babylon.quarks 0.26.0 → 0.28.0

package/src/ParticleSystem.ts

@@ -7,43 +7,32 @@ import {
     Behavior,
     BehaviorFromJSON,
     ColorGenerator,
-    ColorGeneratorFromJSON,
     ConstantColor,
     ConstantValue,
     createSeededRandom,
     EmissionState,
     EmitSubParticleSystem,
-    EmitterFromJSON,
     EmitterShape,
     FunctionColorGenerator,
-    FunctionJSON,
     FunctionValueGenerator,
-    FusionStep,
-    GeneratorFromJSON,
-    GeneratorMemory,
     IParticleSystem,
-    Matrix3,
     Matrix4,
     Particle,
     ParticleStore,
     ParticleSystemEvent,
     ParticleSystemEventType,
-    planBehaviorFusion,
     Quaternion,
-    random,
     RandomSource,
+    readFormatPart,
     RendererEmitterSettings,
     RotationGenerator,
     SerializationOptions,
     setRandomSource,
     SphereEmitter,
-    SpriteParticle,
     StretchedBillBoardSettings,
-    SubEmitterInheritMask,
     TrailParticle,
     TrailSettings,
     ValueGenerator,
-    ValueGeneratorFromJSON,
     Vector2,
     Vector3,
     Vector3Generator,
@@ -52,7 +41,55 @@ import {
 import {BatchedRenderer, VFXBatchSettings} from './BatchedRenderer';
 import {ensureEnvAtlasFromCube, getCachedEnvAtlas} from './envAtlas';
 import {ensureTriangleIndices} from './geometryUtil';
-import {ParticleEmitter} from './ParticleEmitter';
+import {disposeEmitterForSystem, ParticleEmitter} from './ParticleEmitter';
+import {BehaviorPlan} from './system/BehaviorPlan';
+import {BoundsTracker} from './system/BoundsTracker';
+import {burstInterval, burstWaveCount, EmissionController} from './system/EmissionController';
+import {EventDispatcher} from './system/EventDispatcher';
+import {
+    DEFAULT_INDICES,
+    DEFAULT_POSITIONS,
+    DEFAULT_UVS,
+    fallbackNormalsForPositions,
+    fallbackUVsForPositions,
+    isFallbackNormals,
+    isFallbackUVs,
+} from './system/geometry';
+import {
+    collapseTrailNewborns,
+    integrateSprites,
+    moveTrails,
+    recordTrailHistory,
+    removeDeadTrails,
+    runBehaviorSteps,
+    snapshotPreviousState,
+} from './system/integrate';
+import {liveAtlas, MaterialOverrides, ParticleMaterialSource, resolveMaterialSettings} from './system/materialResolve';
+import {
+    DEFAULT_SOFT_FAR_FADE,
+    nonZeroFlip,
+    nonZeroPivot,
+    normalizeBurst,
+    normalizeBursts,
+    validAlphaTest,
+    validCullingMode,
+    validLighting,
+    validMaxParticles,
+    validRenderFace,
+    validSoftFade,
+    validSortMode,
+    validTileCount,
+} from './system/normalize';
+import {ParticleSpawner} from './system/ParticleSpawner';
+import {
+    particleSystemParametersFromJSON,
+    particleSystemToJSON,
+    trailCurve,
+    trailFlags,
+    trailSampling,
+} from './system/serialization';
+import {settingsForClone} from './system/settingsSchema';
+import {SIMULATION_STEP, SimulationClock} from './system/SimulationClock';
 import {
     MeshLighting,
     MeshRim,
@@ -66,343 +103,123 @@ import {
     ParticleGradientMap,
     ParticleUVDistortion,
     ParticleUVDistortionOptions,
+    RenderFace,
     RenderMode,
     SortMode,
     TextureUV,
-    textureUVToJSON,
-    UV_DISTORTION_DEFAULT_UV,
 } from './VFXBatch';
 
-export interface BurstParameters {
-    time: number;
-    count: ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator;
-    cycle: number;
-    interval: number;
-    probability: number;
-}
+import type {
+    BabylonMetaData,
+    BeamEnd,
+    BurstParameters,
+    CullingMode,
+    ParticleSystemJSONParameters,
+    ParticleSystemParameters,
+    ScalingMode,
+} from './system/types';
+
+export type {
+    BabylonMetaData,
+    BeamEnd,
+    BurstParameters,
+    BurstParametersJSON,
+    CullingMode,
+    ParticleSystemJSONParameters,
+    ParticleSystemParameters,
+    ScalingMode,
+} from './system/types';
+
+// Scratch for the per-step emitter matrix of a frame that interpolates, see `update`.
+const fromPosition = new Vector3();
+const fromRotation = new Quaternion();
+const fromScale = new Vector3();
+const toPosition = new Vector3();
+const toRotation = new Quaternion();
+const toScale = new Vector3();
+const stepPosition = new Vector3();
+const stepRotation = new Quaternion();
+const stepScale = new Vector3();
 
 /**
- * What a system does while no camera can see its particles (Unity's Culling
- * Mode). The {@link BatchedRenderer} tests each system's bounds against the
- * active cameras' frusta every frame.
- *
- * - `'always'` keeps simulating off screen, so an effect is exactly where it
- *   would have been when it comes back into view. The default, and the only
- *   safe choice for an emitter whose particles reach the screen from off it.
- * - `'pause'` freezes the system off screen and resumes it where it left off.
- * - `'pauseAndCatchUp'` freezes it too, then runs the missed time (up to a few
- *   seconds) within the renderer's catch-up budget when it is seen again.
+ * A particle system, the counterpart of a Unity Shuriken system or a Niagara emitter: it spawns
+ * particles from an {@link emitterShape}, gives them start values, runs its {@link behaviors} on
+ * them every step and hands them to a {@link BatchedRenderer} to draw.
  *
- * An empty system is never culled, so it can start emitting and grow the
- * bounds that decide its visibility. A system another one emits into is never
- * culled either; its parent decides.
- */
-export type CullingMode = 'always' | 'pause' | 'pauseAndCatchUp';
-
-/**
- * What the emitter's world scale does to a world-space system (Unity's
- * Scaling Mode, as far as it differs here). A local-space system lives in its
- * emitter's space, so its scale reaches everything either way.
+ * The system lives at its {@link emitter}, a Babylon node: move, parent or disable that to place
+ * the effect. Add the system to a renderer with `renderer.addSystem(system)`; the renderer
+ * advances it every frame on a fixed 60 Hz step and batches it with systems that draw alike.
  *
- * - `'shape'` (default): the scale sizes the emission shape and the
- *   particles; speeds, forces and speed limits stay in world units, so a
- *   scaled-down effect moves as far as the full-size one.
- * - `'hierarchy'`: the scale also multiplies start speeds (per axis),
- *   `ForceOverLife` and `LimitSpeedOverLife` (by the mean of the axes), so the
- *   whole effect, motion included, scales like a model would.
+ * Curves and random values are quarks.core generators (`ConstantValue`, `IntervalValue`,
+ * `PiecewiseBezier`, `Gradient`, ...); a curve's x is the system's time over its duration for
+ * start values and emission, and the particle's age over its life inside behaviors.
  */
-export type ScalingMode = 'shape' | 'hierarchy';
+export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
+    /** Dispose the system, its emitter and its batch slot when it finishes. Default false. */
+    autoDestroy: boolean;
+    /**
+     * Start a looping system as if it had already run one full cycle (Unity's Prewarm), so a fire
+     * or a mist is full from its first frame. Default false.
+     */
+    prewarm: boolean;
 
-/**
- * Where a {@link RenderMode.Beam} system's quads end: a point in world space,
- * or anything with a world position, such as a Babylon `TransformNode`, read
- * every frame.
- */
-export type BeamEnd = {x: number; y: number; z: number} | {getAbsolutePosition(): {x: number; y: number; z: number}};
-
-/** Particle backed by a {@link ParticleStore} row, as this system always creates. */
-type StoreBackedParticle = Particle & {storeIndex: number; setStoreIndex(index: number): void};
-
-const UP = new Vector3(0, 0, 1);
-const tempQ = new Quaternion();
-const IDENTITY_QUATERNION = new Quaternion();
-const tempV = new Vector3();
-const tempV2 = new Vector3();
-const PREWARM_FPS = 60;
-const SIMULATION_STEP = 1 / PREWARM_FPS;
-const MAX_SIMULATION_STEPS_PER_FRAME = 8;
-/** Most off-screen time a `'pauseAndCatchUp'` system replays on coming back into view. */
-const MAX_CATCH_UP_SECONDS = 2;
-/** Steps between full measurements of a system's bounds; see simulateStep. */
-const BOUNDS_REFRESH_STEPS = 4;
-// Math.round() breaks an exact tie (accumulator sitting at precisely half a
-// step) by rounding up. At exactly 120Hz that tie is not a corner case — it is
-// every single frame — and rounding it up would run a step on every one of
-// them instead of every other one. Nudging the tie down costs nothing on a
-// real display (real frame times essentially never land on the tie exactly)
-// and keeps the well-tested "half a step is no step yet" behavior.
-const ROUND_TIE_BIAS = 1e-9;
-
-/** Built-in behaviors that write a particle's size / colour, and those that touch neither. */
-const SIZE_BEHAVIORS = new Set(['SizeOverLife', 'SizeBySpeed']);
-const COLOR_BEHAVIORS = new Set(['ColorOverLife', 'ColorBySpeed']);
-const INERT_FOR_SIZE_AND_COLOR = new Set([
-    'ApplyForce',
-    'Noise',
-    'TurbulenceField',
-    'GravityForce',
-    'RotationOverLife',
-    'Rotation3DOverLife',
-    'RotationBySpeed',
-    'SpeedOverLife',
-    'FrameOverLife',
-    'ForceOverLife',
-    'VelocityOverLife',
-    'InheritVelocity',
-    'OrbitOverLife',
-    'WidthOverLength',
-    'ChangeEmitDirection',
-    'EmitSubParticleSystem',
-    'LimitSpeedOverLife',
-    'ApplyCollision',
-]);
-
-const DEFAULT_POSITIONS = new Float32Array([-0.5, -0.5, 0, 0.5, -0.5, 0, 0.5, 0.5, 0, -0.5, 0.5, 0]);
-const DEFAULT_UVS = new Float32Array([0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1]);
-
-/** Zero UVs sized to a position buffer — missing/mismatched uv attrs → GL_INVALID_OPERATION on iOS. */
-const fallbackUVs = new WeakMap<Float32Array, Float32Array>();
-const fallbackNormals = new WeakMap<Float32Array, Float32Array>();
-/**
- * Zero UVs for a geometry given without any, one array per geometry: batches
- * are keyed by the UV array too, so systems sharing a geometry share it.
- */
-function fallbackUVsForPositions(positions: Float32Array): Float32Array {
-    let uvs = fallbackUVs.get(positions);
-    if (uvs === undefined || uvs.length !== (positions.length / 3) * 2) {
-        uvs = new Float32Array((positions.length / 3) * 2);
-        fallbackUVs.set(positions, uvs);
+    /**
+     * How much of the cycle {@link prewarm} simulates before the first frame, in seconds
+     * (Niagara's Warmup Time), on a looping system like `prewarm` itself. 0, the default, warms up a whole cycle, as Unity's Prewarm does; a
+     * shorter time warms up the cycle's last part only, with the bursts before it counted as
+     * fired, which is enough for an effect whose particles live shorter than its cycle and keeps
+     * a long cycle's first frame cheap. Longer than the cycle or than
+     * {@link maxPrewarmSeconds}, it is cut to them. Kept at 0 or above.
+     */
+    get prewarmTime(): number {
+        return this.prewarmTimeValue;
     }
-    return uvs;
-}
-const DEFAULT_INDICES = new Uint32Array([0, 1, 2, 0, 2, 3]);
-
-/** The optional trail flags that are switched on, so JSON and clones only carry the ones in use. */
-function trailFlags(settings: TrailSettings | undefined): Partial<TrailSettings> {
-    const flags: Partial<TrailSettings> = {};
-    if (settings?.uvFromHead) flags.uvFromHead = true;
-    if (settings?.colorFromParticle) flags.colorFromParticle = true;
-    if (settings?.dieWithParticle) flags.dieWithParticle = true;
-    if (settings?.recordWorldSpace) flags.recordWorldSpace = true;
-    return flags;
-}
-
-/** A trail's side axis as JSON `[x, y, z]`, or nothing when unset. */
-function trailSideAxisJSON(settings: TrailSettings | undefined): {sideAxis?: number[]} {
-    const axis = settings?.sideAxis;
-    return axis ? {sideAxis: [axis.x, axis.y, axis.z]} : {};
-}
 
-/** A trail's side axis from JSON `[x, y, z]` (or an object with x, y, z), or nothing. */
-function trailSideAxisFromJSON(value: unknown): {sideAxis?: Vector3} {
-    if (Array.isArray(value)) {
-        return {sideAxis: new Vector3(Number(value[0]) || 0, Number(value[1]) || 0, Number(value[2]) || 0)};
+    set prewarmTime(seconds: number) {
+        this.prewarmTimeValue = seconds > 0 ? seconds : 0;
     }
-    if (value && typeof value === 'object') {
-        const v = value as {x?: number; y?: number; z?: number};
-        return {sideAxis: new Vector3(v.x ?? 0, v.y ?? 0, v.z ?? 0)};
-    }
-    return {};
-}
-
-export interface ParticleSystemParameters {
-    autoDestroy?: boolean;
-    looping?: boolean;
-    prewarm?: boolean;
-    duration?: number;
-    startDelay?: ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator;
-    shape?: EmitterShape;
-    startLife?: ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator;
-    startSpeed?: ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator;
-    startRotation?: ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator | RotationGenerator;
-    startSize?: ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator | Vector3Generator;
-    startLength?: ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator;
-    startColor?: ColorGenerator | FunctionColorGenerator;
-    emissionOverTime?: ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator;
-    emissionOverDistance?: ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator;
-    emissionBursts?: Array<BurstParameters>;
-    /** Most particles alive at once; emission past it is dropped. Leave unset for no limit. */
-    maxParticles?: number;
-    onlyUsedByOther?: boolean;
-    behaviors?: Array<Behavior>;
-    instancingGeometry?: Float32Array;
-    instancingIndices?: Uint32Array | Uint16Array;
-    instancingUVs?: Float32Array;
-    /**
-     * A second UV set for the mesh (glTF `TEXCOORD_1`, Unity's `uv2`), what
-     * textures on UV channel 1 read on a mesh particle; see `UVChannel`.
-     * Default none: channel 1 reads the first set.
-     */
-    instancingUVs2?: Float32Array;
-    instancingNormals?: Float32Array;
-    renderMode?: RenderMode;
-    rendererEmitterSettings?: RendererEmitterSettings;
-    speedFactor?: number;
-    material?: any;
-    texture?: Texture | null;
-    startTileIndex?: ValueGenerator;
-    uTileCount?: number;
-    vTileCount?: number;
-    blendTiles?: boolean;
-    softParticles?: boolean;
-    softFarFade?: number;
-    softNearFade?: number;
-    renderOrder?: number;
-    worldSpace?: boolean;
-    blendMode?: number;
-    transparent?: boolean;
-    depthTest?: boolean;
-    depthWrite?: boolean;
-    alphaTest?: number;
-    layerMask?: number;
-    /** Billboard pivot in particle-size units, see {@link VFXBatchSettings.pivot}. */
-    pivot?: Vector3;
-    /** Fraction of billboard particles mirrored along U (x) and V (y), see {@link ParticleSystem.flip}. */
-    flip?: Vector2;
-    /** How mesh particles are lit, see {@link ParticleSystem.lighting}. Default `'fixed'`. */
-    lighting?: MeshLighting;
-    /** Rim (Fresnel) term on mesh particles, see {@link ParticleSystem.rim}. Default none. */
-    rim?: Partial<MeshRim>;
-    /** The main map's layout, see {@link ParticleSystem.mapUV}. Default as drawn. */
-    mapUV?: Partial<TextureUV>;
-    /** Colour ramp for the map, see {@link ParticleSystem.gradientMap}. Default none. */
-    gradientMap?: Partial<ParticleGradientMap>;
-    /** Alpha erosion, see {@link ParticleSystem.erosion}. Default none. */
-    erosion?: ParticleErosionOptions;
-    /** Map UV distortion, see {@link ParticleSystem.uvDistortion}. Default none. */
-    uvDistortion?: ParticleUVDistortionOptions;
-    /** Multiplier on the time the system is advanced by, see {@link ParticleSystem.playbackSpeed}. Default 1. */
-    playbackSpeed?: number;
-    /** What the system does while off screen, see {@link CullingMode}. Default `'always'`. */
-    cullingMode?: CullingMode;
-    /** What the emitter's scale does to a world-space system, see {@link ScalingMode}. Default `'shape'`. */
-    scalingMode?: ScalingMode;
-    /** Seed for this system's own random generator, see {@link ParticleSystem.seed}. Default none. */
-    seed?: number;
-    /** Draw order within the batch, see {@link ParticleSystem.sortMode}. Default `'none'`. */
-    sortMode?: SortMode;
-    /** Whether particles start turned along their direction of travel, see {@link ParticleSystem.alignToDirection}. Default false. */
-    alignToDirection?: boolean;
-    /** Smallest on-screen size, as a fraction of the viewport height, see {@link ParticleSystem.minParticleSize}. Default 0. */
-    minParticleSize?: number;
-    /** Largest on-screen size, as a fraction of the viewport height, see {@link ParticleSystem.maxParticleSize}. Default unlimited. */
-    maxParticleSize?: number;
-    /** Babylon rendering group of the batch, see {@link ParticleSystem.renderingGroupId}. Default 0. */
-    renderingGroupId?: number;
-    /** Whether the scene's fog applies, see {@link ParticleSystem.applyFog}. Default true. */
-    applyFog?: boolean;
-    scene?: Scene;
-}
-
-export interface BurstParametersJSON {
-    time: number;
-    count: FunctionJSON | number;
-    cycle: number;
-    interval: number;
-    probability: number;
-}
 
-export interface ParticleSystemJSONParameters {
-    version: string;
-    autoDestroy: boolean;
+    private prewarmTimeValue = 0;
+    /** Start the cycle again when {@link duration} ends instead of stopping emission. Default true. */
     looping: boolean;
-    prewarm: boolean;
-    duration: number;
-    startDelay?: FunctionJSON;
-    shape: any;
-    startLife: FunctionJSON;
-    startSpeed: FunctionJSON;
-    startRotation: FunctionJSON;
-    startSize: FunctionJSON;
-    startColor: FunctionJSON;
-    emissionOverTime: FunctionJSON;
-    emissionOverDistance: FunctionJSON;
-    emissionBursts?: Array<BurstParametersJSON>;
-    maxParticles?: number;
-    onlyUsedByOther: boolean;
-    rendererEmitterSettings: RendererEmitterSettings;
-    instancingGeometry?: any;
-    renderMode: number;
-    renderOrder?: number;
-    /** Written only when not 0. */
-    renderingGroupId?: number;
-    /** Written only when false. */
-    applyFog?: boolean;
-    /** Written only when not 1. */
-    playbackSpeed?: number;
-    /** Written only when not `'always'`. */
-    cullingMode?: CullingMode;
-    /** Written only when not `'shape'`. */
-    scalingMode?: ScalingMode;
-    /** Written only when set. */
-    seed?: number;
-    /** Written only when not `'none'`. */
-    sortMode?: SortMode;
-    /** Written only when true. */
-    alignToDirection?: boolean;
-    /** Written only when not 0. */
-    minParticleSize?: number;
-    /** Written only when limited. */
-    maxParticleSize?: number;
-    speedFactor?: number;
-    texture?: string;
-    material?: string;
-    layers?: number;
-    startTileIndex: FunctionJSON | number;
-    uTileCount: number;
-    vTileCount: number;
-    blendTiles?: boolean;
-    softParticles?: boolean;
-    softFarFade?: number;
-    softNearFade?: number;
-    blending?: number;
-    transparent?: boolean;
-    depthTest?: boolean;
-    depthWrite?: boolean;
-    alphaTest?: number;
-    behaviors: Array<any>;
-    worldSpace: boolean;
-    /** `[x, y, z]`; written only when non-zero. */
-    pivot?: number[];
-    /** `[u, v]`; written only when non-zero. */
-    flip?: number[];
-}
-
-export interface BabylonMetaData {
-    textures: {[uuid: string]: Texture | null};
-    materials: {[uuid: string]: any};
-    geometries: {[uuid: string]: any};
-    images?: {[uuid: string]: any};
-    shapes?: {[uuid: string]: any};
-    skeletons?: {[uuid: string]: any};
-    animations?: {[uuid: string]: any};
-    nodes?: {[uuid: string]: any};
-}
+    /**
+     * Length of one emission cycle in seconds; curves over the system's time run over it. Default
+     * 1, and never shorter than one simulation step: a zero, negative or NaN duration is read as
+     * one step, so bursts at time 0 fire and the cycle ends.
+     */
+    get duration(): number {
+        return this.durationValue;
+    }
 
