codeply-cli 0.3.1 → 0.4.0

package/skills/fastapi-patterns/SKILL.md

@@ -1,514 +1,514 @@
----
-name: fastapi-patterns
-description: FastAPI best practices covering project structure, Pydantic v2 schemas, dependency injection, async handlers, authentication, authorization, transactional service layers, and testing with httpx and pytest.
-metadata:
-  origin: ECC
----
-
-# FastAPI Patterns
-
-Modern, production-grade FastAPI development: project layout, Pydantic v2 schemas, dependency injection, async patterns, auth, transactional service methods, and testing.
-
-## Project Structure
-
-```text
-my_app/
-|-- app/
-|   |-- main.py               # App factory, lifespan, middleware
-|   |-- config.py             # Settings via pydantic-settings
-|   |-- dependencies.py       # Shared FastAPI dependencies
-|   |-- database.py           # SQLAlchemy engine + session
-|   |-- routers/
-|   |   `-- users.py
-|   |-- models/               # SQLAlchemy ORM models
-|   |   `-- user.py
-|   |-- schemas/              # Pydantic request/response schemas
-|   |   `-- user.py
-|   `-- services/             # Business logic layer
-|       `-- user_service.py
-|-- tests/
-|   |-- conftest.py
-|   `-- test_users.py
-|-- pyproject.toml
-`-- .env
-```
-
----
-
-## App Factory and Lifespan
-
-```python
-# app/main.py
-from contextlib import asynccontextmanager
-from fastapi import FastAPI
-from fastapi.middleware.cors import CORSMiddleware
-
-from app.config import settings
-from app.database import engine, Base
-from app.routers import users
-
-
-@asynccontextmanager
-async def lifespan(app: FastAPI):
-    # Automatically create tables on startup for ease of use in dev/demo environments.
-    # For strict production applications, manage schemas via Alembic migrations instead.
-    async with engine.begin() as conn:
-        await conn.run_sync(Base.metadata.create_all)
-    yield
-    # Shutdown: close pooled resources.
-    await engine.dispose()
-
-
-def create_app() -> FastAPI:
-    app = FastAPI(
-        title=settings.app_name,
-        version=settings.app_version,
-        lifespan=lifespan,
-    )
-
-    app.add_middleware(
-        CORSMiddleware,
-        allow_origins=settings.allowed_origins,
-        allow_credentials=settings.allow_credentials,
-        allow_methods=settings.allowed_methods,
-        allow_headers=settings.allowed_headers,
-    )
-
-    app.include_router(users.router, prefix="/users", tags=["users"])
-
-    return app
-
-
-app = create_app()
-```
-
----
-
-## Configuration with pydantic-settings
-
-```python
-# app/config.py
-from pydantic_settings import BaseSettings, SettingsConfigDict
-
-
-class Settings(BaseSettings):
-    model_config = SettingsConfigDict(env_file=".env", env_file_encoding="utf-8")
-
-    app_name: str = "My App"
-    app_version: str = "0.1.0"
-    debug: bool = False
-
-    database_url: str
-    secret_key: str
-    algorithm: str = "HS256"
-    access_token_expire_minutes: int = 30
-
-    # Pydantic-settings v2 safely evaluates mutable list literals directly
-    allowed_origins: list[str] = ["http://localhost:3000"]
-    allowed_methods: list[str] = ["GET", "POST", "PATCH", "DELETE", "OPTIONS"]
-    allowed_headers: list[str] = ["Authorization", "Content-Type"]
-    allow_credentials: bool = True
-
-
-settings = Settings()
-```
-
----
-
-## Pydantic Schemas (v2)
-
-```python
-# app/schemas/user.py
-from datetime import datetime
-from pydantic import BaseModel, EmailStr, Field, model_validator
-
-
-class UserBase(BaseModel):
-    email: EmailStr
-    username: str = Field(min_length=3, max_length=50)
-
-
-class UserCreate(UserBase):
-    password: str = Field(min_length=8)
-    password_confirm: str
-
-    @model_validator(mode="after")
-    def passwords_match(self) -> "UserCreate":
-        if self.password != self.password_confirm:
-            raise ValueError("Passwords do not match")
-        return self
-
-
-class UserUpdate(BaseModel):
-    username: str | None = Field(default=None, min_length=3, max_length=50)
