captchakraken 3.2.1 → 4.0.0

package/python/src/captchakraken/tool_calls/find_grid.py

@@ -1,1283 +1,365 @@
-import cv2
-import numpy as np
-import os
-import tempfile
-from dataclasses import dataclass
-from typing import List, Tuple, Optional
-from ..kinds import LabelPosition
-from ..overlay import add_overlays_to_image
-
-# Grid detection: trace every gutter as a consistent-colour walk, cluster the traces, form an evenly spaced
-# lattice, then gate it on structure and on cell content. The colour comb and seal test are the second cue
-# (see _comb_lines and TRIBAL_KNOWLEDGE.md). Every threshold below is measured; each gate has a test named for it.
-
-COLOR_TOL = 10.0
-# Tolerates JPEG and lighting jitter along a real gutter; a real tile edge is far beyond it.
-CONT_TOL = 14.0
-CONT_TOL2 = CONT_TOL * CONT_TOL
-# Gate on L alone: a gutter's L span is ~3 while grass drifts ~32, and a/b are JPEG chroma noise that CIE76
-# over-weights (it wrongly dropped real tinted-grey gutters).
-SEED_L_TOL = 6.0
-# A gutter never jumps between consecutive pixels (|dL| <= ~2); grass jumps up to ~16.
-STEP_L_TOL = 4.0
-MIN_RUN = 10
-# No longer a hard reject: a white gutter adjacent to white tile content reads as one band far thicker.
-MAX_THICKNESS = 14
-PERP_SCAN = 60
-# On a miss, look this far perpendicular for the gutter colour before calling it a wall; ~3px tolerates ~25 deg.
-PERP_REFIND = 3
-# How far the walk tolerances widen per unit of measured noise; 0 restores the fixed thresholds exactly.
-NOISE_GAIN = 2.0
-MAX_PERP_JUMP = 6.0
-MERGE_PX = 8.0
-MERGE_ANGLE = 0.07
-MIN_CELL = 36
-# Fractions of the cell PITCH, not pixels: hCaptcha gutters are ~13px median, so a fixed offset probed gutter
-# against gutter and read zero contrast.
-FLANK_PITCH_FRACS = (0.18, 0.26, 0.34, 0.42)
-# Per grid and as a MEAN of both flanks: under `min` the lowest true hCaptcha grid scored 2.7 against false
-# positives at 9.0, under mean 17.4 against 18.0/14.1. 18.1 clears both but sits 0.3 under a real reCAPTCHA 4x4.
-GRID_FLANK_MIN_DE = 16.0
-LINE_STD_TOL = 7.0
-STEP = 1
-SLANT_CAP = 0.47
-SUPPORT_FRAC = 0.42
-TERM_FRAC = 0.30
-# A gutter spans the full image so a central band seeds it; narrowing from 0.46 cut trace attempts ~25%.
-MAX_SEED_FRAC = 0.34
-EDGE_MARGIN = 0.02
-GRID_COLOR_TOL = 8.0
-GRID_THICK_TOL = 4.0
-GRID_ANGLE_TOL = 0.09
-# Real grids share one gutter colour across both axes; photo "grids" pair an H edge of one colour with a V edge of another.
-XAXIS_COLOR_TOL = 6.0
-LATTICE_TOL = 0.18
-MAX_OFF_LATTICE = 1
-EVEN_TOL = 0.18
-# Measured floor over 2239 real grids is 0.348. Deliberately not 0.33: that also catches one observed video
-# false positive at 0.322 but leaves 5% headroom, buying a false-positive fix with a future missed grid.
-MIN_IMAGE_AREA_COVERAGE = 0.30
-# Applied to the EMITTED cells: the line check cannot see degenerate boxes built from near-duplicate lines.
-CELL_REGULARITY_TOL = 0.12
-MIN_GRID_DIM = 3
-# A true internal line has perpendicular gutters running ~a full cell past it on both sides; a frame line does not.
-CORROB_FRAC = 0.9
-GRID_OVERSHOOT = 0.35
-FULL_SPAN_MARGIN = 0.5
-MIN_GRID_COVERAGE = 0.72
-CELL_INSET = 0.22
-# A flat region (white wall, sky, watermark haze) has "cells" the same colour as its "gutters".
-CELL_DIVERGE_TOL = 12.0
-CELL_DIVERGE_FRAC = 0.6
-# Real-grid gutters measure color_std ~0-2; textured-photo pseudo-gutters run ~3-6.
-CLEAN_GUTTER_STD = 2.3
-# Only when the gutters are clean: a painted-gutter grid with sky tiles legitimately has fewer content cells.
-CELL_DIVERGE_FRAC_CLEAN = 0.42
-# A gutter's ridge run covers >= 0.88 of the scan, content fragments p90 ~0.35; drops ~95% of dead seeds (~73% of walk steps).
-SEED_RUN_FRAC = 0.5
-SEED_DECIMATE = 2
-CLEAN_LATTICE_STD = 2.0
-MAX_VIRTUAL_FRAC = 0.5
-MAX_VIRTUAL_NODES = 2
-# Per corroborated internal line a candidate leaves out, so a 4x4's [r1,r2,r3] is not dropped to [r2,r3].
-UNUSED_LINE_PENALTY = 400.0
-VIRTUAL_NODE_PENALTY = 600.0
-# Outweighs the virtual-node penalty so a completed 4x4 beats the 3-row subset whose gutters run a cell past the border.
-SPAN_FIT_PENALTY = 900.0
-# hCaptcha's V gutters reach the submit bar (~0.65 cell) without implying another cell.
-MISSING_LINE_FRAC = 0.8
-# Real grids are inset ~60-120px; a gutter reaching the image edge is bleeding into a margin, not a cell.
-EDGE_BLEED_PX = 6
-# Count clusters, not lines: the plateau on the real corpus is 17..23; at 24 a textured drag puzzle becomes a false positive.
-OFF_LATTICE_CLUSTER_PX = 20
-MAX_OFF_LATTICE_CLEAN = 1
-# Tight on purpose: on the failing 4x4s the gutter is pure white (L 100.0) against sky at L 95-97.
-COMB_TOL = 3.0
-# The scan band crosses the vendor's header/footer chrome, which costs a true gutter ~8% of its scan.
-COMB_COVER = 0.9
-# Taking the strictly contiguous run reported a full-width 520px gutter as a 43px stub (JPEG ringing).
-COMB_GAP = 8
-# Not zero: a blank canvas seals every lattice and its cells read exactly 0.0; a 4x4 of open sky reads 2.3-11.2.
-SEALED_DIVERGE_TOL = 2.0
-# Real 4x4s over unbroken sky measure 6.x-7.1; at 8.0 two stayed undetected. Free on the FP side (16 at 6/7/8 alike).
-SEALED_FLANK_MIN_DE = 6.0
-GRID_SEAL_MIN = 0.85
-# Above UNUSED_LINE_PENALTY, or a candidate that swallowed a half-width sky belt outscores the true lattice.
-UNSEALED_PENALTY = 700.0
-# Real comb blocks are 2-12px; chrome bands 19-83.
-COMB_MAX_THICK = MAX_THICKNESS
-OFF_LATTICE_CLEAN_STD = 2.6
-
-
-@dataclass
-class PotentialGridLine:
-    orientation: str
-    angle: float
-    thickness: float
-    start: Tuple[float, float]
-    end: Tuple[float, float]
-    color_lab: np.ndarray
-    color_std: float
-    midline_pos: float
-    support: int
-
-
-def _de(a, b):
-    d = a - b
-    return float(np.sqrt(np.dot(d, d)))
+"""A board's grid of tiles, and the state of each tile.
 
+`find_grid` asks the element detector (`pointer.detector`) for the board's grid
+and the cells inside it, and returns the cells in reading order when they make
+a whole lattice. The detector was trained on every vendor's boards, grids and
+not-grids alike, so a board of cards, a sprite sheet or a keyframe of moving
+tiles is simply not a `grid` to it.
 
-def _de2(a, b):
-    d0 = a[0] - b[0]; d1 = a[1] - b[1]; d2 = a[2] - b[2]
-    return d0 * d0 + d1 * d1 + d2 * d2
-
-
-def _line_extent(line):
-    if line.orientation == 'h':
-        return abs(line.end[0] - line.start[0])
-    return abs(line.end[1] - line.start[1])
-
-
-def _cell_divergences(lab, boxes, gutter_color):
-    h, w = lab.shape[:2]
-    out = []
-    for (x1, y1, x2, y2) in boxes:
-        bw, bh = x2 - x1, y2 - y1
-        ix1 = int(x1 + CELL_INSET * bw); ix2 = int(x2 - CELL_INSET * bw)
-        iy1 = int(y1 + CELL_INSET * bh); iy2 = int(y2 - CELL_INSET * bh)
-        ix1 = max(0, min(w - 1, ix1)); ix2 = max(ix1 + 1, min(w, ix2))
-        iy1 = max(0, min(h - 1, iy1)); iy2 = max(iy1 + 1, min(h, iy2))
-        patch = lab[iy1:iy2, ix1:ix2].reshape(-1, 3)
-        if patch.shape[0] == 0:
-            out.append(0.0); continue
-        mean = patch.mean(axis=0)
-        out.append(_de(mean, gutter_color))
-    return out
-
-
-def _cells_have_content(lab, boxes, rows, cols, gutter_lines, sealed=False):
-    """The false-positive killer. Not every row must have content: a reCAPTCHA 4x4's top row can reach into the header."""
-    if lab is None:
-        return True
-    gutter_color = np.mean([l.color_lab for l in gutter_lines], axis=0)
-    divs = _cell_divergences(lab, boxes, gutter_color)
-    if not divs or len(divs) != rows * cols:
-        return False
-    gutter_std = float(np.mean([l.color_std for l in gutter_lines]))
-    frac = CELL_DIVERGE_FRAC_CLEAN if gutter_std < CLEAN_GUTTER_STD else CELL_DIVERGE_FRAC
-    tol = SEALED_DIVERGE_TOL if sealed else CELL_DIVERGE_TOL
-    return sum(1 for d in divs if d > tol) >= frac * len(divs)
-
+The rest reads pixels inside cells the grid has already given: a vendor's
+"selected" mark, a tile still loading, an empty slot, a tile fading in.
+"""
 
