babylon.quarks 0.18.0 → 0.19.0

package/src/SpriteBatch.ts

@@ -1,28 +1,47 @@
-import {Mesh} from '@babylonjs/core/Meshes/mesh';
-import {VertexData} from '@babylonjs/core/Meshes/mesh.vertexData';
 import {VertexBuffer} from '@babylonjs/core/Buffers/buffer';
-import {Effect} from '@babylonjs/core/Materials/effect';
-import {ShaderMaterial} from '@babylonjs/core/Materials/shaderMaterial';
-import {Scene} from '@babylonjs/core/scene';
 import {Constants} from '@babylonjs/core/Engines/constants';
+import {ShaderMaterial} from '@babylonjs/core/Materials/shaderMaterial';
+import {RawTexture} from '@babylonjs/core/Materials/Textures/rawTexture';
 import {Vector2 as BVector2, Vector3 as BVector3, Vector4 as BVector4} from '@babylonjs/core/Maths/math.vector';
+import {Mesh} from '@babylonjs/core/Meshes/mesh';
+import {VertexData} from '@babylonjs/core/Meshes/mesh.vertexData';
+import {Scene} from '@babylonjs/core/scene';
 import {
-    Vector3,
-    Vector4,
-    Quaternion,
+    IParticleSystem,
     Matrix3,
+    ParticleStore,
+    Quaternion,
     SpriteParticle,
     StretchedBillBoardSettings,
+    Vector3,
 } from 'quarks.core';
-import {VFXBatch, RenderMode} from './VFXBatch';
 import {VFXBatchSettings} from './BatchedRenderer';
-import particle_vert from './shaders/particle_vert.glsl';
+import local_particle_physics_vert from './shaders/local_particle_physics_vert.glsl';
+import local_particle_physics_vert_wgsl from './shaders/local_particle_physics_vert.wgsl';
 import particle_frag from './shaders/particle_frag.glsl';
+import particle_frag_wgsl from './shaders/particle_frag.wgsl';
 import particle_physics_frag from './shaders/particle_physics_frag.glsl';
+import particle_physics_frag_wgsl from './shaders/particle_physics_frag.wgsl';
+import particle_vert from './shaders/particle_vert.glsl';
+import particle_vert_wgsl from './shaders/particle_vert.wgsl';
+import {registerShaders, shaderLanguageFor, ShaderSources} from './shaders/shaderLanguageSupport';
 import stretched_bb_particle_vert from './shaders/stretched_bb_particle_vert.glsl';
-import local_particle_physics_vert from './shaders/local_particle_physics_vert.glsl';
+import stretched_bb_particle_vert_wgsl from './shaders/stretched_bb_particle_vert.wgsl';
+import {RenderMode, VFXBatch} from './VFXBatch';
 
 export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
+    private static whiteTextureByScene = new WeakMap<Scene, RawTexture>();
+
+    /** 1×1 white map so mesh batches always have a sampler2D (iOS WebKit). */
+    private static whiteTexture(scene: Scene): RawTexture {
+        let texture = SpriteBatch.whiteTextureByScene.get(scene);
+        if (!texture) {
+            texture = RawTexture.CreateRGBATexture(new Uint8Array([255, 255, 255, 255]), 1, 1, scene);
+            texture.name = 'quarksMeshWhite';
+            SpriteBatch.whiteTextureByScene.set(scene, texture);
+        }
+        return texture;
+    }
     private offsetBuffer!: Float32Array;
     private rotationBuffer!: Float32Array;
     private sizeBuffer!: Float32Array;
@@ -30,6 +49,9 @@ export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
     private uvTileBuffer!: Float32Array;
     private velocityBuffer?: Float32Array;
 