-export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
-    private static serializationCounter = 0;
+    set duration(seconds: number) {
+        this.durationValue = seconds > SIMULATION_STEP ? seconds : SIMULATION_STEP;
+    }
 
-    autoDestroy: boolean;
-    prewarm: boolean;
-    looping: boolean;
-    duration: number;
+    private durationValue = 1;
+    /** Seconds before the system first emits, rolled on each restart. Default 0. */
     startDelay: ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator;
+    /** Seconds each particle lives, rolled at birth. Default 5. */
     startLife: ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator;
+    /** Speed each particle starts with along the direction its shape gives it, in units per second. Default 0. */
     startSpeed: ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator;
+    /**
+     * Rotation each particle starts with: an angle in radians around the view axis for billboards,
+     * or a rotation generator (`AxisAngleGenerator`, `EulerGenerator`, `RandomQuatGenerator`) for
+     * mesh particles. Default 0.
+     */
     startRotation: ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator | RotationGenerator;
+    /** Size each particle starts with in world units; a `Vector3Generator` sizes each axis (Unity's 3D Start Size). Default 1. */
     startSize: ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator | Vector3Generator;
+    /** Colour and alpha each particle starts with, multiplied with the texture. Default opaque white. */
     startColor: ColorGenerator | FunctionColorGenerator;
+    /** Flipbook cell each particle starts on, counted across rows, see {@link uTileCount}. Default 0. */
     startTileIndex: ValueGenerator;
+    /**
+     * The render mode's own settings: `TrailSettings` for a trail (`startLength` and the trail
+     * flags), `StretchedBillBoardSettings` for a stretched billboard (`speedFactor`,
+     * `lengthFactor`), `MeshSettings` or nothing otherwise. Setting {@link renderMode} replaces it
+     * with that mode's defaults.
+     */
     rendererEmitterSettings: RendererEmitterSettings;
     /**
      * Fraction of billboard particles mirrored along U (x) and V (y), each
@@ -410,98 +227,121 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
      * Undefined: nothing is mirrored. Meshes ignore it.
      */
     flip?: Vector2;
+    /** Particles emitted per second, read over the system's time. Default 10. */
     emissionOverTime: ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator;
+    /** Particles emitted per world unit the emitter moves (Unity's Rate over Distance). Default 0. */
     emissionOverDistance: ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator;
+    /** Bursts of particles at set times in each cycle. Default none. */
     emissionBursts: Array<BurstParameters>;
-    /** Most particles alive at once (Unity's Max Particles); emission past it is dropped. Undefined means no limit. */
+    /**
+     * Most particles alive at once (Unity's Max Particles); emission past it is dropped. Undefined
+     * means no limit, as does a negative or NaN count given to the constructor; a fraction is
+     * rounded down.
+     */
     maxParticles?: number;
+    /**
+     * The system emits nothing of its own and only spawns what an `EmitSubParticleSystem` on
+     * another system sends it (a Unity sub emitter). Default false.
+     */
     onlyUsedByOther: boolean;
+    /**
+     * Simulate in world space (Unity's Simulation Space: World): particles stay where they were
+     * born when the emitter moves. False keeps them in the emitter's space, so they move with it.
+     * Default false.
+     */
     worldSpace: boolean;
+    /** How many of {@link particles} are alive. Read only. */
     particleNum: number;
+    /** Set by {@link pause}: the renderer skips the system's simulation while true. */
     paused: boolean;
+    /** The particle pool; the first {@link particleNum} are alive. Read only. */
     particles: Array<Particle>;
-    /** Column storage shared by this system's particles. */
+    /** Column storage shared by this system's particles; behaviors read and write it. */
     readonly store: ParticleStore = new ParticleStore(64);
+    /** Where particles are born and which way they start (Unity's Shape module). Default a `SphereEmitter`. */
     emitterShape: EmitterShape;
+    /** The node the system lives at; move, parent or disable it to place or hide the effect. */
     emitter: ParticleEmitter;
+    /** What the renderer batches on; read it with {@link getRendererSettings}. @internal */
     rendererSettings: VFXBatchSettings;
+    /**
+     * Set when a render setting changed, so the renderer moves the system to a matching batch.
+     * The system's setters set it; set it yourself after changing {@link getRendererSettings} directly.
+     */
     neededToUpdateRender: boolean;
+    /** Modules run on every particle each step, in order (`ColorOverLife`, `SizeOverLife`, forces, ...). */
     behaviors: Array<Behavior>;
+    /** Emission progress: time in the cycle, burst and distance counters. */
     emissionState: EmissionState;
+    /** The emitter's velocity over the last step, which `InheritVelocity` reads. */
     emitterVelocity: Vector3 = new Vector3();
 
     private prewarmed: boolean;
     private emitEnded: boolean;
-    private markForDestroy: boolean;
-    private finishedEventFired = false;
-    private startDelayTimeLeft = 0;
+    /**
+     * Whether `finished` fired for this play; the spawner clears it when a sub emission refills an
+     * empty target.
+     * @internal
+     */
+    finishedEventFired = false;
+    /** The fixed-step clock: whole steps per frame, start delay and catch-up time. */
+    private readonly clock = new SimulationClock();
     private previousEmitterPos?: Vector3;
     private tempEmitterPos: Vector3 = new Vector3();
-    private temp: Vector3 = new Vector3();
-    /** Emitter matrix moved along the step's path, see spawnAlongPath. */
-    private pathMatrix: Matrix4 = new Matrix4();
-    private normalMatrix: Matrix3 = new Matrix3();
-    private memory: GeneratorMemory = [];
-    private listeners: {[event: string]: Array<(event: ParticleSystemEvent) => void>} = {};
+    /** The emitter matrix the last simulated step used, to interpolate from; see {@link update}. */
+    private previousEmitterMatrix?: Matrix4;
+    /** The emitter matrix handed to each step of a frame, moved along the emitter's path. */
+    private readonly stepMatrix = new Matrix4();
+    /** Makes the newborn particles, see {@link ParticleSpawner}. */
+    private readonly spawner = new ParticleSpawner(this);
+    /** Decides how many particles each step owes, see {@link EmissionController}. */
+    private readonly emission = new EmissionController(this, this.spawner);
+    private readonly events = new EventDispatcher();
     private readonly layerMaskProxy: {mask: number};
-    private materialRef: any = null;
+    private materialRef: ParticleMaterialSource | null = null;
     private sceneRef: Scene | undefined;
     private qualityFactor = 1;
-    private simulationAccumulator = 0;
     private destroyed = false;
-    /** Behaviors the cached plan was built from, compared by identity. */
-    private fusionPlan?: Array<Behavior>;
-    private fusionSteps: Array<FusionStep> = [];
-    /**
-     * Whether any behavior in the plan can change a particle's size or colour
-     * after birth. Only then does a step have to snapshot them for the renderer.
-     */
-    private planChangesSize = true;
-    private planChangesColor = true;
+    /** How the behaviors run each step, rebuilt when the list changes. */
+    private readonly behaviorPlan = new BehaviorPlan();
     /** @internal **/
     _renderer?: BatchedRenderer;
 
+    /**
+     * Seconds into the current emission cycle. Setting it jumps emission to that point, as Unity's
+     * `Simulate(t)` does for the emission clock: the bursts before it count as fired, the ones
+     * after are due again; particles alive stay, and behaviors are not reset. A value that is not
+     * a finite, non-negative number is 0; one past the duration wraps on a looping system and is
+     * the duration otherwise. A system whose emission has ended stays ended: {@link restart} plays
+     * it again.
+     */
     set time(time: number) {
-        this.emissionState.time = time;
+        const duration = this.duration;
+        let seconds = Number.isFinite(time) && time > 0 ? time : 0;
+        if (seconds >= duration) {
+            seconds = this.looping ? seconds % duration : duration;
+        }
+        const state = this.emissionState;
+        state.time = seconds;
+        state.isBursting = false;
+        state.burstIndex = 0;
+        state.burstWaveIndex = 0;
+        state.burstWaves = undefined;
+        this.markBurstsBefore(seconds);
     }
 
     get time(): number {
         return this.emissionState.time;
     }
 
+    /** Whether {@link endEmit} ran, or a non-looping system reached the end of its duration. */
     get isEmitEnded(): boolean {
         return this.emitEnded;
     }
 
     /** Whether continuous or queued emission can still spawn particles before the system is done. */
     hasPendingEmission(): boolean {
-        if (this.looping) {
-            return true;
-        }
-        if (this.emitEnded) {
-            return false;
-        }
-        if (this.onlyUsedByOther) {
-            return false;
-        }
-        const state = this.emissionState;
-        if (state.waitEmiting > 0) {
-            return true;
-        }
-        if (state.burstIndex < this.emissionBursts.length) {
-            return true;
-        }
-        if (this.hasPendingBurstWaves(state)) {
-            return true;
-        }
-        if (state.time >= this.duration) {
-            return false;
-        }
-        const timeRatio = state.time / this.duration;
-        if (this.emissionOverTime.genValue(this.memory, timeRatio) > 0) {
-            return true;
-        }
-        return this.emissionOverDistance.genValue(this.memory, timeRatio) > 0;
+        return this.emission.hasPendingEmission();
     }
 
     /**
@@ -524,11 +364,24 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         return !this.hasPendingEmission();
     }
 
-    get layers() {
+    /**
+     * The camera layer mask the particles draw for (Babylon's `mesh.layerMask`), as
+     * `system.layers.mask`. Default `0x0fffffff`, every camera's default mask. Systems that differ
+     * are batched apart.
+     */
+    get layers(): {
+        /** The mask; setting it moves the system to a matching batch. */
+        mask: number;
+    } {
         return this.layerMaskProxy;
     }
 
-    get texture() {
+    /**
+     * The particles' main texture, multiplied with their colour; a flipbook when
+     * {@link uTileCount} or {@link vTileCount} is above 1. Null draws the colour alone. Systems
+     * with different textures are batched apart.
+     */
+    get texture(): Texture | null {
         return this.rendererSettings.texture;
     }
 
@@ -537,34 +390,54 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
     }
 
-    get material() {
+    /**
+     * A Babylon material the system takes its draw settings from (on a loaded system, the material
+     * record of its file): its texture (`albedoTexture`,
+     * `diffuseTexture`, `emissiveTexture` or `opacityTexture`), alpha mode, depth flags, alpha test
+     * and reflection texture. The material itself
+     * is not drawn with; particles always use quarks' own shaders. Null leaves the settings as they
+     * are.
+     */
+    get material(): ParticleMaterialSource | null {
         return this.materialRef;
     }
 
-    set material(material: any) {
+    set material(material: ParticleMaterialSource | null) {
         this.materialRef = material;
         this.applyMaterialSettings(material);
     }
 
-    get uTileCount() {
+    /**
+     * Columns of the flipbook in {@link texture} (Unity's Texture Sheet Animation tiles). With
+     * {@link vTileCount}, a particle draws one cell, picked by {@link startTileIndex} and
+     * `FrameOverLife`. A whole number of at least 1; anything else is 1. Default 1. Trails take
+     * their cell on the CPU, so a trail's texture is cut the same way.
+     */
+    get uTileCount(): number {
         return this.rendererSettings.uTileCount;
     }
 
     set uTileCount(u: number) {
-        this.rendererSettings.uTileCount = u;
+        this.rendererSettings.uTileCount = validTileCount(u);
         this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
     }
 
-    get vTileCount() {
+    /** Rows of the flipbook in {@link texture}, see {@link uTileCount}. Default 1. */
+    get vTileCount(): number {
         return this.rendererSettings.vTileCount;
     }
 
     set vTileCount(v: number) {
-        this.rendererSettings.vTileCount = v;
+        this.rendererSettings.vTileCount = validTileCount(v);
         this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
     }
 
-    get blendTiles() {
+    /**
+     * Cross-fade between a flipbook's cells instead of cutting from one to the next (Unity's
+     * Flip-Book Blending); the last cell fades into the first. Default false. Needs a sheet
+     * (`uTileCount` or `vTileCount` above 1); trails cut their cell on the CPU and do not blend.
+     */
+    get blendTiles(): boolean {
         return this.rendererSettings.blendTiles;
     }
 
@@ -573,7 +446,13 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
     }
 
-    get softParticles() {
+    /**
+     * Fade particles out as they near the scene behind them (Unity's Soft Particles, Unreal's
+     * Depth Fade), between {@link softNearFade} and {@link softFarFade}. Needs a depth texture on
+     * the renderer, see `BatchedRenderer.setDepthTexture`; without one particles draw hard.
+     * Default false.
+     */
+    get softParticles(): boolean {
         return this.rendererSettings.softParticles;
     }
 
@@ -582,11 +461,6 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Billboard pivot in particle-size units (Unity's renderer Pivot), see
-     * {@link VFXBatchSettings.pivot}. Assign a new vector to change it: editing
-     * the returned one in place does not reach the renderer.
-     */
     /**
      * The order this system's batch draws its particles in (Unity's Sort
      * Mode), `'none'` by default. Alpha blended smoke wants `'distance'`;
@@ -594,11 +468,26 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
      * with different modes are batched apart. See {@link SortMode}.
      */
     get sortMode(): SortMode {
-        return this.rendererSettings.sortMode;
+        return this.rendererSettings.sortMode ?? 'none';
     }
 
     set sortMode(mode: SortMode) {
-        this.rendererSettings.sortMode = ParticleSystem.validSortMode(mode);
+        this.rendererSettings.sortMode = validSortMode(mode);
+        this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Which faces of a mesh particle are drawn (Unity's Render Face): `'both'` by default,
+     * `'front'` to cull the back faces of a closed mesh, `'back'` to see only its inside. Applies
+     * to the Mesh render mode; the other modes draw both faces. See {@link RenderFace}. Saved in
+     * the effect JSON only when not `'both'`.
+     */
+    get renderFace(): RenderFace {
+        return this.rendererSettings.renderFace ?? 'both';
+    }
+
+    set renderFace(face: RenderFace) {
+        this.rendererSettings.renderFace = validRenderFace(face);
         this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
     }
 
@@ -608,7 +497,7 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
      * default. Keeps distant sparks from vanishing. Meshes and trails ignore it.
      */
     get minParticleSize(): number {
-        return this.rendererSettings.minParticleSize;
+        return this.rendererSettings.minParticleSize ?? 0;
     }
 
     set minParticleSize(size: number) {
@@ -623,7 +512,7 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
      * trails ignore it.
      */
     get maxParticleSize(): number {
-        return this.rendererSettings.maxParticleSize;
+        return this.rendererSettings.maxParticleSize ?? Infinity;
     }
 
     set maxParticleSize(size: number) {
@@ -631,12 +520,17 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Billboard pivot in particle-size units (Unity's renderer Pivot), see
+     * {@link VFXBatchSettings.pivot}. Assign a new vector to change it: editing
+     * the returned one in place does not reach the renderer.
+     */
     get pivot(): Vector3 | undefined {
         return this.rendererSettings.pivot;
     }
 
     set pivot(v: Vector3 | undefined) {
-        this.rendererSettings.pivot = ParticleSystem.nonZeroPivot(v);
+        this.rendererSettings.pivot = nonZeroPivot(v);
         this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
     }
 
@@ -652,7 +546,7 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
     }
 
     set lighting(lighting: MeshLighting) {
-        this.rendererSettings.lighting = ParticleSystem.validLighting(lighting);
+        this.rendererSettings.lighting = validLighting(lighting);
         this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
     }
 
@@ -749,16 +643,17 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
      * before every step; what `'hierarchy'` multiplies start speeds by. Taken
      * from the system's own emitter rather than the emission matrix, whose
      * columns carry a parent particle's velocity for a sub emitter.
+     * @internal
      */
-    private readonly hierarchyScale = new Vector3(1, 1, 1);
+    readonly hierarchyScale = new Vector3(1, 1, 1);
 
     /** The mean world scale of the emitter for a world-space `'hierarchy'` system, else 1. */
-    private measureMotionScale(): number {
+    private measureMotionScale(emitterMatrix: Matrix4): number {
         if (this.scalingMode !== 'hierarchy' || !this.worldSpace) {
             this.hierarchyScale.set(1, 1, 1);
             return 1;
         }
-        const e = this.emitter.matrixWorld.elements;
+        const e = emitterMatrix.elements;
         const sx = Math.sqrt(e[0] * e[0] + e[1] * e[1] + e[2] * e[2]);
         const sy = Math.sqrt(e[4] * e[4] + e[5] * e[5] + e[6] * e[6]);
         const sz = Math.sqrt(e[8] * e[8] + e[9] * e[9] + e[10] * e[10]);
@@ -766,76 +661,109 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         return (sx + sy + sz) / 3;
     }
 
-    /** `lighting` if it is one of the modes, else the default. */
-    private static validLighting(lighting: unknown): MeshLighting {
-        return lighting === 'unlit' || lighting === 'scene' ? lighting : 'fixed';
-    }
-
-    private static validSortMode(mode: unknown): SortMode {
-        return mode === 'distance' || mode === 'oldestInFront' || mode === 'youngestInFront' ? mode : 'none';
-    }
-
-    private static validCullingMode(mode: unknown): CullingMode {
-        return mode === 'pause' || mode === 'pauseAndCatchUp' ? mode : 'always';
-    }
-
-    private static nonZeroPivot(v: Vector3 | undefined): Vector3 | undefined {
-        return v && (v.x !== 0 || v.y !== 0 || v.z !== 0) ? v.clone() : undefined;
-    }
-
-    private static nonZeroFlip(v: Vector2 | undefined): Vector2 | undefined {
-        return v && (v.x > 0 || v.y > 0) ? v.clone() : undefined;
-    }
-
-    get softNearFade() {
+    /**
+     * Distance in world units in front of the scene at which a soft particle is fully faded out,
+     * at least 0. Default 0. A live parameter: changing it on a system alone in its batch keeps
+     * the batch and its material (see {@link VFXBatchSettings}).
+     */
+    get softNearFade(): number {
         return this.rendererSettings.softNearFade;
     }
 
     set softNearFade(v: number) {
-        this.rendererSettings.softNearFade = v;
+        this.rendererSettings.softNearFade = validSoftFade(v, 0);
         this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
     }
 
