@zero-server/sdk 0.9.1 → 0.9.2

package/lib/orm/model.js

@@ -1,1706 +1,1706 @@
-/**
- * @module orm/model
- * @description Base Model class for defining database-backed entities.
- *              Provides static CRUD methods, instance-level save/update/delete,
- *              lifecycle hooks, relationship definitions, computed/virtual columns,
- *              attribute casting, model events & observers, and advanced relationships.
- *
- * @example
- *   const { Model, Database } = require('@zero-server/sdk');
- *
- *   class User extends Model {
- *       static table = 'users';
- *       static schema = {
- *           id:    { type: 'integer', primaryKey: true, autoIncrement: true },
- *           name:  { type: 'string',  required: true, maxLength: 100 },
- *           email: { type: 'string',  required: true, unique: true },
- *           role:  { type: 'string',  enum: ['user','admin'], default: 'user' },
- *       };
- *       static timestamps = true;   // auto createdAt/updatedAt
- *       static softDelete = true;   // deletedAt instead of real delete
- *   }
- *
- *   db.register(User);
- *
- *   const user = await User.create({ name: 'Alice', email: 'a@b.com' });
- *   const users = await User.find({ role: 'admin' });
- *   const u = await User.findById(1);
- *   await u.update({ name: 'Alice2' });
- *   await u.delete();
- */
-const { validate } = require('./schema');
-const Query = require('./query');
-const crypto = require('crypto');
-const log = require('../debug')('zero:orm');
-const { ValidationError, DatabaseError } = require('../errors');
-const { EventEmitter } = require('events');
-
-class Model
-{
-    /**
-     * Table name — override in subclass.
-     * @type {string}
-     */
-    static table = '';
-
-    /**
-     * Column schema — override in subclass.
-     * @type {Object<string, object>}
-     */
-    static schema = {};
-
-    /**
-     * Enable auto timestamps (createdAt, updatedAt).
-     * @type {boolean}
-     */
-    static timestamps = false;
-
-    /**
-     * Enable soft deletes (deletedAt instead of real deletion).
-     * @type {boolean}
-     */
-    static softDelete = false;
-
-    /**
-     * Fields to hide from toJSON() serialization.
-     * Useful for excluding passwords, tokens, internal fields.
-     * @type {string[]}
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   class User extends Model {
-     *       static hidden = ['password', 'resetToken'];
-     *   }
-     */
-    static hidden = [];
-
-    /**
-     * Named query scopes — reusable query conditions.
-     * Each scope is a function that receives a Query and returns it.
-     * @type {Object<string, Function>}
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   class User extends Model {
-     *       static scopes = {
-     *           active: q => q.where('active', true),
-     *           admins: q => q.where('role', 'admin'),
-     *           olderThan: (q, age) => q.where('age', '>', age),
-     *       };
-     *   }
-     *
-     *   // Use:
-     *   await User.scope('active').scope('admins').limit(5);
-     *   await User.scope('olderThan', 30);
-     */
-    static scopes = {};
-
-    /**
-     * Lifecycle hooks.
-     * Override these in subclasses: `static beforeCreate(data) { return data; }`
-     * @type {object}
-     */
-    static hooks = {};
-
-    // -- Computed & Virtual Columns ---------------------
-
-    /**
-     * Computed column definitions — virtual columns derived from other fields.
-     * Not stored in the database; calculated on the fly.
-     * Each entry maps a column name to a getter function `(instance) => value`.
-     * @type {Object<string, Function>}
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   class User extends Model {
-     *       static computed = {
-     *           fullName: (user) => `${user.firstName} ${user.lastName}`,
-     *           isAdmin:  (user) => user.role === 'admin',
-     *       };
-     *   }
-     *
-     *   const user = await User.findById(1);
-     *   user.fullName // => 'Alice Smith'
-     */
-    static computed = {};
-
-    /**
-     * Attribute casts — automatic type transformations on get/set.
-     * Maps column names to cast types or custom cast objects.
-     *
-     * Built-in cast types:
-     * - `'json'`     — JSON.parse on get, JSON.stringify on set
-     * - `'boolean'`  — Cast to true/false
-     * - `'integer'`  — parseInt
-     * - `'float'`    — parseFloat
-     * - `'date'`     — Cast to Date object
-     * - `'string'`   — Cast to String
-     * - `'array'`    — JSON parse/stringify for array data
-     *
-     * Custom casts:
-     * - `{ get: (v) => transformed, set: (v) => transformed }`
-     *
-     * @type {Object<string, string|{ get: Function, set: Function }>}
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   class Settings extends Model {
-     *       static casts = {
-     *           preferences: 'json',
-     *           isActive:    'boolean',
-     *           loginCount:  'integer',
-     *           tags:        'array',
-     *           metadata:    {
-     *               get: (v) => v ? JSON.parse(v) : {},
-     *               set: (v) => JSON.stringify(v),
-     *           },
-     *       };
-     *   }
-     */
-    static casts = {};
-
-    /**
-     * Custom attribute accessors (getters).
-     * These transform values when reading from the model instance.
-     * Each entry maps a column name to a function `(value, instance) => transformedValue`.
-     * @type {Object<string, Function>}
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   class User extends Model {
-     *       static accessors = {
-     *           email: (val) => val ? val.toLowerCase() : val,
-     *           name:  (val) => val ? val.trim() : val,
-     *       };
-     *   }
-     */
-    static accessors = {};
-
-    /**
-     * Custom attribute mutators (setters).
-     * These transform values before writing to the model instance.
-     * Each entry maps a column name to a function `(value, instance) => transformedValue`.
-     * @type {Object<string, Function>}
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   class User extends Model {
-     *       static mutators = {
-     *           email: (val) => val ? val.toLowerCase().trim() : val,
-     *           password: (val) => hashSync(val),
-     *       };
-     *   }
-     */
-    static mutators = {};
-
-    // -- Model Events -----------------------------------
-
-    /**
-     * Internal event emitter for model-level events.
-     * @type {EventEmitter|null}
-     * @private
-     */
-    static _emitter = null;
-
-    /**
-     * Registered observers for this model.
-     * @type {object[]}
-     * @private
-     */
-    static _observers = [];
-
-    /**
-     * Relationship definitions.