-# OKLab scaled onto CIELAB units so every tuned constant keeps its meaning.
-_OK_L_SCALE = 100.0
-_OK_AB_SCALE = 300.0
-
-_OK_M1 = np.array([[0.4122214708, 0.5363325363, 0.0514459929],
-                   [0.2119034982, 0.6806995451, 0.1073969566],
-                   [0.0883024619, 0.2817188376, 0.6299787005]], dtype=np.float32)
-_OK_M2 = np.array([[0.2104542553, 0.7936177850, -0.0040720468],
-                   [1.9779984951, -2.4285922050, 0.4505937099],
-                   [0.0259040371, 0.7827717662, -0.8086757660]], dtype=np.float32)
-
-_SRGB_TO_LINEAR = np.where(
-    np.arange(256, dtype=np.float32) / 255.0 <= 0.04045,
-    (np.arange(256, dtype=np.float32) / 255.0) / 12.92,
-    (((np.arange(256, dtype=np.float32) / 255.0) + 0.055) / 1.055) ** 2.4,
-).astype(np.float32)
+from __future__ import annotations
 
+import tempfile
+from typing import List, Optional, Sequence, Tuple
 
-def _to_lab(img_bgr):
-    """OKLab: CIE76 over-weights a/b, which is why the walk gates on L alone. ~2-3ms against find_grid's ~53ms; a GPU was rejected."""
-    rgb_lin = _SRGB_TO_LINEAR[img_bgr[:, :, ::-1]]
-    lms = rgb_lin @ _OK_M1.T
-    np.cbrt(lms, out=lms)
-    ok = lms @ _OK_M2.T
-    ok[:, :, 0] *= _OK_L_SCALE
-    ok[:, :, 1] *= _OK_AB_SCALE
-    ok[:, :, 2] *= _OK_AB_SCALE
-    return ok
+import numpy as np
+from PIL import Image
+from scipy import ndimage
 
+from ..kinds import LabelPosition
+from ..overlay import add_overlays_to_image
 
-def _runlength(same, axis):
-    s = same.astype(np.int32)
-    out = np.zeros_like(s)
-    if axis == 1:
-        out[:, 0] = s[:, 0]
-        for j in range(1, s.shape[1]):
-            out[:, j] = (out[:, j - 1] + 1) * s[:, j]
-    else:
-        out[0, :] = s[0, :]
-        for i in range(1, s.shape[0]):
-            out[i, :] = (out[i - 1, :] + 1) * s[i, :]
+Box = Tuple[int, int, int, int]
+
+#: Below these the detector is guessing: measured on real captures, every true
+#: grid and its cells score above them and no not-grid board's grid does.
+GRID_MIN_SCORE = 0.5
+CELL_MIN_SCORE = 0.5
+#: A row starts where a cell's top sits more than this share of a cell below the row's.
+ROW_BREAK = 0.5
+#: A tile is a cell whatever else it looks like: a flat-coloured tile (a blank one
+#: mid-fade, a plain colour) reads as a jigsaw piece (`draggable`) or an `item`.
+#: Inside the grid, one the size of the cells (within this share) that no cell box
+#: already covers fills its slot.
+TILE_CLASSES = ("draggable", "item")
+TILE_SIZE_TOL = 0.25
+#: A lattice the detector saw most of: when its cells do not form whole rows (a
+#: gutter it missed merges two tiles, a faint one splits none), a grid box whose
+#: slots are this share filled, every row and column with at least one, is the
+#: lattice. Two real reCAPTCHA 4x4 photo boards came back with 14 and 17 cells.
+LATTICE_MIN_FILLED = 0.75
+
+
+def _iou(a: Sequence[float], b: Sequence[float]) -> float:
+    ix = max(0.0, min(a[2], b[2]) - max(a[0], b[0]))
+    iy = max(0.0, min(a[3], b[3]) - max(a[1], b[1]))
+    inter = ix * iy
+    union = (a[2] - a[0]) * (a[3] - a[1]) + (b[2] - b[0]) * (b[3] - b[1]) - inter
+    return inter / union if union > 0 else 0.0
+
+
+def _with_tiles(cells: List[List[float]], tiles: List[List[float]]) -> List[List[float]]:
+    """`cells` plus every tile the size of a cell that no cell (or tile already taken) overlaps."""
+    if not cells:
+        return cells
+    w = float(np.median([c[2] - c[0] for c in cells]))
+    h = float(np.median([c[3] - c[1] for c in cells]))
+    out = list(cells)
+    for t in tiles:
+        if abs((t[2] - t[0]) - w) <= TILE_SIZE_TOL * w and abs((t[3] - t[1]) - h) <= TILE_SIZE_TOL * h \
+                and all(_iou(t, c) < 0.3 for c in out):
+            out.append(t)
     return out
 
 
-def _build_ridge_map(lab, axis):
-    h, w = lab.shape[:2]
-    if axis == 1:
-        diff = lab[:, 1:, :] - lab[:, :-1, :]
-        de = np.sqrt(np.sum(diff * diff, axis=2))
-        same = np.concatenate([np.zeros((h, 1), bool), de < COLOR_TOL], axis=1)
-        run = _runlength(same, 1)
-        end_ok = run >= (MIN_RUN - 1)
-        ridge = end_ok.copy()
-        for j in range(w - 2, -1, -1):
-            ridge[:, j] |= ridge[:, j + 1] & same[:, j + 1]
-    else:
-        diff = lab[1:, :, :] - lab[:-1, :, :]
-        de = np.sqrt(np.sum(diff * diff, axis=2))
-        same = np.concatenate([np.zeros((1, w), bool), de < COLOR_TOL], axis=0)
-        run = _runlength(same, 0)
-        end_ok = run >= (MIN_RUN - 1)
-        ridge = end_ok.copy()
-        for i in range(h - 2, -1, -1):
-            ridge[i, :] |= ridge[i + 1, :] & same[i + 1, :]
-    return ridge
-
-
-
-
-def _seed_thickness(lab, axis, cx, cy, ref):
-    h, w = lab.shape[:2]
-    ix, iy = int(round(cx)), int(round(cy))
-    if not (0 <= iy < h and 0 <= ix < w):
-        return 1.0
-    up = dn = 0
-    if axis == 1:
-        i = iy - 1
-        while i >= 0 and up < PERP_SCAN and _de2(lab[i, ix], ref) <= COLOR_TOL ** 2:
-            up += 1; i -= 1
-        i = iy + 1
-        while i < h and dn < PERP_SCAN and _de2(lab[i, ix], ref) <= COLOR_TOL ** 2:
-            dn += 1; i += 1
-    else:
-        i = ix - 1
-        while i >= 0 and up < PERP_SCAN and _de2(lab[iy, i], ref) <= COLOR_TOL ** 2:
-            up += 1; i -= 1
-        i = ix + 1
-        while i < w and dn < PERP_SCAN and _de2(lab[iy, i], ref) <= COLOR_TOL ** 2:
-            dn += 1; i += 1
-    return float(up + dn + 1)
-
-
-def _split_runs(sorted_idx):
-    sorted_idx = np.asarray(sorted_idx)
-    if sorted_idx.size == 0:
-        return []
-    breaks = np.where(np.diff(sorted_idx) > 1)[0] + 1
-    return np.split(sorted_idx, breaks)
-
-
-def _batch_gather(lab, axis, along_i, perp_i):
-    if axis == 1:
-        return lab[perp_i, along_i]
-    return lab[along_i, perp_i]
-
-
-def image_noise(lab):
-    """p90 lightness step between adjacent BRIGHT pixels: ~0 for a compositor-painted gutter, higher after JPEG or rescaling."""
-    L = lab[:, :, 0]
-    bright = L > 85
-    dh = np.abs(np.diff(L, axis=1)); mh = bright[:, :-1] & bright[:, 1:]
-    dv = np.abs(np.diff(L, axis=0)); mv = bright[:-1, :] & bright[1:, :]
-    vals = np.concatenate([dh[mh], dv[mv]])
-    if vals.size < 100:
-        return 0.0
-    return float(np.percentile(vals, 90))
-
-
-def walk_tolerances(noise):
-    """Scaled, not raised: a flat SEED_L/STEP_L of 10/8 drops a pristine sample and 14/12 drops four."""
-    return (SEED_L_TOL + NOISE_GAIN * noise,
-            STEP_L_TOL + NOISE_GAIN * noise,
-            (CONT_TOL + NOISE_GAIN * noise) ** 2)
+def _cells_in(grid: Sequence[float], cells: List[List[float]]) -> List[List[float]]:
+    x0, y0, x1, y1 = grid
+    return [c for c in cells if x0 <= (c[0] + c[2]) / 2 <= x1 and y0 <= (c[1] + c[3]) / 2 <= y1]
 
