@zio.dev/zio-blocks 0.0.26 → 0.0.27

package/guides/zio-schema-migration.md

@@ -0,0 +1,1195 @@
+---
+id: zio-schema-migration
+title: "Migrating from ZIO Schema to ZIO Blocks Schema"
+---
+
+This guide helps you migrate an application that uses [ZIO Schema](https://github.com/zio/zio-schema) (version 1.x) to [ZIO Blocks Schema](https://github.com/zio/zio-blocks) (the schema module of ZIO Blocks). It covers the conceptual differences between the two libraries, provides a systematic mapping of data types, and shows how to rewrite the most common patterns in the idiomatic ZIO Blocks style.
+
+**What we will cover:**
+
+- Prerequisites and dependency changes
+- The core architectural shift from `Schema[A]` as a sealed trait to `Schema[A]` as a thin wrapper over `Reflect[F, A]`
+- Migrating schema definitions for primitives, records, enums, collections, optional values, and newtypes
+- Replacing the annotation/modifier system
+- Adapting codec derivation to the unified `Format + Deriver` model
+- Replacing `DynamicValue` usage
+- Migrating optics and accessor patterns
+- Migrating diff, patch, and schema evolution patterns
+- Handling types and features that no longer have a direct analogue
+
+---
+
+## Prerequisites
+
+### Dependency Changes
+
+Replace the ZIO Schema dependency group with ZIO Blocks Schema:
+
+**Before (ZIO Schema 1.x):**
+
+```scala
+libraryDependencies += "dev.zio" %% "zio-schema"            % "1.x.x"
+libraryDependencies += "dev.zio" %% "zio-schema-derivation" % "1.x.x"
+libraryDependencies += "dev.zio" %% "zio-schema-json"       % "1.x.x"
+libraryDependencies += "dev.zio" %% "zio-schema-protobuf"   % "1.x.x"
+libraryDependencies += "dev.zio" %% "zio-schema-avro"       % "1.x.x"
+```
+
+**After (ZIO Blocks Schema):**
+
+```scala
+libraryDependencies += "dev.zio" %% "zio-blocks-schema"            % "0.0.27"
+// Optional codec modules:
+libraryDependencies += "dev.zio" %% "zio-blocks-schema-avro"       % "0.0.27"
+libraryDependencies += "dev.zio" %% "zio-blocks-schema-thrift"     % "0.0.27"
+libraryDependencies += "dev.zio" %% "zio-blocks-schema-bson"       % "0.0.27"
+libraryDependencies += "dev.zio" %% "zio-blocks-schema-messagepack" % "0.0.27"
+libraryDependencies += "dev.zio" %% "zio-blocks-schema-toon"       % "0.0.27"
+```
+
+Key points:
+- JSON codec support is now built into `zio-blocks-schema` — no separate JSON module.
+- There is no separate `zio-blocks-schema-derivation` dependency; derivation is built in.
+- The `scala-reflect` provided dependency (required in ZIO Schema for Scala 2) is still needed for Scala 2 macro derivation — add it the same way as before.
+- ZIO Blocks Schema has **zero runtime dependency on ZIO itself**. You do not need `zio` on your classpath for schema operations.
+
+### Package Rename
+
+All imports change from `zio.schema` to `zio.blocks.schema`:
+
+```scala
+// Before
+import zio.schema._
+import zio.schema.annotation._
+import zio.schema.codec._
+import zio.schema.meta._
+
+// After
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+import zio.blocks.schema.binding._
+import zio.blocks.schema.derive._
+import zio.blocks.schema.patch._
+import zio.blocks.schema.json._
+```
+
+---
+
+## The Core Architecture Shift
+
+The most important thing to understand when migrating is that `Schema[A]` is no longer a sealed trait hierarchy — it is a thin case class:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x: Schema is a sealed trait with ~20 concrete cases
+sealed trait Schema[A] {
+  def annotations: Chunk[Any]
+  def defaultValue: Either[String, A]
+  // ...
+}
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema: Schema is a case class wrapping Reflect
+final case class Schema[A](reflect: Reflect.Bound[A])
+```
+
+The structural description lives in `Reflect[F[_, _], A]`, a sealed trait with eight node types. The `F` type parameter distinguishes a *bound* reflect (with runtime constructors and deconstructors) from an *unbound* one (structural information only):
+
+```
+Reflect[F, A]
+├── Reflect.Record[F, A]         — case classes and other product types
+├── Reflect.Variant[F, A]        — sealed traits, enums, Option, Either
+├── Reflect.Sequence[F, A, C[_]] — List, Vector, Set, Chunk, etc.
+├── Reflect.Map[F, K, V, M[_,_]] — Map[K, V]
+├── Reflect.Primitive[F, A]      — Int, String, UUID, java.time.*, etc.
+├── Reflect.Wrapper[F, A, B]     — opaque types and validated newtypes
+├── Reflect.Dynamic[F]           — escape hatch for schema-agnostic data
+└── Reflect.Deferred[F, A]       — recursive (self-referential) types
+```
+
+As a result, you will rarely pattern match on `Schema[A]` directly — instead, you work through `schema.reflect` when you need to inspect structure.
+
+---
+
+## Migrating Schema Definitions
+
+### Schema Derivation
+
+Automatic derivation syntax is essentially unchanged:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x — Scala 2: type inferred from ascription; Scala 3: type param required
+import zio.schema._
+final case class Person(name: String, age: Int)
+object Person {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[Person] = DeriveSchema.gen[Person]
+}
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — identical call in Scala 2 and Scala 3
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+final case class Person(name: String, age: Int)
+object Person {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[Person] = Schema.derived[Person]
+}
+```
+
+`Schema.derived[A]` works identically in both Scala 2 and Scala 3 in ZIO Blocks Schema. There is no separate `DeriveSchema` import and no arity limit.