-    email: EmailStr | None = None
-
-
-class UserResponse(UserBase):
-    id: int
-    is_active: bool
-    created_at: datetime
-
-    model_config = {"from_attributes": True}
-
-
-class UserListResponse(BaseModel):
-    total: int
-    items: list[UserResponse]
-```
-
----
-
-## Dependency Injection
-
-```python
-# app/dependencies.py
-from typing import Annotated, AsyncGenerator
-from fastapi import Depends, HTTPException, status
-from fastapi.security import OAuth2PasswordBearer
-from jose import JWTError, jwt
-from sqlalchemy.ext.asyncio import AsyncSession
-
-from app.config import settings
-from app.database import AsyncSessionLocal
-from app.models.user import User
-
-oauth2_scheme = OAuth2PasswordBearer(tokenUrl="/users/token")
-
-
-async def get_db() -> AsyncGenerator[AsyncSession, None]:
-    async with AsyncSessionLocal() as session:
-        try:
-            yield session
-        except Exception:
-            await session.rollback()
-            raise
-
-
-async def get_current_user(
-    token: Annotated[str, Depends(oauth2_scheme)],
-    db: Annotated[AsyncSession, Depends(get_db)],
-) -> User:
-    credentials_exception = HTTPException(
-        status_code=status.HTTP_401_UNAUTHORIZED,
-        detail="Could not validate credentials",
-        headers={"WWW-Authenticate": "Bearer"},
-    )
-    try:
-        payload = jwt.decode(token, settings.secret_key, algorithms=[settings.algorithm])
-        subject = payload.get("sub")
-        if subject is None:
-            raise credentials_exception
-        user_id = int(subject)
-    except (JWTError, TypeError, ValueError):
-        raise credentials_exception
-
-    user = await db.get(User, user_id)
-    if user is None:
-        raise credentials_exception
-    return user
-
-
-async def get_current_active_user(
-    current_user: Annotated[User, Depends(get_current_user)],
-) -> User:
-    if not current_user.is_active:
-        raise HTTPException(status_code=status.HTTP_403_FORBIDDEN, detail="Inactive user")
-    return current_user
-
-
-DbDep = Annotated[AsyncSession, Depends(get_db)]
-CurrentUserDep = Annotated[User, Depends(get_current_user)]
-ActiveUserDep = Annotated[User, Depends(get_current_active_user)]
-```
-
----
-
-## Router and Endpoint Design
-
-```python
-# app/routers/users.py
-from typing import Annotated
-from fastapi import APIRouter, HTTPException, Query, status
-from fastapi.security import OAuth2PasswordRequestForm
-
-from app.dependencies import ActiveUserDep, DbDep
-from app.schemas.user import UserCreate, UserResponse, UserUpdate, UserListResponse
-from app.services.user_service import DuplicateUserError, UserService
-
-router = APIRouter()
-
-
-@router.post("/", response_model=UserResponse, status_code=status.HTTP_201_CREATED)
-async def create_user(payload: UserCreate, db: DbDep) -> UserResponse:
-    service = UserService(db)
-    try:
-        return await service.create(payload)
-    except DuplicateUserError:
-        raise HTTPException(status_code=400, detail="Email already registered")
-
-
-@router.get("/me", response_model=UserResponse)
-async def get_me(current_user: ActiveUserDep) -> UserResponse:
-    return current_user
-
-
-@router.get("/", response_model=UserListResponse)
-async def list_users(
-    db: DbDep,
-    current_user: ActiveUserDep,
-    skip: Annotated[int, Query(ge=0)] = 0,
-    limit: Annotated[int, Query(ge=1, le=100)] = 20,
-) -> UserListResponse:
-    service = UserService(db)
-    users, total = await service.list(skip=skip, limit=limit)
-    return UserListResponse(total=total, items=users)
-
-
-@router.patch("/{user_id}", response_model=UserResponse)
-async def update_user(
-    user_id: int,
-    payload: UserUpdate,
-    db: DbDep,
-    current_user: ActiveUserDep,
-) -> UserResponse:
-    if current_user.id != user_id:
-        raise HTTPException(status_code=403, detail="Not authorized")
-    service = UserService(db)
-    try:
-        user = await service.update(user_id, payload)
-    except DuplicateUserError:
-        raise HTTPException(status_code=400, detail="Email already registered")
-    if user is None:
-        raise HTTPException(status_code=404, detail="User not found")
-    return user
-
-
-@router.post("/token")
-async def login(
-    form_data: Annotated[OAuth2PasswordRequestForm, Depends()],
-    db: DbDep,
-) -> dict[str, str]:
-    service = UserService(db)
-    token = await service.authenticate(form_data.username, form_data.password)
-    if token is None:
-        raise HTTPException(
-            status_code=status.HTTP_401_UNAUTHORIZED,
-            detail="Incorrect username or password",
-            headers={"WWW-Authenticate": "Bearer"},
-        )
-    return {"access_token": token, "token_type": "bearer"}
-```
-
----
-
-## Service Layer
-
-```python
-# app/services/user_service.py
-from datetime import datetime, timedelta, timezone
-
-from jose import jwt
-from passlib.context import CryptContext
-from sqlalchemy import func, select
-from sqlalchemy.exc import IntegrityError
-from sqlalchemy.ext.asyncio import AsyncSession
-
-from app.config import settings
-from app.models.user import User
-from app.schemas.user import UserCreate, UserUpdate
-
-pwd_context = CryptContext(schemes=["bcrypt"], deprecated="auto")
-
-
-class DuplicateUserError(Exception):
-    """Raised when a unique user field conflicts with an existing row."""
-
-
-class UserService:
-    def __init__(self, db: AsyncSession) -> None:
-        self.db = db
-
-    async def get_by_email(self, email: str) -> User | None:
-        result = await self.db.execute(select(User).where(User.email == email))
-        return result.scalar_one_or_none()
-
-    async def create(self, payload: UserCreate) -> User:
-        user = User(
-            email=payload.email,
-            username=payload.username,
-            hashed_password=pwd_context.hash(payload.password),
-        )
-        self.db.add(user)
-        try:
-            # Rely on atomic DB constraints rather than race-prone application-level prechecks
-            await self.db.commit()
-        except IntegrityError as exc:
-            await self.db.rollback()
-            raise DuplicateUserError from exc
-        await self.db.refresh(user)
-        return user
-
-    async def list(self, skip: int = 0, limit: int = 20) -> tuple[list[User], int]:
-        total_result = await self.db.execute(select(func.count(User.id)))
-        total = total_result.scalar_one()
-        # Enforce explicit deterministic ordering to ensure reliable pagination
-        result = await self.db.execute(
-            select(User).order_by(User.id).offset(skip).limit(limit)
-        )
-        return list(result.scalars()), total
-
-    async def update(self, user_id: int, payload: UserUpdate) -> User | None:
-        user = await self.db.get(User, user_id)
-        if user is None:
-            return None
-        for field, value in payload.model_dump(exclude_unset=True).items():
-            setattr(user, field, value)
-        try:
-            await self.db.commit()
-        except IntegrityError as exc:
-            await self.db.rollback()
-            raise DuplicateUserError from exc
-        await self.db.refresh(user)
-        return user
-
-    async def authenticate(self, email: str, password: str) -> str | None:
-        user = await self.get_by_email(email)
-        if user is None or not pwd_context.verify(password, user.hashed_password):
-            return None
-        expire = datetime.now(timezone.utc) + timedelta(
-            minutes=settings.access_token_expire_minutes
-        )
-        return jwt.encode(
-            {"sub": str(user.id), "exp": expire},
-            settings.secret_key,
-            algorithm=settings.algorithm,
-        )
-```
-
-> **Note on Database Design:** Application-level unique handling requires an underlying unique database index (e.g., `unique=True` on your SQLAlchemy mapping attributes). Without underlying constraints, application layer error-catching cannot safely prevent concurrent race conditions.