-     * @type {object}
-     * @private
-     */
-    static _relations = {};
-
-    /**
-     * Database adapter reference — set by Database.register().
-     * @type {object|null}
-     * @private
-     */
-    static _adapter = null;
-
-    // -- Constructor ------------------------------------
-
-    /**
-     * @constructor
-     * Create a model instance from a data row.
-     * Generally you won't call this directly — use static methods.
-     *
-     * @param {object} data - Row data.
-     */
-    constructor(data = {})
-    {
-        /** @type {boolean} Whether this instance exists in the database. */
-        this._persisted = false;
-
-        /** @type {object} The original data snapshot for dirty tracking. */
-        this._original = {};
-
-        // Assign data to instance (filter prototype pollution keys)
-        const mutators = this.constructor.mutators || {};
-        const casts = this.constructor.casts || {};
-        for (const key of Object.keys(data))
-        {
-            if (key === '__proto__' || key === 'constructor' || key === 'prototype') continue;
-            let val = data[key];
-            // Apply mutator if defined
-            if (typeof mutators[key] === 'function')
-            {
-                val = mutators[key](val, this);
-            }
-            // Apply cast set if defined
-            else if (casts[key])
-            {
-                val = Model._applyCastSet(val, casts[key]);
-            }
-            this[key] = val;
-        }
-    }
-
-    // -- Instance Methods -------------------------------
-
-    /**
-     * Save this instance to the database. Insert if new, update if persisted.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model>} `this`
-     */
-    async save()
-    {
-        const ctor = this.constructor;
-        if (this._persisted)
-        {
-            const pk = ctor._primaryKey();
-            const changes = this._dirtyFields();
-            if (Object.keys(changes).length === 0) return this;
-
-            if (ctor.timestamps && ctor._fullSchema().updatedAt)
-            {
-                changes.updatedAt = new Date();
-            }
-
-            await ctor._runHook('beforeUpdate', changes);
-            const { valid, errors, sanitized } = validate(changes, ctor._fullSchema(), { partial: true });
-            if (!valid) throw new ValidationError('Validation failed: ' + errors.join(', '), errors);
-
-            try { await ctor._adapter.update(ctor.table, pk, this[pk], sanitized); }
-            catch (e) { log.error('%s update failed: %s', ctor.table, e.message); throw e; }
-            log.debug('%s update id=%s', ctor.table, this[pk]);
-            Object.assign(this, sanitized);
-            await ctor._runHook('afterUpdate', this);
-            this._snapshot();
-        }
-        else
-        {
-            const data = this._toData();
-
-            if (ctor.timestamps)
-            {
-                const now = new Date();
-                if (ctor._fullSchema().createdAt && !data.createdAt) data.createdAt = now;
-                if (ctor._fullSchema().updatedAt && !data.updatedAt) data.updatedAt = now;
-            }
-
-            await ctor._runHook('beforeCreate', data);
-            const { valid, errors, sanitized } = validate(data, ctor._fullSchema());
-            if (!valid) throw new ValidationError('Validation failed: ' + errors.join(', '), errors);
-
-            let result;
-            try { result = await ctor._adapter.insert(ctor.table, sanitized); }
-            catch (e) { log.error('%s insert failed: %s', ctor.table, e.message); throw e; }
-            log.debug('%s insert', ctor.table);
-            const pk = ctor._primaryKey();
-            if (result && result[pk] !== undefined) this[pk] = result[pk];
-            Object.assign(this, sanitized);
-            this._persisted = true;
-            await ctor._runHook('afterCreate', this);
-            this._snapshot();
-        }
-        return this;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Update specific fields on this instance.
-     * @param {object} data - Fields to update.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model>} `this`
-     */
-    async update(data)
-    {
-        Object.assign(this, this.constructor._stripGuarded(data));
-        return this.save();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Delete this instance from the database.
-     * If softDelete is enabled, sets deletedAt instead.
-     * @returns {Promise<void>}
-     */
-    async delete()
-    {
-        const ctor = this.constructor;
-        const pk = ctor._primaryKey();
-
-        await ctor._runHook('beforeDelete', this);
-
-        if (ctor.softDelete)
-        {
-            this.deletedAt = new Date();
-            try { await ctor._adapter.update(ctor.table, pk, this[pk], { deletedAt: this.deletedAt }); }
-            catch (e) { log.error('%s soft-delete failed: %s', ctor.table, e.message); throw e; }
-        }
-        else
-        {
-            try { await ctor._adapter.remove(ctor.table, pk, this[pk]); }
-            catch (e) { log.error('%s delete failed: %s', ctor.table, e.message); throw e; }
-        }
-
-        log.debug('%s delete id=%s', ctor.table, this[pk]);
-
-        await ctor._runHook('afterDelete', this);
-        this._persisted = false;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Restore a soft-deleted record.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model>} `this`
-     */
-    async restore()
-    {
-        const ctor = this.constructor;
-        if (!ctor.softDelete) throw new Error('Model does not use soft deletes');
-        const pk = ctor._primaryKey();
-        this.deletedAt = null;
-        try { await ctor._adapter.update(ctor.table, pk, this[pk], { deletedAt: null }); }
-        catch (e) { log.error('%s restore failed: %s', ctor.table, e.message); throw e; }
-        return this;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Increment a numeric field atomically.
-     *
-     * @param {string} field  - Column name to increment.
-     * @param {number} [by=1] - Amount to increment by.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model>} `this`
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   await post.increment('views');
-     *   await product.increment('stock', 10);
-     */
-    async increment(field, by = 1)
-    {
-        const ctor = this.constructor;
-        const pk = ctor._primaryKey();
-        this[field] = (Number(this[field]) || 0) + by;
-        const update = { [field]: this[field] };
-        if (ctor.timestamps && ctor._fullSchema().updatedAt)
-        {
-            update.updatedAt = new Date();
-            this.updatedAt = update.updatedAt;
-        }
-        await ctor._adapter.update(ctor.table, pk, this[pk], update);
-        log.debug('%s increment %s by %d', ctor.table, field, by);
-        this._snapshot();
-        return this;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Decrement a numeric field atomically.
-     *
-     * @param {string} field  - Column name to decrement.