+
+### Primitives
+
+All 30 primitive types from ZIO Schema are present in ZIO Blocks Schema with the same coverage: `Unit`, `Boolean`, `Byte`, `Short`, `Int`, `Long`, `Float`, `Double`, `Char`, `String`, `BigInt`, `BigDecimal`, all `java.time.*` types, `Currency`, and `UUID`.
+
+Implicit schemas are available in the same way:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x
+val s: Schema[Int]              = Schema[Int]
+val s: Schema[java.time.Instant] = Schema[java.time.Instant]
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — identical call sites
+val s: Schema[Int]               = Schema[Int]
+val s: Schema[java.time.Instant]  = Schema[java.time.Instant]
+```
+
+The underlying representation changes: ZIO Schema uses `Schema.Primitive[A](standardType: StandardType[A])`, while ZIO Blocks Schema uses `Reflect.Primitive[F, A](primitiveType: PrimitiveType[A], ...)`. Both carry default values and ordering, but in ZIO Blocks the primitive type also carries an embedded `Validation[A]` constraint (see the [Migrating Validation](#migrating-validation) section below).
+
+### Records (Case Classes)
+
+**Before (ZIO Schema 1.x):**
+
+```scala
+import zio.schema._
+
+final case class Address(street: String, city: String, postCode: String)
+final case class Person(name: String, age: Int, address: Address)
+
+object Person {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[Person] = DeriveSchema.gen
+}
+```
+
+**After (ZIO Blocks Schema):**
+
+```scala
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+final case class Address(street: String, city: String, postCode: String)
+final case class Person(name: String, age: Int, address: Address)
+
+object Person {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[Person] = Schema.derived[Person]
+}
+```
+
+The derivation call is identical. Internally, ZIO Blocks generates a `Reflect.Record` node (a single generic type, not the arity-specialised `CaseClass1`..`CaseClass22` of ZIO Schema), so there is no 22-field arity limit.
+
+If you were writing schemas manually using `Schema.CaseClass2[...]` or similar, you will need to rewrite those. The equivalent in ZIO Blocks is to write the `Reflect.Record` directly or, preferably, just use `Schema.derived[A]`:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x — manual construction for a 2-field record
+val personSchema: Schema[Person] =
+  Schema.CaseClass2[String, Int, Person](
+    id0 = TypeId.fromTypeName("Person"),
+    field01 = Schema.Field("name", Schema[String], get0 = _.name, set0 = (p, v) => p.copy(name = v)),
+    field02 = Schema.Field("age",  Schema[Int],    get0 = _.age,  set0 = (p, v) => p.copy(age = v)),
+    construct0 = Person(_, _)
+  )
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — prefer derivation; no manual CaseClass* required
+val personSchema: Schema[Person] = Schema.derived[Person]
+```
+
+Manual construction is still possible in ZIO Blocks Schema (by assembling a `Reflect.Record` directly), but it is substantially more involved because you must supply a `Binding.Record` with explicit `Constructor[A]` and `Deconstructor[A]` implementations that use the unboxed register system. Automatic derivation is strongly preferred.
+
+### Sealed Traits / Enums (Sum Types)
+
+**Before (ZIO Schema 1.x):**
+
+```scala
+import zio.schema._
+
+sealed trait Shape
+case class Circle(radius: Double)                   extends Shape
+case class Rectangle(width: Double, height: Double) extends Shape
+
+object Shape {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[Shape] = DeriveSchema.gen
+}
+```
+
+**After (ZIO Blocks Schema):**
+
+```scala
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+sealed trait Shape
+case class Circle(radius: Double)                   extends Shape
+case class Rectangle(width: Double, height: Double) extends Shape
+
+object Shape {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[Shape] = Schema.derived[Shape]
+}
+```
+
+Again, the call is identical. Internally, ZIO Blocks generates a `Reflect.Variant` node. There is no 22-case arity limit.
+
+### Optional Values
+
+ZIO Schema has a first-class `Schema.Optional[A]` node. In ZIO Blocks, `Option[A]` is modeled as a `Reflect.Variant` with two cases (`None` and `Some`). From a user perspective this is transparent — implicit schemas for `Option[A]` exist in the same form:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x
+val optSchema: Schema[Option[String]] = Schema[Option[String]]
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — identical
+val optSchema: Schema[Option[String]] = Schema[Option[String]]
+```
+
+For value-type `Option` variants (e.g., `Option[Int]`), ZIO Blocks provides specialised implicit instances (`Schema.optionInt`, `Schema.optionLong`, etc.) that avoid boxing. These are resolved automatically by the compiler — no code change required.
+
+:::tip
+The internal modeling difference (variant vs. dedicated node) is only relevant if you are pattern-matching on the raw `Schema` or `Reflect` structure. In that case, replace any match on `Schema.Optional(inner, _)` with a check on `reflect.isOption` and use `reflect.optionInnerType` to retrieve the inner reflect:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x — pattern matching on Optional
+schema match {
+  case Schema.Optional(inner, _) => // use inner
+  case _                         => // ...
+}
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — use the isOption predicate
+// optionInnerType returns Option[Reflect[F, ?]] where F matches the enclosing Reflect's binding
+val r = schema.reflect
+if (r.isOption) {
+  val inner: Option[Reflect[binding.Binding, ?]] = r.optionInnerType
+  // use inner
+}
+```
+:::
+
+### Either
+
+In ZIO Schema, `Either[A, B]` is a first-class `Schema.Either[A, B]` node. In ZIO Blocks, it is modeled as a two-case `Reflect.Variant`. The implicit schema is provided automatically:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x
+val eitherSchema: Schema[Either[String, Int]] = Schema.either[String, Int]
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema
+val eitherSchema: Schema[Either[String, Int]] = Schema[Either[String, Int]]
+```
+
+:::warning
+ZIO Blocks Schema does not have a `Fallback[A, B]` type. If you were using `Schema.Fallback` for partial decoding, you will need to model that with a custom `Reflect.Variant` or handle it in your codec logic directly.