 
-def _batch_accept(pix, seed_L, prev_L, line_color, tols):
-    seed_tol, step_tol, cont_tol2 = tols
-    L = pix[:, 0]
-    d0 = pix[:, 0] - line_color[:, 0]
-    d1 = pix[:, 1] - line_color[:, 1]
-    d2 = pix[:, 2] - line_color[:, 2]
-    de2 = d0 * d0 + d1 * d1 + d2 * d2
-    return ((np.abs(L - seed_L) <= seed_tol)
-            & (np.abs(L - prev_L) <= step_tol)
-            & (de2 <= cont_tol2))
-
-
-def _walk_dir(lab, axis, along_seed, perp_seed, seed_ref, direction, tols):
-    h, w = lab.shape[:2]
-    N = along_seed.shape[0]
-    along_max = (w - 1) if axis == 1 else (h - 1)
-    perp_max = (h - 1) if axis == 1 else (w - 1)
-    seed_L = seed_ref[:, 0]
-
-    perp = perp_seed.astype(np.float64).copy()
-    along = along_seed.astype(np.float64).copy()
-    prev_L = seed_L.copy()
-    line_color = seed_ref.astype(np.float64).copy()
-    line_n = np.ones(N, dtype=np.float64)
-    last_along = along_seed.astype(np.float64).copy()
-    last_perp = perp_seed.astype(np.float64).copy()
-    support = np.zeros(N, dtype=np.int64)
-    active = np.ones(N, dtype=bool)
-
-    while active.any():
-        ai = np.where(active)[0]
-        al = along[ai] + direction * STEP
-        in_b = (al >= 0) & (al <= along_max)
-        if not in_b.all():
-            active[ai[~in_b]] = False
-            keep = in_b
-            ai = ai[keep]; al = al[keep]
-            if ai.size == 0:
-                break
-        pe = perp[ai]
-        ali = al.astype(np.intp); pei = pe.astype(np.intp)
-        pix = _batch_gather(lab, axis, ali, pei)
-        ok = _batch_accept(pix, seed_L[ai], prev_L[ai], line_color[ai], tols)
-
-        new_perp = pe.copy()
-        new_pix = pix.copy()
-        accepted = ok.copy()
-
-        if not ok.all():
-            still = ~ok
-            for d in range(1, PERP_REFIND + 1):
-                for s in (-1, +1):
-                    sid = np.where(still)[0]
-                    if sid.size == 0:
-                        break
-                    cand_pe = pe[sid] + s * d
-                    inb = (cand_pe >= 0) & (cand_pe <= perp_max)
-                    sid = sid[inb]; cand_pe = cand_pe[inb]
-                    if sid.size == 0:
-                        continue
-                    cpx = _batch_gather(lab, axis, al[sid].astype(np.intp),
-                                        cand_pe.astype(np.intp))
-                    passc = _batch_accept(cpx, seed_L[ai[sid]],
-                                          prev_L[ai[sid]], line_color[ai[sid]], tols)
-                    hit = sid[passc]
-                    if hit.size:
-                        new_perp[hit] = cand_pe[passc]
-                        new_pix[hit] = cpx[passc]
-                        accepted[hit] = True
-                        still[hit] = False
-                if not still.any():
-                    break
-
-        adv = np.where(accepted)[0]
-        if adv.size:
-            gid = ai[adv]
-            ln = line_n[gid]
-            line_color[gid] = (line_color[gid] * ln[:, None] + new_pix[adv]) / (ln[:, None] + 1)
-            line_n[gid] = ln + 1
-            prev_L[gid] = new_pix[adv, 0]
-            perp[gid] = new_perp[adv]
-            along[gid] = al[adv]
-            last_perp[gid] = new_perp[adv]
-            last_along[gid] = al[adv]
-            support[gid] += 1
-        active[ai[~accepted]] = False
-
-    return last_along, last_perp, support
-
-
-def _walk_batch(lab, axis, along_seed, perp_seed, seed_ref, tols):
-    fa, fp, ns_f = _walk_dir(lab, axis, along_seed, perp_seed, seed_ref, +1, tols)
-    ba, bp, ns_b = _walk_dir(lab, axis, along_seed, perp_seed, seed_ref, -1, tols)
-    a_hi = np.maximum(along_seed.astype(np.float64), fa)
-    a_lo = np.minimum(along_seed.astype(np.float64), ba)
-    return a_lo, a_hi, bp, fp, ns_f + ns_b
-
-
-
-
-def _principal_dir_2d(centered):
-    cxx = float(np.dot(centered[:, 0], centered[:, 0]))
-    cyy = float(np.dot(centered[:, 1], centered[:, 1]))
-    cxy = float(np.dot(centered[:, 0], centered[:, 1]))
-    tr = cxx + cyy
-    det = cxx * cyy - cxy * cxy
-    disc = max(0.0, (tr * tr) / 4.0 - det)
-    lam = tr / 2.0 + np.sqrt(disc)
-    if abs(cxy) > 1e-9:
-        v = np.array([lam - cyy, cxy], dtype=np.float64)
-    elif cxx >= cyy:
-        v = np.array([1.0, 0.0])
-    else:
-        v = np.array([0.0, 1.0])
-    n = np.hypot(*v)
-    return v / n if n > 1e-9 else np.array([1.0, 0.0])
-
-
-def _collect_seeds(lab, axis, ridge, c_lo, c_hi, span):
-    h, w = lab.shape[:2]
-    lo, hi = int(span * (0.5 - MAX_SEED_FRAC)), int(span * (0.5 + MAX_SEED_FRAC))
-    scan_w = c_hi - c_lo
-    along_s, perp_s = [], []
-    for c in range(lo, hi + 1, SEED_DECIMATE):
-        if axis == 1:
-            runs = _split_runs(np.where(ridge[c, c_lo:c_hi])[0] + c_lo)
-        else:
-            runs = _split_runs(np.where(ridge[c_lo:c_hi, c])[0] + c_lo)
-        for run in runs:
-            if len(run) < MIN_RUN or len(run) < SEED_RUN_FRAC * scan_w:
-                continue
-            chosen = None
-            mid = len(run) // 2
-            for idx in [mid, int(len(run) * 0.25), int(len(run) * 0.75)]:
-                if 0 <= idx < len(run):
-                    a = float(run[idx])
-                    if axis == 1:
-                        sx, sy = a, float(c)
-                    else:
-                        sx, sy = float(c), a
-                    if 0 <= int(sy + 0.5) < h and 0 <= int(sx + 0.5) < w:
-                        chosen = a; break
-            if chosen is None:
-                continue
-            along_s.append(chosen)
-            perp_s.append(float(c))
-    if not along_s:
-        return (np.empty(0), np.empty(0), np.empty((0, 3)))
-    along_seed = np.array(along_s, dtype=np.float64)
-    perp_seed = np.array(perp_s, dtype=np.float64)
-    if axis == 1:
-        seed_ref = lab[perp_seed.astype(np.intp), along_seed.astype(np.intp)].astype(np.float64)
-    else:
-        seed_ref = lab[along_seed.astype(np.intp), perp_seed.astype(np.intp)].astype(np.float64)
-    return along_seed, perp_seed, seed_ref
-
-
-def _trace_lines(lab, axis, seed_bias, tols=None):
-    h, w = lab.shape[:2]
-    if tols is None:
-        tols = walk_tolerances(image_noise(lab))
-    ridge = _build_ridge_map(lab, axis)
-    if axis == 1:
-        span = h; c_lo, c_hi = int(w * 0.2), int(w * 0.8)
-    else:
-        span = w; c_lo, c_hi = int(h * 0.2), int(h * 0.8)
-    along_seed, perp_seed, seed_ref = _collect_seeds(lab, axis, ridge, c_lo, c_hi, span)
-    if along_seed.size == 0:
-        return []
-    a_lo, a_hi, perp_lo, perp_hi, support = _walk_batch(lab, axis, along_seed, perp_seed, seed_ref, tols)
-
-    full = w if axis == 1 else h
-    lines = []
-    for i in range(along_seed.size):
-        if support[i] < MIN_RUN:
-            continue
-        span_i = a_hi[i] - a_lo[i]
-        if span_i < SUPPORT_FRAC * full:
-            continue
-        if axis == 1:
-            pts = np.array([(along_seed[i], perp_seed[i]),
-                            (a_lo[i], perp_lo[i]), (a_hi[i], perp_hi[i])], dtype=np.float64)
-        else:
-            pts = np.array([(perp_seed[i], along_seed[i]),
-                            (perp_lo[i], a_lo[i]), (perp_hi[i], a_hi[i])], dtype=np.float64)
-        mean = pts.mean(axis=0)
-        dv = _principal_dir_2d(pts - mean)
-        if axis == 1:
-            ang = np.arctan2(dv[1], dv[0])
-            if abs(ang) > np.pi / 2:
-                ang -= np.copysign(np.pi, ang)
-            slant = np.tan(ang)
-            midline = mean[1] + slant * (w / 2.0 - mean[0])
-        else:
-            ang = np.arctan2(dv[0], dv[1])
-            if abs(ang) > np.pi / 2:
-                ang -= np.copysign(np.pi, ang)
-            slant = np.tan(ang)
-            midline = mean[0] + slant * (h / 2.0 - mean[1])
-        if abs(slant) > SLANT_CAP:
-            continue
-        a0 = a_lo[i]; a1 = a_hi[i]
-        aa = np.arange(a0, a1 + 1, 3.0)
-        if axis == 1:
-            xs = aa; ys = midline + slant * (xs - w / 2.0)
-        else:
-            ys = aa; xs = midline + slant * (ys - h / 2.0)
-        jx = np.round(xs).astype(np.intp); jy = np.round(ys).astype(np.intp)
-        inb = (jy >= 0) & (jy < h) & (jx >= 0) & (jx < w)
-        if not inb.any():
-            continue
-        cols = lab[jy[inb], jx[inb]].astype(np.float64)
-        color_std = float(np.mean(np.std(cols, axis=0)))
-        if color_std > LINE_STD_TOL:
-            continue
-        if axis == 1:
-            start = (a0, midline + slant * (a0 - w / 2.0))
-            end = (a1, midline + slant * (a1 - w / 2.0))
+def _rows(cells: List[List[float]]) -> List[List[List[float]]]:
+    """Cells grouped into rows, top to bottom, each row left to right."""
+    h = float(np.median([c[3] - c[1] for c in cells]))
+    rows: List[List[List[float]]] = []
+    for c in sorted(cells, key=lambda c: c[1]):
+        if rows and c[1] - rows[-1][0][1] <= ROW_BREAK * h:
+            rows[-1].append(c)
         else:
-            start = (midline + slant * (a0 - h / 2.0), a0)
-            end = (midline + slant * (a1 - h / 2.0), a1)
-        lines.append(PotentialGridLine(
-            orientation='h' if axis == 1 else 'v',
-            angle=float(ang), thickness=0.0,
-            start=start, end=end,
-            color_lab=cols.mean(axis=0), color_std=color_std,
-            midline_pos=float(midline), support=int(support[i]),
-        ))
-    return _merge_lines(lines)
-
-
-def _merge_lines(lines):
-    """Cluster by position only: angle-gating left noisy fragments of one gutter as separate near-duplicates."""
-    if not lines:
-        return []
-    lines = sorted(lines, key=lambda l: l.midline_pos)
-    merged = []
-    cur = [lines[0]]
-    for ln in lines[1:]:
-        if abs(ln.midline_pos - cur[-1].midline_pos) < MERGE_PX:
-            cur.append(ln)
-        else:
-            merged.append(_pick(cur)); cur = [ln]
-    merged.append(_pick(cur))
-    return merged
-
-
-def _pick(group):
-    """Position is the support-weighted mean; colour comes from the cleanest member of comparable support.
-
-    The longest trace is often seeded at the gutter's edge and runs along tile content (ice_cream4: 11px off,
-    std 2.80 vs 0.55-0.80 on-centre, 2026-08-11); nearest-to-centre swapped a 0.00 trace for a 3.43 one on rhitt.
-    """
-    best = max(group, key=lambda l: l.support)
-    wsum = sum(l.support for l in group)
-    centre = sum(l.midline_pos * l.support for l in group) / wsum
-    strong = [l for l in group if l.support >= 0.5 * best.support] or group
-    cleanest = min(strong, key=lambda l: (l.color_std, abs(l.midline_pos - centre)))
-    best.midline_pos = centre
-    best.support = max(l.support for l in group)
-    best.color_lab = cleanest.color_lab
-    best.color_std = cleanest.color_std
-    return best
-
-
-def _comb_lines(lab, axis, color):
-    """Second cue: full-span lines every pixel of which is the gutter colour the tracer already proved is painted.
-
-    The local walk loses a gutter whose neighbours are nearly its colour (rrv7m: gutters at 103/200/297 came
-    back as 66/96/215). Axis-aligned by construction, so tilted grids stay the tracer's.
-    """
-    h, w = lab.shape[:2]
-    d = lab - color
-    m = (d * d).sum(axis=2) < COMB_TOL * COMB_TOL
-    if axis == 1:
-        lo, hi = int(w * (0.5 - MAX_SEED_FRAC)), int(w * (0.5 + MAX_SEED_FRAC))
-        cov = m[:, lo:hi].mean(axis=1)
-    else:
-        lo, hi = int(h * (0.5 - MAX_SEED_FRAC)), int(h * (0.5 + MAX_SEED_FRAC))
-        cov = m[lo:hi, :].mean(axis=0)
-    mid = (lo + hi) // 2
-    total = h if axis == 1 else w
-    out = []
-    for blk in _split_runs(np.where(cov >= COMB_COVER)[0]):
-        if len(blk) > COMB_MAX_THICK:
-            continue
-        pos = float(blk.mean())
-        # The page margin is the gutter colour too; left in, it corroborates every line on the other axis and a 3x3 reads as 4x3.
-        if not (total * EDGE_MARGIN < pos < total * (1 - EDGE_MARGIN)):
-            continue
-        i = int(round(pos))
-        along = m[i] if axis == 1 else m[:, i]
-        idx = np.where(along)[0]
-        grp = (np.split(idx, np.where(np.diff(idx) > COMB_GAP)[0] + 1)
-               if idx.size else [])
-        run = next((r for r in grp if r[0] <= mid <= r[-1]), None)
-        if run is None or len(run) < MIN_RUN:
-            continue
-        a, b = float(run[0]), float(run[-1])
-        cols = (lab[i, run] if axis == 1 else lab[run, i]).astype(np.float64)
-        out.append(PotentialGridLine(
-            orientation='h' if axis == 1 else 'v', angle=0.0,
-            thickness=float(len(blk)),
-            start=(a, pos) if axis == 1 else (pos, a),
-            end=(b, pos) if axis == 1 else (pos, b),
-            color_lab=cols.mean(axis=0),
-            color_std=float(np.mean(np.std(cols, axis=0))),
-            midline_pos=pos, support=int(len(run))))
-    return out
-
-
-def _comb_axis(lines, comb):
-    """The comb wins on position only; extent comes from the longer trace (a comb extent stops at the first off-colour stretch)."""
-    out, used = [], set()
-    for c in comb:
-        near = [l for l in lines if abs(l.midline_pos - c.midline_pos) < MERGE_PX]
-        best = max(near, key=_line_extent, default=None)
-        if best is not None and _line_extent(best) > _line_extent(c):
-            best.midline_pos = c.midline_pos
-            c = best
-        used.update(id(l) for l in near)
-        out.append(c)
-    return sorted(out + [l for l in lines if id(l) not in used],
-                  key=lambda l: l.midline_pos)
-
-
-def _add_comb_lines(lab, h_lines, v_lines):
-    """Colour is the median of the clean traces of BOTH axes, so a starved axis is rescued by the other's evidence."""
-    clean = [l for l in h_lines + v_lines if l.color_std < CLEAN_LATTICE_STD]
-    if not clean:
-        return h_lines, v_lines
-    color = np.median(np.array([l.color_lab for l in clean]), axis=0)
-    return (_comb_axis(h_lines, _comb_lines(lab, 1, color)),
-            _comb_axis(v_lines, _comb_lines(lab, 0, color)))
-
-
-def _generate_grid(rows, cols, hs, vs, hd, vd, h, w, slant):
-    mid_x, mid_y = w / 2, h / 2
-    y_bounds = [hs[0] - hd] + list(hs) + [hs[-1] + hd]
-    x_bounds = [vs[0] - vd] + list(vs) + [vs[-1] + vd]
-    grid_boxes = []
-    s2 = slant * slant
-    denom = 1 + s2
-    for i in range(len(y_bounds) - 1):
-        for j in range(len(x_bounds) - 1):
-            corners = []
-            for y_i in [y_bounds[i], y_bounds[i + 1]]:
-                for x_j in [x_bounds[j], x_bounds[j + 1]]:
-                    cy = (y_i + slant * (x_j - mid_x) + s2 * mid_y) / denom
-                    cx = x_j - slant * (cy - mid_y)
-                    corners.append((cx, cy))
-            pts = np.array(corners, dtype=np.float32)
-            x1, y1 = np.min(pts, axis=0)
-            x2, y2 = np.max(pts, axis=0)
-            x1_c, y1_c = int(max(0, min(w, x1))), int(max(0, min(h, y1)))
-            x2_c, y2_c = int(max(0, min(w, x2))), int(max(0, min(h, y2)))
-            if x2_c > x1_c and y2_c > y1_c:
-                grid_boxes.append((x1_c, y1_c, x2_c, y2_c))
-    return grid_boxes if len(grid_boxes) == rows * cols else None
-
-
-def _internal(lines, total):
-    return [l for l in lines
-            if total * EDGE_MARGIN < l.midline_pos < total * (1 - EDGE_MARGIN)]
-
-
-def _boxes_are_regular(boxes, rows, cols):
-    """The last word on geometry: an observed false positive had column pitches [1, 1, 151, 1, 1, 151, 1, 1].
-
-    Edges come from ONE row / ONE column: the union of every box's edge invents a 1px phantom separator from
-    inter-row rounding on any slant, which rejected 101 real hCaptcha grids.
-    """
-    if not boxes or rows < 1 or cols < 1:
-        return False
-
-    if len(boxes) < rows * cols:
-        return False
-    col_edges = [boxes[c][0] for c in range(cols)]
-    row_edges = [boxes[r * cols][1] for r in range(rows)]
-    for edges in (col_edges, row_edges):
-        if len(edges) < 2:
+            rows.append([c])
+    return [sorted(r, key=lambda c: c[0]) for r in rows]
+
+
+def _lattice(grid: Sequence[float], cells: List[List[float]]) -> Optional[List[List[float]]]:
+    """The rows x columns lattice `cells` mostly fill inside `grid`, each slot at its
+    column's and row's median edges; None when they do not fill one."""
+    w = float(np.median([c[2] - c[0] for c in cells]))
+    h = float(np.median([c[3] - c[1] for c in cells]))
+    gx0, gy0, gx1, gy1 = grid
+    centres = [((c[0] + c[2]) / 2, (c[1] + c[3]) / 2) for c in cells]
+
+    def pitch(axis: int, size: float, other: float) -> Optional[float]:
+        """Median step to the next cell along `axis`, so gutters of any width count."""
+        steps = [min((q[axis] - p[axis] for q in centres
+                      if q[axis] - p[axis] > 0.5 * size and abs(q[1 - axis] - p[1 - axis]) < 0.5 * other),
+                     default=None) for p in centres]
+        steps = [d for d in steps if d is not None]
+        return float(np.median(steps)) if steps else None
+    px, py = pitch(0, w, h), pitch(1, h, w)
+    if px is None or py is None:
+        return None
+    cols, rows = int(round((gx1 - gx0 - w) / px)) + 1, int(round((gy1 - gy0 - h) / py)) + 1
+    if cols < 2 or rows < 2:
+        return None
+    # Slot k along an axis is centred at the grid edge + half a cell + k pitches.
+    sx, sy = gx0 + ((gx1 - gx0) - (cols - 1) * px - w) / 2, gy0 + ((gy1 - gy0) - (rows - 1) * py - h) / 2
+    slot = {}
+    for c in cells:
+        cw, ch = c[2] - c[0], c[3] - c[1]
+        if abs(cw - w) > TILE_SIZE_TOL * w or abs(ch - h) > TILE_SIZE_TOL * h:
+            continue                     # two tiles read as one, or a piece of one
+        k = (int(round(((c[1] + c[3]) / 2 - sy - h / 2) / py)), int(round(((c[0] + c[2]) / 2 - sx - w / 2) / px)))
+        if not (0 <= k[0] < rows and 0 <= k[1] < cols):
             continue
-        pitches = np.diff(np.array(sorted(edges), dtype=np.float64))
-        if np.any(pitches < MIN_CELL):
-            return False
-        mp = float(np.median(pitches))
-        if np.any(np.abs(pitches - mp) > CELL_REGULARITY_TOL * mp):
-            return False
-
-    widths = np.array([b[2] - b[0] for b in boxes], dtype=np.float64)
-    heights = np.array([b[3] - b[1] for b in boxes], dtype=np.float64)
-    if widths.size == 0 or heights.size == 0:
-        return False
-    mw, mh = float(np.median(widths)), float(np.median(heights))
-    if mw < MIN_CELL or mh < MIN_CELL:
-        return False
-    if np.any(np.abs(widths - mw) > CELL_REGULARITY_TOL * mw):
-        return False
-    if np.any(np.abs(heights - mh) > CELL_REGULARITY_TOL * mh):
-        return False
-    return True
-
-
-def _even_spacing_ok(positions, total):
-    p = sorted(positions)
-    gaps = [p[i + 1] - p[i] for i in range(len(p) - 1)]
-    pitch = float(np.median(gaps))
-    if pitch < MIN_CELL:
-        return False, pitch
-    for g in gaps:
-        if abs(g - pitch) > EVEN_TOL * pitch:
-            return False, pitch
-    if (p[0] - pitch) < -GRID_OVERSHOOT * pitch:
-        return False, pitch
-    if (p[-1] + pitch) > total + GRID_OVERSHOOT * pitch:
-        return False, pitch
-    return True, pitch
-
-
-def _flank_contrast(lab, line, pitch):
-    """Median over the line of the mean of both flanks' distance to the line colour: does this separator separate anything?"""
-    h, w = lab.shape[:2]
-    (x0, y0), (x1, y1) = line.start, line.end
-    if line.orientation == 'h':
-        xs = np.arange(min(x0, x1), max(x0, x1) + 1, 3.0)
-        ys = line.midline_pos + np.tan(line.angle) * (xs - w / 2.0)
-    else:
-        ys = np.arange(min(y0, y1), max(y0, y1) + 1, 3.0)
-        xs = line.midline_pos + np.tan(line.angle) * (ys - h / 2.0)
-    jx = np.round(xs).astype(np.intp); jy = np.round(ys).astype(np.intp)
-    ok = (jx >= 0) & (jx < w) & (jy >= 0) & (jy < h)
-    if ok.sum() < 3:
-        return 0.0
-    jx, jy = jx[ok], jy[ok]
-    d_lo = d_hi = None
-    for fr in FLANK_PITCH_FRACS:
-        fo = max(3, int(round(fr * pitch)))
-        if line.orientation == 'h':
-            a = lab[np.clip(jy - fo, 0, h - 1), jx]; b = lab[np.clip(jy + fo, 0, h - 1), jx]
-        else:
-            a = lab[jy, np.clip(jx - fo, 0, w - 1)]; b = lab[jy, np.clip(jx + fo, 0, w - 1)]
-        da = np.sqrt(np.sum((a.astype(np.float64) - line.color_lab) ** 2, axis=1))
-        db = np.sqrt(np.sum((b.astype(np.float64) - line.color_lab) ** 2, axis=1))
-        d_lo = da if d_lo is None else np.maximum(d_lo, da)
-        d_hi = db if d_hi is None else np.maximum(d_hi, db)
-    return float(np.median((d_lo + d_hi) / 2.0))
-
-
-def _seal_fraction(lab, color, orientation, pos, angle, lo, hi):
-    """Share of the CANDIDATE's extent along which the line is the gutter colour: the same line seals a 3x3 and fails a 4x4."""
-    h, w = lab.shape[:2]
-    a = np.arange(max(0.0, lo), min(float(w if orientation == 'h' else h), hi), 2.0)
-    if a.size < 3:
-        return 0.0
-    t = np.tan(angle)
-    if orientation == 'h':
-        xs, ys = a, pos + t * (a - w / 2.0)
-    else:
-        ys, xs = a, pos + t * (a - h / 2.0)
-    jx = np.round(xs).astype(np.intp); jy = np.round(ys).astype(np.intp)
-    ok = (jx >= 0) & (jx < w) & (jy >= 0) & (jy < h)
-    if ok.sum() < 3:
-        return 0.0
-    d = lab[jy[ok], jx[ok]].astype(np.float64) - color
-    return float(((d * d).sum(axis=1) < COMB_TOL * COMB_TOL).mean())
-
-
-def _line_span_perp(line):
-    if line.orientation == 'h':
-        return (min(line.start[0], line.end[0]), max(line.start[0], line.end[0]))
-    return (min(line.start[1], line.end[1]), max(line.start[1], line.end[1]))
-
-
-def _corroborate(lines, perp_lines, total):
-    lines = sorted(_internal(lines, total), key=lambda l: l.midline_pos)
-    perp = sorted(perp_lines, key=lambda l: l.midline_pos)
-    if len(lines) < 2:
-        return lines
-    pos = [l.midline_pos for l in lines]
-    gaps = np.diff(pos)
-    # Pitch over gaps that could be a cell: comb-reported footer bands took the median from 87 to 55.8 and detection
-    # 20/20 -> 5/20. The guard below still reads the RAW median: filtering first skipped the perpendicular rescue
-    # and cost a 4x4 its fourth row (ttvu9: raw 34.5, filtered 80.9, perpendicular 97.0).
-    raw_cell = float(np.median(gaps)) if len(gaps) else 0.0
-    cell_gaps = [g for g in gaps if g >= MIN_CELL]
-    cell = float(np.median(cell_gaps)) if cell_gaps else 0.0
-    if raw_cell < MIN_CELL:
-        pgaps = np.diff([l.midline_pos for l in perp])
-        cell = float(np.median(pgaps)) if len(pgaps) else 0.0
-        if cell < MIN_CELL:
-            return lines
-    need = CORROB_FRAC * cell
-    kept = []
-    for l in lines:
-        p = l.midline_pos
-        n_ok = 0
-        for q in perp:
-            lo, hi = _line_span_perp(q)
-            if (p - lo) >= need and (hi - p) >= need:
-                n_ok += 1
-        if n_ok >= 2:
-            kept.append(l)
-    return kept if len(kept) >= 2 else lines
-
+        slot.setdefault(k, c)
+    if len(slot) < LATTICE_MIN_FILLED * rows * cols \
+            or {r for r, _ in slot} != set(range(rows)) or {c for _, c in slot} != set(range(cols)):
+        return None
+    xs = [(float(np.median([c[0] for (_, j), c in slot.items() if j == col])),
+           float(np.median([c[2] for (_, j), c in slot.items() if j == col]))) for col in range(cols)]
+    ys = [(float(np.median([c[1] for (i, _), c in slot.items() if i == row])),
+           float(np.median([c[3] for (i, _), c in slot.items() if i == row]))) for row in range(rows)]
+    return [[xs[j][0], ys[i][0], xs[j][1], ys[i][1]] for i in range(rows) for j in range(cols)]
 