-     * @param {number} [by=1] - Amount to decrement by.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model>} `this`
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   await product.decrement('stock');
-     *   await account.decrement('balance', 50);
-     */
-    async decrement(field, by = 1)
-    {
-        return this.increment(field, -by);
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Reload this instance from the database.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model>} `this`
-     */
-    async reload()
-    {
-        const ctor = this.constructor;
-        const pk = ctor._primaryKey();
-        const fresh = await ctor.findById(this[pk]);
-        if (!fresh) throw new Error('Record not found');
-        Object.assign(this, fresh);
-        this._snapshot();
-        return this;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Convert to plain object (for JSON serialization).
-     * Respects `static hidden = [...]` to exclude sensitive fields.
-     * Includes computed columns and applies accessor transformations.
-     * @returns {object} Plain data object with hidden fields excluded.
-     */
-    toJSON()
-    {
-        const data = {};
-        const ctor = this.constructor;
-        const schema = ctor._fullSchema();
-        const hidden = ctor.hidden || [];
-        const accessors = ctor.accessors || {};
-        const casts = ctor.casts || {};
-        for (const key of Object.keys(schema))
-        {
-            if (this[key] !== undefined && !hidden.includes(key))
-            {
-                let val = this[key];
-                // Apply accessor if defined
-                if (typeof accessors[key] === 'function')
-                {
-                    val = accessors[key](val, this);
-                }
-                // Apply cast get if defined (and no accessor)
-                else if (casts[key])
-                {
-                    val = Model._applyCastGet(val, casts[key]);
-                }
-                data[key] = val;
-            }
-        }
-        // Include computed columns
-        const computed = ctor.computed || {};
-        for (const [name, fn] of Object.entries(computed))
-        {
-            if (!hidden.includes(name) && typeof fn === 'function')
-            {
-                data[name] = fn(this);
-            }
-        }
-        return data;
-    }
-
-    // -- Internal Instance Helpers ----------------------
-
-    /** @private Snapshot current data for dirty tracking. */
-    _snapshot()
-    {
-        this._original = { ...this._toData() };
-    }
-
-    /** @private Get only data columns (exclude internal props). */
-    _toData()
-    {
-        const data = {};
-        const schema = this.constructor._fullSchema();
-        for (const key of Object.keys(schema))
-        {
-            if (this[key] !== undefined) data[key] = this[key];
-        }
-        return data;
-    }
-
-    /** @private Get fields that changed since last snapshot. */
-    _dirtyFields()
-    {
-        const data = this._toData();
-        const changes = {};
-        for (const [k, v] of Object.entries(data))
-        {
-            if (v !== this._original[k]) changes[k] = v;
-        }
-        return changes;
-    }
-
-    // -- Static CRUD ------------------------------------
-
-    /**
-     * Create and persist a new record.
-     *
-     * @param {object} data - Record data.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model>} The created instance.
-     */
-    static async create(data)
-    {
-        const instance = new this(this._stripGuarded(data));
-        return instance.save();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Create multiple records at once.
-     * Uses batch INSERT when the adapter supports it (much faster for SQL databases).
-     *
-     * @param {object[]} dataArray - Array of record data.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model[]>} Created model instances.
-     */
-    static async createMany(dataArray)
-    {
-        if (!dataArray.length) return [];
-
-        // Validate, apply hooks & timestamps for each row
-        const fullSchema = this._fullSchema();
-        const sanitizedRows = [];
-        for (const data of dataArray)
-        {
-            const row = this._stripGuarded({ ...data });
-            if (this.timestamps)
-            {
-                const now = new Date();
-                if (fullSchema.createdAt && !row.createdAt) row.createdAt = now;
-                if (fullSchema.updatedAt && !row.updatedAt) row.updatedAt = now;
-            }
-            await this._runHook('beforeCreate', row);
-            const { valid, errors, sanitized } = validate(row, fullSchema);
-            if (!valid) throw new ValidationError('Validation failed: ' + errors.join(', '), errors);
-            sanitizedRows.push(sanitized);
-        }
-
-        // Use batch insertMany if adapter supports it
-        if (typeof this._adapter.insertMany === 'function')
-        {
-            let results;
-            try { results = await this._adapter.insertMany(this.table, sanitizedRows); }
-            catch (e) { log.error('%s insertMany failed: %s', this.table, e.message); throw e; }
-
-            const instances = results.map(row => {
-                const inst = this._fromRow(row);
-                return inst;
-            });
-
-            for (const inst of instances) await this._runHook('afterCreate', inst);
-            return instances;
-        }
-
-        // Fallback: individual inserts
-        return Promise.all(dataArray.map(d => this.create(d)));
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Find records matching conditions.
-     *
-     * @param {object} [conditions={}] - WHERE conditions `{ key: value }`.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model[]>} Matching records.
-     */
-    static async find(conditions = {})
-    {
-        const q = this.query().where(conditions);
-        return q.exec();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Find a single record matching conditions.
-     *
-     * @param {object} conditions - WHERE conditions.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model|null>} First matching record, or null.
-     */
-    static async findOne(conditions)
-    {
-        return this.query().where(conditions).first();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Find a record by primary key.
-     *
-     * @param {*} id - Primary key value.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model|null>} Matching record, or null.
-     */
-    static async findById(id)
-    {
-        const pk = this._primaryKey();
-        return this.query().where(pk, id).first();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Find one or create if not found.
-     *
-     * @param {object} conditions - Search conditions.
-     * @param {object} [defaults={}] - Additional data for creation.
-     * @returns {Promise<{ instance: Model, created: boolean }>}
-     */
-    static async findOrCreate(conditions, defaults = {})
-    {
-        const existing = await this.findOne(conditions);
-        if (existing) return { instance: existing, created: false };
-        const instance = await this.create({ ...conditions, ...defaults });
-        return { instance, created: true };
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Update records matching conditions.
-     *
-     * @param {object} conditions - WHERE conditions.
-     * @param {object} data       - Fields to update.
-     * @returns {Promise<number>} Number of updated records.
-     */
-    static async updateWhere(conditions, data)
-    {
-        data = this._stripGuarded(data);
-        if (this.timestamps && this._fullSchema().updatedAt)
-        {
-            data.updatedAt = new Date();
-        }
-        await this._runHook('beforeUpdate', data);
-        try { return await this._adapter.updateWhere(this.table, conditions, data); }
-        catch (e) { log.error('%s updateWhere failed: %s', this.table, e.message); throw e; }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Delete records matching conditions.