+    /** Concretely typed handle on the batch material, see syncStretchedSpeedFactor. */
+    private shaderMaterial: ShaderMaterial | null = null;
+
     private offsetVB!: VertexBuffer;
     private rotationVB!: VertexBuffer;
     private sizeVB!: VertexBuffer;
@@ -52,8 +74,14 @@ export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
         const vertexData = new VertexData();
         vertexData.positions = this.settings.instancingGeometry;
         vertexData.indices = this.settings.instancingIndices;
-        if (this.settings.instancingUVs) {
-            vertexData.uvs = this.settings.instancingUVs;
+        const vertexCount = this.settings.instancingGeometry.length / 3;
+        const uvs = this.settings.instancingUVs;
+        // WebGL (especially iOS) raises INVALID_OPERATION if the shader reads
+        // `attribute vec2 uv` but the buffer is missing or shorter than vertices.
+        if (uvs && uvs.length >= vertexCount * 2) {
+            vertexData.uvs = uvs;
+        } else {
+            vertexData.uvs = new Float32Array(vertexCount * 2);
         }
         if (this.settings.instancingNormals) {
             vertexData.normals = this.settings.instancingNormals;
@@ -63,6 +91,18 @@ export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
         this.buildExpandableBuffers();
     }
 
+    /** Releases the instance vertex buffers so a resize does not leak GPU memory. */
+    private disposeExpandableBuffers(): void {
+        this.offsetVB?.dispose();
+        this.colorVB?.dispose();
+        this.sizeVB?.dispose();
+        this.uvTileVB?.dispose();
+        this.rotationVB?.dispose();
+        this.velocityVB?.dispose();
+        this.velocityVB = undefined;
+        this.velocityBuffer = undefined;
+    }
+
     private buildExpandableBuffers(): void {
         const engine = this.scene.getEngine();
 
@@ -105,30 +145,51 @@ export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
         while (target >= this.maxParticles) {
             this.maxParticles *= 2;
         }
+        this.disposeExpandableBuffers();
         this.buildExpandableBuffers();
     }
 
     rebuildMaterial(): void {
-        const shaderName = `quarksParticle_${this.settings.renderMode}_${Date.now()}`;
+        // The shader sources only depend on the render mode, so the store entry is
+        // registered once per mode. A unique name per rebuild would leak entries in
+        // Effect.ShadersStore and defeat Babylon's compiled-effect cache.
+        const shaderName = `quarksParticle_${this.settings.renderMode}`;
         this.lastStretchedSpeedFactor = Number.NaN;
-        let vertexShader: string;
-        let fragmentShader: string;
         const defines: string[] = [];
 
+        let vertexShader: ShaderSources;
+        let fragmentShader: ShaderSources;
         if (this.settings.renderMode === RenderMode.Mesh) {
-            vertexShader = local_particle_physics_vert;
-            fragmentShader = particle_physics_frag;
+            vertexShader = {glsl: local_particle_physics_vert, wgsl: local_particle_physics_vert_wgsl};
+            fragmentShader = {glsl: particle_physics_frag, wgsl: particle_physics_frag_wgsl};
         } else if (this.settings.renderMode === RenderMode.StretchedBillBoard) {
-            vertexShader = stretched_bb_particle_vert;
-            fragmentShader = particle_frag;
+            vertexShader = {glsl: stretched_bb_particle_vert, wgsl: stretched_bb_particle_vert_wgsl};
+            fragmentShader = {glsl: particle_frag, wgsl: particle_frag_wgsl};
         } else {
-            vertexShader = particle_vert;
-            fragmentShader = particle_frag;
+            vertexShader = {glsl: particle_vert, wgsl: particle_vert_wgsl};
+            fragmentShader = {glsl: particle_frag, wgsl: particle_frag_wgsl};
         }
 
-        if (this.settings.texture) {
+        // Mesh batches without a diffuse map still need a sampler2D on iOS WebKit —
+        // a zero-sampler particle mesh effect often never becomes drawable there.
+        const mapTexture =
+            this.settings.texture ??
+            (this.settings.renderMode === RenderMode.Mesh ? SpriteBatch.whiteTexture(this.scene) : null);
+        if (mapTexture) {
             defines.push('USE_MAP');
         }
+        const atlas = this.settings.reflectionAtlas;
+        const atlasPending = this.settings.renderMode === RenderMode.Mesh && !!atlas && !atlas.isReady();
+        if (atlasPending && atlas) {
+            const onLoad = (atlas as {onLoadObservable?: {addOnce: (cb: () => void) => void}}).onLoadObservable;
+            onLoad?.addOnce(() => {
+                this.rebuildMaterial();
+            });
+        }
+        const useEnvAtlas = this.settings.renderMode === RenderMode.Mesh && !!atlas && atlas.isReady();
+        if (useEnvAtlas) {
+            defines.push('USE_ENVMAP_ATLAS');
+        }
         if (this.settings.uTileCount > 1 || this.settings.vTileCount > 1) {
             defines.push('UV_TILE');
         }
@@ -148,8 +209,8 @@ export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
             defines.push('HORIZONTAL');
         }
 
