < N; j++) v[j] = x[j];
-      v[N] = 0;
-      rest.multiply(v, jv);
-      if (save.transformed) this._untransform(v); // (the dilute terms in the plain unknowns)
-      lin.apply(v, jv, 1, 1 / dt);
-      // A flat stretch's rows hold each level to its first node's (see flatRows in src/lawRows.js).
-      for (const p of pins) {
-        if (!p.col) continue;
-        for (const o of p.col) if (o !== p.row && this.loc[o] >= 0) jv[R[o]] -= x[R[p.row]];
-      }
-      const out = new Float64Array(N + K);
-      for (let j = 0; j < N; j++) {
-        let t = jv[j];
-        for (let a = 0; a < K; a++) t += Bk[a][j] * x[N + a];
-        out[j] = t / rowDiv[j];
-      }
-      for (let a = 0; a < K; a++) {
-        let t = Dk[a] * x[N + a];
-        for (let b = 0; b < K; b++) if (b !== a) t += this.termDX[fl[a]][fl[b]] * x[N + b];
-        for (let j = 0; j < N; j++) t += Ck[a][j] * x[j];
-        out[N + a] = t;
-      }
-      // A pinned row is its constraint's (a conserved amount, an island's summed balance).
-      for (const p of pins) {
-        let t = 0;
-        for (let j = 0; j < p.len; j++) t += p.w[j] * x[p.idx[j]];
-        out[R[p.row]] = t;
-      }
-      return precondition(out);
-    };
-    const rhs = new Float64Array(N + 1), out = new Float64Array(N + 1), outV = new Float64Array(K);
-    const precondition = (r) => {
-      for (let j = 0; j < N; j++) rhs[j] = r[j];
-      fl.forEach((k, a) => (termRes[k] = r[N + a]));
-      for (const p of pins) {
-        p.res = rhs[R[p.row]];
-        rhs[R[p.row]] = 0;
-      }
-      solveBordered(this, rhs, out, outV, pins);
-      const z = new Float64Array(N + K);
-      for (let j = 0; j < N; j++) z[j] = out[j];
-      for (let a = 0; a < K; a++) z[N + a] = outV[a];
-      return z;
-    };
-    try {
-      const b = new Float64Array(N + K);
-      for (let j = 0; j < N; j++) b[j] = save.res[j];
-      fl.forEach((k, a) => (b[N + a] = save.termRes[k]));
-      pins.forEach((p, a) => (b[R[p.row]] = save.pinRes[a]));
-      const pb = precondition(b), x = Float64Array.from(pb);
-      // A lost mode or two, GMRES finds in a couple of iterations. The refined update is kept
-      // where GMRES converged and its correction is under a thermal unit; otherwise newton()
-      // stops refining.
-      const x0 = Float64Array.from(x);
-      const ok = gmresReal(op, pb, x, { m: 8, restarts: 1, tol: 1e-8 });
-      // (Measured on the potentials, as Newton's own step is: a rate the plain solve left
-      // unsolved, at a perturbed pivot, can need a correction of 41.7 mol/(m²·s).)
-      const dx = new Float64Array(N + 1), dV = new Float64Array(K);
-      for (let j = 0; j < N; j++) dx[j] = x[j] - x0[j];
-      for (let a = 0; a < K; a++) dV[a] = x[N + a] - x0[N + a];
-      if (this.transformed) this._untransform(dx);
-      const c = this._maxPotentialStep(dx, dV);
-      if (!ok || !(c < 1)) return false;
-      for (let j = 0; j < N; j++) delta[j] = x[j];
-      for (let a = 0; a < K; a++) deltaV[a] = x[N + a];
-      return true;
-    } finally {
-      restoreArrays();
-    }
-  }
-
-  // Largest update among the potential-like unknowns (φ̂ and η at grid nodes).
-  _maxPotentialStep(delta, deltaV = this.deltaV) { // (deltaV null: the device's potentials only)
-    const { n, M } = this;
-    const R = this.rix; // (the sink entry of delta is 0)
-    let mx = 0;
-    if (deltaV) for (let a = 0; a < this.floating.length; a++) mx = Math.max(mx, Math.abs(deltaV[a]) / this.VT);
-    for (let g = 0; g < this.nNodes; g++) {
-      const b = this.blockOfNode[g];
-      if (this.nodeConductor[g] < 0) mx = Math.max(mx, Math.abs(delta[R[b * M]])); // (a metal's slot 0 is a flux)
-      for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-        if (this.present[g * n + i]) mx = Math.max(mx, Math.abs(delta[R[b * M + 1 + i]]));
-      }
-      const k = this.surfPort[g]; // an electrode surface's coverages, as η
-      if (k >= 0) for (let q = 0; q < this.model.ports[k].surface.length; q++) mx = Math.max(mx, Math.abs(delta[R[b * M + 1 + n + q]]));
-    }
-    for (const gt of this.gateList) mx = Math.max(mx, Math.abs(delta[R[gt.o]])); // a gate's fraction open
-    return mx;
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * Newton iteration for one backward-Euler step from the current cOld.
-   * @returns {{converged: boolean, iterations: number, history: number[]}}
-   */
-  newton(dt, { maxIter = 60, tol = 1e-10, maxStep = 10, islands = false } = {}) {
-    const { delta, res } = this;
-    const deltaV = this.deltaV ?? (this.deltaV = new Float64Array(this.floating.length));
-    const history = [], ownHistory = [];
-    // Refined solves (see _refine), once the plain ones stall.
-    let refine = false, refined = 0, noRefine = false;
-    // Islands (see applyIslands in src/lawRows.js): their summed rows go in only once the plain
-    // solves converge.
-    // Far from the solution, Newton exact along a weakly held level takes it by 1e5 thermal
-    // units (a floating base, cold at bias), where the plain solves, which barely see that level,
-    // converge. Converged, an island at the wrong level shows: it takes in a different current
-    // than it passes on, so the terminal currents don't add up to zero. Then the summed rows go
-    // in and Newton carries on from there. Converged again, a current that tiny against the
-    // conduction around it rides on differences (~1e-28 thermal units for 5 fA/m² through a bulk
-    // of 1e4 mol/m³ at 1e-4 m²/s) that the last update leaves known only to its own round-off:
-    // where the currents still don't add up, one more update polishes them. Where the islands'
-    // own system is held by static pivots elsewhere (a GaAs stack's minority carriers, at 1e-17
-    // A/m² of noise), their rows can throw Newton off instead: if it doesn't converge again
-    // within a dozen iterations, the plain solution stands.
-    this.islandsOn = islands;
-    let rounds = 0, kept = null, perturbed = false;
-    // Converged by a small update, but solved at a perturbed pivot, or in a steady solve (where a
-    // factorisation that lost a row's digits left a reaction's rate 3.6e7 off it, the update
-    // small, an I = 0 electrode at a voltage 0.4 V from its steady one): the residual itself,
-    // assembled at the state, must be small too (each row scaled by its largest Jacobian entry).
-    const unsolved = () => {
-      if (!perturbed && dt !== Infinity) return false;
-      this.assemble(dt);
-      this._equilibrate();
-      let r = 0;
-      for (let k = 0; k < this.SINK; k++) r = Math.max(r, Math.abs(this.res[k]));
-      return !(r < 1e-6);
-    };
-    const islandsOff = (it, result) => {
-      if (dt !== Infinity || !this.steady || this.islands.length === 0 || rounds >= 2 || !(this._kirchhoff() > 1e-9)) return false;
-      this.islandsOn = true;
-      rounds++;
-      kept = { it, result, u: Float64Array.from(this.u), uLo: Float64Array.from(this.uLo), termV: Float64Array.from(this.termV) };
-      return true;
-    };
-    // A steady solve that fails: record how nearly singular the system was, and where; or, failing
-    // with the islands' rows in, go back to the solution without them.
-    const fail = (r) => {
-      if (kept) {
-        this.u.set(kept.u);
-        this.uLo.set(kept.uLo);
-        this.termV.set(kept.termV);
-        this.islandsOn = false;
-        this.computeConcentrations();
-        return { ...kept.result, iterations: r.iterations, history };
-      }
-      if (dt === Infinity) this._noteConditioning();
-      return r;
-    };
-    for (let it = 1; it <= maxIter; it++) {
-      if (kept && it - kept.it > 12) return fail({ converged: false, iterations: it - 1, history });
-      if (kept && it === kept.it + 2) {
-        // Refined from the islands' second update (their first moves the level, perhaps by
-        // more than a refinement may), since the plain solves have shown a mode they lose.
-        refine = true;
-        noRefine = false;
-      }
-      try {
-        this.assemble(dt);
-      } catch (err) {
-        // A statistics model can fail far from the solution (e.g. Debye–Hückel beyond its range).
-        if (!(err instanceof SolverError)) throw err;
-        return fail({ converged: false, iterations: it, history, error: err.message });
-      }
-      this._equilibrate();
-      let rmax = 0;
-      for (let k = 0; k < this.SINK; k++) rmax = Math.max(rmax, Math.abs(res[k]));
-      try {
-        this._factor();
-      } catch (err) {
-        return fail({ converged: false, iterations: it, history, error: err.message });
-      }
-      // A pivot perturbed (one that cancelled to exactly nothing) can leave a row unsolved, its
-      // update small while its residual isn't: the same couple written twice on an electrode at
-      // open circuit converged with one spelling's rate row 41.7 mol/(m²·s) off, the couple
-      // 1.5 RT from equilibrium. Refine the solves (exact J·v) wherever one was, and before
-      // taking a small update for convergence there, look at the residual itself (see unsolved).