-     *
-     * @param {object} conditions - WHERE conditions.
-     * @returns {Promise<number>} Number of deleted records.
-     */
-    static async deleteWhere(conditions)
-    {
-        if (this.softDelete)
-        {
-            try { return await this._adapter.updateWhere(this.table, conditions, { deletedAt: new Date() }); }
-            catch (e) { log.error('%s deleteWhere (soft) failed: %s', this.table, e.message); throw e; }
-        }
-        try { return await this._adapter.deleteWhere(this.table, conditions); }
-        catch (e) { log.error('%s deleteWhere failed: %s', this.table, e.message); throw e; }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Count records matching conditions.
-     *
-     * @param {object} [conditions={}] - WHERE conditions.
-     * @returns {Promise<number>} Number of matching records.
-     */
-    static async count(conditions = {})
-    {
-        return this.query().where(conditions).count();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Check whether any records matching conditions exist.
-     *
-     * @param {object} [conditions={}] - WHERE conditions.
-     * @returns {Promise<boolean>} True if any matching records exist.
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   if (await User.exists({ email: 'a@b.com' })) { ... }
-     */
-    static async exists(conditions = {})
-    {
-        return this.query().where(conditions).exists();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Insert or update a record matching conditions.
-     * If a matching record exists, update it. Otherwise, create a new one.
-     *
-     * @param {object} conditions - Search conditions (unique fields).
-     * @param {object} data       - Data to set (merged with conditions on create).
-     * @returns {Promise<{ instance: Model, created: boolean }>}
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   const { instance, created } = await User.upsert(
-     *       { email: 'a@b.com' },
-     *       { name: 'Alice', role: 'admin' }
-     *   );
-     */
-    static async upsert(conditions, data = {})
-    {
-        const existing = await this.findOne(conditions);
-        if (existing)
-        {
-            await existing.update(data);
-            return { instance: existing, created: false };
-        }
-        const instance = await this.create({ ...conditions, ...data });
-        return { instance, created: true };
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Start a query with a named scope applied.
-     *
-     * @param {string} name   - Scope name (from `static scopes`).
-     * @param {...*}   [args] - Additional arguments passed to the scope function.
-     * @returns {Query} Scoped query builder.
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   await User.scope('active').where('role', 'admin');
-     *   await User.scope('olderThan', 21).limit(10);
-     */
-    static scope(name, ...args)
-    {
-        if (!this.scopes || typeof this.scopes[name] !== 'function')
-        {
-            throw new Error(`Unknown scope "${name}" on ${this.name}`);
-        }
-        const q = this.query();
-        this.scopes[name](q, ...args);
-        return q;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Start a fluent query builder.
-     *
-     * @returns {Query} New fluent query builder.
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   const results = await User.query()
-     *       .where('age', '>', 18)
-     *       .orderBy('name')
-     *       .limit(10);
-     */
-    static query()
-    {
-        if (!this._adapter) throw new Error(`Model "${this.name}" is not registered with a database`);
-        const q = new Query(this, this._adapter);
-
-        // Auto-exclude soft-deleted records
-        if (this.softDelete)
-        {
-            q.whereNull('deletedAt');
-        }
-
-        return q;
-    }
-
-    // -- LINQ-Inspired Static Shortcuts -----------------
-
-    /**
-     * Find the first record matching optional conditions.
-     *
-     * @param {object} [conditions={}] - WHERE conditions.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model|null>} First matching record, or null.
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   const admin = await User.first({ role: 'admin' });
-     *   const oldest = await User.first(); // first by PK
-     */
-    static async first(conditions = {})
-    {
-        return this.query().where(conditions).first();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Find the last record matching optional conditions.
-     *
-     * @param {object} [conditions={}] - WHERE conditions.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model|null>} Last matching record, or null.
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   const newest = await User.last();
-     *   const lastAdmin = await User.last({ role: 'admin' });
-     */
-    static async last(conditions = {})
-    {
-        return this.query().where(conditions).last();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Rich pagination with metadata.
-     * Returns `{ data, total, page, perPage, pages, hasNext, hasPrev }`.
-     *
-     * @param {number} page           - 1-indexed page number.
-     * @param {number} [perPage=20]   - Items per page.
-     * @param {object} [conditions={}] - Optional WHERE conditions.
-     * @returns {Promise<object>} Pagination result with data, total, page, perPage, pages, hasNext, hasPrev.
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   const result = await User.paginate(2, 10, { role: 'admin' });
-     *   // { data: [...], total: 53, page: 2, perPage: 10,
-     *   //   pages: 6, hasNext: true, hasPrev: true }
-     */
-    static async paginate(page, perPage = 20, conditions = {})
-    {
-        return this.query().where(conditions).paginate(page, perPage);
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Process all matching records in batches.
-     * Calls `fn(batch, batchIndex)` for each chunk.
-     *
-     * @param {number}   size            - Batch size.
-     * @param {Function} fn              - Called with (batch: Model[], index: number).
-     * @param {object}   [conditions={}] - Optional WHERE conditions.
-     * @returns {Promise<void>}
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   await User.chunk(100, async (users, i) => {
-     *       for (const u of users) await u.update({ migrated: true });
-     *   }, { active: true });
-     */
-    static async chunk(size, fn, conditions = {})
-    {
-        return this.query().where(conditions).chunk(size, fn);
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Get all records, optionally filtered.
-     * Alias for find() — for LINQ-familiarity.
-     *
-     * @param {object} [conditions={}] - WHERE conditions.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model[]>} All matching records.
-     */
-    static async all(conditions = {})
-    {
-        return this.find(conditions);
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Get a random record.
-     *
-     * @param {object} [conditions={}] - Optional WHERE conditions.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model|null>} Random matching record, or null.
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   const luckyUser = await User.random();
-     *   const randomAdmin = await User.random({ role: 'admin' });
-     */
-    static async random(conditions = {})
-    {
-        const total = await this.count(conditions);
-        if (total === 0) return null;
-        const idx = Math.floor(Math.random() * total);
-        return this.query().where(conditions).offset(idx).first();
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Pluck values for a single column across all matching records.
-     *
-     * @param {string} field            - Column name to extract.
-     * @param {object} [conditions={}]  - Optional WHERE conditions.