+:::
+
+### Collections
+
+All standard collection types are supported with the same implicit schema pattern:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x
+Schema[List[String]]
+Schema[Vector[Int]]
+Schema[Chunk[Double]]
+Schema[Set[String]]
+Schema[Map[String, Int]]
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — identical call sites
+Schema[List[String]]
+Schema[Vector[Int]]
+Schema[Chunk[Double]]   // uses zio.blocks.chunk.Chunk
+Schema[Set[String]]
+Schema[Map[String, Int]]
+```
+
+Note that `Chunk` is now `zio.blocks.chunk.Chunk` (not `zio.Chunk`). This is a zero-dependency replacement with the same API surface for typical usage.
+
+ZIO Schema's `NonEmptyChunk` and `NonEmptyMap` schemas do not have direct equivalents in ZIO Blocks Schema. The recommended approach is to model them as wrapper types:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x — NonEmptyChunk implicit schema
+val schema: Schema[NonEmptyChunk[String]] = Schema[NonEmptyChunk[String]]
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — model as a validated wrapper
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+final case class NonEmptyList[A] private (values: List[A])
+object NonEmptyList {
+  def apply[A](head: A, tail: A*): NonEmptyList[A] = new NonEmptyList(head :: tail.toList)
+
+  implicit def schema[A](implicit element: Schema[A]): Schema[NonEmptyList[A]] =
+    Schema[List[A]].transform(
+      to   = list =>
+        if (list.nonEmpty) new NonEmptyList(list)
+        else throw SchemaError.validationFailed("List must not be empty"),
+      from = _.values
+    )
+}
+```
+
+### Newtypes and Opaque Types
+
+ZIO Schema uses `Schema.transform` (which wraps a `Transform` node) for both validated newtypes and lossless wrappers:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x
+implicit val bigDecimalSchema: Schema[BigDecimal] =
+  Schema.primitive[java.math.BigDecimal].transform(BigDecimal(_), _.bigDecimal)
+```
+
+ZIO Blocks Schema has `Schema[A].transform(to: A => B, from: B => A)` which produces a `Reflect.Wrapper` node. The `to` and `from` functions are total but can throw to indicate failure. The method also requires an implicit `TypeId[B]`, which is derived automatically by the macro system for any concrete named type — you will not need to supply it manually for ordinary case classes:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Blocks Schema
+case class Email(value: String)
+object Email {
+  // TypeId[Email] is resolved implicitly from the macro-derived instance
+  implicit val schema: Schema[Email] =
+    Schema[String].transform(
+      to   = str =>
+        if (str.contains('@')) Email(str)
+        else throw SchemaError.validationFailed("Not a valid email address"),
+      from = _.value
+    )
+}
+```
+
+For simple lossless wrappers where no validation is needed, the pattern is the same but without the error throw:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — simple newtype wrapper
+case class UserId(value: Long)
+object UserId {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[UserId] =
+    Schema[Long].transform(UserId(_), _.value)
+}
+```
+
+:::warning
+In ZIO Schema, `transformOrFail` accepted `A => Either[String, B]` return types. In ZIO Blocks, `transform` uses total functions that throw on failure — use `throw SchemaError.validationFailed(message)` in the `to` function to signal failure. There is no `transformOrFail` method.
+
+If you encounter a "could not find implicit value for parameter typeId: TypeId[B]" error, ensure the target type `B` is a concrete, named class or object (not an anonymous structural type or a type alias to a primitive). For primitive-backed aliases such as `type Meters = Double`, wrap in a `case class` instead.
+:::
+
+### Lazy / Recursive Schemas
+
+**Before (ZIO Schema 1.x):**
+
+```scala
+import zio.schema._
+
+case class Tree(value: Int, children: List[Tree])
+object Tree {
+  implicit lazy val schema: Schema[Tree] = DeriveSchema.gen
+  // Or manually with Schema.defer:
+  // implicit lazy val schema: Schema[Tree] = Schema.CaseClass2(
+  //   ..., field02 = Schema.Field("children", Schema.defer(Schema.list(schema)), ...)
+  // )
+}
+```
+
+**After (ZIO Blocks Schema):**
+
+```scala
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+case class Tree(value: Int, children: List[Tree])
+object Tree {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[Tree] = Schema.derived[Tree]
+}
+```
+
+Recursive types are handled automatically by the macro. Internally, ZIO Blocks generates a `Reflect.Deferred` node that uses thread-local cycle detection — you do not need to use `Schema.defer` manually. The `implicit val` (not `lazy val`) is sufficient.
+
+If you were wrapping a recursive reference manually with `Schema.defer(...)`, simply remove that wrapper — recursive references inside `Schema.derived` are handled for you.
+
+---
+
+## Migrating Annotations and Modifiers
+
+ZIO Schema uses an open `Chunk[Any]` annotation system. ZIO Blocks Schema replaces this with a strongly-typed, sealed `Modifier` hierarchy.
+
+### Transient Fields
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x
+import zio.schema.annotation._
+
+final case class User(name: String, @transientField password: String)
+object User {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[User] = DeriveSchema.gen
+}
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+// Transient fields must have a default value in ZIO Blocks Schema.
+// Because transient fields are excluded from serialization, the decoder
+// needs a default to reconstruct the object without that field in the input.