-
----
-
-## Testing with httpx and pytest
-
-```python
-# tests/conftest.py
-import pytest_asyncio
-from httpx import ASGITransport, AsyncClient
-from sqlalchemy.ext.asyncio import AsyncSession, async_sessionmaker, create_async_engine
-
-from app.database import Base
-from app.dependencies import get_db
-from app.main import create_app
-
-TEST_DATABASE_URL = "sqlite+aiosqlite:///:memory:"
-
-engine = create_async_engine(TEST_DATABASE_URL)
-TestingSessionLocal = async_sessionmaker(engine, expire_on_commit=False)
-
-
-@pytest_asyncio.fixture(autouse=True)
-async def setup_db():
-    async with engine.begin() as conn:
-        await conn.run_sync(Base.metadata.create_all)
-    yield
-    async with engine.begin() as conn:
-        await conn.run_sync(Base.metadata.drop_all)
-
-
-@pytest_asyncio.fixture
-async def db_session():
-    async with TestingSessionLocal() as session:
-        yield session
-        await session.rollback()
-
-
-@pytest_asyncio.fixture
-async def client(db_session: AsyncSession):
-    app = create_app()
-
-    async def override_get_db():
-        yield db_session
-
-    app.dependency_overrides[get_db] = override_get_db
-
-    async with AsyncClient(
-        transport=ASGITransport(app=app), base_url="http://test"
-    ) as ac:
-        yield ac
-
-
-@pytest_asyncio.fixture
-async def registered_user(client: AsyncClient) -> dict:
-    resp = await client.post("/users/", json={
-        "email": "test@example.com",
-        "username": "testuser",
-        "password": "securepass1",
-        "password_confirm": "securepass1",
-    })
-    assert resp.status_code == 201
-    return resp.json()
-
-
-@pytest_asyncio.fixture
-async def auth_token(client: AsyncClient, registered_user: dict) -> str:
-    resp = await client.post("/users/token", data={
-        "username": "test@example.com",
-        "password": "securepass1",
-    })
-    assert resp.status_code == 200
-    return resp.json()["access_token"]
-
-
-@pytest_asyncio.fixture
-async def auth_client(client: AsyncClient, auth_token: str) -> AsyncClient:
-    client.headers.update({"Authorization": f"Bearer {auth_token}"})
-    return client
-```
-
----
-
-## Anti-Patterns
-
-```python
-# Bad: business logic inside route handlers.
-@router.post("/users/")
-async def create_user(payload: UserCreate, db: DbDep):
-    hashed = bcrypt.hash(payload.password)
-    user = User(email=payload.email, hashed_password=hashed)
-    db.add(user)
-    await db.commit()
-    return user
-
-# Good: thin route, transactional service handling.
-@router.post("/users/", response_model=UserResponse, status_code=201)
-async def create_user(payload: UserCreate, db: DbDep):
-    try:
-        return await UserService(db).create(payload)
-    except DuplicateUserError:
-        raise HTTPException(status_code=400, detail="Email already registered")
-
-
-# Bad: sync DB calls in async routes block the event loop.
-@router.get("/items/")
-async def list_items(db: Session = Depends(get_db)):
-    return db.query(Item).all()
-
-# Good: use async SQLAlchemy executions.
-@router.get("/items/")
-async def list_items(db: AsyncSession = Depends(get_db)):
-    result = await db.execute(select(Item))
-    return result.scalars().all()
-```
-
----
-
-## Best Practices
-
-- Always declare a typed `response_model` to prevent accidental PII/data leaks and output clean OpenAPI schemas.
-- Consolidate standard middleware dependency injections via type-aliasing: `DbDep = Annotated[AsyncSession, Depends(get_db)]`.
-- Wrap database mutation boundaries gracefully within transactions inside your service layer, catching structural database errors directly.
-- Parse JWT parameters defensively, expecting potential string/integer cast mismatches from modern payload variations.
-- Enforce deterministic sorting (e.g., `.order_by(Model.id)`) on all offset/limit paginated endpoints to avoid data skips.