-     * @returns {Promise<Array>} Values for the specified column.
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   const emails = await User.pluck('email');
-     *   const adminNames = await User.pluck('name', { role: 'admin' });
-     */
-    static async pluck(field, conditions = {})
-    {
-        return this.query().where(conditions).pluck(field);
-    }
-
-    // -- Relationships ----------------------------------
-
-    /**
-     * Define a hasMany relationship.
-     * @param {Function} RelatedModel - The related Model class.
-     * @param {string}   foreignKey   - Foreign key column on the related table.
-     * @param {string}   [localKey]   - Local key (default: primary key).
-     */
-    static hasMany(RelatedModel, foreignKey, localKey)
-    {
-        const pk = localKey || this._primaryKey();
-        if (!this._relations) this._relations = {};
-        this._relations[RelatedModel.name] = { type: 'hasMany', model: RelatedModel, foreignKey, localKey: pk };
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Define a hasOne relationship.
-     * @param {Function} RelatedModel - The related Model class.
-     * @param {string}   foreignKey   - Foreign key column on the related table.
-     * @param {string}   [localKey]   - Local key (default: primary key).
-     */
-    static hasOne(RelatedModel, foreignKey, localKey)
-    {
-        const pk = localKey || this._primaryKey();
-        if (!this._relations) this._relations = {};
-        this._relations[RelatedModel.name] = { type: 'hasOne', model: RelatedModel, foreignKey, localKey: pk };
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Define a belongsTo relationship.
-     * @param {Function} RelatedModel - The related Model class.
-     * @param {string}   foreignKey   - Foreign key column on THIS table.
-     * @param {string}   [otherKey]   - Key on the related table (default: its primary key).
-     */
-    static belongsTo(RelatedModel, foreignKey, otherKey)
-    {
-        const ok = otherKey || RelatedModel._primaryKey();
-        if (!this._relations) this._relations = {};
-        this._relations[RelatedModel.name] = { type: 'belongsTo', model: RelatedModel, foreignKey, localKey: ok };
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Define a many-to-many relationship through a junction/pivot table.
-     *
-     * @param {Function} RelatedModel   - The related Model class.
-     * @param {object}   opts           - Relationship options.
-     * @param {string}   opts.through   - Junction table name (e.g. 'user_roles').
-     * @param {string}   opts.foreignKey   - Column on the junction table referencing THIS model.
-     * @param {string}   opts.otherKey     - Column on the junction table referencing the related model.
-     * @param {string}   [opts.localKey]   - Local key (default: primary key).
-     * @param {string}   [opts.relatedKey] - Related model key (default: its primary key).
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   User.belongsToMany(Role, {
-     *       through: 'user_roles',
-     *       foreignKey: 'userId',
-     *       otherKey: 'roleId'
-     *   });
-     *   const roles = await user.load('Role'); // returns Role[]
-     */
-    static belongsToMany(RelatedModel, opts = {})
-    {
-        if (!opts.through || !opts.foreignKey || !opts.otherKey)
-        {
-            throw new Error('belongsToMany requires through, foreignKey, and otherKey');
-        }
-        const pk = opts.localKey || this._primaryKey();
-        const rpk = opts.relatedKey || RelatedModel._primaryKey();
-        if (!this._relations) this._relations = {};
-        this._relations[RelatedModel.name] = {
-            type: 'belongsToMany',
-            model: RelatedModel,
-            through: opts.through,
-            foreignKey: opts.foreignKey,
-            otherKey: opts.otherKey,
-            localKey: pk,
-            relatedKey: rpk,
-        };
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Load a related model for this instance.
-     *
-     * @param {string} relationName - Name of the related Model class or relation alias.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model|Model[]|null>} The related model(s) or null.
-     */
-    async load(relationName)
-    {
-        const ctor = this.constructor;
-        const rel = ctor._relations && ctor._relations[relationName];
-        if (!rel) throw new Error(`Unknown relation "${relationName}" on ${ctor.name}`);
-
-        switch (rel.type)
-        {
-            case 'hasMany':
-                return rel.model.find({ [rel.foreignKey]: this[rel.localKey] });
-            case 'hasOne':
-                return rel.model.findOne({ [rel.foreignKey]: this[rel.localKey] });
-            case 'belongsTo':
-                return rel.model.findOne({ [rel.localKey]: this[rel.foreignKey] });
-            case 'belongsToMany':
-            {
-                // Query the junction table to find related IDs
-                const junctionRows = await ctor._adapter.execute({
-                    action: 'select',
-                    table: rel.through,
-                    fields: [rel.otherKey],
-                    where: [{ field: rel.foreignKey, op: '=', value: this[rel.localKey], logic: 'AND' }],
-                    orderBy: [], joins: [], groupBy: [], having: [],
-                    limit: null, offset: null, distinct: false,
-                });
-                if (!junctionRows.length) return [];
-                const relatedIds = junctionRows.map(r => r[rel.otherKey]);
-                return rel.model.query().whereIn(rel.relatedKey, relatedIds).exec();
-            }
-            case 'morphOne':
-            {
-                const typeCol = `${rel.morphName}_type`;
-                const idCol = `${rel.morphName}_id`;
-                return rel.model.findOne({ [typeCol]: ctor.name, [idCol]: this[rel.localKey] });
-            }
-            case 'morphMany':
-            {
-                const typeCol = `${rel.morphName}_type`;
-                const idCol = `${rel.morphName}_id`;
-                return rel.model.find({ [typeCol]: ctor.name, [idCol]: this[rel.localKey] });
-            }
-            case 'hasManyThrough':
-            {
-                // Get intermediate records
-                const throughRecords = await rel.through.find({ [rel.firstKey]: this[rel.localKey] });
-                if (!throughRecords.length) return [];
-                const throughIds = throughRecords.map(r => r[rel.secondLocalKey]);
-                return rel.model.query().whereIn(rel.secondKey, throughIds).exec();
-            }
-            default:
-                throw new Error(`Unknown relation type "${rel.type}"`);
-        }
-    }
-
-    // -- Internal Static Helpers ------------------------
-
-    /**
-     * Strip guarded fields from a data object.
-     * Guarded fields are defined in the schema with `guarded: true`.
-     * They cannot be set via mass-assignment (create / update with object).