-      perturbed = this.sys.perturbedPivots > 0;
-      if (perturbed && !noRefine) refine = true;
-      try {
-        const pins = this.pins;
-        deltaV.fill(0);
-        solveBordered(this, res, delta, deltaV, pins);
-        if (refine && !this._refine(dt, delta, deltaV)) {
-          refine = false; // (GMRES didn't converge, or strayed: the plain solves it is)
-          noRefine = true;
-        }
-        if (this.transformed) this._untransform(delta);
-      } catch (err) {
-        if (!(err instanceof SolverError)) throw err;
-        return fail({ converged: false, iterations: it, history, error: err.message });
-      }
-      // Convergence counts every unknown, floating terminal voltages too. Damping and the
-      // divergence check count only the device's own potentials: a terminal voltage enters
-      // linearly (conductance links, held levels, a capacitive face), so a large swing in one is
-      // safe, and damping it would throttle the whole update (a current-driven port switching
-      // off, its voltage collapsing by hundreds of volts, crawled 10 thermal units at a time).
-      const step = this._maxPotentialStep(delta, deltaV);
-      const own = this._maxPotentialStep(delta, null);
-      history.push(step);
-      ownHistory.push(own);
-      if (!Number.isFinite(step)) return fail({ converged: false, iterations: it, history, error: 'non-finite update' });
-      // Give up early on clear divergence; the caller will take a smaller step instead.
-      if ((it > 1 && own > 1e4) || (it > 6 && own > 10 * ownHistory[0])) {
-        this.computeConcentrations();
-        return fail({ converged: false, iterations: it, history, error: 'diverging' });
-      }
-      const alpha = own > maxStep ? maxStep / own : 1;
-      this._addToState(delta, -alpha);
-      this.floating.forEach((k, a) => (this.termV[k] -= alpha * deltaV[a]));
-      // A time step's Newton contracts fast from its predictor (1e-2, 1e-9, 1e-15 thermal
-      // units). The next update would be about θ = step/(the last one) times this one, so where
-      // θ/(1 − θ) of it (Hairer and Wanner's estimate) is under tol, this update converged it:
-      // the iteration that would only show that is skipped, a third of a typical step's work.
-      const last = history[history.length - 2], theta = step / last;
-      const contracted = dt !== Infinity && it >= 2 && step < 1e-6 && theta < 0.1 && (theta / (1 - theta)) * step < tol;
-      if (alpha === 1 && (step < tol || contracted)) {
-        if (unsolved()) return fail({ converged: false, iterations: it, history, error: 'a row left unsolved at a pivot that cancelled exactly' });
-        const done = { converged: true, iterations: it, history, residual: rmax };
-        if (islandsOff(it, done)) continue;
-        this.computeConcentrations();
-        return done;
-      }
-      // Converged as far as round-off allows: the updates are already tiny (below 1e-6 thermal
-      // units, ~26 nV) and have stopped shrinking. A badly conditioned system's floor can sit
-      // above tol: a strictly neutral material on a short step, where φ is fixed only through
-      // fluxes that the storage term dwarfs, rattles at ~1e-9 after converging quadratically.
-      // (Raising this floor lets a weakly held population drift: a MOS capacitor without a
-      // channel port then showed a DC leak through its oxide.)
-      const [p1, p2] = [history[history.length - 2], history[history.length - 3]], floor = 1e-6;
-      // Stalled near the solution (not shrinking quadratically), or growing undamped twice
-      // running: the factorised Jacobian may have lost a slow mode to cancellation, and
-      // round-off's floor would accept it wrong, or its noise keep Newton from the solution (a
-      // bipolar stack's floating base, its holes held ~1e14 more weakly than they move within
-      // it). Refine the solves from here.
-      if (refine) refined++;
-      else if (!noRefine && alpha === 1 && it >= 3 && step > 0.25 * p1 && (step < 1e-4 || (step > p1 && p1 > p2))) refine = true;
-      if (alpha === 1 && it >= 4 && (!refine || refined >= 1 || noRefine) && step < floor && p1 < floor && step > 0.25 * p1 && p1 > 0.25 * p2) {
-        if (unsolved()) return fail({ converged: false, iterations: it, history, error: 'a row left unsolved at a pivot that cancelled exactly' });
-        const done = { converged: true, iterations: it, history, residual: rmax, roundoff: true };
-        if (islandsOff(it, done)) continue;
-        this.computeConcentrations();
-        return done;
-      }
-    }
-    this.computeConcentrations();
-    return fail({ converged: false, iterations: maxIter, history });
-  }
-
-  // How far the terminal currents (as last assembled) are from adding up to zero, relative to the
-  // largest of them: Kirchhoff's law, which a steady state keeps.
-  _kirchhoff() {
-    let sum = 0, mx = 0;
-    for (const I of this.termI) {
-      sum += I;
-      mx = Math.max(mx, Math.abs(I));
-    }
-    return mx > 0 ? Math.abs(sum) / mx : 0;
-  }
-
-  // How many digits the last factorisation lost to cancellation, and where (the worst seen since
-  // the steady solve began). Only for diagnosing failures: a saturated species, for instance,
-  // can lose digits harmlessly.
-  _noteConditioning() {
-    let c;
-    try {
-      c = this.sys.cancellation();
-    } catch {
-      return;
-    }
-    if (!(c.digits > (this.conditioning?.digits ?? -1))) return;
-    const { grid } = this.model;
-    let x = NaN, where = '', nodes = [];
-    for (let g = 0; g < this.nNodes; g++) {
-      if (this.blockOfNode[g] !== c.block) continue;
-      x = grid.x[g];
-      where = this.model.regions[grid.nodeRegion[g]].name;
-      nodes = [g];
-    }
-    for (let f = 0; f < this.nFaces; f++) {
-      if (this.blockOfFace[f] !== c.block) continue;
-      x = grid.x[grid.regionEnd[f]];
-      where = `interfaces[${f}]`;
-      nodes = [grid.regionEnd[f], grid.regionEnd[f] + 1];
-    }
-    this.conditioning = { digits: c.digits, x, where, nodes };
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * Advance by dt, splitting the interval into halves (recursively) wherever Newton fails.
-   * The end time is always t + dt; the result reports the substeps taken.
-   */
-  // A time step, halved until it converges (src/timeSteps.js).
-  advance(dt, opts, depth = 0) {
-    return advanceFn(this, dt, opts, depth);
-  }
-
-  // u += scale·d in compensated arithmetic (Knuth two-sum, then renormalise hi/lo).
-  _addToState(d, scale) {
-    const { u, uLo, fullOf } = this;
-    for (let j = 0; j < fullOf.length; j++) {
-      const k = fullOf[j], a = u[k], b = scale * d[j];
-      const s = a + b, bb = s - a;
-      const err = a - (s - bb) + (b - bb);
-      const lo = uLo[k] + err;
-      const hi = s + lo;
-      u[k] = hi;
-      uLo[k] = lo - (hi - s);
-    }
-  }
-
-  // One time step (src/timeSteps.js).
-  step(dt, opts = {}) {
-    return stepFn(this, dt, opts);
-  }
-
-  // Adaptive time stepping to tEnd (src/timeSteps.js).
-  integrate(tEnd, opts = {}) {
-    return integrateFn(this, tEnd, opts);
-  }
-
-  // Probes for a transient's trace: { x, species, quantity: 'c' | 'V', region } read after every
-  // accepted step, linearly between the two nodes of x's region around it. At an interface x
-  // belongs to both regions, so `region` (a name or index) picks the side; it defaults to the
-  // first region that holds x.
-  _probes(probes) {
-    if (probes === undefined) return null;
-    const { grid, regions, species } = this.model;
-    const fail = (m) => {
-      throw new DeviceError(m);
-    };
-    if (!Array.isArray(probes)) fail('advance: probes must be an array of { x, species, quantity, region }, or { interface, species } / { interface, gate }');
-    const plan = probes.map((p, k) => {
-      const path = `advance: probes[${k}]`;
-      if (p?.interface !== undefined) {
-        // At a face: a species' flux through it (mol/(m²·s), toward +x), or a gate's fraction open.
-        const f = p.interface, itf = this.model.interfaces[f];
-        if (!(Number.isInteger(f) && itf)) fail(`${path}.interface: no interface ${JSON.stringify(f)} (they're numbered from 0, left to right)`);
-        if (p.gate !== undefined) {
-          const q = itf.gates.findIndex((gt) => gt.name === p.gate);
-          if (q < 0) fail(`${path}.gate: interfaces[${f}] has no gate ${JSON.stringify(p.gate)}${itf.gates.length ? ` (it has ${itf.gates.map((gt) => gt.name).join(', ')})` : ''}`);
-          return { o: this._gateSlot(f, q) };
-        }
-        const i = species.findIndex((sp) => sp.name === p.species);
-        if (i < 0) fail(`${path}.species: no species ${JSON.stringify(p.species)}`);
-        return { o: this.blockOfFace[f] * this.M + 1 + i };
-      }
-      const quantity = p?.quantity ?? 'c';
-      if (quantity !== 'c' && quantity !== 'V' && quantity !== 'phi') fail(`${path}.quantity must be 'c' (mol/m³), 'V' (the species voltage) or 'phi' (φ, V)`);
-      const i = quantity === 'phi' ? -1 : species.findIndex((sp) => sp.name === p?.species);
-      if (quantity !== 'phi' && i < 0) fail(`${path}.species: no species ${JSON.stringify(p?.species)}`);
-      if (quantity === 'V' && species[i].z === 0) fail(`${path}: '${p.species}' is neutral, so it has no voltage; read 'c'`);
-      const x = grid.x, inside = (r) => p.x >= x[grid.regionStart[r]] && p.x <= x[grid.regionEnd[r]];
-      let r;
-      if (p.region !== undefined) {
-        r = typeof p.region === 'number' ? p.region : regions.findIndex((reg) => reg.name === p.region);
-        if (!(r >= 0 && r < regions.length)) fail(`${path}.region: no region ${JSON.stringify(p.region)}`);
-        if (!inside(r)) fail(`${path}.x (${p.x} m) is outside region ${JSON.stringify(p.region)}`);
-      } else {
-        // At a face, the side where the probe has something to read; both, and it must be told.