-        Effect.ShadersStore[shaderName + 'VertexShader'] = vertexShader;
-        Effect.ShadersStore[shaderName + 'FragmentShader'] = fragmentShader;
+        const shaderLanguage = shaderLanguageFor(this.scene.getEngine());
+        registerShaders(shaderName, vertexShader, fragmentShader, shaderLanguage);
 
         const attributes = ['position', 'uv', 'offset', 'color', 'size', 'rotation', 'uvTile'];
         if (this.settings.renderMode === RenderMode.Mesh) {
@@ -166,9 +227,14 @@ export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
             uniforms.push('tileCountX');
             uniforms.push('tileCountY');
         }
-        if (this.settings.texture) {
+        if (mapTexture) {
             samplers.push('map');
         }
+        if (useEnvAtlas) {
+            samplers.push('envAtlas');
+            uniforms.push('eyePosition');
+            uniforms.push('reflectionLevel');
+        }
         if (this.settings.renderMode === RenderMode.StretchedBillBoard) {
             uniforms.push('speedFactor');
         }
@@ -186,7 +252,9 @@ export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
             uniforms.push('ambientColor');
         }
 
-        const mat = new ShaderMaterial(shaderName, this.scene,
+        const mat = new ShaderMaterial(
+            shaderName,
+            this.scene,
             {vertex: shaderName, fragment: shaderName},
             {
                 attributes,
@@ -194,11 +262,25 @@ export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
                 samplers,
                 defines,
                 needAlphaBlending: this.settings.materialTransparent,
+                shaderLanguage,
             }
         );
 
-        if (this.settings.texture) {
-            mat.setTexture('map', this.settings.texture);
+        if (mapTexture) {
+            mat.setTexture('map', mapTexture);
+        }
+        if (useEnvAtlas && atlas) {
+            mat.setTexture('envAtlas', atlas);
+            mat.setFloat('reflectionLevel', this.settings.reflectionLevel);
+            const eyePosition = new BVector3();
+            mat.onBindObservable.add(() => {
+                const camera = this.scene.activeCamera;
+                if (!camera) {
+                    return;
+                }
+                eyePosition.copyFrom(camera.globalPosition);
+                mat.setVector3('eyePosition', eyePosition);
+            });
         }
         if (this.settings.uTileCount > 1 || this.settings.vTileCount > 1) {
             mat.setFloat('tileCountX', this.settings.uTileCount);
@@ -208,11 +290,21 @@ export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
             mat.setFloat('speedFactor', this.settings.softNearFade > 0 ? this.settings.softNearFade : 1.0);
         }
         if (this.settings.softParticles) {
-            mat.setVector2('softParams', new BVector2(this.settings.softNearFade, 1.0 / Math.max(this.settings.softFarFade - this.settings.softNearFade, 0.0001)));
+            mat.setVector2(
+                'softParams',
+                new BVector2(
+                    this.settings.softNearFade,
+                    1.0 / Math.max(this.settings.softFarFade - this.settings.softNearFade, 0.0001)
+                )
+            );
+            // Reused across binds: this runs on every draw call.
+            const projParams = new BVector4(0, 0, 0, 0);
             mat.onBindObservable.add(() => {
                 const camera = this.scene.activeCamera;
                 if (camera) {
-                    mat.setVector4('projParams', new BVector4(camera.minZ, camera.maxZ, 0, 0));
+                    projParams.x = camera.minZ;
+                    projParams.y = camera.maxZ;
+                    mat.setVector4('projParams', projParams);
                 }
             });
         }
@@ -237,6 +329,7 @@ export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
         mat.disableDepthWrite = !this.settings.materialDepthWrite;
 