-- Isolate authorization checks from core authentication dependencies to provide precise REST status signals (`401` vs `403`).
+---
+name: fastapi-patterns
+description: FastAPI best practices covering project structure, Pydantic v2 schemas, dependency injection, async handlers, authentication, authorization, transactional service layers, and testing with httpx and pytest.
+metadata:
+  origin: ECC
+---
+
+# FastAPI Patterns
+
+Modern, production-grade FastAPI development: project layout, Pydantic v2 schemas, dependency injection, async patterns, auth, transactional service methods, and testing.
+
+## Project Structure
+
+```text
+my_app/
+|-- app/
+|   |-- main.py               # App factory, lifespan, middleware
+|   |-- config.py             # Settings via pydantic-settings
+|   |-- dependencies.py       # Shared FastAPI dependencies
+|   |-- database.py           # SQLAlchemy engine + session
+|   |-- routers/
+|   |   `-- users.py
+|   |-- models/               # SQLAlchemy ORM models
+|   |   `-- user.py
+|   |-- schemas/              # Pydantic request/response schemas
+|   |   `-- user.py
+|   `-- services/             # Business logic layer
+|       `-- user_service.py
+|-- tests/
+|   |-- conftest.py
+|   `-- test_users.py
+|-- pyproject.toml
+`-- .env
+```
+
+---
+
+## App Factory and Lifespan
+
+```python
+# app/main.py
+from contextlib import asynccontextmanager
+from fastapi import FastAPI
+from fastapi.middleware.cors import CORSMiddleware
+
+from app.config import settings
+from app.database import engine, Base
+from app.routers import users
+
+
+@asynccontextmanager
+async def lifespan(app: FastAPI):
+    # Automatically create tables on startup for ease of use in dev/demo environments.
+    # For strict production applications, manage schemas via Alembic migrations instead.
+    async with engine.begin() as conn:
+        await conn.run_sync(Base.metadata.create_all)
+    yield
+    # Shutdown: close pooled resources.
+    await engine.dispose()
+
+
+def create_app() -> FastAPI:
+    app = FastAPI(
+        title=settings.app_name,
+        version=settings.app_version,
+        lifespan=lifespan,
+    )
+
+    app.add_middleware(
+        CORSMiddleware,
+        allow_origins=settings.allowed_origins,
+        allow_credentials=settings.allow_credentials,
+        allow_methods=settings.allowed_methods,
+        allow_headers=settings.allowed_headers,
+    )
+
+    app.include_router(users.router, prefix="/users", tags=["users"])
+
+    return app
+
+
+app = create_app()
+```
+
+---
+
+## Configuration with pydantic-settings
+
+```python
+# app/config.py
+from pydantic_settings import BaseSettings, SettingsConfigDict
+
+
+class Settings(BaseSettings):
+    model_config = SettingsConfigDict(env_file=".env", env_file_encoding="utf-8")
+
+    app_name: str = "My App"
+    app_version: str = "0.1.0"
+    debug: bool = False
+
+    database_url: str
+    secret_key: str
+    algorithm: str = "HS256"
+    access_token_expire_minutes: int = 30
+
+    # Pydantic-settings v2 safely evaluates mutable list literals directly
+    allowed_origins: list[str] = ["http://localhost:3000"]
+    allowed_methods: list[str] = ["GET", "POST", "PATCH", "DELETE", "OPTIONS"]
+    allowed_headers: list[str] = ["Authorization", "Content-Type"]
+    allow_credentials: bool = True
+
+
+settings = Settings()
+```
+
+---
+
+## Pydantic Schemas (v2)
+
+```python
+# app/schemas/user.py
+from datetime import datetime
+from pydantic import BaseModel, EmailStr, Field, model_validator
+
+
+class UserBase(BaseModel):
+    email: EmailStr
+    username: str = Field(min_length=3, max_length=50)
+
+
+class UserCreate(UserBase):
+    password: str = Field(min_length=8)
+    password_confirm: str
+
+    @model_validator(mode="after")
+    def passwords_match(self) -> "UserCreate":
+        if self.password != self.password_confirm:
+            raise ValueError("Passwords do not match")
+        return self
+
+
+class UserUpdate(BaseModel):
+    username: str | None = Field(default=None, min_length=3, max_length=50)