-     *
-     * @param {object} data - The input data.
-     * @returns {object} A copy of data without guarded fields.
-     * @private
-     */
-    static _stripGuarded(data)
-    {
-        const schema = this.schema;
-        const guardedKeys = Object.entries(schema)
-            .filter(([, def]) => def.guarded)
-            .map(([name]) => name);
-        if (guardedKeys.length === 0) return data;
-        const cleaned = { ...data };
-        for (const key of guardedKeys) delete cleaned[key];
-        return cleaned;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Get the full schema including auto-fields.
-     * @returns {object} Schema with auto-generated timestamp and soft-delete columns.
-     * @private
-     */
-    static _fullSchema()
-    {
-        const s = { ...this.schema };
-        if (this.timestamps)
-        {
-            if (!s.createdAt) s.createdAt = { type: 'datetime', default: () => new Date() };
-            if (!s.updatedAt) s.updatedAt = { type: 'datetime', default: () => new Date() };
-        }
-        if (this.softDelete)
-        {
-            if (!s.deletedAt) s.deletedAt = { type: 'datetime', nullable: true };
-        }
-        return s;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Get the primary key column name(s).
-     * Returns a single string for simple PKs, or an array for composite PKs.
-     * @returns {string|string[]} Primary key column name(s).
-     * @private
-     */
-    static _primaryKey()
-    {
-        const pks = [];
-        for (const [name, def] of Object.entries(this.schema))
-        {
-            if (def.primaryKey) pks.push(name);
-        }
-        if (pks.length === 0) return 'id'; // convention
-        if (pks.length === 1) return pks[0];
-        return pks; // composite PK
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Create a model instance from a raw database row.
-     * @param {object} row - Data row object.
-     * @returns {Model} Hydrated model instance.
-     * @private
-     */
-    static _fromRow(row)
-    {
-        const instance = new this(row);
-        instance._persisted = true;
-        instance._snapshot();
-        return instance;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Run a lifecycle hook if defined.
-     * Also emits model events and notifies observers.
-     * @param {string} hookName - Lifecycle hook name.
-     * @param {*} data - Record data object.
-     * @returns {Promise<*>} Resolved value.
-     * @private
-     */
-    static async _runHook(hookName, data)
-    {
-        // Check for static hook on class
-        if (typeof this[hookName] === 'function')
-        {
-            await this[hookName](data);
-        }
-        // Check hooks object
-        else if (this.hooks && typeof this.hooks[hookName] === 'function')
-        {
-            await this.hooks[hookName](data);
-        }
-
-        // Emit model event
-        this._emit(hookName, data);
-
-        // Notify observers
-        this._notifyObservers(hookName, data);
-
-        return data;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Sync the table schema with the database (create table if not exists).
-     * @returns {Promise<void>}
-     */
-    static async sync()
-    {
-        if (!this._adapter) throw new Error(`Model "${this.name}" is not registered with a database`);
-        return this._adapter.createTable(this.table, this._fullSchema());
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Drop the table.
-     * @returns {Promise<void>}
-     */
-    static async drop()
-    {
-        if (!this._adapter) throw new Error(`Model "${this.name}" is not registered with a database`);
-        return this._adapter.dropTable(this.table);
-    }
-
-    // -- Attribute Casting Helpers ----------------------
-
-    /**
-     * Apply a cast transformation on get (reading from model).
-     * @param {*} value - Raw stored value.
-     * @param {string|object} cast - Cast type or custom cast object.
-     * @returns {*} Transformed value.
-     * @private
-     */
-    static _applyCastGet(value, cast)
-    {
-        if (value === null || value === undefined) return value;
-        if (typeof cast === 'object' && typeof cast.get === 'function')
-        {
-            return cast.get(value);
-        }
-        switch (cast)
-        {
-            case 'json':
-            case 'array':
-                return typeof value === 'string' ? JSON.parse(value) : value;
-            case 'boolean':
-                if (typeof value === 'boolean') return value;
-                if (typeof value === 'number') return value !== 0;
-                if (typeof value === 'string') return ['true', '1', 'yes'].includes(value.toLowerCase());
-                return Boolean(value);
-            case 'integer':
-                return parseInt(value, 10) || 0;
-            case 'float':
-                return parseFloat(value) || 0;
-            case 'date':
-                return value instanceof Date ? value : new Date(value);
-            case 'string':
-                return String(value);
-            default:
-                return value;
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Apply a cast transformation on set (writing to model).
-     * @param {*} value - Input value.
-     * @param {string|object} cast - Cast type or custom cast object.
-     * @returns {*} Transformed value for storage.
-     * @private
-     */
-    static _applyCastSet(value, cast)
-    {
-        if (value === null || value === undefined) return value;
-        if (typeof cast === 'object' && typeof cast.set === 'function')
-        {
-            return cast.set(value);
-        }
-        switch (cast)
-        {
-            case 'json':
-            case 'array':
-                return typeof value === 'string' ? value : JSON.stringify(value);
-            case 'boolean':
-                if (typeof value === 'boolean') return value;
-                if (typeof value === 'number') return value !== 0;
-                if (typeof value === 'string') return ['true', '1', 'yes'].includes(value.toLowerCase());
-                return Boolean(value);
-            case 'integer':
-                return parseInt(value, 10) || 0;
-            case 'float':
-                return parseFloat(value) || 0;
-            case 'date':
-                return value instanceof Date ? value : new Date(value);
-            case 'string':
-                return String(value);
-            default:
-                return value;
-        }
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Get an attribute value with accessor/cast applied.
-     *
-     * @param {string} key - Attribute name.
-     * @returns {*} Transformed value.
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   const email = user.getAttribute('email');
-     */
-    getAttribute(key)
-    {
-        const ctor = this.constructor;
-        const accessors = ctor.accessors || {};
-        const casts = ctor.casts || {};
-        const computed = ctor.computed || {};
-
-        // Check computed first
-        if (typeof computed[key] === 'function')
-        {
-            return computed[key](this);
-        }
-
-        let val = this[key];
-
-        // Apply accessor
-        if (typeof accessors[key] === 'function')
-        {
-            return accessors[key](val, this);
-        }
-
-        // Apply cast get
-        if (casts[key])
-        {
-            return Model._applyCastGet(val, casts[key]);
-        }
-
-        return val;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Set an attribute value with mutator/cast applied.