         this.mesh.material = mat;
+        this.shaderMaterial = mat;
     }
 
     private vector_ = new Vector3();
@@ -245,6 +338,8 @@ export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
     private quaternion_ = new Quaternion();
     private quaternion2_ = new Quaternion();
     private quaternion3_ = new Quaternion();
+    private quaternion4_ = new Quaternion();
+    private quaternion5_ = new Quaternion();
     private rotationMat_ = new Matrix3();
     private rotationMat2_ = new Matrix3();
     private lastStretchedSpeedFactor = Number.NaN;
@@ -257,33 +352,158 @@ export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
         const isStretchedRender = renderMode === RenderMode.StretchedBillBoard;
 
         const visibleSystems = this.getVisibleSystems();
-        for (const system of visibleSystems) {
-            particleCount += system.particleNum;
+        for (let i = 0; i < visibleSystems.length; i++) {
+            particleCount += visibleSystems[i].particleNum;
         }
         if (particleCount > this.maxParticles) {
             this.expandBuffers(particleCount);
         }
 
-        for (const system of visibleSystems) {
+        for (let s = 0; s < visibleSystems.length; s++) {
+            const system = visibleSystems[s];
             const particles = system.particles;
             const particleNum = system.particleNum;
             const rotation = this.quaternion2_;
             const translation = this.vector2_;
             const scale = this.vector3_;
             const systemWorldSpace = system.worldSpace;
-            system.emitter.matrixWorld.decompose(translation, rotation, scale);
-            this.rotationMat_.setFromMatrix4(system.emitter.matrixWorld);
+            const emitterMatrix = system.emitter.matrixWorld;
+            emitterMatrix.decompose(translation, rotation, scale);
+            this.rotationMat_.setFromMatrix4(emitterMatrix);
             const absScaleX = Math.abs(scale.x);
             const absScaleY = Math.abs(scale.y);
             const absScaleZ = Math.abs(scale.z);
+            // Stretched-billboard settings are per system, not per particle.
+            const stretchedSettings = isStretchedRender
+                ? (system.rendererEmitterSettings as StretchedBillBoardSettings)
+                : undefined;
+            const speedFactor =
+                stretchedSettings === undefined || stretchedSettings.speedFactor === 0
+                    ? 0.001
+                    : stretchedSettings.speedFactor;
+            const lengthFactor = stretchedSettings?.lengthFactor ?? 0;
+
+            // Live particles occupy store rows [0, particleNum) in the same order
+            // this loop writes them, so attributes that need no per-particle
+            // transform can be copied as one range instead of gathered.
+            const store = system.store;
+            const copiedColor = store !== undefined;
+            // Particles only carry their own parent transform when the system
+            // emits through another one; otherwise the whole range shares the
+            // emitter's matrix and can be transformed in place after the copy.
+            const sharedTransform = store !== undefined && system.onlyUsedByOther !== true;
+            // The simulation runs on a fixed step that the display does not
+            // share, so the last step is usually in the past by the time the
+            // frame is drawn. Continuing the motion that step produced puts each
+            // particle where it belongs now; without it they visibly stutter on
+            // any display that is not exactly 60Hz and in phase.
+            //
+            // The motion is measured, not predicted from velocity: plenty of
+            // behaviors move a particle by writing its position — orbits, noise,
+            // turbulence, anything a plugin does — and a velocity based guess
+            // leaves every one of those stuttering exactly as before.
+            const residual = system.simulationResidual ?? 0;
+            const stepFraction = residual === 0 ? 0 : residual / (system.simulationStep ?? residual);
+            if (copiedColor) {
+                if (stepFraction !== 0 && particleNum > 0) {
+                    SpriteBatch.continueColor(this.colorBuffer, index * 4, store!, particleNum, stepFraction);
+                } else {
+                    this.colorBuffer.set(store!.color.subarray(0, particleNum * 4), index * 4);
+                }
+            }
+            let copiedPositionAndSize = false;
+            if (store !== undefined && systemWorldSpace) {
+                if (stepFraction !== 0 && particleNum > 0) {
+                    SpriteBatch.extrapolate(this.offsetBuffer, index * 3, store, particleNum, stepFraction);
+                } else {
+                    this.offsetBuffer.set(store.position.subarray(0, particleNum * 3), index * 3);
+                }
+                if (stepFraction !== 0 && particleNum > 0) {
+                    SpriteBatch.continueVector3(
+                        this.sizeBuffer,
+                        index * 3,
+                        store.size,
+                        store.previousSize,
+                        particleNum,
+                        stepFraction
+                    );
+                } else {
+                    this.sizeBuffer.set(store.size.subarray(0, particleNum * 3), index * 3);
+                }
+                copiedPositionAndSize = true;
+            } else if (sharedTransform && particleNum > 0) {
+                const base = index * 3;
+                const end = base + particleNum * 3;
+                const offsets = this.offsetBuffer;
+                if (stepFraction !== 0) {
+                    SpriteBatch.extrapolate(offsets, base, store!, particleNum, stepFraction);
+                } else {
+                    offsets.set(store!.position.subarray(0, particleNum * 3), base);
+                }
+                const me = emitterMatrix.elements;
+                const m00 = me[0],
+                    m01 = me[1],
+                    m02 = me[2],
+                    m03 = me[3];
+                const m10 = me[4],
+                    m11 = me[5],
+                    m12 = me[6],
+                    m13 = me[7];
+                const m20 = me[8],
+                    m21 = me[9],
+                    m22 = me[10],
+                    m23 = me[11];
+                const m30 = me[12],
+                    m31 = me[13],
+                    m32 = me[14],
+                    m33 = me[15];
+                for (let o = base; o < end; o += 3) {
+                    const px = offsets[o];
+                    const py = offsets[o + 1];
+                    const pz = offsets[o + 2];
+                    const w = 1 / (m03 * px + m13 * py + m23 * pz + m33);
+                    offsets[o] = (m00 * px + m10 * py + m20 * pz + m30) * w;
+                    offsets[o + 1] = (m01 * px + m11 * py + m21 * pz + m31) * w;
+                    offsets[o + 2] = (m02 * px + m12 * py + m22 * pz + m32) * w;
+                }
+                const sizes = this.sizeBuffer;
+                if (stepFraction !== 0) {
+                    SpriteBatch.continueVector3(
+                        sizes,
+                        base,
+                        store!.size,
+                        store!.previousSize,
+                        particleNum,
+                        stepFraction
+                    );
+                } else {
+                    sizes.set(store!.size.subarray(0, particleNum * 3), base);
+                }
+                for (let o = base; o < end; o += 3) {
+                    sizes[o] *= absScaleX;
+                    sizes[o + 1] *= absScaleY;
+                    sizes[o + 2] *= absScaleZ;
+                }
+                copiedPositionAndSize = true;
+            }
 