+final case class User(name: String, @Modifier.transient() password: String = "")
+object User {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[User] = Schema.derived[User]
+}
+```
+
+### Field Renaming
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x — @fieldName annotation
+import zio.schema.annotation._
+
+final case class Product(@fieldName("product_name") name: String, price: Double)
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — @Modifier.rename annotation
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+final case class Product(@Modifier.rename("product_name") name: String, price: Double)
+```
+
+### Field Aliases (for Decoding)
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x — @fieldNameAliases annotation
+import zio.schema.annotation._
+
+final case class Config(@fieldNameAliases("max-size", "max_size") maxSize: Int)
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — @Modifier.alias annotation (one alias per annotation)
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+final case class Config(
+  @Modifier.alias("max-size")
+  @Modifier.alias("max_size")
+  maxSize: Int
+)
+```
+
+### Codec-Specific Configuration
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x — no standard mechanism; each codec module defines its own
+// e.g., @fieldDefaultValue, @optionalField, or codec-specific annotations
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — use @Modifier.config with convention "format.property"
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+final case class Message(
+  @Modifier.config("protobuf.field-id", "1") id: Long,
+  @Modifier.config("protobuf.field-id", "2") content: String
+)
+```
+
+### Discriminator and Case Name Annotations
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x
+import zio.schema.annotation._
+
+@discriminatorName("type")
+sealed trait Event
+@caseName("user_created")
+case class UserCreated(userId: String) extends Event
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — use Modifier.rename on the case, Modifier.config for discriminator
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+sealed trait Event
+@Modifier.rename("user_created")
+case class UserCreated(userId: String) extends Event
+```
+
+For discriminator key configuration on the enclosing sealed trait, use `Modifier.config` on the reflect node after derivation:
+
+```scala
+implicit val schema: Schema[Event] =
+  Schema.derived[Event].modifier(Modifier.config("json.discriminator", "type"))
+```
+
+### Programmatic Annotation
+
+ZIO Schema allows adding annotations at any time via `schema.annotate(annotation)`. In ZIO Blocks, you add modifiers:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x
+val schema2 = schema.annotate(someAnnotation)
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema
+val schema2 = schema.modifier(Modifier.config("key", "value"))
+```
+
+---
+
+## Migrating Codec Derivation
+
+### The Unified Format Model
+
+ZIO Schema has separate codec APIs in each codec sub-module (e.g., `JsonCodec.jsonCodec`, `ProtobufCodec.protobufCodec`). ZIO Blocks Schema introduces a unified `codec.Format` interface that all codec modules implement. Codecs are derived via a consistent call:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x — each codec module has its own factory
+// JsonCodec.jsonCodec returns a zio.json.JsonCodec (a text codec from the zio-json library)
+import zio.schema.codec.JsonCodec
+val jsonCodec = JsonCodec.jsonCodec(Person.schema)
+
+// ProtobufCodec.protobufCodec returns a BinaryCodec[A] (Chunk[Byte] in / out)
+import zio.schema.codec.ProtobufCodec
+val protoCodec: BinaryCodec[Person] = ProtobufCodec.protobufCodec(Person.schema)
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — all codecs via schema.derive(Format); return type inferred
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+import zio.blocks.schema.json.JsonFormat
+val jsonCodec = Person.schema.derive(JsonFormat)   // inferred: JsonBinaryCodec[Person]
+
+import zio.blocks.schema.avro.AvroFormat
+val avroCodec = Person.schema.derive(AvroFormat)
+```
+
+Derived codecs are cached per `(Schema, Format)` pair — subsequent calls to `schema.derive(JsonFormat)` return the same instance.
+
+### Encoding and Decoding
+
+The codec interface differs significantly between the two libraries:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x — Protobuf (true BinaryCodec: Chunk[Byte] in/out)
+import zio.schema.codec.ProtobufCodec
+val codec: BinaryCodec[Person] = ProtobufCodec.protobufCodec(Person.schema)
+val encoded: Chunk[Byte]              = codec.encode(Person("Alice", 30))
+val decoded: Either[DecodeError, Person] = codec.decode(encoded)
+
+// ZIO Schema 1.x — JSON (zio-json JsonCodec: String in/out)
+import zio.schema.codec.JsonCodec
+val jsonCodec = JsonCodec.jsonCodec(Person.schema)
+val json: String                       = jsonCodec.encodeJson(Person("Alice", 30), None).toString
+val fromJson: Either[String, Person]   = jsonCodec.decodeJson(json)
+```
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — all formats use ByteBuffer (binary) or CharBuffer (text)
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+import zio.blocks.schema.json.JsonFormat
+import java.nio.ByteBuffer
+
+val person = Person("Alice", 30)
+
+// Encode
+val buffer = ByteBuffer.allocate(1024)
+Person.schema.encode(JsonFormat)(buffer)(person)
+
+// Decode
+buffer.flip()
+val result: Either[SchemaError, Person] = Person.schema.decode(JsonFormat)(buffer)
+```
+
+ZIO Blocks codecs use `java.nio.ByteBuffer` for binary formats and `java.nio.CharBuffer` for text formats, and do not depend on `zio-json` or any other external codec library.
+
+### JSON Codec
+
+JSON support is built into the core `zio-blocks-schema` module — no separate dependency is needed:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x — requires a separate zio-schema-json module
+libraryDependencies += "dev.zio" %% "zio-schema-json" % "1.x.x"
+import zio.schema.codec.JsonCodec
+val codec = JsonCodec.jsonCodec(Person.schema)  // returns zio.json.JsonCodec
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — built into zio-blocks-schema; no extra dependency
+import zio.blocks.schema.json.JsonFormat
+val codec = Person.schema.derive(JsonFormat)  // returns JsonBinaryCodec[Person]
+```
+
+### Streaming Codecs
+
+ZIO Schema's streaming codec methods (`streamEncoder`, `streamDecoder`) integrated with `ZStream`. ZIO Blocks Schema codecs are format-level `encode`/`decode` operations over `ByteBuffer` or `CharBuffer` — they do not depend on ZIO's streaming primitives. If you need streaming, wrap the codec in your effect system's streaming abstraction.
+
+---
+
+## Migrating DynamicValue
+
+### Structure Changes
+
+The `DynamicValue` ADT is significantly simplified in ZIO Blocks — from 15 cases down to 6. The key differences:
+
+- ZIO Schema's `DynamicValue.Primitive[A](value: A, standardType: StandardType[A])` stores the raw value and its `StandardType` inline. ZIO Blocks wraps the scalar in a `PrimitiveValue` case class instead.
+- `DynamicValue.Record` drops the `TypeId` parameter and uses `Chunk[(String, DynamicValue)]` instead of `ListMap[String, DynamicValue]`.
+- `Option`, `Either`, and `Tuple` are no longer dedicated ADT cases — they are represented structurally using `Variant` and `Record`.