-def _complete_one_run(positions, grp, pitch, total):
-    real = sorted(positions)
-    sub_pitches = [pitch]
-    for k in (2, 3):
-        sp = pitch / k
-        if sp >= MIN_CELL:
-            sub_pitches.append(sp)
-    bases = []
-    seen_runs = set()
-    for tp in sub_pitches:
-        filled = [real[0]]
-        interior_virtual = 0
-        ok = True
-        for a, b in zip(real, real[1:]):
-            m = int(round((b - a) / tp))
-            if m < 1 or abs((b - a) - m * tp) > EVEN_TOL * tp:
-                ok = False
-                break
-            for j in range(1, m):
-                filled.append(a + j * (b - a) / m)
-                interior_virtual += 1
-            filled.append(b)
-        if not ok:
-            continue
-        kf = tuple(round(x) for x in filled)
-        if kf in seen_runs:
-            continue
-        seen_runs.add(kf)
-        bases.append((list(filled), interior_virtual))
-    out = []
-    for base, ivirt in bases:
-        bp = (base[-1] - base[0]) / (len(base) - 1) if len(base) > 1 else pitch
-        for lo_add in (0, 1):
-            for hi_add in (0, 1):
-                nv = ivirt + lo_add + hi_add
-                if nv == 0 or nv > MAX_VIRTUAL_NODES:
-                    continue
-                run = list(base)
-                if lo_add:
-                    run.insert(0, run[0] - bp)
-                if hi_add:
-                    run.append(run[-1] + bp)
-                dim = len(run) + 1
-                if dim < MIN_GRID_DIM or dim > 6:
-                    continue
-                if nv > MAX_VIRTUAL_FRAC * len(run):
-                    continue
-                out.append((run, nv))
-    return out
 