             for (let j = 0; j < particleNum; j++, index++) {
                 const particle = particles[j] as SpriteParticle;
 
                 if (isMeshRender) {
+                    // Turning behaviors leave the last step's turn on the
+                    // particle; a fraction of it carries the mesh the rest of
+                    // the way to now.
+                    let own = particle.rotation as Quaternion;
+                    const step = particle.angularVelocity;
+                    if (stepFraction !== 0 && step instanceof Quaternion) {
+                        own = this.quaternion4_
+                            .copy(own)
+                            .multiply(SpriteBatch.partialTurn(step, stepFraction, this.quaternion5_));
+                    }
                     let q: Quaternion;
                     if (systemWorldSpace) {
-                        q = particle.rotation as Quaternion;
+                        q = own;
                     } else {
                         let parentQ: Quaternion;
                         if (particle.parentMatrix) {
@@ -292,7 +512,7 @@ export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
                             parentQ = rotation;
                         }
                         q = this.quaternion_;
-                        q.copy(parentQ).multiply(particle.rotation as Quaternion);
+                        q.copy(parentQ).multiply(own);
                     }
                     const ri = index * 4;
                     this.rotationBuffer[ri] = q.x;
@@ -300,65 +520,77 @@ export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
                     this.rotationBuffer[ri + 2] = q.z;
                     this.rotationBuffer[ri + 3] = q.w;
                 } else {
-                    this.rotationBuffer[index] = particle.rotation as number;
+                    const spin = particle.angularVelocity;
+                    this.rotationBuffer[index] =
+                        (particle.rotation as number) + (typeof spin === 'number' ? spin * residual : 0);
                 }
 