+
+| ZIO Schema | ZIO Blocks Schema |
+|---|---|
+| `Primitive[A](value: A, standardType: StandardType[A])` | `Primitive(value: PrimitiveValue)` |
+| `Record(id: TypeId, values: ListMap[String, DynamicValue])` | `Record(fields: Chunk[(String, DynamicValue)])` — no TypeId |
+| `Enumeration(id: TypeId, value: (String, DynamicValue))` | `Variant(caseName: String, value: DynamicValue)` |
+| `Sequence(values: Chunk[DynamicValue])` | `Sequence(elements: Chunk[DynamicValue])` |
+| `Dictionary(entries: Chunk[(DynamicValue, DynamicValue)])` | `Map(entries: Chunk[(DynamicValue, DynamicValue)])` |
+| `SomeValue(value: DynamicValue)` | `Variant("Some", Record(Chunk("value" -> ...)))` |
+| `NoneValue` | `Variant("None", Null)` |
+| `LeftValue(value: DynamicValue)` | `Variant("Left", Record(Chunk("value" -> ...)))` |
+| `RightValue(value: DynamicValue)` | `Variant("Right", Record(Chunk("value" -> ...)))` |
+| `Tuple(left, right)` | `Record(Chunk("_1" -> left, "_2" -> right))` |
+| `SetValue(values: Set[DynamicValue])` | `Sequence(elements: Chunk[DynamicValue])` |
+| `BothValue(left, right)` | No direct equivalent (used by `Fallback`, which is removed) |
+| `DynamicAst(ast: MetaSchema)` | No direct equivalent |
+| `Singleton[A](instance: A)` | No direct equivalent |
+| `Error(message: String)` | No direct equivalent — use `SchemaError` |
+
+### Primitive Values
+
+In ZIO Schema, primitive values are stored inline in `DynamicValue.Primitive[A](value: A, standardType: StandardType[A])`. There is no separate `PrimitiveValue` type. In ZIO Blocks, a sealed `PrimitiveValue` ADT wraps each primitive:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x — value and StandardType are separate constructor arguments
+import zio.schema.{DynamicValue, StandardType}
+val pv: DynamicValue = DynamicValue.Primitive(42, StandardType[Int])
+val ps: DynamicValue = DynamicValue.Primitive("hello", StandardType[String])
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — value is wrapped in a PrimitiveValue case class
+import zio.blocks.schema.{DynamicValue, PrimitiveValue}
+val pv: DynamicValue = DynamicValue.Primitive(PrimitiveValue.Int(42))
+val ps: DynamicValue = DynamicValue.Primitive(PrimitiveValue.String("hello"))
+```
+
+The `PrimitiveValue` case names (`Int`, `Long`, `String`, `Boolean`, `Double`, etc.) match the Scala primitive names.
+
+### Converting Between Typed Values and DynamicValue
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x
+// toDynamic is a method on Schema[A], not on the value itself
+val dv: DynamicValue         = Person.schema.toDynamic(person)
+// toTypedValue requires an implicit Schema[Person] in scope
+val back: Either[String, Person] = dv.toTypedValue[Person]
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema
+val dv: DynamicValue                  = Person.schema.toDynamicValue(person)
+val back: Either[SchemaError, Person] = Person.schema.fromDynamicValue(dv)
+```
+
+Two things change: `toDynamic` is renamed `toDynamicValue` (still on `Schema[A]`), and `toTypedValue` is replaced by `schema.fromDynamicValue`. The error type changes from `String` to `SchemaError`.
+
+### DynamicValue Operations
+
+ZIO Blocks `DynamicValue` has a rich operation API that was absent in ZIO Schema. Where ZIO Schema required you to convert back to a typed value to manipulate data, you can now operate directly on `DynamicValue`:
+
+```scala
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+import zio.blocks.chunk.Chunk
+
+val record = DynamicValue.Record(
+  Chunk(
+    "name" -> DynamicValue.Primitive(PrimitiveValue.String("Alice")),
+    "age"  -> DynamicValue.Primitive(PrimitiveValue.Int(30))
+  )
+)
+
+// Navigate — get(fieldName) returns DynamicValueSelection (supports chaining)
+// Call .one to extract a single value as Either[SchemaError, DynamicValue]
+val name: Either[SchemaError, DynamicValue] = record.get("name").one
+
+// Modify — set returns DynamicValue directly (silent no-op if path not found)
+// Use setOrFail to get an Either on missing paths
+val updated: DynamicValue = record.set(
+  DynamicOptic.root.field("name"),
+  DynamicValue.Primitive(PrimitiveValue.String("Bob"))
+)
+
+// Diff
+val other = DynamicValue.Record(Chunk(
+  "name" -> DynamicValue.Primitive(PrimitiveValue.String("Bob")),
+  "age"  -> DynamicValue.Primitive(PrimitiveValue.Int(31))
+))
+val patch = record.diff(other)
+```
+
+---
+
+## Migrating Schema Introspection
+
+### MetaSchema → DynamicSchema
+
+ZIO Schema has `MetaSchema` (a type-erased structural description of a schema) and `schema.ast` to convert to it. ZIO Blocks uses `DynamicSchema` for the same purpose:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x
+val meta: MetaSchema = schema.ast
+val back: Schema[_]  = meta.toSchema
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema
+val dynamic: DynamicSchema = schema.toDynamicSchema
+```
+
+`DynamicSchema` wraps a `Reflect[NoBinding, _]` — the full structural description without runtime constructors or deconstructors. Use it for:
+
+- Runtime structural validation of `DynamicValue` instances
+- Dynamic schema loading from configuration or network
+- Schema inspection without compile-time type information
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — validate a DynamicValue against a schema
+val personSchema: Schema[Person]   = Schema.derived[Person]
+val dynSchema: DynamicSchema       = personSchema.toDynamicSchema
+
+val value = DynamicValue.Record(Chunk(
+  "name" -> DynamicValue.Primitive(PrimitiveValue.String("Alice")),
+  "age"  -> DynamicValue.Primitive(PrimitiveValue.Int(30))
+))
+
+dynSchema.conforms(value)         // true
+dynSchema.check(value)            // None (no error)
+```
+
+:::warning
+ZIO Schema's `Migration` system for schema-to-schema migration (i.e., automatically migrating values from one version of a type to another) is **not yet available** in ZIO Blocks Schema. The `schema.migrate[B](newSchema)` and `schema.coerce[B](newSchema)` methods do not exist. If your application relies on schema migration, you have two options:
+
+1. Implement migration logic manually using `DynamicValue` transformations and `DynamicSchema` for validation.