-    get softFarFade() {
+    /**
+     * Distance in world units in front of the scene at which a soft particle is fully opaque, at
+     * least 0. Default 1 (Unreal's Depth Fade distance): the particle fades over the last unit
+     * before the scene. A value at or below {@link softNearFade} cuts the particle off at that
+     * distance instead of fading it. A live parameter, like `softNearFade`.
+     */
+    get softFarFade(): number {
         return this.rendererSettings.softFarFade;
     }
 
     set softFarFade(v: number) {
-        this.rendererSettings.softFarFade = v;
+        this.rendererSettings.softFarFade = validSoftFade(v, DEFAULT_SOFT_FAR_FADE);
         this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * The mesh particles' positions, three values per vertex.
+     * Setting it restarts the system. A new geometry with a different vertex
+     * count drops UV sets, normals and indices that no longer fit it: the first UV set
+     * falls back to zeros, the second to none, the normals to +Z, the indices to the vertex
+     * sequence. Assign {@link instancingUVs}, {@link instancingUVs2} and {@link instancingIndices}
+     * after it.
+     */
     get instancingGeometry(): Float32Array {
         return this.rendererSettings.instancingGeometry;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * The mesh particles' positions. A new geometry with a different vertex
-     * count drops UV sets and normals that no longer fit it: the first UV set
-     * falls back to zeros, the second to none, the normals to +Z. Assign {@link instancingUVs} and
-     * {@link instancingUVs2} after it.
-     */
     set instancingGeometry(geometry: Float32Array) {
-        this.restart();
-        this.particles.length = 0;
+        this.restartKeepingPause();
         const settings = this.rendererSettings;
         const uvLength = (geometry.length / 3) * 2;
         const previous = settings.instancingGeometry;
         settings.instancingGeometry = geometry;
+        // The indices belong to the geometry they were set with: a geometry with another vertex
+        // count, or one the indices point past, takes its own sequence. Assign
+        // {@link instancingIndices} after it for an indexed mesh.
+        if (geometry.length !== previous.length || !indicesFit(settings.instancingIndices, geometry.length / 3)) {
+            settings.instancingIndices = ensureTriangleIndices(geometry);
+        }
         // Sets that no longer fit, or that were the old geometry's fallbacks, move to the new one's.
-        if (settings.instancingUVs?.length !== uvLength || settings.instancingUVs === fallbackUVs.get(previous)) {
+        if (settings.instancingUVs?.length !== uvLength || isFallbackUVs(settings.instancingUVs, previous)) {
             settings.instancingUVs = fallbackUVsForPositions(geometry);
         }
         if (
             settings.instancingNormals &&
             (settings.instancingNormals.length !== geometry.length ||
-                settings.instancingNormals === fallbackNormals.get(previous))
+                isFallbackNormals(settings.instancingNormals, previous))
         ) {
-            settings.instancingNormals = ParticleSystem.createFallbackNormals(geometry);
+            settings.instancingNormals = fallbackNormalsForPositions(geometry);
         }
         if (settings.instancingUVs2 && settings.instancingUVs2.length !== uvLength) {
             settings.instancingUVs2 = undefined;
         }
+        this.ensureMeshNormals();
+        this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Gives a mesh system normals when it has none, +Z per vertex, so the mesh shader always has
+     * the attribute it reads. Called on construction and when the render mode or geometry changes.
+     */
+    private ensureMeshNormals(): void {
+        const settings = this.rendererSettings;
+        if (settings.renderMode === RenderMode.Mesh && !settings.instancingNormals) {
+            settings.instancingNormals = fallbackNormalsForPositions(settings.instancingGeometry);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * {@link restart} for a setting that rebuilds the particles: the system is cleared and rewound,
+     * but a paused system stays paused, and a stopped one stays stopped.
+     */
+    private restartKeepingPause(): void {
+        const paused = this.paused;
+        this.restart();
+        this.particles.length = 0;
+        this.paused = paused;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * The mesh particles' triangle indices into {@link instancingGeometry}. Mesh systems that share
+     * positions but not indices (sub-meshes of one vertex buffer) are batched apart.
+     */
+    get instancingIndices(): Uint32Array | Uint16Array {
+        return this.rendererSettings.instancingIndices;
+    }
+
+    set instancingIndices(indices: Uint32Array | Uint16Array) {
+        this.rendererSettings.instancingIndices = indices;
         this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
     }
 
@@ -859,7 +787,12 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
     }
 
-    get blending() {
+    /**
+     * Babylon alpha mode the particles blend with: `Constants.ALPHA_ADD` (the default) for glows,
+     * `Constants.ALPHA_COMBINE` for smoke and anything alpha blended. Systems that differ are
+     * batched apart.
+     */
+    get blending(): number {
         return this.rendererSettings.materialBlendMode;
     }
 
@@ -868,6 +801,70 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Whether the particles draw in the transparent pass, blended by {@link blending}; false
+     * draws them opaque, with blending off. Default true, or the material's `needAlphaBlending`.
+     * Systems that differ are batched apart.
+     */
+    get transparent(): boolean {
+        return this.rendererSettings.materialTransparent;
+    }
+
+    set transparent(transparent: boolean) {
+        this.rendererSettings.materialTransparent = transparent;
+        this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Whether particles are hidden behind nearer geometry; false draws them over everything
+     * (Unity's `ZTest Always`), for overlays and effects seen through walls. Default true, or the
+     * material's `disableDepthTest` inverted. Systems that differ are batched apart.
+     */
+    get depthTest(): boolean {
+        return this.rendererSettings.materialDepthTest;
+    }
+
+    set depthTest(depthTest: boolean) {
+        this.rendererSettings.materialDepthTest = depthTest;
+        this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Whether particles write depth, so later draws are hidden behind them. Default false, or the
+     * material's `disableDepthWrite` inverted. Systems that differ are batched apart.
+     */
+    get depthWrite(): boolean {
+        return this.rendererSettings.materialDepthWrite;
+    }
+
+    set depthWrite(depthWrite: boolean) {
+        this.rendererSettings.materialDepthWrite = depthWrite;
+        this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Alpha below which a fragment is discarded (Unity's Alpha Clip Threshold), 0…1; 0 (the
+     * default, or the material's `alphaCutOff`) discards nothing but fragments under 0.01, which no
+     * blend mode can show except additive ones with a bright colour. Switching it on or off
+     * rebuilds the batch's material; a change between non-zero cutoffs on a system alone in its
+     * batch is written to the material in place.
+     */
+    get alphaTest(): number {
+        return this.rendererSettings.materialAlphaTest;
+    }
+
+    set alphaTest(cutoff: number) {
+        this.rendererSettings.materialAlphaTest = validAlphaTest(cutoff);
+        this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * How each particle is drawn (Unity's Render Mode): a camera-facing billboard, a stretched
+     * billboard, a horizontal or vertical billboard, a mesh, a trail or a beam, see
+     * {@link RenderMode}. Changing it gives {@link rendererEmitterSettings} the new mode's
+     * defaults, and switching to or from a trail restarts the system. Switching to a mesh makes
+     * {@link startRotation} an `AxisAngleGenerator` about Y, and switching away from one sets it to 0.
+     */
     get renderMode(): RenderMode {
         return this.rendererSettings.renderMode;
     }
@@ -902,13 +899,18 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
             }
             this.rendererSettings.renderMode = renderMode;
             if (needRestart) {
-                this.restart();
-                this.particles.length = 0;
+                this.restartKeepingPause();
             }
+            this.ensureMeshNormals();
             this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
         }
     }
 
+    /**
+     * The batch mesh's `alphaIndex`: among the transparent meshes of one rendering group, lower
+     * draws first, whatever the distance (Unity's Order in Layer). Default 0. Systems that differ
+     * are batched apart.
+     */
     get renderOrder(): number {
         return this.rendererSettings.renderOrder;
     }
@@ -949,18 +951,54 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
     /**
      * Multiplier on the time this system is advanced by (Unity's Simulation
      * Speed): 2 runs the effect twice as fast, 0 freezes it without pausing the
-     * renderer. 1 by default; saved in the effect JSON only when it differs.
+     * renderer. 1 by default; saved in the effect JSON only when it differs. A
+     * negative or NaN speed is read as 0, and the clock does not run backwards.
+     */
+    get playbackSpeed(): number {
+        return this.playbackSpeedValue;
+    }
+
+    set playbackSpeed(speed: number) {
+        this.playbackSpeedValue = speed > 0 && speed < Infinity ? speed : 0;
+    }
+
+    private playbackSpeedValue = 1;
+
+    /**
+     * A runtime multiplier on {@link playbackSpeed} that is not part of the effect: what a
+     * timeline, a slow-motion moment or a game's pause menu sets on a system it plays, like
+     * Unreal's Custom Time Dilation or Unity's `VisualEffect.playRate`. The system runs at
+     * `playbackSpeed * timeDilation`. 1 by default; never saved, cloned or loaded. A negative,
+     * NaN or infinite value is read as 0. A `QuarksPrefab` sets it to its `timeScale` on the systems of
+     * its tracks.
      */
-    playbackSpeed = 1;
+    get timeDilation(): number {
+        return this.timeDilationValue;
+    }
+
+    set timeDilation(dilation: number) {
+        this.timeDilationValue = dilation > 0 && dilation < Infinity ? dilation : 0;
+    }
+
+    private timeDilationValue = 1;
 
     /**
      * Runtime multiplier on how many particles the system emits: bursts,
      * emission over time and over distance alike. Unlike
      * {@link setQualityFactor}, which only ever thins an effect, it may go
      * above 1 to make a stronger version of the same effect. The two multiply.
-     * 1 by default; not saved in the effect JSON.
+     * 1 by default; a negative or NaN value counts as 0. Not saved in the effect JSON; copied by
+     * {@link clone}.
      */
-    emissionMultiplier = 1;
+    get emissionMultiplier(): number {
+        return this.emissionMultiplierValue;
+    }
+
+    set emissionMultiplier(multiplier: number) {
+        this.emissionMultiplierValue = Number.isFinite(multiplier) && multiplier >= 0 ? multiplier : 0;
+    }
+
+    private emissionMultiplierValue = 1;
 
     /** What this system does while off screen, see {@link CullingMode}. `'always'` by default. */
     cullingMode: CullingMode = 'always';
@@ -997,9 +1035,9 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
      * multiplayer and reproducible tests. Systems this one emits into roll on
      * its generator too. Unset (the default), rolls come from the global source
      * (`setRandomSource` in quarks.core). Saved in the effect JSON when set.
-     *
-     * Not covered: randomness outside the step, such as a `TurbulenceField`'s
-     * offsets, which are rolled when the behavior is created.
+     * The behaviors roll on the same generator, and the ones with their own
+     * randomness (a `TurbulenceField`'s noise) are built from their own seed,
+     * so the whole effect is covered.
      */
     get seed(): number | undefined {
         return this.seedValue;
@@ -1008,6 +1046,12 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
     set seed(seed: number | undefined) {
         this.seedValue = seed;
         this.rng = seed === undefined ? undefined : createSeededRandom(seed);
+        // Seeded before it has played: roll the system-level values on the new generator, so the
+        // first play matches every restart. (The constructor sets the seed before they exist.)
+        if (this.emissionState !== undefined && this.emissionState.time === 0 && this.particleNum === 0) {
+            this.emission.memory.length = 0;
+            this.initSystemGenerators();
+        }
     }
 
     /**
@@ -1017,13 +1061,6 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
      */
     culled = false;
 
-    /**
-     * Time a `'pauseAndCatchUp'` system has spent off screen and not yet
-     * simulated, in seconds. Capped, so an effect hidden for a minute does not
-     * replay the minute.
-     */
-    private pendingCatchUp = 0;
-
     /**
      * Time per frame a system coming back into view may spend on the steps it
      * missed, in milliseconds, when it is advanced without a renderer. The
@@ -1032,20 +1069,18 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
      */
     static catchUpBudgetMs = 2;
 
-    /** Axis-aligned bounds of the live particles, in simulation space. See {@link getWorldBounds}. */
-    private readonly boundsMin = new Vector3();
-    private readonly boundsMax = new Vector3();
-    /** How far a particle's quad, mesh or stretch can reach past its position, in simulation units. */
-    private boundsPadding = 0;
-    private boundsValid = false;
-    /** Steps since the last full measurement; between them the bounds are carried and padded. */
-    private stepsSinceBounds = 0;
-    private boundsMaxSize = 0;
-    private boundsMaxSpeedSq = 0;
-    /** True when the bounds are already in world space (a world-space system, or bounds the renderer measured). */
-    private boundsInWorld = false;
-    private geometryRadiusFor?: Float32Array;
-    private geometryRadius = 1;
+    /**
+     * A performance guard on {@link prewarm}, for every system: the most of a cycle it simulates
+     * before the first frame, in seconds. A longer cycle is warmed up over its last
+     * `maxPrewarmSeconds` only, with the burst waves before that counted as fired, so a long
+     * looping effect does not stall its first frame. 10 by default; raise it in an app whose
+     * effects have longer cycles and particles that live longer than that. It is not an effect's
+     * own warm-up time, which is {@link prewarmTime}, and is not saved with one.
+     */
+    static maxPrewarmSeconds = 10;
+
+    /** What the system draws covers, for culling. See {@link getWorldBounds}. */
+    private readonly bounds = new BoundsTracker();
 
     constructor(parameters: ParticleSystemParameters) {
         this.sceneRef = parameters.scene;
@@ -1064,6 +1099,7 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         this.startDelay = parameters.startDelay ?? new ConstantValue(0);
         this.looping = parameters.looping ?? true;
         this.prewarm = parameters.prewarm ?? false;
+        this.prewarmTime = parameters.prewarmTime ?? 0;
         this.startLife = parameters.startLife ?? new ConstantValue(5);
         this.startSpeed = parameters.startSpeed ?? new ConstantValue(0);
         this.startRotation = parameters.startRotation ?? new ConstantValue(0);
@@ -1071,16 +1107,25 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         this.startColor = parameters.startColor ?? new ConstantColor(new Vector4(1, 1, 1, 1));
         this.emissionOverTime = parameters.emissionOverTime ?? new ConstantValue(10);
         this.emissionOverDistance = parameters.emissionOverDistance ?? new ConstantValue(0);
-        this.emissionBursts = parameters.emissionBursts ?? [];
-        this.maxParticles = parameters.maxParticles;
+        this.emissionBursts = normalizeBursts(parameters.emissionBursts);
+        this.maxParticles = validMaxParticles(parameters.maxParticles);
         this.onlyUsedByOther = parameters.onlyUsedByOther ?? false;
         this.emitterShape = parameters.shape ?? new SphereEmitter();
         this.behaviors = parameters.behaviors ?? [];
         this.worldSpace = parameters.worldSpace ?? false;
         this.rendererEmitterSettings = parameters.rendererEmitterSettings ?? {};
 
+        if (parameters.renderMode === RenderMode.Trail) {
+            // The defaults the renderMode setter gives a trail, for settings left out, on a copy so
+            // the caller's object is left as it was.
+            const settings = {...this.rendererEmitterSettings} as TrailSettings;
+            this.rendererEmitterSettings = settings;
+            settings.startLength = settings.startLength ?? new ConstantValue(30);
+            settings.followLocalOrigin = settings.followLocalOrigin ?? false;
+        }
         if (parameters.renderMode === RenderMode.StretchedBillBoard) {
-            const settings = this.rendererEmitterSettings as StretchedBillBoardSettings;
+            const settings = {...this.rendererEmitterSettings} as StretchedBillBoardSettings;
+            this.rendererEmitterSettings = settings;
             if (parameters.speedFactor !== undefined) {
                 settings.speedFactor = parameters.speedFactor;
             }
@@ -1098,47 +1143,43 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
             instancingNormals: parameters.instancingNormals,
             renderMode: parameters.renderMode ?? RenderMode.BillBoard,
             renderOrder: parameters.renderOrder ?? 0,
-            uTileCount: parameters.uTileCount ?? 1,
-            vTileCount: parameters.vTileCount ?? 1,
+            uTileCount: validTileCount(parameters.uTileCount),
+            vTileCount: validTileCount(parameters.vTileCount),
             blendTiles: parameters.blendTiles ?? false,
             softParticles: parameters.softParticles ?? false,
-            softNearFade: parameters.softNearFade ?? 0,
-            softFarFade: parameters.softFarFade ?? 0,
+            softNearFade: validSoftFade(parameters.softNearFade, 0),
+            softFarFade: validSoftFade(parameters.softFarFade, DEFAULT_SOFT_FAR_FADE),
             materialBlendMode: parameters.blendMode ?? Constants.ALPHA_ADD,
             materialTransparent: parameters.transparent ?? true,
             materialDepthTest: parameters.depthTest ?? true,
             materialDepthWrite: parameters.depthWrite ?? false,
-            materialAlphaTest: parameters.alphaTest ?? 0,
+            materialAlphaTest: validAlphaTest(parameters.alphaTest),
             texture: parameters.texture ?? null,
             reflectionTexture: null,
             reflectionLevel: 1,
-            reflectionFaces: null,
             reflectionAtlas: null,
             layerMask: parameters.layerMask ?? 0x0fffffff,
-            pivot: ParticleSystem.nonZeroPivot(parameters.pivot),
-            sortMode: ParticleSystem.validSortMode(parameters.sortMode),
+            pivot: nonZeroPivot(parameters.pivot),
+            sortMode: validSortMode(parameters.sortMode),
+            renderFace: validRenderFace(parameters.renderFace),
             minParticleSize: Math.max(0, parameters.minParticleSize ?? 0),
             maxParticleSize: parameters.maxParticleSize ?? Infinity,
             renderingGroupId: parameters.renderingGroupId ?? 0,
             applyFog: parameters.applyFog ?? true,
-            lighting: ParticleSystem.validLighting(parameters.lighting),
+            lighting: validLighting(parameters.lighting),
             rim: normalizeMeshRim(parameters.rim),
             mapUV: normalizeMapUV(parameters.mapUV),
             gradientMap: normalizeGradientMap(parameters.gradientMap),
             erosion: normalizeErosion(parameters.erosion),
             uvDistortion: normalizeUVDistortion(parameters.uvDistortion),
         };
-        this.flip = ParticleSystem.nonZeroFlip(parameters.flip);
+        this.flip = nonZeroFlip(parameters.flip);
         this.playbackSpeed = parameters.playbackSpeed ?? 1;
-        this.cullingMode = parameters.cullingMode ?? 'always';
+        this.cullingMode = validCullingMode(parameters.cullingMode);
         this.scalingMode = parameters.scalingMode === 'hierarchy' ? 'hierarchy' : 'shape';
         this.alignToDirection = parameters.alignToDirection === true;
         this.seed = parameters.seed;
-        if (this.rendererSettings.renderMode === RenderMode.Mesh && !this.rendererSettings.instancingNormals) {
-            this.rendererSettings.instancingNormals = ParticleSystem.createFallbackNormals(
-                this.rendererSettings.instancingGeometry
-            );
-        }
+        this.ensureMeshNormals();
 
         this.materialRef = parameters.material ?? null;
         this.applyMaterialSettings(this.materialRef, {
@@ -1169,398 +1210,240 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
             travelDistance: 0,
         };
 
-        this.emissionBursts.forEach((burst) => burst.count.startGen(this.memory));
-        this.emissionOverDistance.startGen(this.memory);
-        this.startDelay.startGen(this.memory);
-        this.startDelayTimeLeft = this.startDelay.genValue(this.memory, 0);
+        this.initSystemGenerators();
 
         this.emitEnded = false;
-        this.markForDestroy = false;
         this.prewarmed = false;
     }
 
-    private applyMaterialSettings(
-        material: any,
-        overrides: {
-            blendMode?: number;
-            transparent?: boolean;
-            depthTest?: boolean;
-            depthWrite?: boolean;
-            alphaTest?: number;
-            texture?: Texture | null;
-            reflectionAtlas?: BaseTexture | null;
-            layerMask?: number;
-        } = {}
-    ) {
+    /**
+     * When the env atlas this system draws with is disposed (its cube was, or `disposeEnvAtlas`
+     * ran) while the system still uses it, drops it and builds a new one if the cube is still alive,
+     * so the batch never samples a disposed texture.
+     */
+    private watchEnvAtlas(atlas: BaseTexture | null, material: ParticleMaterialSource | null): void {
+        atlas?.onDisposeObservable.addOnce(() => {
+            if (this.destroyed || this.rendererSettings.reflectionAtlas !== atlas) {
+                return;
+            }
+            this.rendererSettings.reflectionAtlas = null;
+            if (material?.reflectionAtlas === atlas) {
+                material.reflectionAtlas = null;
+            }
+            this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
+            const cube = this.rendererSettings.reflectionTexture;
+            if (cube?.isCube && cube.getScene() && this.sceneRef) {
+                ensureEnvAtlasFromCube(cube, this.sceneRef, (rebuilt) => {
+                    if (this.destroyed || this.rendererSettings.reflectionTexture !== cube) {
+                        return;
+                    }
+                    this.rendererSettings.reflectionAtlas = rebuilt;
+                    if (material && material.reflectionAtlas == null) {
+                        material.reflectionAtlas = rebuilt;
+                    }
+                    this.watchEnvAtlas(rebuilt, material);
+                    this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
+                });
+            }
+        });
+    }
+
+    private applyMaterialSettings(material: ParticleMaterialSource | null, overrides: MaterialOverrides = {}) {
         /* istanbul ignore if -- rendererSettings is always assigned in the constructor before any code path can call this private method */
         if (!this.rendererSettings) {
             return;
         }
+        const resolved = resolveMaterialSettings(material, overrides, this.rendererSettings);
 