-                let vec: Vector3;
-                if (systemWorldSpace) {
-                    vec = particle.position;
-                } else {
-                    vec = this.vector_;
-                    if (particle.parentMatrix) {
-                        vec.copy(particle.position).applyMatrix4(particle.parentMatrix);
-                    } else {
-                        vec.copy(particle.position).applyMatrix4(system.emitter.matrixWorld);
+                if (!copiedPositionAndSize) {
+                    const position = particle.position;
+                    const previous = particle.previousPosition;
+                    let px = position.x + (position.x - previous.x) * stepFraction;
+                    let py = position.y + (position.y - previous.y) * stepFraction;
+                    let pz = position.z + (position.z - previous.z) * stepFraction;
+                    if (!systemWorldSpace) {
+                        // Inlined point transform: this is the default (local space)
+                        // path and runs for every particle every frame.
+                        const me = (particle.parentMatrix ?? emitterMatrix).elements;
+                        const w = 1 / (me[3] * px + me[7] * py + me[11] * pz + me[15]);
+                        const tx = (me[0] * px + me[4] * py + me[8] * pz + me[12]) * w;
+                        const ty = (me[1] * px + me[5] * py + me[9] * pz + me[13]) * w;
+                        pz = (me[2] * px + me[6] * py + me[10] * pz + me[14]) * w;
+                        px = tx;
+                        py = ty;
                     }
-                }
 
-                const oi = index * 3;
-                this.offsetBuffer[oi] = vec.x;
-                this.offsetBuffer[oi + 1] = vec.y;
-                this.offsetBuffer[oi + 2] = vec.z;
-
-                const ci = index * 4;
-                this.colorBuffer[ci] = particle.color.x;
-                this.colorBuffer[ci + 1] = particle.color.y;
-                this.colorBuffer[ci + 2] = particle.color.z;
-                this.colorBuffer[ci + 3] = particle.color.w;
-
-                const si = index * 3;
-                if (systemWorldSpace) {
-                    this.sizeBuffer[si] = particle.size.x;
-                    this.sizeBuffer[si + 1] = particle.size.y;
-                    this.sizeBuffer[si + 2] = particle.size.z;
-                } else {
-                    if (particle.parentMatrix) {
-                        this.sizeBuffer[si] = particle.size.x;
-                        this.sizeBuffer[si + 1] = particle.size.y;
-                        this.sizeBuffer[si + 2] = particle.size.z;
+                    const oi = index * 3;
+                    this.offsetBuffer[oi] = px;
+                    this.offsetBuffer[oi + 1] = py;
+                    this.offsetBuffer[oi + 2] = pz;
+
+                    const size = particle.size;
+                    const si = index * 3;
+                    // Particle size is already in world units when the system is in world
+                    // space or the particle carries its own parent transform.
+                    if (systemWorldSpace || particle.parentMatrix) {
+                        this.sizeBuffer[si] = size.x;
+                        this.sizeBuffer[si + 1] = size.y;
+                        this.sizeBuffer[si + 2] = size.z;
                     } else {
-                        this.sizeBuffer[si] = particle.size.x * absScaleX;
-                        this.sizeBuffer[si + 1] = particle.size.y * absScaleY;
-                        this.sizeBuffer[si + 2] = particle.size.z * absScaleZ;
+                        this.sizeBuffer[si] = size.x * absScaleX;
+                        this.sizeBuffer[si + 1] = size.y * absScaleY;
+                        this.sizeBuffer[si + 2] = size.z * absScaleZ;
                     }
                 }
 
+                if (!copiedColor) {
+                    const color = particle.color;
+                    const ci = index * 4;
+                    this.colorBuffer[ci] = color.x;
+                    this.colorBuffer[ci + 1] = color.y;
+                    this.colorBuffer[ci + 2] = color.z;
+                    this.colorBuffer[ci + 3] = color.w;
+                }
+
                 this.uvTileBuffer[index] = particle.uvTile;
 