+def find_grid(image_path: str) -> Optional[List[Box]]:
+    """The cells of the board's grid in reading order, as (x0, y0, x1, y1) pixels;
+    None when the board has no grid, or its cells do not form whole rows of one length."""
+    from ..pointer.detector import detect_file
 
-def _completed_candidates(lines, total, real_cand):
-    """Lattice completion for a missing sky-bordered gutter; only clean painted anchors, never arbitrary clean pairs."""
-    out = {}
-    seen = set()
-    for dim, runs in real_cand.items():
-        for positions, _score, pitch, grp in runs:
-            if any(l.color_std >= CLEAN_LATTICE_STD for l in grp):
-                continue
-            for run, n_virtual in _complete_one_run(positions, grp, pitch, total):
-                run = sorted(run)
-                cdim = len(run) + 1
-                ok, fpitch = _even_spacing_ok(run, total)
-                if not ok:
-                    continue
-                key = (cdim, tuple(round(p) for p in run))
-                if key in seen:
-                    continue
-                seen.add(key)
-                ang_pen = max(l.angle for l in grp) - min(l.angle for l in grp)
-                center_off = abs((run[0] + run[-1]) / 2 - total / 2) / total
-                scale_err = abs(fpitch - total / cdim) / total
-                score = (center_off * 1000 + scale_err * 500 + ang_pen * 200
-                         + n_virtual * VIRTUAL_NODE_PENALTY)
-                out.setdefault(cdim, []).append((run, score, fpitch, grp))
-    return out
+    dets = detect_file(image_path)
+    grids = [d for d in dets if d["class"] == "grid" and d["score"] >= GRID_MIN_SCORE]
+    if not grids:
+        return None
+    grid = max(grids, key=lambda d: d["score"])["box"]
+    cells = _cells_in(grid, [d["box"] for d in dets if d["class"] == "cell" and d["score"] >= CELL_MIN_SCORE])
+    cells = _with_tiles(cells, _cells_in(grid, [d["box"] for d in dets
+                                                if d["class"] in TILE_CLASSES and d["score"] >= CELL_MIN_SCORE]))
+    if len(cells) < 4:
+        return None
+    rows = _rows(cells)
+    if len(rows) < 2 or len({len(r) for r in rows}) != 1 or len(rows[0]) < 2:
+        lattice = _lattice(grid, cells)
+        return None if lattice is None else [tuple(int(round(v)) for v in c) for c in lattice]
+    return [tuple(int(round(v)) for v in c) for r in rows for c in r]
 