+    email: EmailStr | None = None
+
+
+class UserResponse(UserBase):
+    id: int
+    is_active: bool
+    created_at: datetime
+
+    model_config = {"from_attributes": True}
+
+
+class UserListResponse(BaseModel):
+    total: int
+    items: list[UserResponse]
+```
+
+---
+
+## Dependency Injection
+
+```python
+# app/dependencies.py
+from typing import Annotated, AsyncGenerator
+from fastapi import Depends, HTTPException, status
+from fastapi.security import OAuth2PasswordBearer
+from jose import JWTError, jwt
+from sqlalchemy.ext.asyncio import AsyncSession
+
+from app.config import settings
+from app.database import AsyncSessionLocal
+from app.models.user import User
+
+oauth2_scheme = OAuth2PasswordBearer(tokenUrl="/users/token")
+
+
+async def get_db() -> AsyncGenerator[AsyncSession, None]:
+    async with AsyncSessionLocal() as session:
+        try:
+            yield session
+        except Exception:
+            await session.rollback()
+            raise
+
+
+async def get_current_user(
+    token: Annotated[str, Depends(oauth2_scheme)],
+    db: Annotated[AsyncSession, Depends(get_db)],
+) -> User:
+    credentials_exception = HTTPException(
+        status_code=status.HTTP_401_UNAUTHORIZED,
+        detail="Could not validate credentials",
+        headers={"WWW-Authenticate": "Bearer"},
+    )
+    try:
+        payload = jwt.decode(token, settings.secret_key, algorithms=[settings.algorithm])
+        subject = payload.get("sub")
+        if subject is None:
+            raise credentials_exception
+        user_id = int(subject)
+    except (JWTError, TypeError, ValueError):
+        raise credentials_exception
+
+    user = await db.get(User, user_id)
+    if user is None:
+        raise credentials_exception
+    return user
+
+
+async def get_current_active_user(
+    current_user: Annotated[User, Depends(get_current_user)],
+) -> User:
+    if not current_user.is_active:
+        raise HTTPException(status_code=status.HTTP_403_FORBIDDEN, detail="Inactive user")
+    return current_user
+
+
+DbDep = Annotated[AsyncSession, Depends(get_db)]
+CurrentUserDep = Annotated[User, Depends(get_current_user)]
+ActiveUserDep = Annotated[User, Depends(get_current_active_user)]
+```
+
+---
+
+## Router and Endpoint Design
+
+```python
+# app/routers/users.py
+from typing import Annotated
+from fastapi import APIRouter, HTTPException, Query, status
+from fastapi.security import OAuth2PasswordRequestForm
+
+from app.dependencies import ActiveUserDep, DbDep
+from app.schemas.user import UserCreate, UserResponse, UserUpdate, UserListResponse
+from app.services.user_service import DuplicateUserError, UserService
+
+router = APIRouter()
+
+
+@router.post("/", response_model=UserResponse, status_code=status.HTTP_201_CREATED)
+async def create_user(payload: UserCreate, db: DbDep) -> UserResponse:
+    service = UserService(db)
+    try:
+        return await service.create(payload)
+    except DuplicateUserError:
+        raise HTTPException(status_code=400, detail="Email already registered")
+
+
+@router.get("/me", response_model=UserResponse)
+async def get_me(current_user: ActiveUserDep) -> UserResponse:
+    return current_user
+
+
+@router.get("/", response_model=UserListResponse)
+async def list_users(
+    db: DbDep,
+    current_user: ActiveUserDep,
+    skip: Annotated[int, Query(ge=0)] = 0,
+    limit: Annotated[int, Query(ge=1, le=100)] = 20,
+) -> UserListResponse:
+    service = UserService(db)
+    users, total = await service.list(skip=skip, limit=limit)
+    return UserListResponse(total=total, items=users)
+
+
+@router.patch("/{user_id}", response_model=UserResponse)
+async def update_user(
+    user_id: int,
+    payload: UserUpdate,
+    db: DbDep,
+    current_user: ActiveUserDep,
+) -> UserResponse:
+    if current_user.id != user_id:
+        raise HTTPException(status_code=403, detail="Not authorized")
+    service = UserService(db)
+    try:
+        user = await service.update(user_id, payload)
+    except DuplicateUserError:
+        raise HTTPException(status_code=400, detail="Email already registered")
+    if user is None:
+        raise HTTPException(status_code=404, detail="User not found")
+    return user
+
+
+@router.post("/token")
+async def login(
+    form_data: Annotated[OAuth2PasswordRequestForm, Depends()],
+    db: DbDep,
+) -> dict[str, str]:
+    service = UserService(db)
+    token = await service.authenticate(form_data.username, form_data.password)
+    if token is None:
+        raise HTTPException(
+            status_code=status.HTTP_401_UNAUTHORIZED,
+            detail="Incorrect username or password",
+            headers={"WWW-Authenticate": "Bearer"},
+        )
+    return {"access_token": token, "token_type": "bearer"}
+```
+
+---
+
+## Service Layer
+
+```python
+# app/services/user_service.py
+from datetime import datetime, timedelta, timezone
+
+from jose import jwt
+from passlib.context import CryptContext
+from sqlalchemy import func, select
+from sqlalchemy.exc import IntegrityError
+from sqlalchemy.ext.asyncio import AsyncSession
+
+from app.config import settings
+from app.models.user import User
+from app.schemas.user import UserCreate, UserUpdate
+
+pwd_context = CryptContext(schemes=["bcrypt"], deprecated="auto")
+
+
+class DuplicateUserError(Exception):
+    """Raised when a unique user field conflicts with an existing row."""
+
+
+class UserService:
+    def __init__(self, db: AsyncSession) -> None:
+        self.db = db
+
+    async def get_by_email(self, email: str) -> User | None:
+        result = await self.db.execute(select(User).where(User.email == email))
+        return result.scalar_one_or_none()
+
+    async def create(self, payload: UserCreate) -> User:
+        user = User(
+            email=payload.email,
+            username=payload.username,
+            hashed_password=pwd_context.hash(payload.password),
+        )
+        self.db.add(user)
+        try:
+            # Rely on atomic DB constraints rather than race-prone application-level prechecks
+            await self.db.commit()
+        except IntegrityError as exc:
+            await self.db.rollback()
+            raise DuplicateUserError from exc
+        await self.db.refresh(user)
+        return user
+
+    async def list(self, skip: int = 0, limit: int = 20) -> tuple[list[User], int]:
+        total_result = await self.db.execute(select(func.count(User.id)))
+        total = total_result.scalar_one()
+        # Enforce explicit deterministic ordering to ensure reliable pagination
+        result = await self.db.execute(
+            select(User).order_by(User.id).offset(skip).limit(limit)
+        )
+        return list(result.scalars()), total
+
+    async def update(self, user_id: int, payload: UserUpdate) -> User | None:
+        user = await self.db.get(User, user_id)
+        if user is None:
+            return None
+        for field, value in payload.model_dump(exclude_unset=True).items():
+            setattr(user, field, value)
+        try:
+            await self.db.commit()
+        except IntegrityError as exc:
+            await self.db.rollback()
+            raise DuplicateUserError from exc
+        await self.db.refresh(user)
+        return user
+
+    async def authenticate(self, email: str, password: str) -> str | None:
+        user = await self.get_by_email(email)
+        if user is None or not pwd_context.verify(password, user.hashed_password):
+            return None
+        expire = datetime.now(timezone.utc) + timedelta(
+            minutes=settings.access_token_expire_minutes
+        )
+        return jwt.encode(
+            {"sub": str(user.id), "exp": expire},
+            settings.secret_key,
+            algorithm=settings.algorithm,
+        )
+```
+
+> **Note on Database Design:** Application-level unique handling requires an underlying unique database index (e.g., `unique=True` on your SQLAlchemy mapping attributes). Without underlying constraints, application layer error-catching cannot safely prevent concurrent race conditions.