                 if (isStretchedRender && this.velocityBuffer) {
-                    let speedFactor = (system.rendererEmitterSettings as StretchedBillBoardSettings).speedFactor;
-                    if (speedFactor === 0) speedFactor = 0.001;
-                    const lengthFactor = (system.rendererEmitterSettings as StretchedBillBoardSettings).lengthFactor;
-                    let vel: Vector3;
-                    if (systemWorldSpace) {
-                        vel = particle.velocity;
-                    } else {
-                        vel = this.vector_;
+                    // The streak points along the velocity and is as long as it,
+                    // so a velocity frozen between steps makes the sprite's
+                    // outline pop at the step rate while its position glides.
+                    const velocity = particle.velocity;
+                    const previousVelocity = particle.previousVelocity;
+                    const vx = velocity.x + (velocity.x - previousVelocity.x) * stepFraction;
+                    const vy = velocity.y + (velocity.y - previousVelocity.y) * stepFraction;
+                    const vz = velocity.z + (velocity.z - previousVelocity.z) * stepFraction;
+                    let vel: Vector3 = this.vector_;
+                    vel.set(vx, vy, vz);
+                    if (!systemWorldSpace) {
                         if (particle.parentMatrix) {
                             this.rotationMat2_.setFromMatrix4(particle.parentMatrix);
-                            vel.copy(particle.velocity).applyMatrix3(this.rotationMat2_);
+                            vel.applyMatrix3(this.rotationMat2_);
                         } else {
-                            vel.copy(particle.velocity).applyMatrix3(this.rotationMat_);
+                            vel.applyMatrix3(this.rotationMat_);
                         }
                     }
                     const vi = index * 4;
@@ -370,13 +602,8 @@ export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
             }
         }
 
-        if (isStretchedRender && this.mesh.material instanceof ShaderMaterial && visibleSystems.length > 0) {
-            const speedFactor = (visibleSystems[0].rendererEmitterSettings as StretchedBillBoardSettings).speedFactor ?? 1.0;
-            const clampedSpeedFactor = speedFactor === 0 ? 0.001 : speedFactor;
-            if (clampedSpeedFactor !== this.lastStretchedSpeedFactor) {
-                this.mesh.material.setFloat('speedFactor', clampedSpeedFactor);
-                this.lastStretchedSpeedFactor = clampedSpeedFactor;
-            }
+        if (isStretchedRender && visibleSystems.length > 0) {
+            this.syncStretchedSpeedFactor(visibleSystems[0]);
         }
 
         // Keep the mesh enabled even when count is 0 — toggling visibility off for a
@@ -388,13 +615,137 @@ export class SpriteBatch extends VFXBatch {
             return;
         }
 