-        const resolvedTexture =
-            overrides.texture !== undefined
-                ? overrides.texture
-                : (material?.albedoTexture ??
-                  material?.diffuseTexture ??
-                  material?.emissiveTexture ??
-                  material?.opacityTexture ??
-                  material?.baseTexture ??
-                  this.rendererSettings.texture ??
-                  null);
-        const resolvedReflection =
-            material?.reflectionTexture ??
-            material?.environmentTexture ??
-            this.rendererSettings.reflectionTexture ??
-            null;
-        const resolvedReflectionLevel = typeof resolvedReflection?.level === 'number' ? resolvedReflection.level : 1;
-        const resolvedBlendMode =
-            overrides.blendMode ??
-            (typeof material?.alphaMode === 'number' ? material.alphaMode : this.rendererSettings.materialBlendMode);
-        const resolvedTransparent =
-            overrides.transparent ??
-            (typeof material?.needAlphaBlending === 'function'
-                ? material.needAlphaBlending()
-                : typeof material?.alpha === 'number'
-                  ? material.alpha < 1
-                  : this.rendererSettings.materialTransparent);
-        const resolvedDepthTest =
-            overrides.depthTest ??
-            (typeof material?.disableDepthTest === 'boolean'
-                ? !material.disableDepthTest
-                : this.rendererSettings.materialDepthTest);
-        const resolvedDepthWrite =
-            overrides.depthWrite ??
-            (typeof material?.disableDepthWrite === 'boolean'
-                ? !material.disableDepthWrite
-                : typeof material?.forceDepthWrite === 'boolean'
-                  ? material.forceDepthWrite
-                  : this.rendererSettings.materialDepthWrite);
-        const resolvedAlphaTest =
-            overrides.alphaTest ??
-            (() => {
-                // StandardMaterial always has alphaCutOff (default 0.4). Only treat it as
-                // particle alpha-test when the material is actually in an alpha-test mode —
-                // otherwise Mesh Material demos wrongly enable USE_ALPHATEST.
-                const mode = material?.transparencyMode;
-                const alphaTestMode = mode === 1 || mode === 3;
-                if (alphaTestMode && typeof material?.alphaCutOff === 'number') {
-                    return material.alphaCutOff;
-                }
-                if (alphaTestMode && typeof material?.alphaCutOffValue === 'number') {
-                    return material.alphaCutOffValue;
-                }
-                if (material) {
-                    return 0;
-                }
-                return this.rendererSettings.materialAlphaTest;
-            })();
-
-        this.rendererSettings.texture = resolvedTexture;
-        this.rendererSettings.reflectionTexture = resolvedReflection;
-        this.rendererSettings.reflectionLevel =
-            typeof material?.reflectionLevel === 'number' ? material.reflectionLevel : resolvedReflectionLevel;
+        this.rendererSettings.texture = resolved.texture;
+        this.rendererSettings.reflectionTexture = resolved.reflectionTexture;
+        this.rendererSettings.reflectionLevel = resolved.reflectionLevel;
         // Prefer an explicit atlas; otherwise build a 3×2 atlas from CubeTexture
         // face URLs (iOS-safe single sampler2D — not samplerCube / six faces).
-        let resolvedAtlas =
-            material?.reflectionAtlas ?? overrides.reflectionAtlas ?? this.rendererSettings.reflectionAtlas ?? null;
+        let resolvedAtlas = resolved.reflectionAtlas;
+        const resolvedReflection = resolved.reflectionTexture;
         if (!resolvedAtlas && resolvedReflection?.isCube) {
-            resolvedAtlas = getCachedEnvAtlas(resolvedReflection);
+            resolvedAtlas = getCachedEnvAtlas(resolvedReflection, this.sceneRef);
             if (!resolvedAtlas && this.sceneRef) {
                 ensureEnvAtlasFromCube(resolvedReflection, this.sceneRef, (atlas) => {
                     if (this.rendererSettings.reflectionAtlas === atlas) {
                         return;
                     }
                     this.rendererSettings.reflectionAtlas = atlas;
-                    if (material && material.reflectionAtlas == null) {
+                    if (material && !liveAtlas(material.reflectionAtlas)) {
                         material.reflectionAtlas = atlas;
                     }
+                    this.watchEnvAtlas(atlas, material);
                     this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
                 });
-                resolvedAtlas = getCachedEnvAtlas(resolvedReflection);
+                resolvedAtlas = getCachedEnvAtlas(resolvedReflection, this.sceneRef);
             }
         }
         this.rendererSettings.reflectionAtlas = resolvedAtlas;
-        // Do not expand cube files into six face textures anymore — that path
-        // still trips GL_INVALID_OPERATION on iOS. Prefer a single atlas.
-        this.rendererSettings.reflectionFaces =
-            material?.reflectionFaces?.length === 6 ? material.reflectionFaces : null;
-        this.rendererSettings.materialBlendMode = resolvedBlendMode;
-        this.rendererSettings.materialTransparent = resolvedTransparent;
-        this.rendererSettings.materialDepthTest = resolvedDepthTest;
-        this.rendererSettings.materialDepthWrite = resolvedDepthWrite;
-        this.rendererSettings.materialAlphaTest = resolvedAlphaTest;
+        this.watchEnvAtlas(resolvedAtlas, material);
+        this.rendererSettings.materialBlendMode = resolved.blendMode;
+        this.rendererSettings.materialTransparent = resolved.transparent;
+        this.rendererSettings.materialDepthTest = resolved.depthTest;
+        this.rendererSettings.materialDepthWrite = resolved.depthWrite;
+        this.rendererSettings.materialAlphaTest = validAlphaTest(resolved.alphaTest);
         if (overrides.layerMask !== undefined) {
             this.rendererSettings.layerMask = overrides.layerMask;
         }
         this.neededToUpdateRender = true;
     }
 
-    pause() {
+    /** Freezes the system where it is: particles stay and nothing is simulated until {@link play}. */
+    pause(): void {
         this.paused = true;
     }
-    play() {
-        this.paused = false;
-    }
-    stop() {
-        this.restart();
-        this.pause();
-    }
-
-    setQualityFactor(qualityFactor: number) {
-        this.qualityFactor = Math.max(0.1, Math.min(1, qualityFactor));
-    }
-
-    /** Quality factor times {@link emissionMultiplier}: what emission counts are scaled by. */
-    private emissionFactor(): number {
-        const multiplier = this.emissionMultiplier;
-        return multiplier >= 0 ? this.qualityFactor * multiplier : this.qualityFactor;
-    }
 
     /**
-     * Appends one particle to the pool, giving it the next row of the store.
-     *
-     * Growing the store replaces its arrays, so every particle already bound to
-     * it has to be re-pointed at the new ones.
+     * Plays the system, like Unity's `Play`: a paused or stopped system resumes from where it is,
+     * and one that has finished ({@link isFinished}) starts over from the beginning, as
+     * {@link restart} does. A playing system that has not finished is left as it is. To undo a
+     * {@link pause} without replaying a system that had finished, use {@link resume}.
      */
-    /** Points every particle at the store's columns again, after any were replaced. */
-    private rebindParticles(): void {
-        const particles = this.particles;
-        for (let i = 0; i < particles.length; i++) {
-            (particles[i] as SpriteParticle | TrailParticle).rebind();
+    play(): void {
+        if (this.destroyed) {
+            return;
+        }
+        if (this.isFinished()) {
+            this.restart();
         }
+        this.resume();
     }
 
-    private growParticlePool(isTrailMode: boolean): void {
-        const index = this.particles.length;
-        if (this.store.ensureCapacity(index + 1)) {
-            this.rebindParticles();
+    /**
+     * Undoes {@link pause}: the system goes on from where it is, and one that has finished stays
+     * finished. For a pause button over a whole scene, where {@link play} would replay the
+     * effects that had already ended.
+     */
+    resume(): void {
+        if (this.destroyed) {
+            return;
         }
-        this.particles.push(isTrailMode ? new TrailParticle(this.store, index) : new SpriteParticle(this.store, index));
+        this.paused = false;
+        // A move made while paused is a placement, not motion to spread the next frame over.
+        this.previousEmitterMatrix = undefined;
     }
 
-    private spawn(count: number, emissionState: EmissionState, matrix: Matrix4) {
-        const translation = tempV;
-        const scale = tempV2;
-        // decompose writes tempQ, so no separate setFromRotationMatrix is needed.
-        matrix.decompose(translation, tempQ, scale);
-        const behaviors = this.behaviors;
-        const behaviorCount = behaviors.length;
-        const renderMode = this.rendererSettings.renderMode;
-        const isTrailMode = renderMode === RenderMode.Trail;
-        const isSpriteMode = !isTrailMode;
-        const isMeshMode = renderMode === RenderMode.Mesh;
-        const startRotationIsRotation = this.startRotation.type === 'rotation';
-        const startSizeIsVector3 = this.startSize.type === 'vec3function';
-        const timeRatio = emissionState.time / this.duration;
-        const trailSettings = isTrailMode ? (this.rendererEmitterSettings as TrailSettings) : undefined;
-        const followLocalOrigin = Boolean(trailSettings?.followLocalOrigin);
-        if (this.maxParticles !== undefined) {
-            // Like Unity, a full system skips the particles it has no room for rather than queueing them.
-            count = Math.min(count, Math.max(0, this.maxParticles - this.particleNum));
-        }
-
-        for (let i = 0; i < count; i++) {
-            emissionState.burstParticleIndex = i;
-            this.particleNum++;
-            if (this.particles.length < this.particleNum) {
-                this.growParticlePool(isTrailMode);
-            }
-            const particle = this.particles[this.particleNum - 1];
-            particle.reset();
-            particle.speedModifier = 1;
-            // Parent EmitSub can refill an onlyUsedByOther system after it had
-            // already finished empty; clear the flag so update does not treat it
-            // as done while it has live particles again.
-            this.finishedEventFired = false;
-            this.startColor.startGen(particle.memory);
-            this.startColor.genColor(particle.memory, particle.startColor, this.emissionState.time);
-            particle.color.copy(particle.startColor);
-            this.startSpeed.startGen(particle.memory);
-            particle.startSpeed = this.startSpeed.genValue(particle.memory, timeRatio);
-            this.startLife.startGen(particle.memory);
-            particle.life = this.startLife.genValue(particle.memory, timeRatio);
-            particle.age = 0;
-            this.startSize.startGen(particle.memory);
-            if (startSizeIsVector3) {
-                (this.startSize as Vector3Generator).genValue(particle.memory, particle.startSize, timeRatio);
-            } else {
-                const size = (this.startSize as FunctionValueGenerator).genValue(particle.memory, timeRatio);
-                particle.startSize.set(size, size, size);
-            }
-            this.startTileIndex.startGen(particle.memory);
-            particle.uvTile = this.startTileIndex.genValue(particle.memory);
-            particle.size.copy(particle.startSize);
-
-            if (isSpriteMode) {
-                const sprite = particle as SpriteParticle;
-                this.startRotation.startGen(particle.memory);
-                if (isMeshMode) {
-                    if (!(sprite.rotation instanceof Quaternion)) {
-                        // Assigning a quaternion gives the particle a row in the
-                        // store's quaternion column; the value is overwritten below.
-                        sprite.rotation = IDENTITY_QUATERNION;
-                    }
-                    // A recycled particle can still carry the turn of whatever
-                    // it was last time; the renderer would draw a fraction of it
-                    // before any behavior has had a chance to say otherwise.
-                    if (sprite.angularVelocity instanceof Quaternion) {
-                        sprite.angularVelocity.set(0, 0, 0, 1);
-                    }
-                    if (startRotationIsRotation) {
-                        (this.startRotation as RotationGenerator).genValue(
-                            particle.memory,
-                            sprite.rotation as Quaternion,
-                            1,
-                            timeRatio
-                        );
-                    } else {
-                        (sprite.rotation as Quaternion).setFromAxisAngle(
-                            UP,
-                            (this.startRotation as FunctionValueGenerator).genValue(sprite.memory, timeRatio)
-                        );
-                    }
-                } else {
-                    if (startRotationIsRotation) {
-                        sprite.rotation = 0;
-                    } else {
-                        sprite.rotation = (this.startRotation as FunctionValueGenerator).genValue(
-                            sprite.memory,
-                            timeRatio
-                        );
-                    }
-                    // Set until a turning behavior says otherwise, so the
-                    // renderer never carries a recycled particle's old spin.
-                    sprite.angularVelocity = 0;
-                    const flip = this.flip;
-                    sprite.flip = flip === undefined ? 0 : (random() < flip.x ? 1 : 0) | (random() < flip.y ? 2 : 0);
-                }
-            } else if (trailSettings) {
-                const trail = particle as TrailParticle;
-                trailSettings.startLength.startGen(trail.memory);
-                trail.length = trailSettings.startLength.genValue(trail.memory, timeRatio);
-                trail.ensureHistoryCapacity(Math.max(1, Math.ceil(trail.length)));
-                trail.resetHistory();
-            }
-
-            this.emitterShape.initialize(particle, emissionState);
-
-            if (this.alignToDirection && isSpriteMode) {
-                this.alignParticleToDirection(particle as SpriteParticle, isMeshMode);
-            }
-
-            const parent = emissionState.particle;
-            const inherit = emissionState.inherit;
-            if (parent !== undefined && inherit !== undefined && inherit !== 0) {
-                this.inheritFromParent(particle, parent, inherit, isSpriteMode);
-            }
-
-            if (isTrailMode && followLocalOrigin) {
-                const trail = particle as TrailParticle;
-                if (!trail.localPosition) {
-                    trail.localPosition = new Vector3();
-                }
-                trail.localPosition.copy(trail.position);
-            }
-
-            if (this.worldSpace) {
-                particle.position.applyMatrix4(matrix);
-                particle.startSize.multiply(scale).abs();
-                particle.size.copy(particle.startSize);
-                if (this.scalingMode === 'hierarchy') {
-                    // Scaled per axis by the emitter's world scale, then turned: the speed scales with it.
-                    particle.velocity.multiply(this.hierarchyScale).applyQuaternion(tempQ);
-                } else {
-                    particle.velocity.multiply(scale).applyMatrix3(this.normalMatrix);
-                }
-                if (particle.rotation && particle.rotation instanceof Quaternion) {
-                    particle.rotation.multiplyQuaternions(tempQ, particle.rotation);
-                }
-            } else {
-                if (this.onlyUsedByOther) {
-                    particle.parentMatrix = matrix;
-                }
-            }
+    /** Clears every particle, rewinds to the start ({@link restart}) and pauses until {@link play}. */
+    stop(): void {
+        this.restart();
+        this.pause();
+    }
 
-            for (let j = 0; j < behaviorCount; j++) {
-                behaviors[j].initialize(particle, this);
+    /**
+     * Removes every particle alive and nothing else (Unity's `Clear`): emission goes on from where
+     * it is, paused stays paused, and the bursts and the random generator are not rewound. The
+     * sub emissions the removed particles were driving end with them; the child systems' own
+     * particles stay, and `particleDied` is not fired.
+     */
+    clear(): void {
+        this.particleNum = 0;
+        this.bounds.valid = false;
+        for (const behavior of this.behaviors) {
+            if (behavior instanceof EmitSubParticleSystem) {
+                behavior.clearEmissions();
             }
-            // Every generator has claimed its slot by now; give the compiled
-            // behavior passes a column copy of the samples.
-            this.store.recordMemory((particle as StoreBackedParticle).storeIndex, particle.memory);
         }
     }
 
-    /** Turns a newborn so that it faces the way its shape sent it; see {@link alignToDirection}. */
-    private alignParticleToDirection(sprite: SpriteParticle, isMeshMode: boolean): void {
-        const velocity = sprite.velocity;
-        const speedSq = velocity.x * velocity.x + velocity.y * velocity.y + velocity.z * velocity.z;
-        if (speedSq === 0) {
+    /**
+     * Drops every trail's recorded samples and keeps the particles (Unity's `TrailRenderer.Clear`):
+     * each ribbon starts over from where its particle is now. For a teleport: {@link pause}, move
+     * the emitter, {@link play} (so the move is not spread over the next frame's steps as motion)
+     * and call this, and no ribbon is drawn across the jump. Does nothing on the other render modes.
+     */
+    clearTrails(): void {
+        if (this.rendererSettings.renderMode !== RenderMode.Trail) {
             return;
         }
-        if (isMeshMode) {
-            // +Z along the velocity, with the start rotation applied first.
-            const rotation = sprite.rotation as Quaternion;
-            tempV.copy(velocity).divideScalar(Math.sqrt(speedSq));
-            tempQ.setFromUnitVectors(UP, tempV);
-            rotation.multiplyQuaternions(tempQ, rotation);
-        } else {
-            // The quad's top (its +Y) toward the velocity in the emitter's XY plane.
-            if (velocity.x !== 0 || velocity.y !== 0) {
-                sprite.rotation = (sprite.rotation as number) + Math.atan2(-velocity.x, velocity.y);
-            }
+        for (let i = 0; i < this.particleNum; i++) {
+            (this.particles[i] as TrailParticle).resetHistory();
         }
     }
 
-    /** Applies the parent particle's inherited properties to a sub emitted newborn; see `EmitSubParticleSystem.inherit`. */
-    private inheritFromParent(particle: Particle, parent: Particle, inherit: number, isSpriteMode: boolean): void {
-        if (inherit & SubEmitterInheritMask.color) {
-            particle.startColor.multiply(parent.color);
-            particle.color.copy(particle.startColor);
-        }
-        if (inherit & SubEmitterInheritMask.size) {
-            particle.startSize.multiply(parent.size);
-            particle.size.copy(particle.startSize);
-        }
-        if (inherit & SubEmitterInheritMask.rotation && isSpriteMode) {
-            const sprite = particle as SpriteParticle;
-            const parentRotation = parent.rotation;
-            if (typeof sprite.rotation === 'number') {
-                if (typeof parentRotation === 'number') {
-                    sprite.rotation += parentRotation;
-                }
-            } else if (parentRotation instanceof Quaternion) {
-                (sprite.rotation as Quaternion).multiplyQuaternions(parentRotation, sprite.rotation as Quaternion);
-            }
-        }
-        if (inherit & SubEmitterInheritMask.lifetime && parent.life > 0) {
-            particle.life *= Math.max(0, 1 - parent.age / parent.life);
-        }
+    /**
+     * Scales how many particles the system emits, from 0.1 to 1 (values outside are clamped), for
+     * lower quality settings or a crowded frame; the renderer's adaptive performance sets it. It
+     * multiplies with {@link emissionMultiplier}. Default 1.
+     */
+    setQualityFactor(qualityFactor: number): void {
+        this.qualityFactor = Math.max(0.1, Math.min(1, qualityFactor));
     }
 
-    endEmit() {
+    /**
+     * Quality factor times {@link emissionMultiplier}: what emission counts are scaled by.
+     * @internal
+     */
+    emissionFactor(): number {
+        return this.qualityFactor * this.emissionMultiplierValue;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Stops emission and lets the particles alive die out (Unity's `Stop` with
+     * `StopEmitting`). The system fires `emitEnd`, then `finished` when the last particle has
+     * died, and is disposed then if {@link autoDestroy} is set. {@link restart} starts it again.
+     */
+    endEmit(): void {
         this.emitEnded = true;
-        if (this.autoDestroy) {
-            this.markForDestroy = true;
-        }
-        this.fire({type: 'emitEnd', particleSystem: this});
+        this.events.fire({type: 'emitEnd', particleSystem: this});
     }
 