-        const has = (rr) => {
-          const mat = this.model.materials[regions[rr].material];
-          return i < 0 ? !mat.conductor && !mat.phiFree : mat.present[i];
-        };
-        const sides = regions.flatMap((_, rr) => (inside(rr) ? [rr] : []));
-        if (!(Number.isFinite(p.x) && sides.length)) fail(`${path}.x must be a position in the device, in m (got ${p.x})`);
-        const able = sides.filter(has);
-        if (able.length > 1) fail(`${path}.x (${p.x} m) is on the face between ${able.map((rr) => JSON.stringify(regions[rr].name)).join(' and ')}: give region, the side to read`);
-        r = able[0] ?? sides[0];
-      }
-      if (i >= 0 && !this.model.materials[regions[r].material].present[i]) fail(`${path}: '${p.species}' is absent from region ${JSON.stringify(regions[r].name)}, so there's nothing to read at x = ${p.x} m`);
-      let g = grid.regionStart[r];
-      while (g + 1 < grid.regionEnd[r] && x[g + 1] < p.x) g++;
-      const w = x[g + 1] > x[g] ? (p.x - x[g]) / (x[g + 1] - x[g]) : 0;
-      return { i, g, w, quantity };
-    });
-    const out = plan.map(() => []);
-    const { n, M } = this;
-    const at = (q, g) => {
-      if (q.quantity === 'phi') return this.phiUndefined[g] ? NaN : this.VT * (this.u[this.blockOfNode[g] * M] + this.uLo[this.blockOfNode[g] * M]);
-      if (!this.present[g * n + q.i]) return NaN;
-      if (q.quantity === 'c') return this.c[g * n + q.i];
-      const o = this.blockOfNode[g] * M + 1 + q.i;
-      return (this.VT * (this.u[o] + this.uLo[o])) / this.z[q.i];
-    };
-    return {
-      out,
-      read: () => plan.map((q) => (q.o !== undefined ? (this.loc[q.o] < 0 ? 0 : this.u[q.o]) : (1 - q.w) * at(q, q.g) + q.w * at(q, q.g + 1))),
-      push: (values) => values.forEach((v, k) => out[k].push(v)),
-    };
-  }
-
-  // Start from another solver's state for the same device on another grid (a refined one): each
-  // node's unknowns interpolated linearly in x within its region, each face's copied, and the
-  // terminals' voltages. A warm start for a steady solve; nothing else is carried over.
-  _warmFrom(src) {
-    const { M, u, uLo } = this, grid = this.model.grid, sg = src.model.grid;
-    if (src.M !== M || sg.regionStart.length !== grid.regionStart.length) throw new Error('_warmFrom: a different device');
-    const value = (b, k) => src.u[b * M + k] + src.uLo[b * M + k];
-    for (let r = 0; r < grid.regionStart.length; r++) {
-      let a = sg.regionStart[r];
-      for (let g = grid.regionStart[r]; g <= grid.regionEnd[r]; g++) {
-        const x = grid.x[g];
-        while (a + 1 < sg.regionEnd[r] && sg.x[a + 1] < x) a++;
-        const b = Math.min(a + 1, sg.regionEnd[r]), h = sg.x[b] - sg.x[a];
-        const w = h > 0 ? Math.min(1, Math.max(0, (x - sg.x[a]) / h)) : 0;
-        const ba = src.blockOfNode[a], bb = src.blockOfNode[b], bg = this.blockOfNode[g];
-        for (let k = 0; k < M; k++) {
-          u[bg * M + k] = (1 - w) * value(ba, k) + w * value(bb, k);
-          uLo[bg * M + k] = 0;
-        }
-      }
-    }
-    for (let f = 0; f < this.nFaces; f++) {
-      for (let k = 0; k < M; k++) {
-        u[this.blockOfFace[f] * M + k] = value(src.blockOfFace[f], k);
-        uLo[this.blockOfFace[f] * M + k] = 0;
-      }
-    }
-    this.termV.set(src.termV);
-    this.solvedV = src.solvedV;
-    this.time = src.time;
-    this.computeConcentrations();
+    this.termV.set(src.termV);
+    this.solvedV = src.solvedV;
+    this.coldStart = src.coldStart;
+    this.time = src.time;
+    this.computeConcentrations();
   }
 
   _snapshot() {
@@ -3318,6 +862,7 @@ export class Solver {
       history: this.history.slice(),
       termV: Float64Array.from(this.termV),
       sourceTime: this.sourceTime,
+      coldStart: this.coldStart,
     };
   }
 
@@ -3341,6 +886,7 @@ export class Solver {
     this.history = s.history.slice();
     this.termV.set(s.termV);
     this.sourceTime = s.sourceTime;
+    this.coldStart = s.coldStart;
     this.computeConcentrations();
   }
 
@@ -3363,453 +909,6 @@ export class Solver {
     return I + (Number.isFinite(dt) ? (this.contactD.right - this.contactDOld.right) / dt : 0);
   }
 
-  /**
-   * Small-signal impedance about the current (steady) state, seen at one terminal. Linearising
-   * gives (J + iωM)·δx + Σ B_k δV_k = rhs for the grid's rows, and (C_k + iωC′_k)·δx +
-   * (∂I_k/∂V_k)·δV_k = δI_set,k for each floating terminal's circuit row, with J the steady
-   * Jacobian and M the storage part (from J(dt) = J + M/dt), B_k = ∂res/∂V_k and C_k = ∂I_k/∂x.
-   * At the measured terminal, a held voltage is perturbed (rhs = −B δV) and its current read
-   * from C, or a driven current is perturbed and its voltage solved for. The other terminals
-   * keep their drives: held ones at AC ground, driven ones at AC open circuit.
-   * Z = δV/δI with I into the device (positive real part for a passive device).
-   * @param {ArrayLike<number>} frequencies Hz
-   */
-  impedance(frequencies, opts) {
-    const was = this.allTerminals;
-    this.allTerminals = true; // (it reads its terminal's ∂res/∂V and ∂I/∂x)
-    try {
-      return this._impedance(frequencies, opts);
-    } finally {
-      this.allTerminals = was;
-    }
-  }
-
-  _impedance(frequencies, { profiles = false, terminal = 'right' } = {}) {
-    const { M, nB, sys, VT } = this;
-    const kT = this.terms.findIndex((t) => t.name === terminal);
-    if (kT < 0) throw new SolverError(`impedance: no terminal named '${terminal}' (${this.terms.map((t) => t.name).join(', ')})`);
-    const dT = this.terms[kT].drive;
-    if (dT.R > 0) throw new SolverError(`impedance: terminal '${terminal}' has a series resistance; that belongs to the external circuit`);
-    // A small signal returns through the terminals held at a voltage: with every other one driven
-    // by a current (held open), none comes back, and the impedance is infinite (else round-off).
-    const others = this.terms.filter((t, k) => k !== kT);
-    if (others.length && others.every((t) => t.drive.kind === 'I')) {
-      throw new SolverError(
-        `impedance: every other terminal (${others.map((t) => t.name).join(', ')}) is driven by a current, so it is open to a small signal and no current returns through '${terminal}': ` +
-          `its impedance is infinite. Measure at one of those instead (impedance(f, { terminal: '${others[0].name}' }), its voltage against '${terminal}'), or hold one of them at a voltage`,
-      );
-    }
-    const N = nB * M, fl = this.floating, K = fl.length;
-    this.sourceTime = this.time;
-    this.computeConcentrations();
-    this.cOld.set(this.c);
-    this.thOld.set(this.th);
-    this.th0Old.set(this.th0);
-    this.gateList.forEach((gt, j) => (this.gateOld[j] = this.u[gt.o]));
-    this.assemble(Infinity);
-    this.contactDStart = { ...this.contactD };
-    this.portQStart = Float64Array.from(this.portQ);
-    this.assemble(Infinity);
-    // The steady parts, then the storage parts from an assembly at a tiny dt.
-    const J = { A: sys.A.slice(), B: sys.B.slice(), C: sys.C.slice() };
-    const Bt = this.termB.map((v) => v.slice()), Ct = this.termC.map((v) => v.slice()), DI = Float64Array.from(this.termDI);
-    const dts = 1e-30;
-    this.assemble(dts);
-    const S = {};
-    for (const X of ['A', 'B', 'C']) S[X] = sys[X].map((v, k) => (v - J[X][k]) * dts);
-    const Cs = this.termC.map((v, k) => v.map((x, j) => (x - Ct[k][j]) * dts));
-    const DIs = this.termDI.map((x, k) => (x - DI[k]) * dts);
-    // Where the measured contact's current may be read across a segment: anywhere without
-    // ports; with them, only between it and the nearest window (a port's exchange takes current
-    // in or out along it). Never for a port's own terminal.
-    let cuts = kT < 2 ? this._currentCuts() : null;
-    if (cuts && this.model.ports.length > 0) {
-      const windows = this.model.ports.flatMap((p) => Array.from(p.nodes));
-      const lo = Math.min(...windows), hi = Math.max(...windows);
-      cuts = cuts.filter((cut) => (kT === 0 ? cut.s + 1 <= lo : cut.s >= hi));
-    }
-    // J·v for GMRES, exact: the assembled J holds a flux's dependence on η_L and η_R as two
-    // entries, and where both are huge (an inversion layer) and v nearly uniform, J·v loses the
-    // flux to round-off. So the dilute kernels' terms are kept in difference form (see
-    // DifferenceTerms), with the rest from a matrix of their own, steady (Jr) and storage (Sr).