-        this.offsetVB.update(this.offsetBuffer);
-        this.sizeVB.update(this.sizeBuffer);
-        this.colorVB.update(this.colorBuffer);
-        this.uvTileVB.update(this.uvTileBuffer);
-        this.rotationVB.update(this.rotationBuffer);
+        // Upload only the slots actually filled this frame: the buffers are sized
+        // for the high-water mark and are usually far larger than the live count.
+        this.offsetVB.update(this.offsetBuffer.subarray(0, index * 3));
+        this.sizeVB.update(this.sizeBuffer.subarray(0, index * 3));
+        this.colorVB.update(this.colorBuffer.subarray(0, index * 4));
+        this.uvTileVB.update(this.uvTileBuffer.subarray(0, index));
+        this.rotationVB.update(this.rotationBuffer.subarray(0, isMeshRender ? index * 4 : index));
         if (isStretchedRender && this.velocityVB && this.velocityBuffer) {
-            this.velocityVB.update(this.velocityBuffer);
+            this.velocityVB.update(this.velocityBuffer.subarray(0, index * 4));
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Pushes the stretched-billboard speed factor to the shader when it changed.
+     *
+     * Deliberately kept out of `update`: touching the loosely typed
+     * `mesh.material` from inside that function gives V8 a generic property
+     * access it has no feedback for, which knocks the whole particle loop out of
+     * optimised code on every frame.
+     */
+    private syncStretchedSpeedFactor(system: IParticleSystem): void {
+        const material = this.shaderMaterial;
+        if (material === null) {
+            return;
+        }
+        const speedFactor = (system.rendererEmitterSettings as StretchedBillBoardSettings).speedFactor ?? 1.0;
+        const clampedSpeedFactor = speedFactor === 0 ? 0.001 : speedFactor;
+        if (clampedSpeedFactor !== this.lastStretchedSpeedFactor) {
+            material.setFloat('speedFactor', clampedSpeedFactor);
+            this.lastStretchedSpeedFactor = clampedSpeedFactor;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * The fraction `f` of a turn, as a normalised lerp from no rotation toward
+     * `step`, written into `out`.
+     *
+     * A true slerp would be exact, but `step` is one simulation step of turning
+     * and `f` is below 1, so the arc being split is small enough that the lerp
+     * is within a rounding error of it and costs a fraction as much.
+     */
+    private static partialTurn(step: Quaternion, f: number, out: Quaternion): Quaternion {
+        const x = step.x * f;
+        const y = step.y * f;
+        const z = step.z * f;
+        const w = 1 + (step.w - 1) * f;
+        const inverseLength = 1 / Math.sqrt(x * x + y * y + z * z + w * w);
+        out.x = x * inverseLength;
+        out.y = y * inverseLength;
+        out.z = z * inverseLength;
+        out.w = w * inverseLength;
+        return out;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Continues a three-component column by `fraction` of the step it just took,
+     * never below zero.
+     *
+     * Size fades to nothing at the end of a life, so the last step before death
+     * can point past zero; a negative size turns a sprite inside out.
+     */
+    private static continueVector3(
+        target: Float32Array,
+        base: number,
+        current: Float32Array,
+        previous: Float32Array,
+        count: number,
+        fraction: number
+    ): void {
+        for (let i = 0, o = 0; i < count; i++, o += 3) {
+            const x = current[o] + (current[o] - previous[o]) * fraction;
+            const y = current[o + 1] + (current[o + 1] - previous[o + 1]) * fraction;
+            const z = current[o + 2] + (current[o + 2] - previous[o + 2]) * fraction;
+            target[base + o] = x > 0 ? x : 0;
+            target[base + o + 1] = y > 0 ? y : 0;
+            target[base + o + 2] = z > 0 ? z : 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /** The same for colour, whose alpha runs out at the end of a life too. */
+    private static continueColor(
+        target: Float32Array,
+        base: number,
+        store: ParticleStore,
+        count: number,
+        fraction: number
+    ): void {
+        const current = store.color;
+        const previous = store.previousColor;
+        for (let i = 0, o = 0; i < count; i++, o += 4) {
+            const r = current[o] + (current[o] - previous[o]) * fraction;
+            const g = current[o + 1] + (current[o + 1] - previous[o + 1]) * fraction;
+            const b = current[o + 2] + (current[o + 2] - previous[o + 2]) * fraction;
+            const a = current[o + 3] + (current[o + 3] - previous[o + 3]) * fraction;
+            target[base + o] = r > 0 ? r : 0;
+            target[base + o + 1] = g > 0 ? g : 0;
+            target[base + o + 2] = b > 0 ? b : 0;
+            target[base + o + 3] = a > 0 ? a : 0;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Writes rows `[0, count)` of the store's positions into `target` at `base`,
+     * each carried on by `fraction` of the step it just took.
+     *
+     * Continuing the measured last step covers every way a particle can move —
+     * velocity integration, an orbit, noise, a plugin's own behavior — because
+     * it reads what happened rather than predicting from one term of it. Over
+     * less than a step it is a straight line through a path that may curve,
+     * which for a sixtieth of a second is well under a pixel.
+     *
+     * A particle born during the step has the same position on both sides and
+     * so does not move at all, which is what puts it at the emitter rather than
+     * a step's travel away from it.
+     */
+    private static extrapolate(
+        target: Float32Array,
+        base: number,
+        store: ParticleStore,
+        count: number,
+        fraction: number
+    ): void {
+        const positions = store.position;
+        const previous = store.previousPosition;
+        for (let i = 0, o = 0; i < count; i++, o += 3) {
+            const x = positions[o];
+            const y = positions[o + 1];
+            const z = positions[o + 2];
+            target[base + o] = x + (x - previous[o]) * fraction;
+            target[base + o + 1] = y + (y - previous[o + 1]) * fraction;
+            target[base + o + 2] = z + (z - previous[o + 2]) * fraction;
         }
     }