+2. Wait for schema migration support to be added to ZIO Blocks Schema (it is on the roadmap).
+:::
+
+### Schema Serialization
+
+ZIO Schema supports serializing a schema itself (via `schema.serializable`). ZIO Blocks Schema does not have a direct equivalent at this time. All schema metadata types (`DynamicOptic`, `DynamicPatch`, `Modifier`, `Validation`, etc.) have `Schema` instances and are individually serializable, but there is no single `Schema[Schema[A]]` that round-trips the full structural description.
+
+---
+
+## Migrating Optics
+
+ZIO Schema uses an `AccessorBuilder` pattern that delegates optic creation to an external `zio-schema-optics` module. ZIO Blocks Schema includes a complete, first-class optics system in the core module.
+
+### Generating Optics
+
+**Before (ZIO Schema 1.x with `zio-schema-optics`):**
+
+```scala
+import zio.schema._
+import zio.schema.optics._
+
+case class Person(name: String, age: Int)
+object Person {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[Person] = DeriveSchema.gen
+  val (name, age) = schema.makeAccessors(ZioOpticsBuilder)
+}
+```
+
+**After (ZIO Blocks Schema):**
+
+Optics are generated by the macro derivation and placed directly in the companion object as `Lens` instances via a `CompanionOptics` mechanism. In Scala 3, they are generated automatically. In Scala 2, use `Schema.derived[Person]` and access fields by calling `schema.reflect.asRecord.get.lensByName[String]("name")`, or use the macro-derived companion optics pattern:
+
+```scala
+// Scala 3 — optics generated in companion via macro
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+case class Person(name: String, age: Int)
+object Person extends CompanionOptics[Person] {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[Person] = Schema.derived[Person]
+  // Scala 3 macro generates: val name: Lens[Person, String] = ...
+  //                          val age:  Lens[Person, Int]    = ...
+}
+
+// Usage
+val lens: Lens[Person, String] = Person.name
+val person = Person("Alice", 30)
+lens.modify(person, _.toUpperCase)  // Person("ALICE", 30)
+```
+
+```scala
+// Scala 2 — obtain lenses from the schema
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+case class Person(name: String, age: Int)
+object Person {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[Person] = Schema.derived[Person]
+
+  val name: Lens[Person, String] =
+    schema.reflect.asRecord.get.lensByName[String]("name").get
+  val age: Lens[Person, Int] =
+    schema.reflect.asRecord.get.lensByName[Int]("age").get
+}
+```
+
+### Using Optics
+
+The four optic types in ZIO Blocks are `Lens`, `Prism`, `Optional`, and `Traversal`. Their usage API is similar to standard optics libraries:
+
+```scala
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+case class Person(name: String, age: Int)
+object Person {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[Person] = Schema.derived[Person]
+}
+
+// Obtain lens (Scala 2 example)
+val nameLens: Lens[Person, String] =
+  Person.schema.reflect.asRecord.get.lensByName[String]("name").get
+
+val person = Person("Alice", 30)
+
+// Get
+val name: String = nameLens.get(person)             // "Alice"
+
+// Modify
+val upper: Person = nameLens.modify(person, _.toUpperCase)   // Person("ALICE", 30)
+
+// Replace — note: ZIO Blocks uses replace, not set (unlike Monocle and many other optics libraries)
+val renamed: Person = nameLens.replace(person, "Bob")        // Person("Bob", 30)
+```
+
+For sealed traits, use `Prism`:
+
+```scala
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+sealed trait Shape
+case class Circle(radius: Double)    extends Shape
+case class Rectangle(w: Double, h: Double) extends Shape
+
+object Shape {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[Shape] = Schema.derived[Shape]
+
+  val circlePrism: Prism[Shape, Circle] =
+    schema.reflect.asVariant.get.prismByName[Circle]("Circle").get
+}
+
+val shape: Shape = Circle(5.0)
+Shape.circlePrism.getOption(shape)          // Some(Circle(5.0))
+Shape.circlePrism.reverseGet(Circle(3.0))   // Circle(3.0): Shape
+```
+
+### Schema Expressions (New in ZIO Blocks)
+
+ZIO Blocks introduces `SchemaExpr[S, A]`, a typed expression language built on top of optics. There is no equivalent in ZIO Schema. These allow you to build inspectable, composable predicates and computations:
+
+```scala
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+case class Product(name: String, price: Double, inStock: Boolean)
+object Product {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[Product] = Schema.derived[Product]
+  val priceLens: Lens[Product, Double] =
+    schema.reflect.asRecord.get.lensByName[Double]("price").get
+  val inStockLens: Lens[Product, Boolean] =
+    schema.reflect.asRecord.get.lensByName[Boolean]("inStock").get
+}
+
+// Build a typed predicate expression
+val cheapAndInStock: SchemaExpr[Product, Boolean] =
+  (Product.priceLens < 100.0) && (Product.inStockLens === true)
+
+// Evaluate against data — eval returns Either[OpticCheck, Seq[A]]
+// Right(Seq(true))  on success
+// Left(OpticCheck)  if a prism in the path did not match
+val p = Product("Widget", 49.99, inStock = true)
+cheapAndInStock.eval(p)  // Right(Seq(true))
+```
+
+---
+
+## Migrating Diff and Patch
+
+### Diff
+
+ZIO Schema uses `Differ.fromSchema(schema).diff(a, b)` or the convenience method `schema.diff(a, b)`. ZIO Blocks Schema uses the same convenience method:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x
+val patch: Patch[Person] = Person.schema.diff(person1, person2)
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema
+val patch: Patch[Person] = Person.schema.diff(person1, person2)
+```
+
+The call site is identical, but the underlying `Patch` types are different.