-    this._assembleDifference(Infinity);
-    const Jr = { A: this.sysRest.A.slice(), B: this.sysRest.B.slice(), C: this.sysRest.C.slice() };
-    const { lin } = this._assembleDifference(dts);
-    const Sr = {};
-    for (const X of ['A', 'B', 'C']) Sr[X] = this.sysRest[X].map((v, k) => (v - Jr[X][k]) * dts);
-    this.assemble(Infinity);
-
-    const { sizes, offA, offB, offC, offX } = sys;
-    const csys = new ComplexBlockTridiagonal(nB, sizes);
-    const Nc = csys.size;
-    const rr = new Float64Array(Nc), ri = new Float64Array(Nc);
-    const yr = new Float64Array(Nc), yi = new Float64Array(Nc);
-    const Xr = fl.map(() => new Float64Array(Nc)), Xi = fl.map(() => new Float64Array(Nc));
-    const xr = new Float64Array(N), xi = new Float64Array(N);
-    const rRes = new Float64Array(Nc), iRes = new Float64Array(Nc);
-    const jr = new Float64Array(Nc), ji = new Float64Array(Nc), sr = new Float64Array(Nc), si = new Float64Array(Nc);
-    const out = { f: Float64Array.from(frequencies), Z: { re: new Float64Array(frequencies.length), im: new Float64Array(frequencies.length) } };
-    if (profiles) out.profiles = [];
-    // (C + iωC′)·(ar + i ai) for terminal k
-    const dot = (k, w, ar, ai) => {
-      let re = 0, im = 0;
-      const c = Ct[k], cs = Cs[k];
-      for (let j = 0; j < Nc; j++) {
-        re += c[j] * ar[j] - w * cs[j] * ai[j];
-        im += c[j] * ai[j] + w * cs[j] * ar[j];
-      }
-      return [re, im];
-    };
-    Array.from(frequencies).forEach((f, q) => {
-      const w = 2 * Math.PI * f;
-      if (!(w > 0)) throw new SolverError('impedance: frequencies must be positive');
-      // Rows scaled by their largest entry (and the terminal columns with them).
-      const scale = new Float64Array(Nc);
-      for (let blk = 0; blk < nB; blk++) {
-        const m = sizes[blk], mp = blk > 0 ? sizes[blk - 1] : 0, mn = blk < nB - 1 ? sizes[blk + 1] : 0;
-        for (let r = 0; r < m; r++) {
-          const rows = [['A', offA[blk] + r * mp, mp], ['B', offB[blk] + r * m, m], ['C', offC[blk] + r * mn, mn]];
-          let mx = 0;
-          for (const [X, o, len] of rows) for (let c = 0; c < len; c++) mx = Math.max(mx, Math.abs(J[X][o + c]), w * Math.abs(S[X][o + c]));
-          const sc = mx > 0 ? 1 / mx : 1;
-          scale[offX[blk] + r] = sc;
-          for (const [X, o, len] of rows) {
-            const JX = J[X], SX = S[X], Xre = csys[X + 'r'], Xim = csys[X + 'i'];
-            for (let c = 0; c < len; c++) {
-              Xre[o + c] = JX[o + c] * sc;
-              Xim[o + c] = w * SX[o + c] * sc;
-            }
-          }
-        }
-      }
-      csys.factor();
-      const sx = (X, vr, out) => {
-        for (let blk = 0; blk < nB; blk++) {
-          const m = sizes[blk], mp = blk > 0 ? sizes[blk - 1] : 0, mn = blk < nB - 1 ? sizes[blk + 1] : 0;
-          for (let r = 0; r < m; r++) {
-            let acc = 0;
-            for (let c = 0; c < mp; c++) acc += X.A[offA[blk] + r * mp + c] * vr[offX[blk - 1] + c];
-            for (let c = 0; c < m; c++) acc += X.B[offB[blk] + r * m + c] * vr[offX[blk] + c];
-            for (let c = 0; c < mn; c++) acc += X.C[offC[blk] + r * mn + c] * vr[offX[blk + 1] + c];
-            out[offX[blk] + r] = acc;
-          }
-        }
-      };
-      // A x = −σ ∂res/∂V_k, x = outr + i outi (σ = 1 for the response to the measured terminal,
-      // −1 for a floating one's unit δV): GMRES on the system preconditioned by the factorised one
-      // (whose error is concentrated in a few slow modes, which it finds in a few iterations).
-      const zero = new Float64Array(Nc);
-      const precondition = (ar, ai) => {
-        const outR = new Float64Array(Nc), outI = new Float64Array(Nc);
-        for (let j = 0; j < Nc; j++) {
-          rRes[j] = ar[j] * scale[j];
-          iRes[j] = ai[j] * scale[j];
-        }
-        csys.solve(rRes, iRes, outR, outI);
-        return [outR, outI];
-      };
-      // (J + iωS)·v, exactly (see DifferenceTerms), into (ar, ai).
-      const jv = (vr, vi, ar, ai) => {
-        sx(Jr, vr, jr);
-        sx(Jr, vi, ji);
-        sx(Sr, vi, si);
-        sx(Sr, vr, sr);
-        for (let j = 0; j < Nc; j++) {
-          ar[j] = jr[j] - w * si[j];
-          ai[j] = ji[j] + w * sr[j];
-        }
-        lin.apply(vr, ar, 1, 0);
-        lin.apply(vi, ar, 0, -w);
-        lin.apply(vi, ai, 1, 0);
-        lin.apply(vr, ai, 0, w);
-      };
-      const op = ([vr, vi]) => {
-        const ar = new Float64Array(Nc), ai = new Float64Array(Nc);
-        jv(vr, vi, ar, ai);
-        return precondition(ar, ai);
-      };
-      const solve = (br, bi, outr, outi, k, sigma) => {
-        const rhs = k >= 0 ? precondition(Bt[k].map((v) => -sigma * v), zero) : [new Float64Array(Nc), new Float64Array(Nc)];
-        outr.set(rhs[0]);
-        outi.set(rhs[1]);
-        // (GMRES keeps its best iterate, which is never worse than the factorised solve.)
-        const { residual } = gmres(op, rhs, [outr, outi]);
-        accuracy = Math.max(accuracy, residual);
-      };
-      let accuracy = 1e-14; // (relative, of the solves: the readouts' error is weighed with it)
-      // y: the response with the floating terminals held; X_k: to a unit δV_k.
-      const heldT = dT.kind === 'V';
-      for (let j = 0; j < Nc; j++) {
-        rr[j] = heldT ? -Bt[kT][j] * scale[j] : 0;
-        ri[j] = 0;
-      }
-      solve(rr, ri, yr, yi, heldT ? kT : -1, heldT ? 1 : 0);
-      fl.forEach((k, a) => {
-        for (let j = 0; j < Nc; j++) rr[j] = Bt[k][j] * scale[j];
-        ri.fill(0);
-        solve(rr, ri, Xr[a], Xi[a], k, -1);
-      });
-      // The floating terminals' circuit rows, a small complex system for their δV.
-      const Ar = Array.from({ length: K }, () => new Float64Array(K + 1)), Ai = Array.from({ length: K }, () => new Float64Array(K + 1));
-      fl.forEach((k, a) => {
-        for (let b = 0; b < K; b++) {
-          const [re, im] = dot(k, w, Xr[b], Xi[b]);
-          Ar[a][b] = -re;
-          Ai[a][b] = -im;
-        }
-        Ar[a][a] += DI[k];
-        Ai[a][a] += w * DIs[k];
-        const [yre, yim] = dot(k, w, yr, yi);
-        Ar[a][K] = (k === kT ? 1 : 0) - yre;
-        Ai[a][K] = -yim;
-      });
-      const dV = complexSolve(Ar, Ai, K);
-      // δx = y − Σ X_k δV_k
-      for (let j = 0; j < Nc; j++) {
-        let re = yr[j], im = yi[j];
-        for (let a = 0; a < K; a++) {
-          re -= Xr[a][j] * dV.re[a] - Xi[a][j] * dV.im[a];
-          im -= Xr[a][j] * dV.im[a] + Xi[a][j] * dV.re[a];
-        }
-        yr[j] = re;
-        yi[j] = im;
-        xr[this.fullOf[j]] = re;
-        xi[this.fullOf[j]] = im;
-      }
-      // The current into terminal kT per volt, (C + iωC′)·δx + (∂I/∂V)(1 + iω′), with its error.
-      // At the contact it's a sum whose terms can be far larger than itself (in a junction's
-      // neutral ends, a conductance times a δη that cancels its neighbours' to 1e-17), and its
-      // round-off reads as a constant conductance. Between the two contacts of a device without
-      // ports, the total current (conduction and displacement) is the same through every cut, so
-      // it's also read across each segment, and the reading with the least error taken. Each
-      // reading's error is its terms' round-off and the solves' error in δx (to `accuracy` of its
-      // largest entry) through its coefficients: a contact's or a cut's flux is a difference of
-      // levels that the solved rows don't pin.
-      // `parts`: the response as a sum, each part compact (r, i) and full-index (fr, fi), with the
-      // absolute error of its entries.
-      const read = (parts) => {
-        const eps = 1.1e-16, c = Ct[kT], cs = Cs[kT];
-        let Ir = DI[kT], Ii = w * DIs[kT], err = eps * (Math.abs(DI[kT]) + w * Math.abs(DIs[kT]));
-        for (const p of parts) {
-          const [re, im] = dot(kT, w, p.r, p.i);
-          Ir += re;
-          Ii += im;
-          for (let j = 0; j < Nc; j++) err += (Math.abs(c[j]) + w * Math.abs(cs[j])) * (eps * Math.hypot(p.r[j], p.i[j]) + p.floor);
-        }
-        if (!cuts) return { Ir, Ii, err };
-        const sgn = kT === 0 ? 1 : -1;
-        for (const cut of cuts) {
-          let re = 0, im = 0, e = 0;
-          for (const p of parts) {
-            for (let a = 0; a < cut.idx.length; a++) {
-              const x = cut.idx[a], gk = cut.g[a], dk = w * cut.d[a];
-              // (g + iωd)(xr + i xi)
-              re += gk * p.fr[x] - dk * p.fi[x];
-              im += gk * p.fi[x] + dk * p.fr[x];
-              e += (Math.abs(gk) + Math.abs(dk)) * (eps * Math.hypot(p.fr[x], p.fi[x]) + p.floor);
-            }
-          }
-          if (e < err) [err, Ir, Ii] = [e, sgn * re, sgn * im];
-        }
-        return { Ir, Ii, err };
-      };
-      const largest = (r, i) => {
-        let m = 0;
-        for (let j = 0; j < r.length; j++) m = Math.max(m, Math.hypot(r[j], i[j]));
-        return m;
-      };
-      const full = (r, i) => {
-        const fr = new Float64Array(N), fi = new Float64Array(N);
-        for (let j = 0; j < Nc; j++) {
-          fr[this.fullOf[j]] = r[j];
-          fi[this.fullOf[j]] = i[j];
-        }
-        return [fr, fi];
-      };
-      let Zr, Zi;
-      if (heldT) {
-        // δI per volt: (C + iωC′)·δx + (∂I/∂V)(1 + iω′) at the terminal…
-        let { Ir, Ii, err } = read([{ r: yr, i: yi, fr: xr, fi: xi, floor: accuracy * largest(yr, yi) }]);
-        // …and where the solves leave that unresolved (the estimate past 1% of the current), the
-        // response is split: a uniform shift of each region (z_i s on every η_i, s on φ̂), which
-        // changes no flux and no concentration, so that J·e vanishes inside each region and is
-        // taken at its edges; and what's left, small, solved for to GMRES's floor, its error now
-        // relative to itself. An electrolyte at its open circuit needs it: the response to its
-        // terminal is nearly such a shift, and its current the slope of levels uniform to 1e-14,
-        // more than a double can hold. (A port's exchange sees the shift: its window's rows are
-        // kept with the edges'.) So does a MOS capacitor's back contact, its channel held by a port.