 
-def _axis_candidates(lines, total):
-    lines = sorted(_internal(lines, total), key=lambda l: l.midline_pos)
-    n = len(lines)
-    cand = {}
-    seen = set()
-    for i in range(n):
-        for j in range(i + 1, n):
-            pitch0 = lines[j].midline_pos - lines[i].midline_pos
-            if pitch0 < MIN_CELL:
-                continue
-            run_idx = [i, j]
-            pos = lines[j].midline_pos
-            jj = j
-            while True:
-                target = pos + pitch0
-                best_k = None; best_d = EVEN_TOL * pitch0
-                for k in range(jj + 1, n):
-                    d = abs(lines[k].midline_pos - target)
-                    if d < best_d:
-                        best_d = d; best_k = k
-                    if lines[k].midline_pos - target > EVEN_TOL * pitch0:
-                        break
-                if best_k is None:
-                    break
-                run_idx.append(best_k)
-                pos = lines[best_k].midline_pos
-                jj = best_k
-            # Every prefix, not just the maximal run: the last line may be a geetest/prosopo panel border.
-            for end in range(2, len(run_idx) + 1):
-                sub = run_idx[:end]
-                positions = [lines[r].midline_pos for r in sub]
-                ok, pitch = _even_spacing_ok(positions, total)
-                if not ok:
-                    continue
-                grp = [lines[r] for r in sub]
-                dim = len(sub) + 1
-                if dim < MIN_GRID_DIM:
-                    continue
-                key = (dim, tuple(round(p) for p in positions))
-                if key in seen:
-                    continue
-                seen.add(key)
-                ang_pen = max(l.angle for l in grp) - min(l.angle for l in grp)
-                center_off = abs((positions[0] + positions[-1]) / 2 - total / 2) / total
-                scale_err = abs(pitch - total / dim) / total
-                score = center_off * 1000 + scale_err * 500 + ang_pen * 200
-                cand.setdefault(dim, []).append((positions, score, pitch, grp))
-    for dim, comps in _completed_candidates(lines, total, dict(cand)).items():
-        bucket = cand.setdefault(dim, [])
-        existing = {tuple(round(p) for p in c[0]) for c in bucket}
-        for c in comps:
-            kpos = tuple(round(p) for p in c[0])
-            if kpos not in existing:
-                bucket.append(c)
-                existing.add(kpos)
-    for k in cand:
-        cand[k].sort(key=lambda x: x[1])
-    return cand
+# ── colour ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
 
+def _read_rgb(image_path: str) -> Optional[np.ndarray]:
+    try:
+        with Image.open(image_path) as im:
+            return np.asarray(im.convert("RGB"))
+    except OSError:
+        return None
 
-# How near a cell's midpoint a detected gutter must sit, as a fraction of the pitch, to say the cell is two cells.
-HALVED_CELL_TOL = 0.12
 
+def _lab8(rgb: np.ndarray) -> np.ndarray:
+    """CIELAB (D65) on the 8-bit scale the cell thresholds were measured on:
+    L x 255/100, a and b offset by 128."""
+    c = rgb.astype(np.float32) / 255.0
+    lin = np.where(c <= 0.04045, c / 12.92, ((c + 0.055) / 1.055) ** 2.4)
+    xyz = lin @ np.array([[0.412453, 0.357580, 0.180423],
+                          [0.212671, 0.715160, 0.072169],
+                          [0.019334, 0.119193, 0.950227]], np.float32).T
+    xyz /= np.array([0.950456, 1.0, 1.088754], np.float32)
+    f = np.where(xyz > 0.008856, np.cbrt(xyz), 7.787 * xyz + 16.0 / 116.0)
+    L = np.where(xyz[..., 1] > 0.008856, 116.0 * f[..., 1] - 16.0, 903.3 * xyz[..., 1])
+    a = 500.0 * (f[..., 0] - f[..., 1]) + 128.0
+    b = 200.0 * (f[..., 1] - f[..., 2]) + 128.0
+    return np.stack([L * 255.0 / 100.0, a, b], axis=-1)
 
-def _halves_a_finer_lattice(positions, pitch, kept_lines):
-    """True when a detected gutter splits EVERY cell of this axis down its middle.
 
-    Tall tiles fail the square-cell gate as themselves, but every other gutter spaces cells two tiles wide that
-    pass it, so a 6x3 board read as a 3x3 of tile pairs.
-    """
-    if not positions or pitch <= 0:
-        return False
-    lines = sorted(positions)
-    mids = ([lines[0] - pitch / 2.0] + [(a + b) / 2.0 for a, b in zip(lines, lines[1:])]
-            + [lines[-1] + pitch / 2.0])
-    tol = HALVED_CELL_TOL * pitch
-    return all(any(abs(l.midline_pos - m) <= tol for l in kept_lines) for m in mids)
+def _delta_e_mask(rgb: np.ndarray, colour: Tuple[int, int, int], thr: float) -> np.ndarray:
+    target = _lab8(np.array([[colour]], np.uint8))[0, 0]
+    return np.sqrt(np.sum((_lab8(rgb) - target) ** 2, axis=2)) <= thr
 
 
-def extract_grid_from_lines(h_lines, v_lines, h, w, lab=None):
-    """Every colour gate is RELATIVE, so a grid of any uniform border colour is detectable."""
-    h_keep = _corroborate(h_lines, v_lines, h)
-    v_keep = _corroborate(v_lines, h_lines, w)
-    h_keep_int = _internal(h_keep, h)
-    v_keep_int = _internal(v_keep, w)
-    # One painted reference colour for every seal test (the one the comb looked for), so answers cache across candidates.
-    clean = [l for l in h_lines + v_lines if l.color_std < CLEAN_LATTICE_STD]
-    seal_col = np.median(np.array([l.color_lab for l in clean]), axis=0) if clean else None
-    seal_cache = {}
+# ── shapes ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
 