+
+---
+
+## Testing with httpx and pytest
+
+```python
+# tests/conftest.py
+import pytest_asyncio
+from httpx import ASGITransport, AsyncClient
+from sqlalchemy.ext.asyncio import AsyncSession, async_sessionmaker, create_async_engine
+
+from app.database import Base
+from app.dependencies import get_db
+from app.main import create_app
+
+TEST_DATABASE_URL = "sqlite+aiosqlite:///:memory:"
+
+engine = create_async_engine(TEST_DATABASE_URL)
+TestingSessionLocal = async_sessionmaker(engine, expire_on_commit=False)
+
+
+@pytest_asyncio.fixture(autouse=True)
+async def setup_db():
+    async with engine.begin() as conn:
+        await conn.run_sync(Base.metadata.create_all)
+    yield
+    async with engine.begin() as conn:
+        await conn.run_sync(Base.metadata.drop_all)
+
+
+@pytest_asyncio.fixture
+async def db_session():
+    async with TestingSessionLocal() as session:
+        yield session
+        await session.rollback()
+
+
+@pytest_asyncio.fixture
+async def client(db_session: AsyncSession):
+    app = create_app()
+
+    async def override_get_db():
+        yield db_session
+
+    app.dependency_overrides[get_db] = override_get_db
+
+    async with AsyncClient(
+        transport=ASGITransport(app=app), base_url="http://test"
+    ) as ac:
+        yield ac
+
+
+@pytest_asyncio.fixture
+async def registered_user(client: AsyncClient) -> dict:
+    resp = await client.post("/users/", json={
+        "email": "test@example.com",
+        "username": "testuser",
+        "password": "securepass1",
+        "password_confirm": "securepass1",
+    })
+    assert resp.status_code == 201
+    return resp.json()
+
+
+@pytest_asyncio.fixture
+async def auth_token(client: AsyncClient, registered_user: dict) -> str:
+    resp = await client.post("/users/token", data={
+        "username": "test@example.com",
+        "password": "securepass1",
+    })
+    assert resp.status_code == 200
+    return resp.json()["access_token"]
+
+
+@pytest_asyncio.fixture
+async def auth_client(client: AsyncClient, auth_token: str) -> AsyncClient:
+    client.headers.update({"Authorization": f"Bearer {auth_token}"})
+    return client
+```
+
+---
+
+## Anti-Patterns
+
+```python
+# Bad: business logic inside route handlers.
+@router.post("/users/")
+async def create_user(payload: UserCreate, db: DbDep):
+    hashed = bcrypt.hash(payload.password)
+    user = User(email=payload.email, hashed_password=hashed)
+    db.add(user)
+    await db.commit()
+    return user
+
+# Good: thin route, transactional service handling.
+@router.post("/users/", response_model=UserResponse, status_code=201)
+async def create_user(payload: UserCreate, db: DbDep):
+    try:
+        return await UserService(db).create(payload)
+    except DuplicateUserError:
+        raise HTTPException(status_code=400, detail="Email already registered")
+
+
+# Bad: sync DB calls in async routes block the event loop.
+@router.get("/items/")
+async def list_items(db: Session = Depends(get_db)):
+    return db.query(Item).all()
+
+# Good: use async SQLAlchemy executions.
+@router.get("/items/")
+async def list_items(db: AsyncSession = Depends(get_db)):
+    result = await db.execute(select(Item))
+    return result.scalars().all()
+```
+
+---
+
+## Best Practices
+
+- Always declare a typed `response_model` to prevent accidental PII/data leaks and output clean OpenAPI schemas.
+- Consolidate standard middleware dependency injections via type-aliasing: `DbDep = Annotated[AsyncSession, Depends(get_db)]`.
+- Wrap database mutation boundaries gracefully within transactions inside your service layer, catching structural database errors directly.
+- Parse JWT parameters defensively, expecting potential string/integer cast mismatches from modern payload variations.
+- Enforce deterministic sorting (e.g., `.order_by(Model.id)`) on all offset/limit paginated endpoints to avoid data skips.
+- Isolate authorization checks from core authentication dependencies to provide precise REST status signals (`401` vs `403`).