-        if (K === 0 && cuts && err > 1e-2 * Math.hypot(Ir, Ii)) {
-          const [er, ei] = this._regionShift(yr, yi);
-          const tr = new Float64Array(Nc), ti = new Float64Array(Nc);
-          jv(er, ei, tr, ti);
-          const edge = this._regionEdgeRows();
-          const ar = new Float64Array(Nc), ai = new Float64Array(Nc);
-          for (let j = 0; j < Nc; j++) {
-            ar[j] = -Bt[kT][j] - (edge[j] ? tr[j] : 0);
-            ai[j] = edge[j] ? -ti[j] : 0;
-          }
-          const rhs = precondition(ar, ai);
-          const dr = yr.map((v, j) => v - er[j]), di = yi.map((v, j) => v - ei[j]);
-          const { residual } = gmres(op, rhs, [dr, di], { tol: 1e-11 });
-          const [efr, efi] = full(er, ei), [dfr, dfi] = full(dr, di);
-          const r2 = read([
-            { r: er, i: ei, fr: efr, fi: efi, floor: 0 },
-            { r: dr, i: di, fr: dfr, fi: dfi, floor: Math.max(1e-14, residual) * largest(dr, di) },
-          ]);
-          if (r2.err < err) ({ Ir, Ii, err } = r2);
-          if (profiles) {
-            for (let j = 0; j < N; j++) {
-              xr[j] = efr[j] + dfr[j];
-              xi[j] = efi[j] + dfi[j];
-            }
-          }
-        }
-        const d2 = Ir * Ir + Ii * Ii; // Z = 1/δI
-        Zr = Ir / d2;
-        Zi = -Ii / d2;
-      } else {
-        // δV per unit current
-        const a = fl.indexOf(kT);
-        Zr = dV.re[a];
-        Zi = dV.im[a];
-      }
-      out.Z.re[q] = Zr;
-      out.Z.im[q] = Zi;
-      if (profiles) out.profiles.push(this._smallSignalProfiles(xr, xi));
-    });
-    return out;
-  }
-
-  // A uniform shift of each region, fitted to a small-signal response (compact, complex): φ̂ by
-  // s_r and each species' η by z_i s_r, with s_r the region's mean δφ̂ (or, where φ̂ isn't an
-  // unknown, its carriers' mean δη/z). Coverages and flux unknowns aren't shifted.
-  _regionShift(yr, yi) {
-    const { n, M, z, loc, model } = this, R = this.rix, { grid } = model;
-    const er = new Float64Array(yr.length), ei = new Float64Array(yr.length);
-    for (let r = 0; r < model.regions.length; r++) {
-      let sr = 0, si = 0, k = 0;
-      const g0 = grid.regionStart[r], g1 = grid.regionEnd[r];
-      for (let g = g0; g <= g1; g++) {
-        const o = this.blockOfNode[g] * M;
-        if (loc[o] >= 0) {
-          sr += yr[R[o]];
-          si += yi[R[o]];
-          k++;
-        }
-      }
-      if (k === 0) {
-        for (let g = g0; g <= g1; g++) {
-          const o = this.blockOfNode[g] * M;
-          for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-            if (z[i] === 0 || loc[o + 1 + i] < 0) continue;
-            sr += yr[R[o + 1 + i]] / z[i];
-            si += yi[R[o + 1 + i]] / z[i];
-            k++;
-          }
-        }
-      }
-      if (k === 0) continue;
-      sr /= k;
-      si /= k;
-      for (let g = g0; g <= g1; g++) {
-        const o = this.blockOfNode[g] * M;
-        if (loc[o] >= 0) {
-          er[R[o]] = sr;
-          ei[R[o]] = si;
-        }
-        for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-          if (loc[o + 1 + i] < 0) continue;
-          er[R[o + 1 + i]] = z[i] * sr;
-          ei[R[o + 1 + i]] = z[i] * si;
-        }
-      }
-    }
-    return [er, ei];
-  }
-
-  // Compact rows a region's uniform shift can touch: faces, the nodes beside them, the two ends
-  // and the ports' windows (whatever holds a level from outside). Elsewhere inside a region,
-  // every row is unchanged by it.
-  _regionEdgeRows() {
-    const { M, loc, nB } = this, R = this.rix;
-    const edge = new Uint8Array(this.sys.size);
-    const mark = (b) => {
-      if (b < 0 || b >= nB) return;
-      for (let r = 0; r < M; r++) if (loc[b * M + r] >= 0) edge[R[b * M + r]] = 1;
-    };
-    mark(0);
-    mark(nB - 1);
-    for (let f = 0; f < this.nFaces; f++) {
-      const b = this.blockOfFace[f];
-      mark(b - 1);
-      mark(b);
-      mark(b + 1);
-    }
-    for (const port of this.model.ports) for (const g of port.nodes) mark(this.blockOfNode[g]);
-    return edge;
-  }
-
-  // The cuts where the impedance may read a small-signal current. Each is the linearised total
-  // current toward +x through one segment s of a region, Σ (g + iω d)·δu over the unknowns idx:
-  // the Scharfetter–Gummel fluxes' derivatives (as in _segmentsDilute, or _segmentConcentrated
-  // for non-ideal statistics) and the displacement's. Without ports it's the same through every cut; with them, only between a
-  // contact and the nearest port's window (see _impedance).
-  _currentCuts() {
-    const { model, n, M, u, uLo, c, z } = this, F = FARADAY;
-    const { grid, materials, regions } = model;
-    const cuts = [];
-    for (let r = 0; r < regions.length; r++) {
-      const reg = regions[r], mat = materials[reg.material];
-      if (mat.conductor || reg.mixing > 0) continue;
-      const vel = reg.velocity;
-      for (let s = grid.regionStart[r]; s < grid.regionEnd[r]; s++) {
-        const bL = s + r, bR = bL + 1, h = grid.segLength[s] / grid.segArea[s];
-        const terms = new Map();
-        const add = (x, g, d) => {
-          const t = terms.get(x) || [0, 0];
-          t[0] += g;
-          t[1] += d;
-          terms.set(x, t);
-        };
-        const phiL = u[bL * M], phiR = u[bR * M], hasPhi = !this.phiUndefined[s];
-        for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-          if (z[i] === 0 || !mat.present[i] || mat.D[i] === 0) continue;
-          if (!mat.ideal) {
-            this._fluxConcentrated(s, bL, bR, mat, h, vel, i);
-            for (let k = 0; k < M; k++) {
-              if (k === 0 && !hasPhi) continue;
-              if (this.jL[k] !== 0) add(bL * M + k, z[i] * F * this.jL[k], 0);
-              if (this.jR[k] !== 0) add(bR * M + k, z[i] * F * this.jR[k], 0);
-            }
-            continue;
-          }
-          const zi = z[i], r1 = 1 + i, cL = c[s * n + i], g = mat.D[i] / h;
-          const pe = (vel * h) / mat.D[i];
-          const d = zi * (phiR - phiL) - pe;
-          const E = Math.expm1(u[bR * M + r1] - u[bL * M + r1] + (uLo[bR * M + r1] - uLo[bL * M + r1]) - pe);
-          const gBc = g * bernoulli(d) * cL;
-          const dNdd = -g * bernoulliDerivative(d) * cL * E;
-          add(bL * M + r1, zi * F * gBc, 0);
-          add(bR * M + r1, -zi * F * gBc * (E + 1), 0);
-          if (hasPhi) {
-            add(bL * M, zi * F * (-zi * dNdd + zi * gBc * E), 0);
-            add(bR * M, zi * F * zi * dNdd, 0);
-          }
-        }
-        // The displacement toward +x, ε(φ_L − φ_R)/h (in φ̂ = φ/V_T).
-        const k = hasPhi ? (mat.epsr * EPS0 * this.VT) / h : 0;
-        if (k > 0) {
-          add(bL * M, 0, k);
-          add(bR * M, 0, -k);
-        }
-        if (terms.size === 0) continue;
-        const idx = [...terms.keys()];
-        cuts.push({ s, idx, g: idx.map((x) => terms.get(x)[0]), d: idx.map((x) => terms.get(x)[1]) });
-      }
-    }
-    return cuts;
-  }
-
   // Each species' flux toward +x across every segment, at the current state (concentrations
   // computed): totals through the cross-section, mol/s (mol/(m²·s) for a planar device). A face's
   // segment, between its pair of nodes, carries the face's flux; a conductor's, its carrier's.
@@ -3831,11 +930,17 @@ export class Solver {
           const pe = (vel * h) / mat.D[i];
           const d = z[i] * (u[bR * M] - u[bL * M]) + ex[(s + 1) * n + i] - ex[s * n + i] - pe;
           const deta = u[bR * M + 1 + i] - u[bL * M + 1 + i] + (uLo[bR * M + 1 + i] - uLo[bL * M + 1 + i]) - pe;
-          out[i][s] = -(mat.D[i] / h) * bernoulli(d) * c[s * n + i] * Math.expm1(deta);
+          out[i][s] = sgFlux(mat.D[i] / h, d, deta, c[s * n + i], c[(s + 1) * n + i], this.sg)[0];
         }
         if (reg.mixing > 0) {
-          // Eddy mixing (see _segmentMixing): −(D_mix/h) c̄_i (Δη_i − z_i q), c̄ the logarithmic mean.