-    dispose() {
+    /** Whether {@link dispose} has run. A disposed system emits nothing and cannot be restarted. */
+    get isDisposed(): boolean {
+        return this.destroyed;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Removes the system from its renderer, disposes its emitter node (and the nodes under it) and
+     * fires `destroy`. A disposed system cannot be played again. Calling it twice is harmless.
+     */
+    dispose(): void {
         if (this.destroyed) {
             return;
         }
         this.destroyed = true;
+        // Nothing updates a disposed system again, so its particles would never die.
+        this.particleNum = 0;
         if (this._renderer) this._renderer.deleteSystem(this);
-        this.emitter.dispose();
-        this.fire({type: 'destroy', particleSystem: this});
+        disposeEmitterForSystem(this.emitter);
+        this.events.fire({type: 'destroy', particleSystem: this});
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Rolls the system-level generators into the system's memory. Called on construction and on
+     * every restart, which empties the memory: a generator that keeps a slot index into it, such
+     * as `IntervalValue`, would otherwise read past the end and return NaN. A seeded system rolls
+     * them on its own generator, so a restart replays the same rates, counts and delay.
+     */
+    private initSystemGenerators(): void {
+        const rng = this.rng;
+        const previous = rng === undefined ? undefined : setRandomSource(rng);
+        try {
+            this.clock.setStartDelay(this.emission.rollGenerators());
+        } finally {
+            if (rng !== undefined) {
+                setRandomSource(previous ?? null);
+            }
+        }
     }
 
-    restart() {
-        this.memory.length = 0;
+    /**
+     * Clears every particle and starts the system from the beginning: emission time 0, bursts and
+     * the start delay rolled again, behaviors reset, and a seeded system's generator restarted, so
+     * it replays the same effect. Also unpauses it.
+     */
+    restart(): void {
+        if (this.destroyed) {
+            return;
+        }
+        this.emission.memory.length = 0;
         this.paused = false;
         this.particleNum = 0;
-        this.boundsValid = false;
-        this.pendingCatchUp = 0;
+        this.bounds.valid = false;
+        this.clock.reset();
         if (this.seedValue !== undefined) {
             // The same seed again, so a restart replays the same effect.
             this.rng = createSeededRandom(this.seedValue);
@@ -1571,19 +1454,25 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         this.emissionState.burstWaves = undefined;
         this.emissionState.time = 0;
         this.emissionState.waitEmiting = 0;
+        // Forget where the emitter was: a restarted (or pooled and moved) system must not spawn
+        // emission-over-distance particles along the jump from its previous position.
+        this.emissionState.travelDistance = 0;
+        this.emissionState.previousWorldPos = undefined;
+        this.emissionState.burstParticleIndex = 0;
+        this.emissionState.burstParticleCount = 0;
+        // Bursts edited in place since the last play are put back in time order and in range.
+        this.emissionBursts.forEach((burst) => Object.assign(burst, normalizeBurst(burst)));
+        this.emissionBursts.sort((a, b) => a.time - b.time);
         this.behaviors.forEach((behavior) => behavior.reset());
+        // A sweeping shape (Loop, PingPong) starts its arc over, so the replay is the same.
+        this.emitterShape.reset?.();
         this.emitEnded = false;
-        this.markForDestroy = false;
         this.finishedEventFired = false;
         this.prewarmed = false;
-        this.emissionBursts.forEach((burst) => burst.count.startGen(this.memory));
-        this.emissionOverDistance.startGen(this.memory);
-        this.startDelay.startGen(this.memory);
-        this.startDelayTimeLeft = this.startDelay.genValue(this.memory, 0);
+        this.initSystemGenerators();
         this.previousEmitterPos = undefined;
+        this.previousEmitterMatrix = undefined;
         this.emitterVelocity.set(0, 0, 0);
-        this.simulationAccumulator = 0;
-        this.destroyed = false;
     }
 
     private firstTimeUpdate = true;
@@ -1601,19 +1490,26 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
      * @internal
      */
     update(delta: number, stepDeadline = Infinity, catchUpDeadline?: number) {
-        if (this.paused) return;
-        delta *= this.playbackSpeed;
+        if (this.paused || this.destroyed) return;
+        const speed = this.playbackSpeed * this.timeDilationValue;
+        delta = SimulationClock.frameSeconds(delta, speed);
 
         if (this.culled) {
             // Out of every camera's view. A paused system holds its particles
             // where they are; a catching-up one also remembers the time it missed.
             if (this.cullingMode === 'pauseAndCatchUp') {
-                this.pendingCatchUp = Math.min(MAX_CATCH_UP_SECONDS, this.pendingCatchUp + delta);
+                this.clock.deferCatchUp(delta);
             }
+            // Where the emitter goes while out of view is not motion to spread the frame of its
+            // return over: that frame starts from wherever it is then.
+            this.previousEmitterMatrix = undefined;
             return;
         }
-        if (this.pendingCatchUp > 0) {
+        if (this.clock.owesCatchUp) {
             this.catchUp(catchUpDeadline ?? performance.now() + ParticleSystem.catchUpBudgetMs);
+            if (this.paused || this.destroyed) return;
+            // The caught-up steps ran where the emitter is now; so does this frame.
+            (this.previousEmitterMatrix ??= new Matrix4()).copy(this.emitter.matrixWorld);
         }
 
         if (this.firstTimeUpdate) {
@@ -1627,27 +1523,13 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
             // accumulator here desyncs it from the parent, so the next particles
             // the parent emits into it sit at age 0 / startColor until the phase
             // catches up — white flashes scattered wherever the parent was.
-            if (delta > 0.1) {
-                delta = 0.1;
-            }
-            this.simulationAccumulator += delta;
-            const stepsToRun = Math.min(
-                MAX_SIMULATION_STEPS_PER_FRAME,
-                Math.max(0, Math.round(this.simulationAccumulator / SIMULATION_STEP - ROUND_TIE_BIAS))
-            );
-            this.simulationAccumulator -= stepsToRun * SIMULATION_STEP;
+            this.clock.accrue(delta, speed);
             return;
         }
 
         if (this.looping && this.prewarm && !this.prewarmed) {
-            this.prewarmed = true;
-            for (let i = 0; i < this.duration * PREWARM_FPS; i++) {
-                this.update(1.0 / PREWARM_FPS);
-            }
-        }
-
-        if (delta > 0.1) {
-            delta = 0.1;
+            this.runPrewarm();
+            if (this.paused || this.destroyed) return;
         }
 
         if (this.neededToUpdateRender) {
@@ -1663,37 +1545,64 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         (this.previousEmitterPos ??= new Vector3()).copy(this.tempEmitterPos);
 
         // Start delay holds back emission once per play/restart (ignored with
-        // prewarm, matching Unity). Carry the remainder so a large frame does
-        // not lose time.
-        if (this.startDelayTimeLeft > 0 && !(this.prewarm && this.looping)) {
-            this.startDelayTimeLeft -= delta;
-            if (this.startDelayTimeLeft >= 0) return;
-            delta = Math.min(-this.startDelayTimeLeft, 0.1);
-            this.startDelayTimeLeft = 0;
-        }
-
-        this.simulationAccumulator += delta;
-        const stepsToRun = Math.min(
-            MAX_SIMULATION_STEPS_PER_FRAME,
-            Math.max(0, Math.round(this.simulationAccumulator / SIMULATION_STEP - ROUND_TIE_BIAS))
-        );
+        // prewarm, matching Unity). The clock carries the remainder of the
+        // frame that ends it, so a large frame does not lose time.
+        if (this.clock.delaying && !(this.prewarm && this.looping)) {
+            delta = this.clock.consumeStartDelay(delta);
+            if (delta === 0) return;
+        }
+
+        const stepsToRun = this.clock.accrue(delta, speed);
+        if (stepsToRun === 0) return;
+        // A frame that runs several steps hands each of them the emitter where it was that far
+        // along the frame, between the matrix of the last simulated step and the current one
+        // (position, rotation and scale apart, as Niagara's interpolated spawning does): spawns
+        // land along the emitter's path and world-space trail samples follow it, instead of all
+        // sitting at the frame's end. A single step, the first frame after play, restart, a
+        // catch-up or a spell out of view, and a still emitter use the current matrix as it is.
+        // A node disabled and moved while disabled is not seen here; place it with `restart()`.
+        const current = this.emitter.matrixWorld;
+        const previous = this.previousEmitterMatrix;
+        const interpolate = stepsToRun > 1 && previous !== undefined && !previous.equals(current);
+        if (interpolate) {
+            previous.decompose(fromPosition, fromRotation, fromScale);
+            current.decompose(toPosition, toRotation, toScale);
+        }
+        let stepped = current;
         for (let i = 0; i < stepsToRun; i++) {
-            this.simulateStep(SIMULATION_STEP);
+            // The last step takes the current matrix itself, shear and all: decompose/compose
+            // only approximates a sheared matrix, and the step a still emitter's frame ends on
+            // must match a single-step frame exactly.
+            if (interpolate && i + 1 < stepsToRun) {
+                const t = (i + 1) / stepsToRun;
+                stepPosition.copy(fromPosition).lerp(toPosition, t);
+                stepRotation.copy(fromRotation).slerp(toRotation, t);
+                stepScale.copy(fromScale).lerp(toScale, t);
+                stepped = this.stepMatrix.compose(stepPosition, stepRotation, stepScale);
+            } else {
+                stepped = current;
+            }
+            this.simulateStep(SIMULATION_STEP, stepped);
+            // A listener (finished, particleDied) may have stopped, paused or disposed the system
+            // mid-frame; the remaining steps would emit into a stopped system.
+            if (this.paused || this.destroyed) break;
             if (stepDeadline !== Infinity && i + 1 < stepsToRun && performance.now() >= stepDeadline) {
                 // Over the frame's simulation budget: the remaining steps' time
-                // is consumed below without being simulated.
+                // was taken off the clock without being simulated.
                 break;
             }
         }
-        this.simulationAccumulator -= stepsToRun * SIMULATION_STEP;
+        if (!this.destroyed) {
+            (this.previousEmitterMatrix ??= new Matrix4()).copy(stepped);
+        }
     }
 
     /** Runs the steps a system missed while culled, as many as fit before `deadline`. */
     private catchUp(deadline: number): void {
-        let steps = Math.floor(this.pendingCatchUp / SIMULATION_STEP);
-        this.pendingCatchUp = 0;
+        let steps = this.clock.takeCatchUpSteps();
         while (steps-- > 0) {
             this.simulateStep(SIMULATION_STEP);
+            if (this.paused || this.destroyed) break;
             if (steps > 0 && performance.now() >= deadline) {
                 break;
             }
@@ -1701,67 +1610,53 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
     }
 
     /**
-     * Records the bounds the sprite step measured over the live particles.
-     * Trails are measured by their renderer instead, since their ribbons live
-     * outside the store.
+     * Counts the bursts, and the waves of the one in progress, due before `time` seconds into the
+     * cycle as fired, so a jump of the emission clock does not fire them late. The waves are
+     * counted with the arithmetic the emission uses, so none is lost to rounding.
      */
-    private storeBounds(
-        count: number,
-        measured: boolean,
-        minX: number,
-        minY: number,
-        minZ: number,
-        maxX: number,
-        maxY: number,
-        maxZ: number,
-        maxSize: number,
-        maxSpeedSq: number
-    ): void {
-        if (count === 0) {
-            this.boundsValid = false;
-            return;
-        }
-        this.stepsSinceBounds = measured ? 0 : this.stepsSinceBounds + 1;
-        this.boundsMaxSize = maxSize;
-        this.boundsMaxSpeedSq = maxSpeedSq;
-        const maxSpeed = Math.sqrt(maxSpeedSq);
-        const renderMode = this.rendererSettings.renderMode;
-        // How far past its position a particle can be drawn: half a quad's
-        // diagonal plus its pivot, a mesh's radius, or a stretched quad's tail.
-        // Plus the motion since the last measurement, and the step the renderer
-        // moves particles on along their velocity.
-        let padding = maxSpeed * SIMULATION_STEP * (this.stepsSinceBounds + 1);
-        if (renderMode === RenderMode.Mesh) {
-            padding += maxSize * this.meshGeometryRadius();
-        } else if (renderMode === RenderMode.StretchedBillBoard) {
-            const settings = this.rendererEmitterSettings as StretchedBillBoardSettings;
-            padding += maxSize * (1 + (settings.lengthFactor ?? 0) + maxSpeed * (settings.speedFactor ?? 0));
-        } else {
-            const pivot = this.rendererSettings.pivot;
-            const pivotReach = pivot === undefined ? 0 : Math.abs(pivot.x) + Math.abs(pivot.y) + Math.abs(pivot.z);
-            padding += maxSize * (0.75 + pivotReach);
-        }
-        this.boundsMin.set(minX, minY, minZ);
-        this.boundsMax.set(maxX, maxY, maxZ);
-        this.boundsPadding = padding;
-        this.boundsInWorld = this.worldSpace;
-        this.boundsValid = true;
-    }
-
-    /** Distance of the farthest vertex of the mesh particles' geometry from its origin. */
-    private meshGeometryRadius(): number {
-        const geometry = this.rendererSettings.instancingGeometry;
-        if (geometry !== this.geometryRadiusFor) {
-            let radiusSq = 0;
-            for (let o = 0; o + 2 < geometry.length; o += 3) {
-                const d =
-                    geometry[o] * geometry[o] + geometry[o + 1] * geometry[o + 1] + geometry[o + 2] * geometry[o + 2];
-                if (d > radiusSq) radiusSq = d;
+    private markBurstsBefore(time: number): void {
+        const state = this.emissionState;
+        const bursts = this.emissionBursts;
+        const waves = (state.burstWaves ??= []);
+        while (state.burstIndex < bursts.length && bursts[state.burstIndex].time < time) {
+            const burst = bursts[state.burstIndex];
+            const cycles = burstWaveCount(burst);
+            const interval = burstInterval(burst);
+            let wave = 0;
+            if (interval > 0) {
+                while (wave < cycles && burst.time + wave * interval < time) {
+                    wave++;
+                }
+            } else {
+                wave = cycles;
             }
-            this.geometryRadius = Math.sqrt(radiusSq);
-            this.geometryRadiusFor = geometry;
+            waves[state.burstIndex] = wave;
+            state.burstIndex++;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Simulates the end of a cycle before the first frame, on the fixed step directly: no frame
+     * clamp, culling or emitter velocity in the way. The cycle's last {@link prewarmTime} seconds
+     * (the whole cycle when that is 0), and at most {@link maxPrewarmSeconds}, with the bursts
+     * before that counted as fired.
+     */
+    private runPrewarm(): void {
+        this.prewarmed = true;
+        const wanted = this.prewarmTime > 0 ? this.prewarmTime : this.duration;
+        const warm = Math.min(this.duration, wanted, Math.max(0, ParticleSystem.maxPrewarmSeconds));
+        const steps = Math.round(warm / SIMULATION_STEP);
+        if (warm < this.duration) {
+            const state = this.emissionState;
+            state.time = this.duration - steps * SIMULATION_STEP;
+            // The waves due before the warm-up count as fired, so the first step does not fire
+            // them late; the waves inside it still fire as the time comes.
+            this.markBurstsBefore(state.time);
+        }
+        for (let i = 0; i < steps; i++) {
+            this.simulateStep(SIMULATION_STEP);
+            if (this.paused || this.destroyed) return;
         }
-        return this.geometryRadius;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -1773,7 +1668,7 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
      * frame behind the display.
      */
     getWorldBounds(min: Vector3, max: Vector3): boolean {
-        if (!this.measureWorldBounds(min, max)) {
+        if (!this.bounds.toWorld(min, max, this.emitter)) {
             return false;
         }
         if (this.rendererSettings.renderMode === RenderMode.Beam) {
@@ -1783,7 +1678,7 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
             if (!this.getBeamEnd(end)) {
                 return true;
             }
-            const pad = this.boundsInWorld ? this.boundsPadding : this.boundsPadding * this.emitterMaxScale();
+            const pad = this.bounds.worldPadding(this.emitter);
             min.set(Math.min(min.x, end.x - pad), Math.min(min.y, end.y - pad), Math.min(min.z, end.z - pad));
             max.set(Math.max(max.x, end.x + pad), Math.max(max.y, end.y + pad), Math.max(max.z, end.z + pad));
         }
@@ -1793,7 +1688,8 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
     /**
      * Where a {@link RenderMode.Beam} system's quads end, see {@link BeamEnd}.
      * Unset (the default), a beam has no length and draws nothing. Not saved
-     * in the effect JSON: it is where this instance is aimed at runtime.
+     * in the effect JSON: it is where this instance is aimed at runtime. Copied by
+     * {@link clone}: a point as a copy, a node as the same node.
      */
     beamEnd?: BeamEnd;
 
@@ -1803,9 +1699,9 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
      * per-instance data, Unreal's user parameters). With {@link erosion},
      * alpha is the erosion level, so this wipes the shape in and out. The
      * particles' own colours are untouched, so clearing it restores them, and
-     * systems with different tints still batch together. Under additive
-     * (`ALPHA_ONEONE`) or premultiplied blending, which ignore alpha, fade
-     * with the colour instead, or with erosion on. Unset (the default): none.
+     * systems with different tints still batch together. Its alpha fades the
+     * particles in every blend mode that blends by coverage (see
+     * {@link blendCategory}). Unset (the default): none.
      * Not saved in the effect JSON; copied by {@link clone}.
      */
     tint?: Vector4;
@@ -1830,67 +1726,6 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         return true;
     }
 
-    /** The largest axis of the emitter's world scale. */
-    private emitterMaxScale(): number {
-        const e = this.emitter.matrixWorld.elements;
-        return Math.sqrt(
-            Math.max(
-                e[0] * e[0] + e[1] * e[1] + e[2] * e[2],
-                e[4] * e[4] + e[5] * e[5] + e[6] * e[6],
-                e[8] * e[8] + e[9] * e[9] + e[10] * e[10]
-            )
-        );
-    }
-
-    private measureWorldBounds(min: Vector3, max: Vector3): boolean {
-        if (!this.boundsValid) {
-            return false;
-        }
-        const bmin = this.boundsMin;
-        const bmax = this.boundsMax;
-        if (this.boundsInWorld) {
-            const pad = this.boundsPadding;
-            min.set(bmin.x - pad, bmin.y - pad, bmin.z - pad);
-            max.set(bmax.x + pad, bmax.y + pad, bmax.z + pad);
-            return true;
-        }
-        // Local bounds: the box of the eight transformed corners, padded by the
-        // reach scaled by the emitter's largest axis.
-        const e = this.emitter.matrixWorld.elements;
-        const scale = Math.sqrt(
-            Math.max(
-                e[0] * e[0] + e[1] * e[1] + e[2] * e[2],
-                e[4] * e[4] + e[5] * e[5] + e[6] * e[6],
-                e[8] * e[8] + e[9] * e[9] + e[10] * e[10]
-            )
-        );
-        const pad = this.boundsPadding * scale;
-        let minX = Infinity;
-        let minY = Infinity;
-        let minZ = Infinity;
-        let maxX = -Infinity;
-        let maxY = -Infinity;
-        let maxZ = -Infinity;
-        for (let corner = 0; corner < 8; corner++) {
-            const x = corner & 1 ? bmax.x : bmin.x;
-            const y = corner & 2 ? bmax.y : bmin.y;
-            const z = corner & 4 ? bmax.z : bmin.z;
-            const w = 1 / (e[3] * x + e[7] * y + e[11] * z + e[15]);
-            const wx = (e[0] * x + e[4] * y + e[8] * z + e[12]) * w;
-            const wy = (e[1] * x + e[5] * y + e[9] * z + e[13]) * w;
-            const wz = (e[2] * x + e[6] * y + e[10] * z + e[14]) * w;
-            if (wx < minX) minX = wx;
-            if (wx > maxX) maxX = wx;
-            if (wy < minY) minY = wy;
-            if (wy > maxY) maxY = wy;
-            if (wz < minZ) minZ = wz;
-            if (wz > maxZ) maxZ = wz;
-        }
-        min.set(minX - pad, minY - pad, minZ - pad);
-        max.set(maxX + pad, maxY + pad, maxZ + pad);
-        return true;
-    }
-
     /**
      * Records bounds a renderer measured in world space, for systems whose
      * drawn extent the store does not hold (trail ribbons).
@@ -1905,891 +1740,179 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         maxZ: number,
         padding: number
     ) {
-        this.boundsMin.set(minX, minY, minZ);
-        this.boundsMax.set(maxX, maxY, maxZ);
-        this.boundsPadding = padding;
-        this.boundsInWorld = true;
-        this.boundsValid = true;
+        this.bounds.setWorld(minX, minY, minZ, maxX, maxY, maxZ, padding);
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Time the display is ahead of (positive) or still ahead of the simulation
-     * (negative — the simulation ran a hair early), in seconds. Magnitude never
-     * exceeds one step.
-     *
-     * The simulation runs on a fixed 1/60 step so that emission and lifetimes
-     * stay in phase — without it a slow emitter flickers when the frame rate
-     * wobbles. But frames do not arrive on that grid: a display running at
-     * anything other than exactly 60Hz leaves some frames with no step at all
-     * (half of them at 120Hz, three in five at 144Hz) and others with two, so
-     * the particles are drawn stuttering even while the frame rate is perfect.
-     *
-     * The steps-per-frame count below is chosen by *rounding* the accumulated
-     * time to the nearest step, not flooring it. Flooring always leaves the
-     * accumulator positive, and when the real frame rate sits very close to
-     * 60Hz (as most displays do) that leftover creeps toward a full step for
-     * many consecutive frames before tipping over into a frame that runs two
-     * steps at once and resets it to near zero — a visible lurch, every particle
-     * in the system at once, with a perfectly steady frame rate the whole time.
-     * Rounding lets the leftover go negative instead, which keeps it centered
-     * near zero and stops it from ever building up toward that reset.
-     *
-     * Renderers close the gap by advancing what they draw along each particle's
-     * velocity by this much. That reproduces the straight-line part of the
-     * motion exactly — it is the same term the next step would integrate — so
-     * the simulation stays fixed-step while the picture moves continuously.
-     */
     /** Length of one simulation step, in seconds. See {@link simulationResidual}. */
     get simulationStep(): number {
         return SIMULATION_STEP;
     }
 