-    def sealed(orientation, pos, angle, lo, hi):
-        if lab is None or seal_col is None:
-            return True
-        k = (orientation, round(pos), round(angle, 3), int(lo), int(hi))
-        if k not in seal_cache:
-            seal_cache[k] = (_seal_fraction(lab, seal_col, orientation, pos, angle,
-                                            lo, hi) >= GRID_SEAL_MIN)
-        return seal_cache[k]
-    h_cand = _axis_candidates(h_keep, h)
-    v_cand = _axis_candidates(v_keep, w)
-    best = None
-    best_score = float('inf')
-    for rows in sorted(h_cand):
-        if rows < MIN_GRID_DIM:
-            continue
-        for cols in sorted(v_cand):
-            if cols < MIN_GRID_DIM:
-                continue
-            for hpos, hsc, hd, hlns in h_cand[rows][:25]:
-                for vpos, vsc, vd, vlns in v_cand[cols][:25]:
-                    s_diff = abs(hd - vd) / max(hd, vd)
-                    if s_diff > 0.22:
-                        continue
-                    h_min = (cols - FULL_SPAN_MARGIN) * vd
-                    v_min = (rows - FULL_SPAN_MARGIN) * hd
-                    if (min(_line_extent(l) for l in hlns) < h_min
-                            or min(_line_extent(l) for l in vlns) < v_min):
-                        continue
-                    alll = hlns + vlns
-                    ccols = np.array([l.color_lab for l in alll])
-                    avg = ccols.mean(axis=0)
-                    de = np.sqrt(np.sum((ccols - avg) ** 2, axis=1))
-                    if np.max(de) > GRID_COLOR_TOL:
-                        continue
-                    h_ang = np.mean([l.angle for l in hlns])
-                    v_ang = np.mean([l.angle for l in vlns])
-                    if abs(h_ang + v_ang) > GRID_ANGLE_TOL:
-                        continue
-                    h_col = np.mean([l.color_lab for l in hlns], axis=0)
-                    v_col = np.mean([l.color_lab for l in vlns], axis=0)
-                    if _de(h_col, v_col) > XAXIS_COLOR_TOL:
-                        continue
-                    if (_halves_a_finer_lattice(vpos, vd, v_keep_int)
-                            or _halves_a_finer_lattice(hpos, hd, h_keep_int)):
-                        continue
-                    slant = np.tan(h_ang)
-                    ang_inc = abs(h_ang + v_ang) * 200
-                    hsorted = sorted(hpos); vsorted = sorted(vpos)
-                    row_top, row_bot = hsorted[0] - hd, hsorted[-1] + hd
-                    col_lft, col_rgt = vsorted[0] - vd, vsorted[-1] + vd
-                    vy = [_line_span_perp(l) for l in vlns]
-                    hx = [_line_span_perp(l) for l in hlns]
-                    vy_lo = float(np.median([s[0] for s in vy]))
-                    vy_hi = float(np.median([s[1] for s in vy]))
-                    hx_lo = float(np.median([s[0] for s in hx]))
-                    hx_hi = float(np.median([s[1] for s in hx]))
-                    v_top_edge = vy_lo <= EDGE_BLEED_PX
-                    v_bot_edge = vy_hi >= h - EDGE_BLEED_PX
-                    h_lft_edge = hx_lo <= EDGE_BLEED_PX
-                    h_rgt_edge = hx_hi >= w - EDGE_BLEED_PX
-                    # A one-sided edge bleed (hCaptcha's white footer) is not a missing row; a grid that fills an axis reaches both edges.
-                    def _missing(uncov, pitch, bleed):
-                        if bleed:
-                            return 0.0
-                        f = uncov / pitch
-                        return f if f >= MISSING_LINE_FRAC else 0.0
-                    span_pen = SPAN_FIT_PENALTY * (
-                        _missing(max(0.0, row_top - vy_lo), hd, v_top_edge and not v_bot_edge)
-                        + _missing(max(0.0, vy_hi - row_bot), hd, v_bot_edge and not v_top_edge)
-                        + _missing(max(0.0, col_lft - hx_lo), vd, h_lft_edge and not h_rgt_edge)
-                        + _missing(max(0.0, hx_hi - col_rgt), vd, h_rgt_edge and not h_lft_edge))
-                    def _seal(orientation, pos, angle):
-                        return sealed(orientation, pos, angle,
-                                      *((col_lft, col_rgt) if orientation == 'h'
-                                        else (row_top, row_bot)))
-                    unsealed = sum(1 for l in alll
-                                   if not _seal(l.orientation, l.midline_pos, l.angle))
-                    # Refund the invention charge for INTERIOR nodes the image seals (a missed gutter, not a guess): without it
-                    # the true 4x4 on every sky-backed reCAPTCHA lost by ~470. Extrapolated nodes seal trivially on a white
-                    # margin and refunding them turned a correct 3x3 into a 3x4.
-                    def _confirm(pos, lns, orientation, angle):
-                        if len(lns) < 2:
-                            return 0
-                        lo = min(l.midline_pos for l in lns)
-                        hi = max(l.midline_pos for l in lns)
-                        return sum(1 for p in pos
-                                   if lo < p < hi
-                                   and all(abs(p - l.midline_pos) >= 1.0 for l in lns)
-                                   and _seal(orientation, p, angle))
-                    confirmed = (_confirm(hpos, hlns, 'h', h_ang)
-                                 + _confirm(vpos, vlns, 'v', v_ang))
-                    # Only SEALED lines count as unused: the comb hands over clean sky belts that are not cell boundaries.
-                    chosen = {id(l) for l in alll}
-                    unused = (sum(1 for l in h_keep_int if id(l) not in chosen
-                                  and _seal('h', l.midline_pos, l.angle))
-                              + sum(1 for l in v_keep_int if id(l) not in chosen
-                                    and _seal('v', l.midline_pos, l.angle)))
-                    score = (hsc + vsc + s_diff * 1000 + abs(slant) * 500
-                             + unused * UNUSED_LINE_PENALTY + ang_inc + span_pen
-                             + unsealed * UNSEALED_PENALTY
-                             - confirmed * VIRTUAL_NODE_PENALTY)
-                    if score < best_score:
-                        # Content gate IN the loop so a rejected over-count lets a smaller valid candidate win.
-                        boxes = _generate_grid(rows, cols, hpos, vpos, hd, vd, h, w, slant)
-                        if boxes and _cells_have_content(lab, boxes, rows, cols,
-                                                         hlns + vlns, unsealed == 0):
-                            best_score = score
-                            best = (boxes, rows, cols, slant, avg,
-                                    sorted(hpos), hd, sorted(vpos), vd, hlns + vlns,
-                                    unsealed == 0)
-    if best is None:
-        return None, None, None
-    (boxes, rows, cols, slant, gutter_color, hpos, hd, vpos, vd, chosen_lns,
-     fully_sealed) = best
-    grid_gutters_clean = (float(np.mean([l.color_std for l in chosen_lns]))
-                          < CLEAN_GUTTER_STD) if chosen_lns else False
-    def _off_lattice(lines, total, anchors, pitch, orientation, ext):
-        """Same-colour lines off the pitch inside the grid's own span; the textured-photo false-positive killer."""
-        off_pos = []
-        clean_skipped = 0
-        lo, hi = anchors[0], anchors[-1]
-        for l in _internal(lines, total):
-            if not (lo - LATTICE_TOL * pitch <= l.midline_pos <= hi + LATTICE_TOL * pitch):
-                continue
-            if _de(l.color_lab, gutter_color) > GRID_COLOR_TOL:
-                continue
-            # Gutter-coloured for only part of the width divides nothing; three such belts once rejected a correct 4x4.
-            if not sealed(orientation, l.midline_pos, l.angle, *ext):
-                continue
-            off = min(abs((l.midline_pos - anchors[0]) - round((l.midline_pos - anchors[0]) / pitch) * pitch),
-                      abs((l.midline_pos - anchors[-1]) - round((l.midline_pos - anchors[-1]) / pitch) * pitch))
-            if off > LATTICE_TOL * pitch:
-                # On a proven clean grid forgive a few clean strays (a horizon, a UI rule); noisy strays always count.
-                if (grid_gutters_clean and l.color_std < OFF_LATTICE_CLEAN_STD
-                        and clean_skipped < MAX_OFF_LATTICE_CLEAN):
-                    clean_skipped += 1
-                    continue
-                off_pos.append(l.midline_pos)
-        off_pos.sort()
-        return sum(1 for i, p in enumerate(off_pos)
-                   if i == 0 or p - off_pos[i - 1] > OFF_LATTICE_CLUSTER_PX)
-    rows_ext = (hpos[0] - hd, hpos[-1] + hd)
-    cols_ext = (vpos[0] - vd, vpos[-1] + vd)
-    if (_off_lattice(h_lines, h, hpos, hd, 'h', cols_ext) > MAX_OFF_LATTICE
-            or _off_lattice(v_lines, w, vpos, vd, 'v', rows_ext) > MAX_OFF_LATTICE):
-        return None, None, None
-    if not _boxes_are_regular(boxes, rows, cols):
-        return None, None, None
-    # On the chosen grid only: as a per-line filter it deleted the strays the off-lattice gate counts (FP 2 -> 4 -> 6).
-    if lab is not None:
-        if float(np.median([_flank_contrast(lab, l, hd if l.orientation == 'h' else vd)
-                            for l in chosen_lns])) < (SEALED_FLANK_MIN_DE if fully_sealed
-                                                      else GRID_FLANK_MIN_DE):
-            return None, None, None
-    x0 = min(b[0] for b in boxes); x1 = max(b[2] for b in boxes)
-    y0 = min(b[1] for b in boxes); y1 = max(b[3] for b in boxes)
-    if (x1 - x0) * (y1 - y0) < MIN_IMAGE_AREA_COVERAGE * w * h:
-        return None, None, None
-    return boxes, (rows, cols), slant
+def _close(mask: np.ndarray) -> np.ndarray:
+    """A 3x3 closing that neither grows nor eats the image border."""
+    s = np.ones((3, 3), bool)
+    return ndimage.binary_erosion(ndimage.binary_dilation(mask, s, border_value=0), s, border_value=1)
 
 
-def _detect_grid(image_path, seed_bias=0.0):
-    img = cv2.imread(image_path)
-    if img is None:
+def _largest_blob(mask: np.ndarray) -> Optional[np.ndarray]:
+    """(x, y) of every pixel of the 8-connected component whose outline encloses
+    the most area, or None. The outline runs through boundary pixel centres, so
+    by Pick's theorem it encloses (filled pixels - boundary pixels / 2 - 1): two
+    blobs of nearly equal size are ranked as their outlines rank them."""
+    lab, n = ndimage.label(mask, structure=np.ones((3, 3), bool))
+    if not n:
         return None
-    h, w = img.shape[:2]
-    lab = _to_lab(img)
-    tols = walk_tolerances(image_noise(lab))
-    h_lines = _trace_lines(lab, axis=1, seed_bias=seed_bias, tols=tols)
-    v_lines = _trace_lines(lab, axis=0, seed_bias=-seed_bias, tols=tols)
-    # Both axes traced before either is judged: the comb takes its colour from whichever axis found a clean line.
-    h_lines, v_lines = _add_comb_lines(lab, h_lines, v_lines)
-    if len(_internal(h_lines, h)) < 2 or len(_internal(v_lines, w)) < 2:
-        return None
-    boxes, dims, slant = extract_grid_from_lines(h_lines, v_lines, h, w, lab=lab)
-    return boxes
-
-
-def find_grid(image_path: str, slant_to_try: Optional[float] = None) -> Optional[List[Tuple[int, int, int, int]]]:
-    seed_bias = float(slant_to_try) if slant_to_try is not None else 0.0
-    return _detect_grid(image_path, seed_bias=seed_bias)
+    best, best_area = 0, -np.inf
+    for i, sl in enumerate(ndimage.find_objects(lab), 1):
+        filled = np.pad(ndimage.binary_fill_holes(lab[sl] == i), 1)
+        boundary = filled & ~ndimage.binary_erosion(filled, border_value=0)
+        area = int(filled.sum()) - int(boundary.sum()) / 2 - 1
+        if area > best_area:
+            best, best_area = i, area
+    ys, xs = np.nonzero(lab == best)
+    return np.stack([xs, ys], axis=1).astype(np.float64)
+
+
+def _cross(u: np.ndarray, v: np.ndarray) -> float:
+    return float(u[0] * v[1] - u[1] * v[0])
+
+
+def _hull(points: np.ndarray) -> np.ndarray:
+    """Convex hull of pixel centres, counter-clockwise (Andrew's monotone chain)."""
+    pts = np.unique(points, axis=0)
+    if len(pts) < 3:
+        return pts
+
+    def half(seq):
+        out: List[np.ndarray] = []
+        for p in seq:
+            while len(out) >= 2 and _cross(out[-1] - out[-2], p - out[-2]) <= 0:
+                out.pop()
+            out.append(p)
+        return out
+    lower, upper = half(pts), half(pts[::-1])
+    return np.array(lower[:-1] + upper[:-1])
+
+
+def _area_perimeter_centroid(poly: np.ndarray) -> Tuple[float, float, Tuple[float, float]]:
+    if len(poly) < 3:
+        return 0.0, 0.0, ((float(poly[:, 0].mean()), float(poly[:, 1].mean())) if len(poly) else (0.0, 0.0))
+    x, y = poly[:, 0], poly[:, 1]
+    xn, yn = np.roll(x, -1), np.roll(y, -1)
+    cross = x * yn - xn * y
+    a2 = float(cross.sum())
+    perim = float(np.hypot(xn - x, yn - y).sum())
+    if a2 == 0:
+        return 0.0, perim, (float(x.mean()), float(y.mean()))
+    return abs(a2) / 2, perim, (float(((x + xn) * cross).sum() / (3 * a2)), float(((y + yn) * cross).sum() / (3 * a2)))
+
+
+def _distance_outside(poly: np.ndarray, pts: np.ndarray) -> np.ndarray:
+    """0 for points inside the convex polygon (counter-clockwise), else the distance to its boundary."""
+    if len(poly) < 3:
+        return np.full(len(pts), np.inf)
+    a, b = poly, np.roll(poly, -1, axis=0)
+    ab = b - a
+    ap = pts[:, None, :] - a[None]
+    inside = np.all(ab[None, :, 0] * ap[..., 1] - ab[None, :, 1] * ap[..., 0] >= 0, axis=1)
+    t = np.clip(np.einsum("nkd,kd->nk", ap, ab) / np.maximum(np.einsum("kd,kd->k", ab, ab), 1e-9), 0, 1)
+    d = np.min(np.linalg.norm(ap - t[..., None] * ab[None], axis=2), axis=1)
+    return np.where(inside, 0.0, d)
+
+
+# ── per-cell state ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────
+
+_RECAPTCHA_BLUE = (27, 115, 232)
+# Two, not zero: the ringed rendering draws the white on the rim and fragments the teal. At 4px the phantom rate doubles for ~1 point of recall.
+_HCAPTCHA_GLYPH_SLACK_PX = 2.0
 