+          // Eddy mixing (see _segmentMixing): −(D_mix/h) c̄_i (Δη_i − z_i q), c̄ the logarithmic
+          // mean; between crowded ends, _mixCrowded's.
           const on = [...Array(n).keys()].filter((i) => mat.present[i] && mat.D[i] > 0);
+          if (!this.nodeIdeal[s] || !this.nodeIdeal[s + 1]) {
+            const { N } = this._mixBase(s, s + 1, bL, bR, on);
+            on.forEach((i, p) => (out[i][s] += (reg.mixing / h) * N[p]));
+            continue;
+          }
           const cb = [], de = [];
           let S = 0, Q = 0;
           for (const k of on) {
@@ -3872,89 +977,11 @@ export class Solver {
       const gated = link.gates ?? [];
       const P = link.P * (gated.length ? this._open(gated, (q) => u[this._gateSlot(f, q)]) : 1);
       const right = P * bernoulli(d) * this.c[kl];
-      return [right, right * Math.exp(deta)];
+      // (far up a drift, right × e^Δη is 0·∞: the backward one is then sgFlux's, whole)
+      return [right, d < SG_FAR ? right * Math.exp(deta) : sgFlux(P, d, deta, this.c[kl], this.c[kr], this.sg)[3]];
     });
   }
 
-  // Complex profiles of δφ (V), δμ̄ (J/mol) and δc (mol/m³) from a small-signal solution.
-  _smallSignalProfiles(xr, xi) {
-    const { n, M, z, VT, model } = this;
-    const nN = this.nNodes, RT = model.RT;
-    const pair = () => ({ re: new Float64Array(nN), im: new Float64Array(nN) });
-    const phi = pair(), mu = {}, c = {};
-    for (const sp of model.species) {
-      mu[sp.name] = pair();
-      c[sp.name] = pair();
-    }
-    for (let g = 0; g < nN; g++) {
-      const b = this.blockOfNode[g];
-      const undef = this.phiUndefined[g];
-      phi.re[g] = undef ? NaN : VT * xr[b * M];
-      phi.im[g] = undef ? NaN : VT * xi[b * M];
-      for (let i = 0; i < n; i++) {
-        const name = model.species[i].name;
-        if (!this.present[g * n + i]) {
-          mu[name].re[g] = mu[name].im[g] = c[name].re[g] = c[name].im[g] = NaN;
-          continue;
-        }
-        mu[name].re[g] = RT * xr[b * M + 1 + i];
-        mu[name].im[g] = RT * xi[b * M + 1 + i];
-        if (this.nodeConductor[g] >= 0) {
-          // a metal has a Fermi level but no concentration (as a solution reports it)
-          c[name].re[g] = c[name].im[g] = NaN;
-          continue;
-        }
-        // δc_i = Σ_j K_ij (δη_j − z_j δφ̂)
-        let sr = 0, si = 0;
-        for (let j = 0; j < n; j++) {
-          const Kij = this.nodeIdeal[g] ? (i === j ? this.c[g * n + i] : 0) : this.K[g * n * n + i * n + j];
-          if (Kij === 0) continue;
-          sr += Kij * (xr[b * M + 1 + j] - z[j] * xr[b * M]);
-          si += Kij * (xi[b * M + 1 + j] - z[j] * xi[b * M]);
-        }
-        c[name].re[g] = sr;
-        c[name].im[g] = si;
-      }
-    }
-    return { phi, mu, c };
-  }
-
-  // The contact and port readouts (fluxes, displacements, the last segment's current) at the
-  // current state, from only the boxes they're read from. Each of those boxes gets the same terms
-  // in the same order as in assemble(), so the readouts are identical; other residuals and the
-  // Jacobian are left partial (the next assemble() starts afresh). Concentrations must be current.
-  _assembleBookkeeping(dt) {
-    const { model } = this;
-    this.dtNow = dt;
-    const { grid, materials, regions } = model;
-    this.res.fill(0);
-    for (let r = 0; r < regions.length; r++) {
-      const { nodes, segs } = this.bookkeeping[r];
-      if (nodes.length === 0 && segs.length === 0) continue;
-      const reg = regions[r], mat = materials[reg.material];
-      if (mat.conductor) {
-        for (const g of nodes) this._nodeConductor(g, dt);
-        for (const s of segs) this._segmentConductor(s, s + r, s + r + 1, mat, grid.segLength[s] / grid.segArea[s]);
-        continue;
-      }
-      for (const g of nodes) {
-        if (mat.ideal) this._nodesDilute(g, g, dt);
-        else this._nodeConcentrated(g, dt);
-      }
-      const rxs = this.rxsIn[reg.material];
-      if (rxs.length > 0) for (const g of nodes) this._bulkReactions(g, rxs);
-      for (const s of segs) {
-        const bL = s + r, bR = bL + 1, h = grid.segLength[s] / grid.segArea[s]; // (a length over the cross-section: fluxes are totals)
-        this._segmentDisplacement(s, bL, bR, mat, h);
-        if (reg.mixing > 0) this._segmentMixing(s, bL, bR, reg.mixing, h, mat);
-        if (!mat.ideal) this._segmentConcentrated(s, bL, bR, mat, h, reg.velocity);
-      }
-      if (mat.ideal) for (const s of segs) this._segmentsDilute(s, s + 1, r, mat, reg.velocity);
-    }
-    for (const f of this.bookkeepingFaces) this._face(f);
-    this._terminals(dt);
-  }
-
   // Add this step's contact fluxes (at the converged state) to each stretch's intake.
   // (A BDF2 step also moves each amount by Σ v (c* − c_n), its history term.)
   _accumulateBoundaryIntake(dt, cN) {
@@ -3984,503 +1011,11 @@ export class Solver {
       this.boundaryIntake[k] += q * dt + hist;
     });
   }
+}
 
-  // Slowest diffusion time across the device, used to size "giant" steps.
-  slowestTime() {
-    const { model } = this;
-    let dMin = Infinity;
-    for (const mat of model.materials) {
-      for (let i = 0; i < this.n; i++) if (mat.present[i] && mat.D[i] > 0) dMin = Math.min(dMin, mat.D[i]);
-    }
-    const L = model.grid.length;
-    return Number.isFinite(dMin) ? (L * L) / dMin : 1;
-  }
-
-  // The fastest diffusion time: across the smallest cell, at the largest D.
-  fastestTime() {
-    let dMax = 0;
-    for (const mat of this.model.materials) {
-      for (let i = 0; i < this.n; i++) if (mat.present[i]) dMax = Math.max(dMax, mat.D[i]);
-    }
-    let h = Infinity;
-    for (const s of this.model.grid.segLength) if (s > 0) h = Math.min(h, s);
-    return dMax > 0 && Number.isFinite(h) ? (h * h) / dMax : this.slowestTime();
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * Steady state: where a transient from the present state ends, found as the solution of the
-   * steady equations (dt = ∞, no storage term), with no slow modes to wait out, however slow the
-   * physics (e.g. exponentially scarce minority carriers). What the storage term held is held by
-   * the steady system's own rows instead (see src/laws.js): each conserved amount in place of a balance
-   * row that says nothing new, levels that carry nothing held flat, islands' summed balances.
-   * Where Newton from here fails: continuation along the drives, then the pseudo-transient ramp.
-   * The clock is not advanced, and open-system conservation bookkeeping restarts here.
-   */
-  // Steady state from the present one; `atSteady` says whether the state is one (until a step or
-  // a change of drive).
-  solveSteady(opts = {}) {
-    this.violent = this.history.length === 0 && !this.stepped ? violentStart(this) : []; // (for a failure to say: see src/timeSteps.js)
-    this.unreached = null; // (a driven current no held voltage reaches: see _floatingContinuation)
-    this.charging = null; // (a driven current that only charges: see _solveSteadyAll)
-    captureLaws(this);
-    this.steady = true; // (the steady system's rows; sources at the present time)
-    this.steadyAt = this.time; // (which a pseudo-transient's steps don't move on)
-    try {
-      return this._solveSteadyAll(opts);
-    } finally {
-      this.steady = false;
-    }
-  }
-
-  _solveSteadyAll(opts) {
-    // A terminal driven by a current that can only store what comes in (a battery's cathode
-    // behind it, closed but for that terminal; a gate, or a capacitance with no species through
-    // it) has no steady state but at no current, where it keeps what it holds.
-    const { species, regions } = this.model;
-    for (const k of this.floating) {
-      const I = sourceAt(this.terms[k].drive.src, this.time);
-      if (this.terms[k].drive.kind !== 'I' || I === 0) continue;
-      const laws = this.constraints.filter((cs) => cs.terminals.includes(k));
-      if (laws.length === 0 && !chargeOnly(this, k)) continue;
-      const what = laws.flatMap((cs) => cs.parts.map(({ stretch }) => {
-        const st = this.stretches[stretch], [r0, r1] = st.regions;
-        return `${species[st.species].name} in ${regions[r0].name}${r1 > r0 ? `…${regions[r1].name}` : ''}`;
-      }));
-      this.charging = { terminal: this.terms[k].name, current: I, what };
-      return { converged: false, steps: 0, iterations: 0, history: [] };
-    }
-    const r = this._steadyFromHere(opts);
-    this.atSteady = r.converged;
-    return r;
-  }
-
-  // Steady state from the present one, in three stages: Newton from here; failing that, from a
-  // solved state along the drives (the light ramped up, a current's terminal held at the voltages
-  // that pass it, the voltages ramped from where they were last solved); failing that, the
-  // pseudo-transient ramp, through time.
-  _steadyFromHere(opts) {
-    this.conditioning = null;
-    this.computeConcentrations();
-    captureLocal(this); // immobile combinations keep, node by node, what they hold now
-    this.sourceTime = this.time;
-    // Continuation applies where the right terminal is held at a voltage, against a held left one.