+
+### Patch Application
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x
+val result: Either[String, Person] = Person.schema.patch(person, patch)
+
+// ZIO Blocks Schema
+val result: Either[SchemaError, Person] = Person.schema.patch(person, patch)
+// or equivalently:
+val result: Either[SchemaError, Person] = patch.apply(person, PatchMode.Strict)
+```
+
+The error type changes from `String` to `SchemaError`.
+
+### Creating Patches Programmatically
+
+ZIO Schema has no structured API for creating patches programmatically. ZIO Blocks Schema provides one through `Patch` smart constructors:
+
+```scala
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+import zio.blocks.schema.patch._
+
+case class Person(name: String, age: Int)
+object Person {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[Person] = Schema.derived[Person]
+  val nameLens: Lens[Person, String] =
+    schema.reflect.asRecord.get.lensByName[String]("name").get
+  val ageLens: Lens[Person, Int] =
+    schema.reflect.asRecord.get.lensByName[Int]("age").get
+}
+
+// Set a field
+val renamePatch: Patch[Person] = Patch.set(Person.nameLens, "Bob")
+
+// Compose patches
+val combined: Patch[Person] = renamePatch ++ Patch.set(Person.ageLens, 31)
+
+// Apply
+val updated: Either[SchemaError, Person] = combined(Person("Alice", 30), PatchMode.Strict)
+```
+
+---
+
+## Migrating Type Class Derivation
+
+### Before (ZIO Schema 1.x)
+
+ZIO Schema does not have a general `Deriver[TC]` interface. Each codec module implements its own derivation logic independently. There is no way to derive an arbitrary user-defined type class from a `Schema[A]`.
+
+### After (ZIO Blocks Schema)
+
+ZIO Blocks Schema introduces `Deriver[TC]`, a unified interface for deriving any type class `TC[_]` from a schema. This replaces ad-hoc codec-specific derivation:
+
+```scala
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+import zio.blocks.schema.binding._
+import zio.blocks.schema.derive.Deriver
+import zio.blocks.docs.Doc
+import zio.blocks.typeid.TypeId
+
+// Define a type class
+trait Show[A] {
+  def show(a: A): String
+}
+
+// Implement Deriver[Show]
+object DeriveShow extends Deriver[Show] {
+
+  def derivePrimitive[A](
+    primitiveType: PrimitiveType[A],
+    typeId: TypeId[A],
+    binding: Binding[BindingType.Primitive, A],
+    doc: Doc,
+    modifiers: Seq[Modifier.Reflect],
+    defaultValue: Option[A],
+    examples: Seq[A]
+  ): Lazy[Show[A]] = Lazy {
+    new Show[A] {
+      def show(a: A): String = a.toString
+    }
+  }
+
+  def deriveRecord[F[_, _], A](
+    fields: IndexedSeq[Term[F, A, _]],
+    typeId: TypeId[A],
+    binding: Binding[BindingType.Record, A],
+    doc: Doc,
+    modifiers: Seq[Modifier.Reflect],
+    defaultValue: Option[A],
+    examples: Seq[A]
+  )(implicit F: HasBinding[F], D: DeriveShow.HasInstance[F]): Lazy[Show[A]] = {
+    val recordBinding = binding.asInstanceOf[Binding.Record[A]]
+    val recordFields  = fields.asInstanceOf[IndexedSeq[Term[Binding, A, _]]]
+    val recordReflect = new Reflect.Record[Binding, A](recordFields, typeId, recordBinding, doc, modifiers)
+    Lazy {
+      new Show[A] {
+        private lazy val resolvedShows: IndexedSeq[Show[Any]] =
+          fields.map(f => D.instance(f.value.metadata).asInstanceOf[Lazy[Show[Any]]].force)
+        def show(a: A): String = {
+          val regs = Registers(recordReflect.usedRegisters)
+          recordBinding.deconstructor.deconstruct(regs, RegisterOffset.Zero, a)
+          val fieldStrs = fields.indices.map { i =>
+            val v = recordReflect.registers(i).get(regs, RegisterOffset.Zero)
+            s"${fields(i).name} = ${resolvedShows(i).show(v)}"
+          }
+          s"${typeId.name}(${fieldStrs.mkString(", ")})"
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // ... deriveVariant, deriveSequence, deriveMap, deriveDynamic, deriveWrapper
+  // (see the DeriveShowExample in the examples module for full implementation)
+}
+
+// Derive Show for any type
+case class Person(name: String, age: Int)
+object Person {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[Person] = Schema.derived[Person]
+  implicit val show: Show[Person]     = schema.derive(DeriveShow)
+}
+
+Person.show.show(Person("Alice", 30))  // Person(name = "Alice", age = 30)
+```
+
+---
+
+## Migrating Validation
+
+### Before (ZIO Schema 1.x)
+
+ZIO Schema uses a composable `Validation[A]` ADT as an annotation, attached via `@validate(...)` or `.validation(...)`:
+
+```scala
+import zio.schema._
+import zio.schema.validation._
+import zio.schema.annotation._
+
+case class User(
+  @validate(Validation.greaterThan(0)) age: Int,
+  @validate(Validation.minLength(3))   name: String
+)
+object User {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[User] = DeriveSchema.gen
+}
+
+schema.validate(User(-1, "Al"))
+// Returns Chunk[ValidationError] with violations
+```
+
+### After (ZIO Blocks Schema)
+
+ZIO Blocks Schema has a simpler, non-composable `Validation[A]` that is embedded inside `PrimitiveType[A]` and checked during `DynamicSchema.check`. It is not composable with `And`/`Or`/`Not`:
+
+```scala
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+// Validation is checked during DynamicSchema.check — not during fromDynamicValue
+val dynSchema = Schema[Int].toDynamicSchema
+
+val valid   = DynamicValue.Primitive(PrimitiveValue.Int(5))
+val invalid = DynamicValue.Primitive(PrimitiveValue.Int(-1))
+
+dynSchema.conforms(valid)    // true
+dynSchema.conforms(invalid)  // true (no validation constraint on the base Int schema)
+```
+
+For validated types, use `Schema[A].transform` with a throwing `to` function, which signals failure during `fromDynamicValue`:
+
+```scala
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+// Validated positive integer
+val positiveIntSchema: Schema[Int] =
+  Schema[Int].transform(
+    to   = n => if (n > 0) n else throw SchemaError.validationFailed("Must be positive"),
+    from = identity
+  )
+
+positiveIntSchema.fromDynamicValue(
+  DynamicValue.Primitive(PrimitiveValue.Int(-1))
+)
+// Left(SchemaError: Must be positive)
+```
+
+For struct-level validation across multiple fields, implement validation in the `to` function of a wrapper:
+
+```scala
+import zio.blocks.schema._
+
+final case class AgeRange(min: Int, max: Int)
+object AgeRange {
+  implicit val schema: Schema[AgeRange] = Schema.derived[AgeRange]
+  // Schema-level validation is handled through the derived schema's
+  // DynamicSchema.check, or by adding custom validation in a wrapping transform.