-     *
-     * @param {string} key   - Attribute name.
-     * @param {*}      value - Value to set.
-     * @returns {Model} `this` for chaining.
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   user.setAttribute('email', 'ALICE@EXAMPLE.COM');
-     *   // If mutator lowercases: user.email => 'alice@example.com'
-     */
-    setAttribute(key, value)
-    {
-        const ctor = this.constructor;
-        const mutators = ctor.mutators || {};
-        const casts = ctor.casts || {};
-
-        if (typeof mutators[key] === 'function')
-        {
-            this[key] = mutators[key](value, this);
-        }
-        else if (casts[key])
-        {
-            this[key] = Model._applyCastSet(value, casts[key]);
-        }
-        else
-        {
-            this[key] = value;
-        }
-        return this;
-    }
-
-    // -- Model Events -----------------------------------
-
-    /**
-     * Get or create the EventEmitter for this model class.
-     * @returns {EventEmitter} The model's event emitter.
-     * @private
-     */
-    static _getEmitter()
-    {
-        if (!this.hasOwnProperty('_emitter') || !this._emitter)
-        {
-            this._emitter = new EventEmitter();
-        }
-        return this._emitter;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Register an event listener on this model.
-     * Supported events: `creating`, `created`, `updating`, `updated`,
-     * `deleting`, `deleted`, `saving`, `saved`.
-     *
-     * @param {string}   event    - Event name.
-     * @param {Function} listener - Callback `(data) => {}`.
-     * @returns {typeof Model} The model class (for chaining).
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   User.on('created', (user) => {
-     *       console.log('New user:', user.name);
-     *   });
-     *
-     *   User.on('updating', (changes) => {
-     *       console.log('Updating fields:', Object.keys(changes));
-     *   });
-     */
-    static on(event, listener)
-    {
-        this._getEmitter().on(event, listener);
-        return this;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Register a one-time event listener.
-     *
-     * @param {string}   event    - Event name.
-     * @param {Function} listener - Callback function.
-     * @returns {typeof Model} The model class (for chaining).
-     */
-    static once(event, listener)
-    {
-        this._getEmitter().once(event, listener);
-        return this;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Remove an event listener.
-     *
-     * @param {string}   event    - Event name.
-     * @param {Function} listener - Callback to remove.
-     * @returns {typeof Model} The model class (for chaining).
-     */
-    static off(event, listener)
-    {
-        this._getEmitter().off(event, listener);
-        return this;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Remove all listeners for an event, or all listeners entirely.
-     *
-     * @param {string} [event] - Event name. If omitted, removes all listeners.
-     * @returns {typeof Model} The model class (for chaining).
-     */
-    static removeAllListeners(event)
-    {
-        if (event !== undefined)
-        {
-            this._getEmitter().removeAllListeners(event);
-        }
-        else
-        {
-            this._getEmitter().removeAllListeners();
-        }
-        return this;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Emit a model event.
-     * @param {string} event - Event name.
-     * @param {*} data - Event data.
-     * @private
-     */
-    static _emit(event, data)
-    {
-        // Map hook names to event names
-        const eventMap = {
-            beforeCreate: 'creating',
-            afterCreate:  'created',
-            beforeUpdate: 'updating',
-            afterUpdate:  'updated',
-            beforeDelete: 'deleting',
-            afterDelete:  'deleted',
-        };
-        const eventName = eventMap[event];
-        if (eventName && this.hasOwnProperty('_emitter') && this._emitter)
-        {
-            this._emitter.emit(eventName, data);
-        }
-    }
-
-    // -- Observers --------------------------------------
-
-    /**
-     * Register an observer for this model.
-     * An observer is an object with methods named after lifecycle events:
-     * `creating`, `created`, `updating`, `updated`, `deleting`, `deleted`.
-     *
-     * @param {object} observer - Observer object with event handler methods.
-     * @returns {typeof Model} The model class (for chaining).
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   const UserObserver = {
-     *       created(user) { console.log('New user:', user.name); },
-     *       updating(changes) { console.log('Updating:', changes); },
-     *       deleted(user) { console.log('Deleted user:', user.id); },
-     *   };
-     *
-     *   User.observe(UserObserver);
-     */
-    static observe(observer)
-    {
-        if (!this.hasOwnProperty('_observers'))
-        {
-            this._observers = [];
-        }
-        this._observers.push(observer);
-        return this;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Remove an observer from this model.
-     *
-     * @param {object} observer - Observer to remove.
-     * @returns {typeof Model} The model class (for chaining).
-     */
-    static unobserve(observer)
-    {
-        if (this.hasOwnProperty('_observers'))
-        {
-            this._observers = this._observers.filter(o => o !== observer);
-        }
-        return this;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Notify all registered observers of a lifecycle event.
-     * @param {string} hookName - Hook name (e.g. 'beforeCreate').
-     * @param {*} data - Event data.
-     * @private
-     */
-    static _notifyObservers(hookName, data)
-    {
-        const eventMap = {
-            beforeCreate: 'creating',
-            afterCreate:  'created',
-            beforeUpdate: 'updating',
-            afterUpdate:  'updated',
-            beforeDelete: 'deleting',
-            afterDelete:  'deleted',
-        };
-        const eventName = eventMap[hookName];
-        if (!eventName) return;
-
-        const observers = this.hasOwnProperty('_observers') ? this._observers : [];
-        for (const observer of observers)
-        {
-            if (typeof observer[eventName] === 'function')
-            {
-                observer[eventName](data);
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-    // -- Advanced Relationships -------------------------
-
-    /**
-     * Define a polymorphic one-to-one relationship (morphOne).
-     * The related table uses two columns: a type column and an ID column.
-     *
-     * @param {Function} RelatedModel - The related Model class.
-     * @param {string}   morphName    - Base name for the polymorphic columns (e.g. 'commentable').
-     * @param {string}   [localKey]   - Local key (default: primary key).
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   // Image can belong to either User or Post
-     *   User.morphOne(Image, 'imageable');
-     *   // Related table has: imageable_type, imageable_id columns
-     *   const avatar = await user.load('Image'); // Image where imageable_type='User', imageable_id=user.id
-     */
-    static morphOne(RelatedModel, morphName, localKey)
-    {
-        const pk = localKey || this._primaryKey();
-        if (!this._relations) this._relations = {};
-        this._relations[RelatedModel.name] = {
-            type: 'morphOne',
-            model: RelatedModel,
-            morphName,
-            localKey: pk,
-        };
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Define a polymorphic one-to-many relationship (morphMany).