-    const [dl, dr] = [this.terms[0].drive, this.terms[1].drive];
-    const held = (d) => d.kind === 'V' && !(d.R > 0);
-    const target = sourceAt(dr.src, this.time), level = sourceAt(dl.src, this.time);
-    const allowed = opts.continuation !== false;
-    const canContinue = allowed && held(dl) && held(dr) && target !== level;
-    const direct = this._directSteady();
-    const u0 = Float64Array.from(this.u), u0Lo = Float64Array.from(this.uLo), v0 = Float64Array.from(this.termV);
-    const restart = () => {
-      this.u.set(u0);
-      this.uLo.set(u0Lo);
-      this.termV.set(v0);
-      this.computeConcentrations();
-    };
-    const solved = (q) => {
-      if (q.converged) {
-        this.solvedV = [level, target];
-        this.stepped = false;
-      }
-      return q;
-    };
-    const after = (q, r) => ({ ...q, steps: q.steps + r.steps, iterations: q.iterations + r.iterations });
-
-    // 1. Newton from here. Where a continuation could follow, one direct attempt only, rather
-    // than the pseudo-transient ramp straight away.
-    const quick = (canContinue || this.hasGeneration) && direct && allowed;
-    let r = this._steadySteps(quick ? { ...opts, maxSteps: 1 } : opts);
-    if (r.converged) return solved(r);
-    // A transient's state can be a worse start than a cold one: 1 ns after a lit MOS capacitor's
-    // gate jumps, its surface is in deep depletion, minority carriers ten orders below where they
-    // end, and Newton fails from there where it converges from the layout for the drives (and
-    // the stages below took 9000 iterations from there, 2000 from the layout). What a steady
-    // solve keeps it took from the state already, so from here on it goes as a cold device would.
-    if (this.stepped && direct && allowed) {
-      this._refreshSources();
-      this.initFromComposition();
-      u0.set(this.u);
-      u0Lo.set(this.uLo);
-      const q = this._steadySteps(quick ? { ...opts, maxSteps: 1 } : opts);
-      if (q.converged) return solved(after(q, r));
-      restart();
-      r = after(q, r);
-    }
-
-    // 2. Continuation. Generation (e.g. light) holding the device far from equilibrium: ramp it up
-    // from nearly nothing, each solve warm from the last.
-    let dimmer = false;
-    if (this.hasGeneration && allowed) {
-      restart();
-      this.dimmer = false;
-      const g = this._generationContinuation(opts, r);
-      dimmer = this.dimmer;
-      if (g.converged) return solved(g);
-      r = g;
-    }
-    // A terminal driven by a current (open circuit, say): hold it at a voltage instead, march the
-    // voltage until the current crosses its target, and float it from there.
-    if (allowed && this.floating.some((k) => this.terms[k].drive.kind === 'I' && !this._bound(k))) {
-      restart();
-      const q = this._floatingContinuation(opts, r);
-      if (q.converged) return q;
-      r = q;
-    }
-    if (canContinue) {
-      // The right terminal's voltage ramped to its target: from the contacts' voltages at the last
-      // converged solve when the state is that solution (a warm start), the left one first where
-      // it moved, the right held where it was; otherwise from level terminals, consistent with a
-      // cold start.
-      restart();
-      const was = this.solvedV;
-      let c;
-      if (was) {
-        c = was[0] === level ? { ...r, converged: true, ramped: false } : this._continuation(opts, 0, was[0], level, r, true, was[1]);
-        // (Ramping the right from level terminals, solve there first: a sweep's start.)
-        if (c.converged) c = this._continuation(opts, 1, was[1], target, c, c.ramped || was[1] !== level);
-      } else c = this._continuation(opts, 1, level, target, r, false);
-      if (c.converged) return solved(c);
-      // 3. The pseudo-transient ramp, from the start.
-      restart();
-      return solved(after(this._steadySteps(opts), c));
-    }
-    // 3. The pseudo-transient ramp (where the first attempt wasn't it already): from the dimmer
-    // light's solution where the light's continuation got anywhere (a lit floating base charges
-    // from there as it would in time), else from the start.
-    if (!quick) return r;
-    if (!dimmer) restart();
-    else this.computeConcentrations();
-    return after(this._steadySteps(opts), r);
-  }
-
-  // Whether terminal k, driven by a current, feeds a combination that it alone can change, or
-  // only charges a capacitance (so that its steady states are one per amount or charge, not one
-  // per voltage).
-  _bound(k) {
-    return this.constraints.some((cs) => cs.terminals.includes(k)) || chargeOnly(this, k);
-  }
-
-  // A cold steady solve with a terminal driven by a current, which can fail where the same state
-  // is easy warm (a solar cell's open circuit, from cold on a fine grid): the terminal held at a
-  // voltage instead, whose steady solves have their own continuation, the voltage marched from
-  // the start's until the current crosses its target, the crossing narrowed by bisection, and
-  // the terminal floated again from beside it.
-  _floatingContinuation(opts, r) {
-    const k = this.floating.find((j) => this.terms[j].drive.kind === 'I' && !this._bound(j));
-    const drive = this.terms[k].drive, target = sourceAt(drive.src, this.time);
-    let steps = r.steps ?? 0, iterations = r.iterations ?? 0;
-    const history = (r.history ?? []).slice();
-    const hold = (V) => {
-      this.terms[k].drive = { kind: 'V', src: { value: V }, R: 0 };
-      this.redrive();
-      const q = this._steadyFromHere(opts);
-      steps += q.steps ?? 0;
-      iterations += q.iterations ?? 0;
-      history.push({ held: V, converged: q.converged });
-      if (q.converged) seen.push([V, this.termI[k]]);
-      return q.converged ? this.termI[k] - target : NaN;
-    };
-    const fail = () => ({ converged: false, steps, iterations, history });
-    const seen = []; // [V, I] of each held solve that converged
-    let Va = this.termV[k], fa, Vb, fb;
-    try {
-      fa = hold(Va);
-      if (!Number.isFinite(fa)) {
-        Va = 0;
-        fa = hold(Va);
-      }
-      if (!Number.isFinite(fa)) return fail();
-      // March, the step growing: up where the current is below its target, since raising a
-      // terminal's voltage raises the current into a passive device (the other way, from the
-      // start again, if 20 V brings no crossing).
-      const start = Va, f0 = fa;
-      [Vb, fb] = [Va, fa];
-      for (const dir of [fa < 0 ? 1 : -1, fa < 0 ? -1 : 1]) {
-        [Va, fa] = [start, f0];
-        if (dir !== (f0 < 0 ? 1 : -1)) hold(start); // (back to the start, for a warm march)
-        let dV = 0.02;
-        Vb = Va + dir * dV;
-        fb = hold(Vb);
-        while (Number.isFinite(fb) && Math.sign(fb) === Math.sign(fa) && fa !== 0 && Math.abs(Vb - start) < 20) {
-          [Va, fa] = [Vb, fb];
-          dV *= 1.5;
-          Vb = Va + dir * dV;
-          fb = hold(Vb);
-        }
-        if (Number.isFinite(fb) && (Math.sign(fb) !== Math.sign(fa) || fa === 0)) break;
-      }
-      if (!Number.isFinite(fb) || (Math.sign(fb) === Math.sign(fa) && fa !== 0)) {
-        // What the held voltages passed, at the two extremes reached.
-        if (seen.length > 1) {
-          seen.sort((a, b) => a[0] - b[0]);
-          this.unreached = { terminal: this.terms[k].name, target, low: seen[0], high: seen.at(-1) };
-        }
-        return fail();
-      }
-      // Bisect (each held solve warm from the last) to a tenth of a millivolt.
-      for (let it = 0; it < 40 && Math.abs(Vb - Va) > 1e-4; it++) {
-        const Vm = (Va + Vb) / 2, fm = hold(Vm);
-        if (!Number.isFinite(fm)) return fail();
-        if (Math.sign(fm) === Math.sign(fa)) [Va, fa] = [Vm, fm];
-        else [Vb, fb] = [Vm, fm];
-      }
-      hold(Math.abs(fa) < Math.abs(fb) ? Va : Vb);
-    } finally {
-      this.terms[k].drive = drive;
-      this.redrive();
-    }
-    const q = this._steadySteps(opts);
-    steps += q.steps ?? 0;
-    iterations += q.iterations ?? 0;
-    history.push(...(q.history ?? []));
-    if (q.converged) return { ...q, steps, iterations, history };
-    // Floated, the system can lose what held it doesn't (a closed redox cell driven near its
-    // limit: its bordered row 33 digits short), but a current-driven steady state is the held
-    // one at the voltage that passes the target: found by held solves, by regula falsi
-    // (Illinois) within the bracket, to 1e-10 of the target, or at open circuit of the largest
-    // current the march saw (a target of 0 is never met exactly).
-    const scale = Math.max(Math.abs(target), ...seen.map(([, I]) => Math.abs(I)));
-    try {
-      let side = 0;
-      for (let it = 0; it < 60; it++) {
-        const Vm = Va - (fa * (Vb - Va)) / (fb - fa), fm = hold(Vm);
-        if (!Number.isFinite(fm)) return fail();
-        if (Math.abs(fm) <= 1e-10 * scale) return { converged: true, steps, iterations, history, residual: Math.abs(fm) };
-        if (Math.sign(fm) === Math.sign(fb)) {
-          [Vb, fb] = [Vm, fm];
-          if (side === -1) fa /= 2;
-          side = -1;
-        } else {
-          [Va, fa] = [Vm, fm];
-          if (side === 1) fb /= 2;
-          side = 1;
-        }
-      }
-      return fail();
-    } finally {
-      this.terms[k].drive = drive;
-      this.redrive();
-    }
-  }
-
-  // Steady solves with the generation reactions' rates scaled from 1e-12 up to 1, ×100 a step
-  // while they converge, smaller steps where they don't.