+}
+```
+
+:::info
+If you rely heavily on ZIO Schema's composable validation (chaining `And`, `Or`, `Not`, `Transform` validators), you will need to implement that logic in the `to` function of a `Schema.transform` wrapper, or in application-level validation code. ZIO Blocks Schema's built-in `Validation` is deliberately simpler: it covers the most common primitive constraints without the complexity of a full combinator library.
+:::
+
+---
+
+## Migrating the Fail Schema
+
+ZIO Schema provides `Schema.fail[A](message: String)` to represent the absence of schema information:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Schema 1.x
+val missing: Schema[MyType] = Schema.fail("No schema available for MyType")
+```
+
+ZIO Blocks Schema has no equivalent `Fail` schema node. The recommended approach is to leave the implicit schema undefined and let the compiler report the missing instance, or to throw from a type class derivation:
+
+```scala
+// ZIO Blocks Schema — no Schema.fail; use a compile error or a runtime exception approach
+// If you need a runtime sentinel, use Schema[DynamicValue] or create a minimal placeholder:
+val placeholder: Schema[DynamicValue] = Schema[DynamicValue]
+```
+
+---
+
+## Summary of Missing Features
+
+The following ZIO Schema features do not yet have equivalents in ZIO Blocks Schema:
+
+| Feature | Status |
+|---|---|
+| `Schema.fail` / fail schemas | Not available |
+| `Schema.migrate[B]` / `Schema.coerce[B]` | Not available — schema migration is planned |
+| `MetaSchema` / schema serialization | Partial — `DynamicSchema` covers structural inspection; full schema round-trip is not available |
+| `Fallback[A, B]` schema | Not available |
+| `NonEmptyChunk` / `NonEmptyMap` schemas | Not available — use wrapper types |
+| `Schema.Singleton` / singleton schemas | Not available |
+| `DynamicValue.BothValue` / `DynamicValue.DynamicAst` | Not available |
+| Composable `Validation` (`And`, `Or`, `Not`) | Not available — use `transform` with throwing functions |
+| Streaming codec methods (`streamEncoder`, `streamDecoder`) | Not available — wrap codecs in your effect system |
+| ZIO `Chunk` (from `zio-core`) | Replaced by `zio.blocks.chunk.Chunk` |
+
+---
+
+## Running the Examples
+
+All code from this guide is available as runnable examples in the `schema-examples` module.
+
+**1. Clone the repository and navigate to the project:**
+
+```bash
+git clone https://github.com/zio/zio-blocks.git
+cd zio-blocks
+```
+
+**2. Run individual examples with sbt:**
+
+```bash
+# Step 1: Schema derivation, primitives, and DynamicValue roundtrip
+sbt "schema-examples/runMain ziosschemamigration.Step1SchemaDerivedAndPrimitives"
+
+# Step 2: Modifiers and transform (annotations, newtypes)
+sbt "schema-examples/runMain ziosschemamigration.Step2ModifiersAndTransform"
+
+# Step 3: Optics (Lens, Prism) and DynamicSchema validation
+sbt "schema-examples/runMain ziosschemamigration.Step3OpticsAndDynamicSchema"
+
+# Step 4: Diff and patch
+sbt "schema-examples/runMain ziosschemamigration.Step4DiffAndPatch"
+
+# Complete example: end-to-end e-commerce domain
+sbt "schema-examples/runMain ziosschemamigration.CompleteMigrationExample"
+
+# Type class derivation — deriving Show from a Schema
+sbt "schema-examples/runMain typeclassderivation.DeriveShowExample"
+
+# Type class derivation — deriving a random generator from a Schema
+sbt "schema-examples/runMain typeclassderivation.DeriveGenExample"
+```
+
+**3. Or compile all examples at once:**
+
+```bash
+sbt "schema-examples/compile"
+```
+
+---
+
+## Going Further
+
+- [Schema Reference](../reference/schema.md) — full `Schema[A]` API
+- [Reflect Reference](../reference/reflect.md) — the `Reflect[F, A]` node types
+- [Binding Reference](../reference/binding.md) — constructors, deconstructors, and the register system
+- [Optics Reference](../reference/optics.md) — `Lens`, `Prism`, `Optional`, `Traversal`
+- [Type Class Derivation Guide](../reference/type-class-derivation.md) — implementing `Deriver[TC]`
+- [Codec Reference](../reference/codec.md) — the `Format` and `Codec` infrastructure
+- [DynamicValue Reference](../reference/dynamic-value.md) — the `DynamicValue` API
+- [Validation Reference](../reference/validation.md) — built-in validation constraints