-    get simulationResidual(): number {
-        if (this.paused) {
-            return 0;
-        }
-        // Magnitude never more than a step, even if a frame long enough to hit
-        // the per-frame step cap left the accumulator with more than that.
-        if (this.simulationAccumulator > SIMULATION_STEP) return SIMULATION_STEP;
-        if (this.simulationAccumulator < -SIMULATION_STEP) return -SIMULATION_STEP;
-        return this.simulationAccumulator;
-    }
-
     /**
-     * Execution plan for this system's behaviors, rebuilt when the list changes.
+     * Time the display is ahead of (positive) or still ahead of the simulation
+     * (negative: the simulation ran a hair early), in seconds; 0 while paused.
+     * Its magnitude never exceeds one step.
      *
-     * Consecutive behaviors that can be compiled into one loop are merged, so
-     * the particles are walked once instead of once per behavior. The plan is
-     * keyed on the behavior instances, not their types: swapping one out has to
-     * change the generated code's indices.
+     * The simulation runs on a fixed 1/60 step so that emission and lifetimes
+     * stay in phase; without it a slow emitter flickers when the frame rate
+     * wobbles. But frames do not arrive on that grid: a display running at
+     * anything other than exactly 60 Hz leaves some frames with no step at all
+     * (half of them at 120 Hz, three in five at 144 Hz) and others with two, so
+     * the particles would be drawn stuttering even while the frame rate is
+     * perfect. Renderers close the gap by advancing what they draw along each
+     * particle's velocity by this much. That reproduces the straight-line part
+     * of the motion exactly, the same term the next step would integrate, so
+     * the simulation stays fixed-step while the picture moves continuously.
      */
-    private behaviorSteps(): Array<FusionStep> {
-        const behaviors = this.behaviors;
-        const cached = this.fusionPlan;
-        if (cached !== undefined && cached.length === behaviors.length) {
-            let same = true;
-            for (let i = 0; i < behaviors.length; i++) {
-                if (cached[i] !== behaviors[i]) {
-                    same = false;
-                    break;
-                }
-            }
-            if (same) {
-                return this.fusionSteps;
-            }
-        }
-        this.fusionPlan = behaviors.slice();
-        this.fusionSteps = planBehaviorFusion(behaviors);
-        let changesSize = false;
-        let changesColor = false;
-        for (let i = 0; i < behaviors.length; i++) {
-            const type = behaviors[i].type;
-            if (SIZE_BEHAVIORS.has(type)) {
-                changesSize = true;
-            } else if (COLOR_BEHAVIORS.has(type)) {
-                changesColor = true;
-            } else if (!INERT_FOR_SIZE_AND_COLOR.has(type)) {
-                // Unknown to this list, so it may write anything.
-                changesSize = true;
-                changesColor = true;
-            }
-        }
-        this.planChangesSize = changesSize;
-        this.planChangesColor = changesColor;
-        return this.fusionSteps;
+    get simulationResidual(): number {
+        return this.paused ? 0 : this.clock.residual;
     }
 
     /**
-     * Advances emission, behaviors, motion and culling by one fixed timestep,
-     * on the system's own random generator when it has a {@link seed}.
+     * Advances emission, behaviors, motion and culling by one fixed timestep, on the system's own
+     * random generator when it has a {@link seed}, with the emitter at `emitterMatrix`: the
+     * current one, unless a frame interpolates (see {@link update}).
      */
-    private simulateStep(delta: number): void {
+    private simulateStep(delta: number, emitterMatrix: Matrix4 = this.emitter.matrixWorld): void {
         const rng = this.rng;
         if (rng === undefined) {
-            this.stepOnce(delta);
+            this.stepOnce(delta, emitterMatrix);
             return;
         }
         const previous = setRandomSource(rng);
         try {
-            this.stepOnce(delta);
+            this.stepOnce(delta, emitterMatrix);
         } finally {
             setRandomSource(previous);
         }
     }
 
-    private stepOnce(delta: number): void {
-        this.motionScale = this.measureMotionScale();
+    private stepOnce(delta: number, emitterMatrix: Matrix4): void {
+        if (this.destroyed) return;
+        this.motionScale = this.measureMotionScale(emitterMatrix);
         if (!this.onlyUsedByOther) {
-            this.emit(delta, this.emissionState, this.emitter.matrixWorld);
+            this.emission.emit(delta, this.emissionState, emitterMatrix);
         }
 
         const particles = this.particles;
         const behaviors = this.behaviors;
-        const behaviorCount = behaviors.length;
         const particleCount = this.particleNum;
-        const isTrailMode = this.rendererSettings.renderMode === RenderMode.Trail;
-        // Only stretched billboards draw from velocity, and only they pay for
-        // keeping the previous one.
-        const stretched = this.rendererSettings.renderMode === RenderMode.StretchedBillBoard;
-
-        // Remember where everything starts this step, so the renderer can carry
-        // the motion the step produces on into the part of the frame that comes
-        // after it. Taken after emission on purpose: a particle born this step
-        // then starts from where it was born rather than from whatever the row
-        // held before, and so is drawn at the emitter instead of jumping.
-        const columns = this.store;
-        const vector3Rows = particleCount * 3;
-        const steps = this.behaviorSteps();
-        // Size and colour are only snapshotted when some behavior can change
-        // them; otherwise the columns stay what spawn wrote and the renderer
-        // reads them as they are.
-        const snapshotSize = this.planChangesSize;
-        const snapshotColor = this.planChangesColor;
-        columns.useSizeSnapshot(snapshotSize);
-        columns.useColorSnapshot(snapshotColor);
-        columns.previousPosition.set(columns.position.subarray(0, vector3Rows));
-        if (snapshotSize) {
-            columns.previousSize.set(columns.size.subarray(0, vector3Rows));
-        }
-        if (stretched) {
-            if (columns.keepPreviousVelocity()) {
-                this.rebindParticles();
-            }
-            columns.previousVelocity.set(columns.velocity.subarray(0, vector3Rows));
-        }
-        if (snapshotColor) {
-            columns.previousColor.set(columns.color.subarray(0, particleCount * 4));
-        }
+        const store = this.store;
+        const renderMode = this.rendererSettings.renderMode;
+        const isTrailMode = renderMode === RenderMode.Trail;
+
+        // Taken after emission on purpose: a particle born this step then starts from where it
+        // was born rather than from whatever the row held before, and so is drawn at the emitter
+        // instead of jumping.
+        const steps = this.behaviorPlan.steps(behaviors);
+        const snapshotSize = this.behaviorPlan.changesSize;
+        const snapshotColor = this.behaviorPlan.changesColor;
+        snapshotPreviousState(
+            store,
+            particleCount,
+            snapshotSize,
+            snapshotColor,
+            renderMode === RenderMode.StretchedBillBoard,
+            this.rebindParticles
+        );
 
         this.emitterShape.update(this, delta);
-        for (let s = 0; s < steps.length; s++) {
-            const step = steps[s];
-            const stepBehaviors = step.behaviors;
-            for (let j = 0; j < stepBehaviors.length; j++) {
-                stepBehaviors[j].frameUpdate(delta);
-            }
-            // Nothing to update: skip, matching what the per-particle loop did.
-            // A behavior may set up state before its loop that is only valid
-            // once it has seen a particle.
-            if (particleCount === 0) {
-                continue;
-            }
-            if (step.run !== undefined) {
-                step.run(behaviors, particles, particleCount, delta, this.store);
-                continue;
-            }
-            const behavior = stepBehaviors[0];
-            if (behavior.updateAll !== undefined) {
-                behavior.updateAll(particles, particleCount, delta);
-                continue;
-            }
-            for (let i = 0; i < particleCount; i++) {
-                const particle = particles[i];
-                // Inlined `died` — this runs once per behavior per particle.
-                if (particle.age < particle.life) {
-                    behavior.update(particle, delta);
-                }
-            }
-        }
+        runBehaviorSteps(steps, behaviors, particles, particleCount, delta, store);
 
-        const notifyDeaths = this.hasListeners('particleDied');
-        const store = this.store;
-        const scalars = store.scalars;
-        const stride = ParticleStore.SCALAR_STRIDE;
+        const onDied = this.events.has('particleDied') ? this.fireParticleDied : undefined;
+        // Read again: a behavior (a sub emitter aimed at this system) may have spawned more.
         let liveParticleCount = this.particleNum;
-
         if (!isTrailMode) {
-            // One pass over the columns does three things the sprite path needs,
-            // none of which touches a particle object until a death:
-            //
-            // Newborns were snapshotted above with their spawn size and colour,
-            // before SizeOverLife / ColorOverLife ran. That false jump would be
-            // extrapolated by the renderer when the residual is negative (common
-            // with the rounded fixed step) and flash the start appearance at the
-            // emitter, so the snapshot is collapsed onto the curves' t=0 value.
-            // Age is still 0 at that point; the same iteration then ages it.
-            //
-            // Position is integrated along the velocity.
-            //
-            // A particle whose age reached its life is swapped with the last live
-            // one, rows included, so slot k always owns row k and the live
-            // particles stay one contiguous range the renderer copies as is. The
-            // survivor moved into the slot has not been visited yet, so the slot
-            // is processed again.
-            const positions = store.position;
-            const velocities = store.velocity;
-            const prevSize = store.previousSize;
-            const curSize = store.size;
-            const prevColor = store.previousColor;
-            const curColor = store.color;
-            const collapseSize = snapshotSize;
-            const collapseColor = snapshotColor;
-            // The bounds fall out of the same pass. Measuring every particle on
-            // every step costs about as much as the integration itself, so the
-            // full measurement runs every few steps; in between, newborns extend
-            // the last bounds and the fastest particle seen since pads them for
-            // the motion, which keeps them conservative.
-            const measure = this.stepsSinceBounds >= BOUNDS_REFRESH_STEPS || !this.boundsValid;
-            const carriedMin = this.boundsMin;
-            const carriedMax = this.boundsMax;
-            let minX = measure ? Infinity : carriedMin.x;
-            let minY = measure ? Infinity : carriedMin.y;
-            let minZ = measure ? Infinity : carriedMin.z;
-            let maxX = measure ? -Infinity : carriedMax.x;
-            let maxY = measure ? -Infinity : carriedMax.y;
-            let maxZ = measure ? -Infinity : carriedMax.z;
-            let maxSize = measure ? 0 : this.boundsMaxSize;
-            let maxSpeedSq = measure ? 0 : this.boundsMaxSpeedSq;
-            for (let i = 0; i < liveParticleCount; i++) {
-                const scalar = i * stride;
-                let age = scalars[scalar + ParticleStore.AGE];
-                const offset = i * 3;
-                const track = measure || age === 0;
-                if (age === 0) {
-                    if (collapseSize) {
-                        prevSize[offset] = curSize[offset];
-                        prevSize[offset + 1] = curSize[offset + 1];
-                        prevSize[offset + 2] = curSize[offset + 2];
-                    }
-                    if (collapseColor) {
-                        const o4 = i * 4;
-                        prevColor[o4] = curColor[o4];
-                        prevColor[o4 + 1] = curColor[o4 + 1];
-                        prevColor[o4 + 2] = curColor[o4 + 2];
-                        prevColor[o4 + 3] = curColor[o4 + 3];
-                    }
-                }
-                const step = delta * scalars[scalar + ParticleStore.SPEED_MODIFIER];
-                const vx = velocities[offset];
-                const vy = velocities[offset + 1];
-                const vz = velocities[offset + 2];
-                const x = positions[offset] + vx * step;
-                const y = positions[offset + 1] + vy * step;
-                const z = positions[offset + 2] + vz * step;
-                positions[offset] = x;
-                positions[offset + 1] = y;
-                positions[offset + 2] = z;
-                if (track) {
-                    minX = Math.min(minX, x);
-                    maxX = Math.max(maxX, x);
-                    minY = Math.min(minY, y);
-                    maxY = Math.max(maxY, y);
-                    minZ = Math.min(minZ, z);
-                    maxZ = Math.max(maxZ, z);
-                    maxSize = Math.max(
-                        maxSize,
-                        Math.max(curSize[offset], Math.max(curSize[offset + 1], curSize[offset + 2]))
-                    );
-                }
-                // Speed is tracked every step: it bounds how far the particles
-                // can have moved since the last measurement.
-                maxSpeedSq = Math.max(maxSpeedSq, vx * vx + vy * vy + vz * vz);
-                age += delta;
-                scalars[scalar + ParticleStore.AGE] = age;
-                if (age >= scalars[scalar + ParticleStore.LIFE]) {
-                    const last = liveParticleCount - 1;
-                    const particle = particles[i];
-                    const survivor = particles[last] as StoreBackedParticle;
-                    particles[i] = survivor;
-                    particles[last] = particle;
-                    if (i !== last) {
-                        store.swapRows(i, last);
-                        survivor.setStoreIndex(i);
-                        (particle as StoreBackedParticle).setStoreIndex(last);
-                    }
-                    liveParticleCount--;
-                    i--;
-                    if (notifyDeaths) {
-                        this.fire({type: 'particleDied', particleSystem: this, particle: particle});
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-            this.particleNum = liveParticleCount;
-            this.storeBounds(liveParticleCount, measure, minX, minY, minZ, maxX, maxY, maxZ, maxSize, maxSpeedSq);
-            this.notifyFinished();
-            return;
-        }
-
-        // Trails: the newborn collapse, then motion, then the trail history,
-        // then removal, each over the particle objects the history lives on.
-        if (particleCount > 0) {
-            const prevSize = columns.previousSize;
-            const curSize = columns.size;
-            const prevColor = columns.previousColor;
-            const curColor = columns.color;
-            for (let i = 0, o3 = 0, o4 = 0, s = 0; i < particleCount; i++, o3 += 3, o4 += 4, s += stride) {
-                if (scalars[s + ParticleStore.AGE] !== 0) {
-                    continue;
-                }
-                if (snapshotSize) {
-                    prevSize[o3] = curSize[o3];
-                    prevSize[o3 + 1] = curSize[o3 + 1];
-                    prevSize[o3 + 2] = curSize[o3 + 2];
-                }
-                if (snapshotColor) {
-                    prevColor[o4] = curColor[o4];
-                    prevColor[o4 + 1] = curColor[o4 + 1];
-                    prevColor[o4 + 2] = curColor[o4 + 2];
-                    prevColor[o4 + 3] = curColor[o4 + 3];
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        const followLocalOrigin = (this.rendererEmitterSettings as TrailSettings).followLocalOrigin;
-        if (followLocalOrigin) {
-            const emitterMatrix = this.emitter.matrixWorld;
-            for (let i = 0; i < particleCount; i++) {
-                const particle = particles[i];
-                if ((particle as TrailParticle).localPosition) {
-                    particle.position.copy((particle as TrailParticle).localPosition!);
-                    particle.position.applyMatrix4(particle.parentMatrix ?? emitterMatrix);
-                } else {
-                    particle.position.addScaledVector(particle.velocity, delta * particle.speedModifier);
-                }
-                particle.age += delta;
-            }
+            liveParticleCount = integrateSprites(
+                delta,
+                particles,
+                store,
+                liveParticleCount,
+                snapshotSize,
+                snapshotColor,
+                this.bounds,
+                this,
+                onDied
+            );
         } else {
-            const positions = store.position;
-            const velocities = store.velocity;
-            for (let i = 0, offset = 0, scalar = 0; i < particleCount; i++, offset += 3, scalar += stride) {
-                const step = delta * scalars[scalar + ParticleStore.SPEED_MODIFIER];
-                positions[offset] += velocities[offset] * step;
-                positions[offset + 1] += velocities[offset + 1] * step;
-                positions[offset + 2] += velocities[offset + 2] * step;
-                scalars[scalar + ParticleStore.AGE] += delta;
-            }
-        }
-
-        {
+            // Trails: the newborn collapse, then motion, then the trail history,
+            // then removal, each over the particle objects the history lives on.
             const trailSettings = this.rendererEmitterSettings as TrailSettings;
-            const dieWithParticle = trailSettings.dieWithParticle;
-            // A world-space system records world positions already.
-            const recordWorldSpace = trailSettings.recordWorldSpace && !this.worldSpace;
-            const emitterMatrix = this.emitter.matrixWorld;
-            // A swept trail records its side as the emitter holds it, in the
-            // space its positions are recorded in.
-            const sideAxis = trailSettings.sideAxis;
-            const sidesInWorld = this.worldSpace || Boolean(trailSettings.recordWorldSpace);
-            for (let i = 0; i < particleCount; i++) {
-                const trail = particles[i] as TrailParticle;
-                // Emptying the history lets the removal pass below take the
-                // particle this same step.
-                if (dieWithParticle && trail.age >= trail.life) {
-                    trail.resetHistory();
-                    continue;
-                }
-                trail.update();
-                // update() wrote a sample only while the particle is alive.
-                if (recordWorldSpace && trail.age <= trail.life) {
-                    const offset = ((trail.historyHead + trail.historyCapacity - 1) % trail.historyCapacity) * 3;
-                    const positions = trail.historyPositions;
-                    tempV.set(positions[offset], positions[offset + 1], positions[offset + 2]);
-                    tempV.applyMatrix4(trail.parentMatrix ?? emitterMatrix);
-                    positions[offset] = tempV.x;
-                    positions[offset + 1] = tempV.y;
-                    positions[offset + 2] = tempV.z;
-                }
-                if (sideAxis && trail.age <= trail.life) {
-                    trail.ensureSideHistory();
-                    const offset = ((trail.historyHead + trail.historyCapacity - 1) % trail.historyCapacity) * 3;
-                    const sides = trail.historySides;
-                    let x = sideAxis.x;
-                    let y = sideAxis.y;
-                    let z = sideAxis.z;
-                    if (sidesInWorld) {
-                        const m = (trail.parentMatrix ?? emitterMatrix).elements;
-                        const tx = m[0] * x + m[4] * y + m[8] * z;
-                        const ty = m[1] * x + m[5] * y + m[9] * z;
-                        z = m[2] * x + m[6] * y + m[10] * z;
-                        x = tx;
-                        y = ty;
-                    }
-                    sides[offset] = x;
-                    sides[offset + 1] = y;
-                    sides[offset + 2] = z;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        for (let i = 0; i < liveParticleCount; i++) {
-            const particle = particles[i] as TrailParticle;
-            const scalar = i * stride;
-            const dead = scalars[scalar + ParticleStore.AGE] >= scalars[scalar + ParticleStore.LIFE];
-            if (dead && particle.historyCount === 0) {
-                const last = liveParticleCount - 1;
-                const survivor = particles[last] as StoreBackedParticle;
-                particles[i] = survivor;
-                particles[last] = particle;
-                if (i !== last) {
-                    store.swapRows(i, last);
-                    survivor.setStoreIndex(i);
-                    (particle as StoreBackedParticle).setStoreIndex(last);
-                }
-                liveParticleCount--;
-                i--;
-                if (notifyDeaths) {
-                    this.fire({type: 'particleDied', particleSystem: this, particle: particle});
-                }
-            }
+            collapseTrailNewborns(store, particleCount, snapshotSize, snapshotColor);
+            moveTrails(delta, particles, store, particleCount, Boolean(trailSettings.followLocalOrigin), emitterMatrix);
+            recordTrailHistory(particles, particleCount, trailSettings, this.worldSpace, emitterMatrix);
+            liveParticleCount = removeDeadTrails(particles, store, liveParticleCount, onDied);
         }
-        this.particleNum = liveParticleCount;
+        // A particleDied listener may have disposed the system, which drops every particle.
+        this.particleNum = this.destroyed ? 0 : liveParticleCount;
         this.notifyFinished();
     }
 