-  _generationContinuation(opts, r) {
-    const sub = this._directSteady() ? { ...opts, maxSteps: 1 } : opts;
-    let s = 1e-30, factor = 100, steps = r.steps, iterations = r.iterations;
-    const history = r.history.slice();
-    try {
-      this.generationScale = s;
-      // (nearly dark: a cold start can need the full ramp, as a dark device's does)
-      let q = this._steadySteps(sub);
-      steps += q.steps;
-      iterations += q.iterations;
-      if (!q.converged) return { converged: false, steps, iterations, history };
-      this.dimmer = true; // (the state is now a solution under dimmer light: a better start than cold)
-      while (s < 1) {
-        const next = Math.min(1, s * factor);
-        const u1 = Float64Array.from(this.u), u1Lo = Float64Array.from(this.uLo), v1 = Float64Array.from(this.termV);
-        this.generationScale = next;
-        q = this._steadySteps(sub);
-        steps += q.steps;
-        iterations += q.iterations;
-        history.push({ generation: next, converged: q.converged });
-        if (q.converged) {
-          s = next;
-          factor = Math.min(100, factor * factor);
-        } else {
-          this.u.set(u1);
-          this.uLo.set(u1Lo);
-          this.termV.set(v1);
-          this.computeConcentrations();
-          factor = Math.sqrt(factor);
-          if (factor < 1.5) return { converged: false, steps, iterations, history }; // (crawling: time steps do better)
-        }
-      }
-      return { converged: true, steps, iterations, history };
-    } finally {
-      this.generationScale = 1;
-    }
-  }
-
-  // Terminal k (a contact) ramped from `level` to `target` through steady solves, each warm from
-  // the last (`hold`: the other contact's voltage meanwhile, if not its own). A warm ramp that has
-  // nowhere to go converges only if what it started from did (`ramped`): the state it carries
-  // must be some ramp's solution, never just the one a failed solve left.
-  _continuation(opts, k, level, target, r, warm, hold) {
-    const sub = this._directSteady() ? { ...opts, maxSteps: 1 } : opts;
-    let V = level, dV = (target - level) / 8, steps = r.steps, iterations = r.iterations;
-    const history = r.history.slice();
-    if (warm && V === target) return { ...r, converged: r.ramped === true, steps, iterations, history, ramped: r.ramped };
-    try {
-      this.sourceOverride.set(k, V);
-      if (hold !== undefined) this.sourceOverride.set(1 - k, hold);
-      let q;
-      if (!warm) {
-        q = this._steadySteps(opts);
-        if (!q.converged) {
-          // A cold device's start was laid out for the target (a set() before the first solve
-          // builds it there): lay it out again, level.
-          steps += q.steps;
-          iterations += q.iterations;
-          this._refreshSources();
-          this.initFromComposition();
-          q = this._steadySteps(opts);
-        }
-        // (lit, the level start may need the light ramped up too)
-        if (!q.converged && this.hasGeneration) q = this._generationContinuation(opts, q);
-        steps += q.steps;
-        iterations += q.iterations;
-        if (!q.converged) return { ...r, steps, iterations };
-      }
-      while (V !== target) {
-        const next = Math.abs(target - V) <= Math.abs(dV) ? target : V + dV;
-        const u1 = Float64Array.from(this.u), u1Lo = Float64Array.from(this.uLo), v1 = Float64Array.from(this.termV);
-        this.sourceOverride.set(k, next);
-        q = this._steadySteps(sub);
-        steps += q.steps;
-        iterations += q.iterations;
-        history.push({ continuation: next, converged: q.converged });
-        if (q.converged) {
-          V = next;
-          dV *= 1.5;
-        } else {
-          this.u.set(u1);
-          this.uLo.set(u1Lo);
-          this.termV.set(v1);
-          this.computeConcentrations();
-          dV /= 4;
-          if (Math.abs(dV) < 1e-6 * Math.abs(target - level)) return { converged: false, steps, iterations, history };
-        }
-      }
-      return { converged: true, steps, iterations, history, ramped: true };
-    } finally {
-      this.sourceOverride.delete(k);
-      if (hold !== undefined) this.sourceOverride.delete(1 - k);
-      this._refreshSources();
-    }
-  }
-
-  _steadySteps({ maxSteps = 80, tol = 1e-11 } = {}) {
-    const time = this.time;
-    const tau = this.slowestTime();
-    const direct = this._directSteady();
-    const giant = direct ? Infinity : 1e6 * tau;
-    let dt = giant, grow = 10; // (after a failure, dt grows by less, then back up to ×10)
-    let triedDirect = 0;
-    let totalIter = 0, steps = 0, converged = false;
-    const history = [];
-    while (steps < maxSteps) {
-      steps++;
-      // Restore conserved amounts exactly before each huge step; the step then re-solves, so
-      // the final state satisfies every equation.
-      if (!direct && dt >= giant) this._renormalizeSpectators();
-      let r = this.step(dt);
-      totalIter += r.iterations;
-      history.push({ dt, converged: r.converged, iterations: r.iterations });
-      if (!r.converged && dt === Infinity && steps === 1) {
-        // A large change can overshoot Newton's usual damping: retry with a tighter limit.
-        r = this.step(dt, { maxStep: 3, maxIter: 80 });
-        totalIter += r.iterations;
-        history.push({ dt, converged: r.converged, iterations: r.iterations, maxStep: 3 });
-      }
-      if (!r.converged) {
-        // Pseudo-transient continuation: down from a slow time scale until a step converges,
-        // as far as the fastest (slow ions mustn't stop it short of what a cold start needs).
-        dt = dt >= giant ? tau * 1e-6 : dt / 4;
-        grow = 2;
-        if (dt < Math.min(tau * 1e-15, this.fastestTime() * 1e-2)) break;
-        continue;
-      }
-      if (dt === Infinity) {
-        converged = true; // the steady equations themselves were solved
-        break;
-      }
-      // Past the slowest diffusion time, the direct solve may already reach from here: try it
-      // once a decade (the state kept if it fails), rather than step on to the giant dt through
-      // steps that can fail for slow ions' sake.
-      if (direct && dt < giant && dt >= tau && dt >= 10 * triedDirect) {
-        triedDirect = dt;
-        const snap = this._snapshot();
-        const d = this.step(Infinity);
-        totalIter += d.iterations;
-        history.push({ dt: Infinity, converged: d.converged, iterations: d.iterations });
-        if (d.converged) {
-          converged = true;
-          break;
-        }
-        this._restore(snap);
-      }
-      if (dt >= giant && this._maxPotentialStep(this._diff()) < tol) {
-        converged = true;
-        if (dt > giant) {
-          // Finish at the base giant step, where the storage term pins amounts tightly.
-          this._renormalizeSpectators();
-          const f = this.step(giant);
-          totalIter += f.iterations;
-          converged = f.converged;
-        }
-        break;
-      }
-      if (dt < giant) {
-        dt *= grow; // ramping up after a failure
-        grow = Math.min(10, grow * 1.5);
-        if (dt > 1e6 * tau) dt = giant; // then the direct steady solve (or the giant step)
-      } else if (dt < 1e6 * giant) {
-        dt *= 10; // conserved amounts present and still moving: let dt keep growing (capped)
-      }
-    }
-    this.time = time;
-    this.history = []; // a steady solve isn't a trajectory: transients restart from here
-    this.dtNext = undefined;
-    if (converged) {
-      this.stretches.forEach((st, k) => {
-        if (!st.connected) return;
-        this.referenceAmounts[k] = this.amount(st);
-        this.boundaryIntake[k] = 0;
-      });
-    }
-    return { converged, steps, iterations: totalIter, history };
-  }
-
-  // Huge steps pin each conserved amount only through a tiny storage term, so round-off can let
-  // it creep. Shift each spectator's level uniformly to restore its amount exactly (in one step
-  // for ideal statistics, where c ∝ e^η; by Newton on the shift otherwise).
-  _renormalizeSpectators() {
-    const { n, M, u } = this;
-    let changed = false;
-    this.stretches.forEach((st, k) => {
-      // A floating conductor holds its charge on its faces, not as an amount: the huge steps keep
-      // it, and there's nothing here to shift.
-      if (!st.spectator || this.model.materials[this.model.regions[st.regions[0]].material].conductor) return;
-      const want = this.referenceAmounts[k];
-      const ideal = this.nodeIdeal.subarray(st.nodes[0], st.nodes[1] + 1).every((v) => v === 1);
-      for (let it = 0; it < (ideal ? 1 : 30); it++) {
-        const now = this.amount(st);
-        if (!(now > 0) || now === want) return;
-        let shift;
-        if (ideal) shift = Math.log(want / now);
-        else {
-          let dA = 0;
-          for (let g = st.nodes[0]; g <= st.nodes[1]; g++) {
-            const dc = this.nodeIdeal[g] ? this.c[g * n + st.species] : this.K[g * n * n + st.species * (n + 1)];
-            dA += this.model.grid.vol[g] * dc;
-          }
-          shift = (want - now) / dA;
-          if (!(Math.abs(shift) > 1e-16)) return;
-        }
-        for (let g = st.nodes[0]; g <= st.nodes[1]; g++) u[this.blockOfNode[g] * M + 1 + st.species] += shift;
-        changed = true;
-        if (!ideal) this.computeConcentrations();
-      }
-    });
-    if (changed) this.computeConcentrations();
-  }
-
-  _diff() {
-    const d = this.delta; // reuse as scratch
-    const { fullOf } = this;
-    for (let j = 0; j < fullOf.length; j++) d[j] = this.u[fullOf[j]] - this.uPrev[fullOf[j]];
-    return d;
-  }
+// The assembly's methods, the steady solves' and the small signal's, defined with their contracts
+// in src/assemble.js, src/regions.js, src/boundaries.js, src/steady.js and src/impedance.js, are
+// the Solver's own.
+for (const part of [Assembly, RegionTerms, BoundaryTerms, SteadySolves, SmallSignal]) {
+  for (const [k, d] of Object.entries(Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptors(part.prototype))) if (k !== 'constructor') Object.defineProperty(Solver.prototype, k, d);
 }