 
 def detect_selected_cells(image_path, grid_boxes):
-    img = cv2.imread(image_path)
-    if img is None: return [], []
+    """([selected], [loading]) 1-based cells: reCAPTCHA's blue tick badge or hCaptcha's
+    teal check marks a selection, reCAPTCHA's blue spinner a tile still loading."""
+    img = _read_rgb(image_path)
+    if img is None:
+        return [], []
     sel, ld = [], []
-    recap_blue = (27, 115, 232)
-    hcap_blue = (188, 117, 15)
     for i, box in enumerate(grid_boxes):
         cell = img[box[1]:box[3], box[0]:box[2]]
-        if cell.size == 0: continue
-
+        if cell.size == 0:
+            continue
         h_cell, w_cell = cell.shape[:2]
         tl = cell[0:int(h_cell * 0.4), 0:int(w_cell * 0.4)]
-        if tl.size > 0 and _has_badge(tl, recap_blue):
+        if tl.size > 0 and _has_badge(tl, _RECAPTCHA_BLUE):
             sel.append(i + 1)
             continue
         tr = cell[0:max(8, int(h_cell * 0.22)), int(w_cell * 0.78):]
         if tr.size > 0 and _has_hcaptcha_check(tr):
             sel.append(i + 1)
             continue
-
         cntr = cell[int(h_cell * 0.3):int(h_cell * 0.7), int(w_cell * 0.3):int(w_cell * 0.7)]
-        if cntr.size > 0 and _is_loading(cntr, recap_blue):
+        if cntr.size > 0 and _is_loading(cntr, _RECAPTCHA_BLUE):
             ld.append(i + 1)
     return sel, ld
 
 
-def _crop_cell(image_path, grid_boxes, cell_number):
-    img = cv2.imread(image_path)
-    if img is None:
-        return None
-    if cell_number < 1 or cell_number > len(grid_boxes):
+def _crop_cell(image_path, grid_boxes, cell_number) -> Optional[np.ndarray]:
+    img = _read_rgb(image_path)
+    if img is None or cell_number < 1 or cell_number > len(grid_boxes):
         return None
     x1, y1, x2, y2 = grid_boxes[cell_number - 1]
     cell = img[y1:y2, x1:x2]
     return cell if cell.size else None
 
+
 def is_empty_cell(image_path, grid_boxes, cell_number,
                   white_frac=0.97, l_thresh=92.0, chroma_thresh=6.0):
     cell = _crop_cell(image_path, grid_boxes, cell_number)
     if cell is None:
         return False
-    lab = cv2.cvtColor(cell, cv2.COLOR_BGR2LAB).astype(np.float32)
+    lab = _lab8(cell)
     L = lab[:, :, 0] * (100.0 / 255.0)
-    a = lab[:, :, 1] - 128.0
-    b = lab[:, :, 2] - 128.0
-    chroma = np.sqrt(a * a + b * b)
+    chroma = np.hypot(lab[:, :, 1] - 128.0, lab[:, :, 2] - 128.0)
     white = (L > l_thresh) & (chroma < chroma_thresh)
     return float(white.mean()) >= white_frac
 
+
 def is_cell_opacity_changing(image_path_a, image_path_b, grid_boxes,
                              cell_number, change_thresh=0.02):
     a = _crop_cell(image_path_a, grid_boxes, cell_number)
     b = _crop_cell(image_path_b, grid_boxes, cell_number)
     if a is None or b is None or a.shape != b.shape:
         return False
-    diff = cv2.absdiff(a, b)
-    gray = cv2.cvtColor(diff, cv2.COLOR_BGR2GRAY)
-    _, thr = cv2.threshold(gray, 30, 255, cv2.THRESH_BINARY)
-    ratio = cv2.countNonZero(thr) / (thr.shape[0] * thr.shape[1])
-    return ratio > change_thresh
-
-
-# Two, not zero: the ringed rendering draws the white on the rim and fragments the teal. At 4px the phantom rate doubles for ~1 point of recall.
-_HCAPTCHA_GLYPH_SLACK_PX = 2.0
+    diff = np.abs(a.astype(np.int16) - b.astype(np.int16)).astype(np.float32)
+    grey = diff @ np.array([0.299, 0.587, 0.114], np.float32)
+    return float((grey > 30).mean()) > change_thresh
 
 
 def _has_hcaptcha_check(roi):
     """The white glyph must BELONG to the teal mark: pixel counts alone called blue sky with a white pole a selection (74 phantoms over 3051 corners)."""
     if roi is None or roi.size == 0:
         return False
-    flat = roi.reshape(-1, 3).astype(np.int32)
+    px = roi.astype(np.int32)
+    r, g, b = px[..., 0], px[..., 1], px[..., 2]
     # Deliberately loose: pinning the badge colour to a delta-E costs more real badges than it saves phantoms.
-    teal = (
-        (flat[:, 0] > 120)
-        & (flat[:, 1] > 80)
-        & (flat[:, 2] < 80)
-        & (flat[:, 0] - flat[:, 2] > 60)
-    )
-    white = (flat[:, 0] > 220) & (flat[:, 1] > 220) & (flat[:, 2] > 220)
+    teal = (b > 120) & (g > 80) & (r < 80) & (b - r > 60)
+    white = (r > 220) & (g > 220) & (b > 220)
     if int(teal.sum()) < 8 or int(white.sum()) < 2:
         return False
-
-    h, w = roi.shape[:2]
     # Close first: the glyph cuts the disc into pieces, and the largest blob must be the whole mark.
-    mask = cv2.morphologyEx(
-        teal.reshape(h, w).astype(np.uint8) * 255, cv2.MORPH_CLOSE, np.ones((3, 3), np.uint8)
-    )
-    contours, _ = cv2.findContours(mask, cv2.RETR_EXTERNAL, cv2.CHAIN_APPROX_SIMPLE)
-    if not contours:
+    blob = _largest_blob(_close(teal))
+    if blob is None:
         return False
-    hull = cv2.convexHull(max(contours, key=cv2.contourArea))
-    ys, xs = np.nonzero(white.reshape(h, w))
-    inside = sum(
-        1
-        for y, x in zip(ys, xs)
-        if cv2.pointPolygonTest(hull, (float(x), float(y)), True) >= -_HCAPTCHA_GLYPH_SLACK_PX
-    )
-    return inside >= 2
+    ys, xs = np.nonzero(white)
+    near = _distance_outside(_hull(blob), np.stack([xs, ys], axis=1).astype(np.float64)) <= _HCAPTCHA_GLYPH_SLACK_PX
+    return int(near.sum()) >= 2
 
 
 def _has_badge(roi, rgb):
-    mask = _create_delta_e_mask(roi, rgb, 8.0)
-    if cv2.countNonZero(mask) <= roi.size * 0.003: return False
-
-    contours, _ = cv2.findContours(cv2.morphologyEx(mask, cv2.MORPH_CLOSE, np.ones((3,3), np.uint8)), cv2.RETR_EXTERNAL, cv2.CHAIN_APPROX_SIMPLE)
-    if not contours: return False
-    cnt = max(contours, key=cv2.contourArea)
-    hull = cv2.convexHull(cnt)
-    area, perim = cv2.contourArea(hull), cv2.arcLength(hull, True)
-
-    if perim == 0 or (4*np.pi*area/(perim*perim)) < 0.8: return False
+    mask = _delta_e_mask(roi, rgb, 8.0)
+    if int(mask.sum()) <= roi.size * 0.003:
+        return False
+    blob = _largest_blob(_close(mask))
+    if blob is None:
+        return False
+    area, perim, (cx, cy) = _area_perimeter_centroid(_hull(blob))
+    if perim == 0 or (4 * np.pi * area / (perim * perim)) < 0.8:
+        return False
+    return not (area == 0 or cx > roi.shape[1] * 0.7 or cy > roi.shape[0] * 0.7)
 
-    M = cv2.moments(hull)
-    if M["m00"] == 0 or (M["m10"]/M["m00"]) > roi.shape[1]*0.7 or (M["m01"]/M["m00"]) > roi.shape[0]*0.7: return False
-    return True
 
 def _is_loading(roi, rgb):
-    mask = _create_delta_e_mask(roi, rgb, 12.0)
-    return 0.05 < (cv2.countNonZero(mask) / (roi.shape[0]*roi.shape[1])) < 0.6 if roi.size > 0 else False
+    if roi.size == 0:
+        return False
+    return 0.05 < float(_delta_e_mask(roi, rgb, 12.0).mean()) < 0.6
 
-def _create_delta_e_mask(img, rgb, thr):
-    t_lab = cv2.cvtColor(np.array([[[rgb[2], rgb[1], rgb[0]]]], dtype=np.uint8), cv2.COLOR_BGR2LAB)[0, 0]
-    diff = cv2.cvtColor(img, cv2.COLOR_BGR2LAB).astype(np.float32) - t_lab.astype(np.float32)
-    return (np.sqrt(np.sum(diff**2, axis=2)) <= thr).astype(np.uint8)*255
 
 def get_numbered_grid_overlay(image_path, grid_boxes, output_path=None):
-    ov = [{"bbox": [b[0], b[1], b[2]-b[0], b[3]-b[1]], "number": i+1, "color": "#FF0000", "box_style": "solid"} for i, b in enumerate(grid_boxes)]
+    ov = [{"bbox": [b[0], b[1], b[2] - b[0], b[3] - b[1]], "number": i + 1, "color": "#FF0000", "box_style": "solid"}
+          for i, b in enumerate(grid_boxes)]
     if output_path is None:
-        with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(suffix=".png", delete=False) as tf: output_path = tf.name
+        with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(suffix=".png", delete=False) as tf:
+            output_path = tf.name
     add_overlays_to_image(image_path, ov, output_path=output_path, label_position=LabelPosition.TOP_RIGHT)
     return output_path