+    /** Re-points every particle at the store, for {@link snapshotPreviousState}. */
+    private readonly rebindParticles = (): void => this.spawner.rebind();
+
+    /** The one `particleDied` event, filled in for each death so a death allocates nothing. */
+    private readonly particleDiedEvent: ParticleSystemEvent = {type: 'particleDied', particleSystem: this};
+
+    /** Fires `particleDied` for a particle the step retired. */
+    private readonly fireParticleDied = (particle: Particle): void => {
+        const event = this.particleDiedEvent;
+        event.particle = particle;
+        this.events.fire(event);
+        event.particle = undefined;
+    };
+
     private notifyFinished(): void {
         if (!this.isFinished()) {
             return;
         }
         if (!this.finishedEventFired) {
             this.finishedEventFired = true;
-            this.fire({type: 'finished', particleSystem: this});
+            this.events.fire({type: 'finished', particleSystem: this});
         }
         if (this.autoDestroy) {
-            this.markForDestroy = true;
             this.dispose();
         }
     }
 
-    /** Waves a burst fires per loop: its `cycle`, and never fewer than one. */
-    private static burstWaveCount(burst: BurstParameters): number {
-        return burst.cycle >= 1 ? Math.floor(burst.cycle) : 1;
-    }
-
-    /** Seconds between a burst's waves; a missing or negative interval fires them all at once. */
-    private static burstInterval(burst: BurstParameters): number {
-        return burst.interval > 0 ? burst.interval : 0;
-    }
-
     /**
-     * Fires the burst waves that are due by `emissionState.time`.
-     *
-     * Wave `w` of a burst is due at `burst.time + w * burst.interval`, and the
-     * burst fires `cycle` of them, each rolling `probability` on its own — the
-     * way Unity repeats a burst. Bursts start in time order, as they always
-     * have; their repeats are tracked per burst so a burst that is still
-     * repeating never holds back a later one. Repeats falling past the
-     * system's duration are dropped (a looping system starts them over on its
-     * next loop), matching Unity, which never emits a burst cycle beyond the
-     * end of the duration.
-     */
-    private emitBursts(emissionState: EmissionState, emitterMatrix: Matrix4): void {
-        const bursts = this.emissionBursts;
-        const burstCount = bursts.length;
-        const time = emissionState.time;
-        const waves = (emissionState.burstWaves ??= []);
-        while (emissionState.burstIndex < burstCount && bursts[emissionState.burstIndex].time <= time) {
-            waves[emissionState.burstIndex] = 0;
-            emissionState.burstIndex++;
-        }
-        const started = emissionState.burstIndex;
-        for (let b = 0; b < started; b++) {
-            const burst = bursts[b];
-            const cycles = ParticleSystem.burstWaveCount(burst);
-            let wave = waves[b] ?? 0;
-            if (wave >= cycles) {
-                continue;
-            }
-            const interval = ParticleSystem.burstInterval(burst);
-            while (wave < cycles) {
-                const waveTime = burst.time + wave * interval;
-                if (wave > 0 && waveTime > this.duration) {
-                    wave = cycles;
-                    break;
-                }
-                if (waveTime > time) {
-                    break;
-                }
-                emissionState.burstWaveIndex = wave;
-                this.fireBurstWave(burst, emissionState, emitterMatrix);
-                wave++;
-            }
-            waves[b] = wave;
-        }
-    }
-
-    /** Spawns one wave of `burst`, if its probability roll passes. */
-    private fireBurstWave(burst: BurstParameters, emissionState: EmissionState, emitterMatrix: Matrix4): void {
-        if (random() >= burst.probability) {
-            return;
-        }
-        const rawCount = burst.count.genValue(this.memory, this.time);
-        const factor = this.emissionFactor();
-        // Rounded at random, so a fraction is not always lost: three at 1.5 is four or five, on average 4.5.
-        const count = Math.abs(factor - 1) < 0.001 ? rawCount : Math.floor(rawCount * factor + random());
-        emissionState.isBursting = true;
-        emissionState.burstParticleCount = count;
-        this.spawn(count, emissionState, emitterMatrix);
-        emissionState.isBursting = false;
-    }
-
-    /** True while a burst that has started still has a wave due within the duration. */
-    private hasPendingBurstWaves(state: EmissionState): boolean {
-        const waves = state.burstWaves;
-        if (waves === undefined) {
-            return false;
-        }
-        const bursts = this.emissionBursts;
-        for (let b = 0; b < state.burstIndex && b < bursts.length; b++) {
-            const burst = bursts[b];
-            const wave = waves[b] ?? 0;
-            if (
-                wave < ParticleSystem.burstWaveCount(burst) &&
-                (wave === 0 || burst.time + wave * ParticleSystem.burstInterval(burst) <= this.duration)
-            ) {
-                return true;
-            }
-        }
-        return false;
+     * Spawns what this step's emission calls for. Called by the simulation step, and by
+     * `EmitSubParticleSystem` on a sub emitter target with the parent particle's state and matrix.
+     */
+    emit(delta: number, emissionState: EmissionState, emitterMatrix: Matrix4): void {
+        this.emission.emit(delta, emissionState, emitterMatrix);
     }
 
     /**
-     * Spawns `count` particles owed to emission over distance, each where the
-     * emitter crossed its metre mark on the way from `from` to where
-     * `emitterMatrix` has it now, rather than all of them at the end of the
-     * path: a fast emitter then leaves a continuous trail instead of one clump
-     * per step.
-     *
-     * `carried` is how far the emitter had already gone past its last mark
-     * before this step, so the marks keep their spacing across steps. Only the
-     * position is interpolated; the emitter's current rotation and scale are
-     * used for every particle.
-     */
-    private spawnAlongPath(
-        count: number,
-        emissionState: EmissionState,
-        emitterMatrix: Matrix4,
-        from: Vector3,
-        carried: number,
-        spacing: number,
-        length: number
-    ): void {
-        const matrix = this.pathMatrix.copy(emitterMatrix);
-        const target = emitterMatrix.elements;
-        const elements = matrix.elements;
-        const tx = target[12];
-        const ty = target[13];
-        const tz = target[14];
-        for (let k = 1; k <= count; k++) {
-            const travelled = k * spacing - carried;
-            const f = travelled <= 0 ? 0 : travelled >= length ? 1 : travelled / length;
-            elements[12] = from.x + (tx - from.x) * f;
-            elements[13] = from.y + (ty - from.y) * f;
-            elements[14] = from.z + (tz - from.z) * f;
-            this.spawn(1, emissionState, matrix);
-        }
-    }
-
-    emit(delta: number, emissionState: EmissionState, emitterMatrix: Matrix4) {
-        // Ended before this step (endEmit, or a past step's end of duration):
-        // no more bursts either. A looping system would otherwise keep firing
-        // them every loop after endEmit and never finish. Only the system's
-        // own emission: a sub emitter's bursts belong to its parent particles,
-        // which still go off as they die after the effect was told to end.
-        const endedBefore = this.emitEnded && emissionState === this.emissionState;
-        if (emissionState.time > this.duration) {
-            if (this.looping) {
-                emissionState.time -= this.duration;
-                emissionState.burstIndex = 0;
-                if (emissionState.burstWaves !== undefined) {
-                    emissionState.burstWaves.length = 0;
-                }
-                for (let i = 0; i < this.behaviors.length; i++) {
-                    this.behaviors[i].reset();
-                }
-            } else {
-                if (!this.emitEnded && !this.onlyUsedByOther) {
-                    this.endEmit();
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Only spawns in world space consume the normal matrix, and computing it
-        // inverts a 4x4 — skip it for local-space systems.
-        if (this.worldSpace) {
-            this.normalMatrix.getNormalMatrix(emitterMatrix);
-        }
-        const emissionBurstCount = this.emissionBursts.length;
-        const qualityFactor = this.emissionFactor();
-
-        if (emissionBurstCount > 0 && !endedBefore) {
-            this.emitBursts(emissionState, emitterMatrix);
-        }
-
-        // Particles owed to the distance travelled this step, spawned along it.
-        let pathSpawn = 0;
-        let pathSpacing = 0;
-        let pathCarried = 0;
-        let pathLength = 0;
-        const previousWorldPos = emissionState.previousWorldPos;
-        if (!this.emitEnded) {
-            const timeRatio = emissionState.time / this.duration;
-            emissionState.waitEmiting += delta * this.emissionOverTime.genValue(this.memory, timeRatio) * qualityFactor;
-
-            if (previousWorldPos !== undefined) {
-                this.temp.set(emitterMatrix.elements[12], emitterMatrix.elements[13], emitterMatrix.elements[14]);
-                pathLength = previousWorldPos.distanceTo(this.temp);
-                pathCarried = emissionState.travelDistance;
-                emissionState.travelDistance += pathLength;
-                const emitPerMeter = this.emissionOverDistance.genValue(this.memory, timeRatio) * qualityFactor;
-                if (emissionState.travelDistance * emitPerMeter > 0) {
-                    const count = Math.floor(emissionState.travelDistance * emitPerMeter);
-                    emissionState.travelDistance -= count / emitPerMeter;
-                    // A world-space particle stays where it is born, so it is born
-                    // where the emitter passed its mark. A local-space one moves
-                    // with the emitter and has no path to be spread along.
-                    if (this.worldSpace && pathLength > 0) {
-                        pathSpawn = count;
-                        pathSpacing = 1 / emitPerMeter;
-                    } else {
-                        emissionState.waitEmiting += count;
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Accrue before spawning so replacement particles can appear on the same
-        // frame an old one dies (rate * lifetime ≈ 1 would otherwise flicker).
-        const totalSpawn = Math.floor(emissionState.waitEmiting);
-        if (totalSpawn > 0) {
-            this.spawn(totalSpawn, emissionState, emitterMatrix);
-            emissionState.waitEmiting -= totalSpawn;
-        }
-        if (pathSpawn > 0) {
-            this.spawnAlongPath(
-                pathSpawn,
-                emissionState,
-                emitterMatrix,
-                previousWorldPos!,
-                pathCarried,
-                pathSpacing,
-                pathLength
-            );
-        }
-
-        if (emissionState.previousWorldPos === undefined) emissionState.previousWorldPos = new Vector3();
-        emissionState.previousWorldPos.set(
-            emitterMatrix.elements[12],
-            emitterMatrix.elements[13],
-            emitterMatrix.elements[14]
-        );
-        emissionState.time += delta;
-    }
-
+     * Writes this system's settings. Its geometry, material and textures go into `metaData` as
+     * entries the result names by uuid; give the same `metaData` to every system of a document so
+     * shared ones are written once. The material entry holds live Babylon objects, so to write a
+     * file use `serializeEffect`, which turns them into plain data. Runtime-only state
+     * (`tint`, `beamEnd`, the playing time) is not written.
+     */
     toJSON(metaData?: BabylonMetaData | string, _options: SerializationOptions = {}): ParticleSystemJSONParameters {
-        const isRootObject = metaData === undefined || typeof metaData === 'string';
-        const meta: BabylonMetaData = isRootObject
-            ? {
-                  geometries: {},
-                  materials: {},
-                  textures: {},
-                  images: {},
-                  shapes: {},
-                  skeletons: {},
-                  animations: {},
-                  nodes: {},
-              }
-            : metaData;
-
-        const geometryUUID = this.ensureGeometryMeta(meta);
-        const materialUUID = this.ensureMaterialMeta(meta);
-        const rendererEmitterSettingsJSON = this.toRendererSettingsJSON();
-
-        return {
-            version: '3.0',
-            autoDestroy: this.autoDestroy,
-            looping: this.looping,
-            prewarm: this.prewarm,
-            duration: this.duration,
-            startDelay: this.startDelay.toJSON(),
-            shape: this.emitterShape.toJSON(),
-            startLife: this.startLife.toJSON(),
-            startSpeed: this.startSpeed.toJSON(),
-            startRotation: this.startRotation.toJSON(),
-            startSize: this.startSize.toJSON(),
-            startColor: this.startColor.toJSON(),
-            emissionOverTime: this.emissionOverTime.toJSON(),
-            emissionOverDistance: this.emissionOverDistance.toJSON(),
-            emissionBursts: this.emissionBursts.map((burst) => ({
-                time: burst.time,
-                count: burst.count.toJSON(),
-                probability: burst.probability,
-                interval: burst.interval,
-                cycle: burst.cycle,
-            })),
-            ...(this.maxParticles !== undefined ? {maxParticles: this.maxParticles} : {}),
-            onlyUsedByOther: this.onlyUsedByOther,
-            instancingGeometry: geometryUUID,
-            renderMode: this.renderMode,
-            renderOrder: this.renderOrder,
-            ...(this.renderingGroupId !== 0 ? {renderingGroupId: this.renderingGroupId} : {}),
-            ...(this.applyFog ? {} : {applyFog: false}),
-            ...(this.playbackSpeed !== 1 ? {playbackSpeed: this.playbackSpeed} : {}),
-            ...(this.cullingMode !== 'always' ? {cullingMode: this.cullingMode} : {}),
-            ...(this.scalingMode !== 'shape' ? {scalingMode: this.scalingMode} : {}),
-            ...(this.seedValue !== undefined ? {seed: this.seedValue} : {}),
-            ...(this.sortMode !== 'none' ? {sortMode: this.sortMode} : {}),
-            ...(this.alignToDirection ? {alignToDirection: true} : {}),
-            ...(this.minParticleSize > 0 ? {minParticleSize: this.minParticleSize} : {}),
-            ...(this.maxParticleSize !== Infinity ? {maxParticleSize: this.maxParticleSize} : {}),
-            rendererEmitterSettings: rendererEmitterSettingsJSON,
-            material: materialUUID,
-            layers: this.rendererSettings.layerMask,
-            startTileIndex: this.startTileIndex.toJSON(),
-            uTileCount: this.rendererSettings.uTileCount,
-            vTileCount: this.rendererSettings.vTileCount,
-            blendTiles: this.rendererSettings.blendTiles,
-            softParticles: this.rendererSettings.softParticles,
-            softFarFade: this.rendererSettings.softFarFade,
-            softNearFade: this.rendererSettings.softNearFade,
-            blending: this.rendererSettings.materialBlendMode,
-            transparent: this.rendererSettings.materialTransparent,
-            depthTest: this.rendererSettings.materialDepthTest,
-            depthWrite: this.rendererSettings.materialDepthWrite,
-            alphaTest: this.rendererSettings.materialAlphaTest,
-            behaviors: this.behaviors.map((b) => b.toJSON()),
-            worldSpace: this.worldSpace,
-            ...(this.pivot ? {pivot: [this.pivot.x, this.pivot.y, this.pivot.z]} : {}),
-            ...(this.flip ? {flip: [this.flip.x, this.flip.y]} : {}),
-        };
+        return particleSystemToJSON(this, metaData);
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Builds a system from {@link toJSON} output, resolving its geometry, material and texture
+     * uuids through `meta`. A setting the file leaves out takes the constructor's default; an
+     * unknown shape, behavior or curve type warns and takes its default. Sub emitter targets stay
+     * uuids until `QuarksLoader` links them.
+     */
     static fromJSON(
         json: ParticleSystemJSONParameters,
         meta: BabylonMetaData,
         dependencies: {[uuid: string]: Behavior} = {},
         scene?: Scene
     ): ParticleSystem {
-        const shape = EmitterFromJSON(json.shape, meta as any);
-        let rendererEmitterSettings: RendererEmitterSettings;
-        if (json.renderMode === RenderMode.Trail) {
-            const trailSettings = json.rendererEmitterSettings as TrailSettings;
-            rendererEmitterSettings = {
-                startLength:
-                    trailSettings?.startLength !== undefined
-                        ? ValueGeneratorFromJSON(trailSettings.startLength)
-                        : new ConstantValue(30),
-                followLocalOrigin: trailSettings?.followLocalOrigin ?? false,
-                ...trailFlags(trailSettings),
-                ...trailSideAxisFromJSON((trailSettings as {sideAxis?: unknown} | undefined)?.sideAxis),
-            };
-        } else if (json.renderMode === RenderMode.StretchedBillBoard) {
-            rendererEmitterSettings = {...(json.rendererEmitterSettings ?? {})};
-            if (json.speedFactor !== undefined) {
-                (rendererEmitterSettings as StretchedBillBoardSettings).speedFactor = json.speedFactor;
-            }
-        } else {
-            rendererEmitterSettings = {};
-        }
-
-        const materialMeta = json.material ? meta.materials?.[json.material] : undefined;
-        const materialTextureRef = materialMeta?.texture ?? json.texture;
-        const texture =
-            typeof materialTextureRef === 'string'
-                ? (meta.textures?.[materialTextureRef] ?? null)
-                : (materialTextureRef ?? null);
-        // Texture effects reference textures by uuid in a serialised meta, or hold them once a loader resolved them.
-        const resolveTexture = (ref: unknown): BaseTexture | null =>
-            typeof ref === 'string' ? (meta.textures?.[ref] ?? null) : ((ref as BaseTexture | null) ?? null);
-        const erosionMeta = materialMeta?.erosion;
-        const gradientMeta = materialMeta?.gradientMap;
-        const distortionMeta = materialMeta?.uvDistortion;
-        const resolvedGeometryEntry =
-            typeof json.instancingGeometry === 'string'
-                ? meta.geometries?.[json.instancingGeometry]
-                : json.instancingGeometry;
-        const resolvedGeometry = ParticleSystem.resolveGeometryData(resolvedGeometryEntry);
-
-        const ps = new ParticleSystem({
-            scene,
-            autoDestroy: json.autoDestroy,
-            looping: json.looping,
-            prewarm: json.prewarm,
-            duration: json.duration,
-            startDelay: json.startDelay ? ValueGeneratorFromJSON(json.startDelay) : undefined,
-            shape,
-            startLife: ValueGeneratorFromJSON(json.startLife),
-            startSpeed: ValueGeneratorFromJSON(json.startSpeed),
-            startRotation: GeneratorFromJSON(json.startRotation) as
-                | RotationGenerator
-                | ValueGenerator
-                | FunctionValueGenerator,
-            startSize: GeneratorFromJSON(json.startSize) as Vector3Generator | ValueGenerator | FunctionValueGenerator,
-            startColor: ColorGeneratorFromJSON(json.startColor) as ColorGenerator,
-            emissionOverTime: ValueGeneratorFromJSON(json.emissionOverTime),
-            emissionOverDistance: ValueGeneratorFromJSON(json.emissionOverDistance),
-            emissionBursts: json.emissionBursts?.map((burst: any) => ({
-                time: burst.time,
-                count:
-                    typeof burst.count === 'number'
-                        ? new ConstantValue(burst.count)
-                        : ValueGeneratorFromJSON(burst.count),
-                probability: burst.probability ?? 1,
-                interval: burst.interval ?? 0.1,
-                cycle: burst.cycle ?? burst.cycleCount ?? 1,
-            })),
-            maxParticles: typeof json.maxParticles === 'number' ? json.maxParticles : undefined,
-            onlyUsedByOther: json.onlyUsedByOther,
-            instancingGeometry: resolvedGeometry.positions,
-            instancingIndices: resolvedGeometry.indices,
-            instancingUVs: resolvedGeometry.uvs,
-            instancingUVs2: resolvedGeometry.uvs2,
-            instancingNormals: resolvedGeometry.normals,
-            renderMode: json.renderMode,
-            rendererEmitterSettings,
-            renderOrder: json.renderOrder,
-            renderingGroupId: typeof json.renderingGroupId === 'number' ? json.renderingGroupId : undefined,
-            applyFog: json.applyFog !== false,
-            playbackSpeed: typeof json.playbackSpeed === 'number' ? json.playbackSpeed : undefined,
-            cullingMode: ParticleSystem.validCullingMode(json.cullingMode),
-            scalingMode: json.scalingMode === 'hierarchy' ? 'hierarchy' : 'shape',
-            seed: typeof json.seed === 'number' ? json.seed : undefined,
-            sortMode: ParticleSystem.validSortMode(json.sortMode),
-            alignToDirection: json.alignToDirection === true,
-            minParticleSize: typeof json.minParticleSize === 'number' ? json.minParticleSize : undefined,
-            maxParticleSize: typeof json.maxParticleSize === 'number' ? json.maxParticleSize : undefined,
-            texture,
-            material: materialMeta?.sourceMaterial ?? materialMeta,
-            blendMode: materialMeta?.alphaMode ?? json.blending ?? Constants.ALPHA_ADD,
-            transparent: materialMeta?.transparent ?? json.transparent ?? true,
-            depthTest: materialMeta?.depthTest ?? json.depthTest ?? true,
-            depthWrite: materialMeta?.depthWrite ?? json.depthWrite ?? false,
-            alphaTest: materialMeta?.alphaTest ?? json.alphaTest ?? 0,
-            startTileIndex:
-                typeof json.startTileIndex === 'number'
-                    ? new ConstantValue(json.startTileIndex)
-                    : (ValueGeneratorFromJSON(json.startTileIndex) as ValueGenerator),
-            uTileCount: json.uTileCount,
-            vTileCount: json.vTileCount,
-            blendTiles: json.blendTiles,
-            softParticles: json.softParticles,
-            softFarFade: json.softFarFade,
-            softNearFade: json.softNearFade,
-            behaviors: [],
-            worldSpace: json.worldSpace,
-            layerMask: json.layers,
-            pivot: json.pivot ? new Vector3(json.pivot[0] ?? 0, json.pivot[1] ?? 0, json.pivot[2] ?? 0) : undefined,
-            flip: json.flip ? new Vector2(json.flip[0] ?? 0, json.flip[1] ?? 0) : undefined,
-            lighting: materialMeta?.lighting,
-            rim: materialMeta?.rim,
-            mapUV: materialMeta?.mapUV,
-            gradientMap:
-                gradientMeta && typeof gradientMeta === 'object'
-                    ? {...gradientMeta, ramp: resolveTexture(gradientMeta.ramp)}
-                    : undefined,
-            erosion:
-                erosionMeta && typeof erosionMeta === 'object'
-                    ? {...erosionMeta, mask: resolveTexture(erosionMeta.mask)}
-                    : undefined,
-            uvDistortion:
-                distortionMeta && typeof distortionMeta === 'object'
-                    ? {...distortionMeta, map: resolveTexture(distortionMeta.map)}
-                    : undefined,
-        });
+        const ps = new ParticleSystem(particleSystemParametersFromJSON(json, meta, scene));
         ps.behaviors = (json.behaviors ?? [])
-            .map((behaviorJson) => {
-                const behavior = BehaviorFromJSON(behaviorJson, ps);
-                if (behavior && behavior.type === 'EmitSubParticleSystem') {
-                    dependencies[(behaviorJson as any).subParticleSystem] = behavior;
+            .map((behaviorJson, index) => {
+                const behavior = readFormatPart(`behaviors[${index}]`, () => BehaviorFromJSON(behaviorJson, ps));
+                const target = (behaviorJson as {subParticleSystem?: unknown}).subParticleSystem;
+                if (behavior && behavior.type === 'EmitSubParticleSystem' && typeof target === 'string') {
+                    dependencies[target] = behavior;
                 }
                 return behavior;
             })
@@ -2797,253 +1920,67 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         return ps;
     }
 
-    private static nextSerializationId(prefix: string): string {
-        ParticleSystem.serializationCounter += 1;
-        return `${prefix}_${ParticleSystem.serializationCounter}`;
-    }
-
-    /** Normals facing +Z, one array per geometry so systems sharing it still batch together. */
-    private static createFallbackNormals(positions: Float32Array): Float32Array {
-        let normals = fallbackNormals.get(positions);
-        if (!normals) {
-            normals = new Float32Array(positions.length);
-            for (let i = 2; i < normals.length; i += 3) {
-                normals[i] = 1;
-            }
-            fallbackNormals.set(positions, normals);
-        }
-        return normals;
-    }
-
-    private toRendererSettingsJSON(): RendererEmitterSettings {
-        if (this.renderMode === RenderMode.Trail) {
-            return {
-                startLength: (this.rendererEmitterSettings as TrailSettings).startLength.toJSON(),
-                followLocalOrigin: (this.rendererEmitterSettings as TrailSettings).followLocalOrigin,
-                ...trailFlags(this.rendererEmitterSettings as TrailSettings),
-                ...(trailSideAxisJSON(this.rendererEmitterSettings as TrailSettings) as {sideAxis?: any}),
-            };
-        }
-        if (this.renderMode === RenderMode.StretchedBillBoard) {
-            return {
-                speedFactor: (this.rendererEmitterSettings as StretchedBillBoardSettings).speedFactor,
-                lengthFactor: (this.rendererEmitterSettings as StretchedBillBoardSettings).lengthFactor,
-            };
-        }
-        return {};
-    }
-
-    private ensureGeometryMeta(meta: BabylonMetaData): string {
-        const geometryUUID = ParticleSystem.nextSerializationId('quarks_geometry');
-        meta.geometries[geometryUUID] = {
-            uuid: geometryUUID,
-            type: 'QuarksGeometry',
-            positions: Array.from(this.rendererSettings.instancingGeometry),
-            indices: Array.from(this.rendererSettings.instancingIndices),
-            uvs: this.rendererSettings.instancingUVs ? Array.from(this.rendererSettings.instancingUVs) : undefined,
-            ...(this.rendererSettings.instancingUVs2 ? {uvs2: Array.from(this.rendererSettings.instancingUVs2)} : {}),
-            normals: this.rendererSettings.instancingNormals
-                ? Array.from(this.rendererSettings.instancingNormals)
-                : undefined,
-        };
-        return geometryUUID;
-    }
-
-    private ensureMaterialMeta(meta: BabylonMetaData): string {
-        const texture = this.rendererSettings.texture;
-        let textureUUID: string | undefined;
-        if (texture) {
-            textureUUID = ParticleSystem.nextSerializationId('quarks_texture');
-            meta.textures[textureUUID] = texture;
-        }
-
-        const reflectionAtlas = this.rendererSettings.reflectionAtlas;
-        let reflectionAtlasUUID: string | undefined;
-        if (reflectionAtlas instanceof Texture) {
-            reflectionAtlasUUID = ParticleSystem.nextSerializationId('quarks_texture');
-            meta.textures[reflectionAtlasUUID] = reflectionAtlas;
-        }
-
-        const textureRef = (value: BaseTexture | null | undefined): string | undefined => {
-            if (!(value instanceof Texture)) {
-                return undefined;
-            }
-            const uuid = ParticleSystem.nextSerializationId('quarks_texture');
-            meta.textures[uuid] = value;
-            return uuid;
-        };
-        const erosion = this.erosion;
-        const distortion = this.uvDistortion;
-        const gradientMap = this.gradientMap;
-        const optional = <T>(key: string, value: T | undefined) => (value !== undefined ? {[key]: value} : {});
-
-        const materialUUID = ParticleSystem.nextSerializationId('quarks_material');
-        meta.materials[materialUUID] = {
-            uuid: materialUUID,
-            type: 'QuarksMaterial',
-            transparent: this.rendererSettings.materialTransparent,
-            alphaMode: this.rendererSettings.materialBlendMode,
-            depthTest: this.rendererSettings.materialDepthTest,
-            depthWrite: this.rendererSettings.materialDepthWrite,
-            alphaTest: this.rendererSettings.materialAlphaTest,
-            texture: textureUUID,
-            reflectionAtlas: reflectionAtlasUUID,
-            reflectionLevel: this.rendererSettings.reflectionLevel,
-            // Written only when not the default, so existing effects serialise as before.
-            ...(this.lighting !== 'fixed' ? {lighting: this.lighting} : {}),
-            ...(this.rim ? {rim: {...this.rim, color: [...this.rim.color]}} : {}),
-            ...optional('mapUV', this.mapUV ? textureUVToJSON(this.mapUV) : undefined),
-            ...(gradientMap
-                ? {
-                      gradientMap: {
-                          ramp: textureRef(gradientMap.ramp),
-                          ...(gradientMap.channel !== 'r' ? {channel: gradientMap.channel} : {}),
-                      },
-                  }
-                : {}),
-            ...(erosion
-                ? {
-                      erosion: {
-                          mask: textureRef(erosion.mask),
-                          ...optional('maskUV', textureUVToJSON(erosion.maskUV)),
-                          softness: erosion.softness,
-                          edgeWidth: erosion.edgeWidth,
-                          edgeColor: [...erosion.edgeColor],
-                      },
-                  }
-                : {}),
-            ...(distortion
-                ? {
-                      uvDistortion: {
-                          map: textureRef(distortion.map),
-                          ...optional('mapUV', textureUVToJSON(distortion.mapUV, UV_DISTORTION_DEFAULT_UV)),
-                          strength: distortion.strength,
-                      },
-                  }
-                : {}),
-            sourceMaterial: this.materialRef ?? undefined,
-        };
-        return materialUUID;
-    }
-
-    private static resolveGeometryData(entry: any): {
-        positions: Float32Array;
-        indices: Uint32Array | Uint16Array;
-        uvs?: Float32Array;
-        uvs2?: Float32Array;
-        normals?: Float32Array;
-    } {
-        if (entry?.positions) {
-            const positions =
-                entry.positions instanceof Float32Array ? entry.positions : new Float32Array(entry.positions);
-            const rawIndices =
-                entry.indices instanceof Uint16Array || entry.indices instanceof Uint32Array
-                    ? entry.indices
-                    : entry.indices
-                      ? new Uint32Array(entry.indices)
-                      : undefined;
-            return {
-                positions,
-                indices: ensureTriangleIndices(positions, rawIndices),
-                uvs: entry.uvs
-                    ? entry.uvs instanceof Float32Array
-                        ? entry.uvs
-                        : new Float32Array(entry.uvs)
-                    : undefined,
-                uvs2: entry.uvs2
-                    ? entry.uvs2 instanceof Float32Array
-                        ? entry.uvs2
-                        : new Float32Array(entry.uvs2)
-                    : undefined,
-                normals: entry.normals
-                    ? entry.normals instanceof Float32Array
-                        ? entry.normals
-                        : new Float32Array(entry.normals)
-                    : undefined,
-            };
-        }
-
-        const data = entry?.data ?? entry;
-        if (data?.attributes?.position?.array) {
-            const positions = new Float32Array(data.attributes.position.array);
-            let indices: Uint32Array | Uint16Array | undefined;
-            if (data.index?.array) {
-                const indexType = data.index.type === 'Uint16Array' ? Uint16Array : Uint32Array;
-                indices = new indexType(data.index.array);
-            }
-            return {
-                positions,
-                indices: ensureTriangleIndices(positions, indices),
-                uvs: data.attributes.uv?.array ? new Float32Array(data.attributes.uv.array) : undefined,
-                // three.js names the second set `uv1` (r151 on), `uv2` before.
-                uvs2: (data.attributes.uv1 ?? data.attributes.uv2)?.array
-                    ? new Float32Array((data.attributes.uv1 ?? data.attributes.uv2).array)
-                    : undefined,
-                normals: data.attributes.normal?.array ? new Float32Array(data.attributes.normal.array) : undefined,
-            };
-        }
-
-        return {
-            positions: DEFAULT_POSITIONS,
-            indices: DEFAULT_INDICES,
-            uvs: DEFAULT_UVS,
-        };
-    }
-
-    addBehavior(behavior: Behavior) {
+    /** Appends a behavior to {@link behaviors}; it runs on existing particles from the next step. */
+    addBehavior(behavior: Behavior): void {
         this.behaviors.push(behavior);
         // A sub emitter added here changes which system has to update first.
         this._renderer?._invalidateUpdateOrder();
     }
 
+    /**
+     * The settings the renderer batches this system on. Prefer the system's setters, which move it
+     * to a matching batch; after changing a field here directly, set {@link neededToUpdateRender}.
+     */
     getRendererSettings(): VFXBatchSettings {
         return this.rendererSettings;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Calls `callback` on each `event`: `'emitEnd'` when emission ends, `'finished'` when the last
+     * particle of an ended system dies, `'particleDied'` per particle (with `event.particle`), and
+     * `'destroy'` on dispose.
+     *
+     * A `'particleDied'` event and the particle on it are reused: read what you need inside the
+     * callback and keep neither, since the particle's slot goes to the next one spawned. In trail
+     * mode a particle dies when its trail is gone, so with a trail lifetime the event comes after
+     * the head stopped, once the last sample has faded.
+     *
+     * A callback added or removed while an event is firing takes effect from the next event; the
+     * callbacks of the one firing are all called.
+     */
     addEventListener(event: ParticleSystemEventType, callback: (event: ParticleSystemEvent) => void): void {
-        if (!this.listeners[event]) this.listeners[event] = [];
-        this.listeners[event].push(callback);
+        this.events.add(event, callback);
     }
 
-    removeAllEventListeners(event: ParticleSystemEventType): void {
-        if (this.listeners[event]) this.listeners[event] = [];
+    /** Removes every callback registered for `event`, or every callback of every event when it is left out. */
+    removeAllEventListeners(event?: ParticleSystemEventType): void {
+        this.events.removeAll(event);
     }
 
+    /** Removes one callback added with {@link addEventListener}. */
     removeEventListener(event: ParticleSystemEventType, callback: (event: ParticleSystemEvent) => void): void {
-        if (this.listeners[event]) {
-            const index = this.listeners[event].indexOf(callback);
-            if (index !== -1) this.listeners[event].splice(index, 1);
-        }
-    }
-
-    /** True when at least one callback is registered for the event type. */
-    private hasListeners(event: ParticleSystemEventType): boolean {
-        const callbacks = this.listeners[event];
-        return callbacks !== undefined && callbacks.length > 0;
-    }
-
-    private fire(event: ParticleSystemEvent) {
-        const callbacks = this.listeners[event.type];
-        if (callbacks === undefined) {
-            return;
-        }
-        for (let i = 0; i < callbacks.length; i++) {
-            callbacks[i](event);
-        }
+        this.events.remove(event, callback);
     }
 
+    /**
+     * A new system with the same settings, behaviors and generators (copied, so the two roll
+     * independently), on a new emitter node with no parent. It shares the texture, material and
+     * geometry. It is not added to a renderer: call `renderer.addSystem` on it, or use
+     * `QuarksUtil.instantiate` to copy a whole effect tree.
+     */
     clone(): ParticleSystem {
         const newBehaviors: Array<Behavior> = this.behaviors.map((b) => b.clone());
         let rendererEmitterSettings: RendererEmitterSettings;
 
         if (this.renderMode === RenderMode.Trail) {
+            const settings = this.rendererEmitterSettings as TrailSettings;
             rendererEmitterSettings = {
-                startLength: (this.rendererEmitterSettings as TrailSettings).startLength.clone(),
-                followLocalOrigin: (this.rendererEmitterSettings as TrailSettings).followLocalOrigin,
-                ...trailFlags(this.rendererEmitterSettings as TrailSettings),
-                ...((this.rendererEmitterSettings as TrailSettings).sideAxis
-                    ? {sideAxis: (this.rendererEmitterSettings as TrailSettings).sideAxis!.clone()}
-                    : {}),
+                startLength: settings.startLength.clone(),
+                followLocalOrigin: Boolean(settings.followLocalOrigin),
+                ...trailFlags(settings),
+                ...trailCurve(settings),
+                ...trailSampling(settings),
+                ...(settings.sideAxis ? {sideAxis: settings.sideAxis.clone()} : {}),
             };
         } else if (this.renderMode === RenderMode.StretchedBillBoard) {
             rendererEmitterSettings = {
@@ -3055,59 +1992,17 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         }
 
         const copy = new ParticleSystem({
-            autoDestroy: this.autoDestroy,
-            looping: this.looping,
-            prewarm: this.prewarm,
-            duration: this.duration,
-            startDelay: this.startDelay.clone(),
+            ...settingsForClone(this),
             shape: this.emitterShape.clone(),
-            startLife: this.startLife.clone(),
-            startSpeed: this.startSpeed.clone(),
-            startRotation: this.startRotation.clone(),
-            startSize: this.startSize.clone(),
-            startColor: this.startColor.clone(),
-            emissionOverTime: this.emissionOverTime.clone(),
-            emissionOverDistance: this.emissionOverDistance.clone(),
-            emissionBursts: this.emissionBursts.map((b) => ({...b})),
-            maxParticles: this.maxParticles,
-            onlyUsedByOther: this.onlyUsedByOther,
             instancingGeometry: this.rendererSettings.instancingGeometry,
             instancingIndices: this.rendererSettings.instancingIndices,
             instancingUVs: this.rendererSettings.instancingUVs,
             instancingUVs2: this.rendererSettings.instancingUVs2,
             instancingNormals: this.rendererSettings.instancingNormals,
-            renderMode: this.renderMode,
-            renderOrder: this.renderOrder,
-            renderingGroupId: this.renderingGroupId,
-            applyFog: this.applyFog,
-            playbackSpeed: this.playbackSpeed,
-            cullingMode: this.cullingMode,
-            scalingMode: this.scalingMode,
-            seed: this.seedValue,
-            sortMode: this.sortMode,
-            alignToDirection: this.alignToDirection,
-            minParticleSize: this.minParticleSize,
-            maxParticleSize: this.maxParticleSize,
             rendererEmitterSettings,
             material: this.materialRef,
             texture: this.rendererSettings.texture,
-            startTileIndex: this.startTileIndex,
-            uTileCount: this.rendererSettings.uTileCount,
-            vTileCount: this.rendererSettings.vTileCount,
-            blendTiles: this.rendererSettings.blendTiles,
-            softParticles: this.rendererSettings.softParticles,
-            softFarFade: this.rendererSettings.softFarFade,
-            softNearFade: this.rendererSettings.softNearFade,
             behaviors: newBehaviors,
-            worldSpace: this.worldSpace,
-            blendMode: this.rendererSettings.materialBlendMode,
-            transparent: this.rendererSettings.materialTransparent,
-            depthTest: this.rendererSettings.materialDepthTest,
-            depthWrite: this.rendererSettings.materialDepthWrite,
-            alphaTest: this.rendererSettings.materialAlphaTest,
-            layerMask: this.rendererSettings.layerMask,
-            pivot: this.pivot,
-            flip: this.flip,
             lighting: this.lighting,
             rim: this.rim,
             mapUV: this.mapUV,
@@ -3126,6 +2021,26 @@ export class ParticleSystem implements IParticleSystem {
         if (this.tint) {
             copy.tint = this.tint.clone();
         }
+        copy.emissionMultiplier = this.emissionMultiplier;
+        const beamEnd = this.beamEnd;
+        if (beamEnd) {
+            // A node the beam follows stays the same node. A point is copied by value: a Babylon
+            // Vector3 keeps x/y/z behind getters, which a spread would drop.
+            copy.beamEnd =
+                typeof (beamEnd as {getAbsolutePosition?: unknown}).getAbsolutePosition === 'function'
+                    ? beamEnd
+                    : {x: (beamEnd as Vector3).x, y: (beamEnd as Vector3).y, z: (beamEnd as Vector3).z};
+        }
         return copy;
     }
 }
+
+/** Whether every index points at one of `vertexCount` vertices. */
+function indicesFit(indices: Uint32Array | Uint16Array, vertexCount: number): boolean {
+    for (let i = 0; i < indices.length; i++) {
+        if (indices[i] >= vertexCount) {
+            return false;
+        }
+    }
+    return true;
+}