-     * The related table uses two columns: a type column and an ID column.
-     *
-     * @param {Function} RelatedModel - The related Model class.
-     * @param {string}   morphName    - Base name for the polymorphic columns (e.g. 'commentable').
-     * @param {string}   [localKey]   - Local key (default: primary key).
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   // Comments can belong to either Post or Video
-     *   Post.morphMany(Comment, 'commentable');
-     *   const comments = await post.load('Comment');
-     */
-    static morphMany(RelatedModel, morphName, localKey)
-    {
-        const pk = localKey || this._primaryKey();
-        if (!this._relations) this._relations = {};
-        this._relations[RelatedModel.name] = {
-            type: 'morphMany',
-            model: RelatedModel,
-            morphName,
-            localKey: pk,
-        };
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Define a has-many-through relationship.
-     * Accesses distant relations through an intermediate table.
-     *
-     * @param {Function} RelatedModel      - The distant related Model class.
-     * @param {Function} ThroughModel      - The intermediate Model class.
-     * @param {string}   firstKey          - FK on the through table referencing this model.
-     * @param {string}   secondKey         - FK on the related table referencing the through table.
-     * @param {string}   [localKey]        - Local key (default: primary key).
-     * @param {string}   [secondLocalKey]  - Key on the through table matched by secondKey (default: through model PK).
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   // Country → User → Post
-     *   // A country has many posts through users
-     *   Country.hasManyThrough(Post, User, 'countryId', 'userId');
-     *   const posts = await country.load('Post');
-     */
-    static hasManyThrough(RelatedModel, ThroughModel, firstKey, secondKey, localKey, secondLocalKey)
-    {
-        const pk = localKey || this._primaryKey();
-        const throughPk = secondLocalKey || ThroughModel._primaryKey();
-        if (!this._relations) this._relations = {};
-        this._relations[RelatedModel.name] = {
-            type: 'hasManyThrough',
-            model: RelatedModel,
-            through: ThroughModel,
-            firstKey,
-            secondKey,
-            localKey: pk,
-            secondLocalKey: throughPk,
-        };
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Define a self-referential relationship for tree/graph structures.
-     * Sets up both parent and children relationships.
-     *
-     * @param {object}   opts              - Relationship options.
-     * @param {string}   opts.foreignKey   - FK column referencing self (e.g. 'parentId').
-     * @param {string}   [opts.localKey]   - Local key (default: primary key).
-     * @param {string}   [opts.parentName='parent']     - Name for the parent relationship.
-     * @param {string}   [opts.childrenName='children']  - Name for the children relationship.
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   Category.selfReferential({
-     *       foreignKey: 'parentId',
-     *       parentName: 'parent',
-     *       childrenName: 'children',
-     *   });
-     *
-     *   const parent = await category.load('parent');
-     *   const children = await category.load('children');
-     *   const tree = await Category.tree(); // full tree structure
-     */
-    static selfReferential(opts = {})
-    {
-        if (!opts.foreignKey) throw new Error('selfReferential requires foreignKey');
-        const pk = opts.localKey || this._primaryKey();
-        const parentName = opts.parentName || 'parent';
-        const childrenName = opts.childrenName || 'children';
-
-        if (!this._relations) this._relations = {};
-
-        // Parent relationship (belongsTo self)
-        this._relations[parentName] = {
-            type: 'belongsTo',
-            model: this,
-            foreignKey: opts.foreignKey,
-            localKey: pk,
-        };
-
-        // Children relationship (hasMany self)
-        this._relations[childrenName] = {
-            type: 'hasMany',
-            model: this,
-            foreignKey: opts.foreignKey,
-            localKey: pk,
-        };
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Build a full tree structure from self-referential records.
-     * Returns nested objects with a `children` array property.
-     *
-     * @param {object}   [options]           - Configuration options.
-     * @param {string}   [options.foreignKey='parentId'] - FK column for the parent reference.
-     * @param {string}   [options.childrenKey='children'] - Property name for nested children.
-     * @param {*}        [options.rootValue=null]         - Value of foreignKey that indicates a root node.
-     * @returns {Promise<object[]>} Array of root nodes with nested children.
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   const tree = await Category.tree({ foreignKey: 'parentId' });
-     *   // [{ id: 1, name: 'Root', children: [{ id: 2, name: 'Child', children: [] }] }]
-     */
-    static async tree(options = {})
-    {
-        const { foreignKey = 'parentId', childrenKey = 'children', rootValue = null } = options;
-        const all = await this.find();
-        const pk = this._primaryKey();
-        const map = new Map();
-        const roots = [];
-
-        for (const node of all) { node[childrenKey] = []; map.set(node[pk], node); }
-
-        for (const node of all)
-        {
-            const parentId = node[foreignKey];
-            if (parentId === rootValue || parentId === null || parentId === undefined)
-            {
-                roots.push(node);
-            }
-            else
-            {
-                const parent = map.get(parentId);
-                if (parent) parent[childrenKey].push(node);
-                else roots.push(node); // orphan → treat as root
-            }
-        }
-
-        return roots;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Get all ancestors of this instance in a self-referential tree.
-     *
-     * @param {string} [foreignKey='parentId'] - FK column for the parent reference.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model[]>} Array of ancestors from immediate parent to root.
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   const ancestors = await category.ancestors('parentId');
-     *   // [parentCategory, grandparentCategory, rootCategory]
-     */
-    async ancestors(foreignKey = 'parentId')
-    {
-        const ctor = this.constructor;
-        const pk = ctor._primaryKey();
-        const result = [];
-        let currentId = this[foreignKey];
-        const seen = new Set();
-
-        while (currentId !== null && currentId !== undefined)
-        {
-            if (seen.has(currentId)) break; // circular reference guard
-            seen.add(currentId);
-            const parent = await ctor.findById(currentId);
-            if (!parent) break;
-            result.push(parent);
-            currentId = parent[foreignKey];
-        }
-
-        return result;
-    }
-
-    /**
-     * Get all descendants of this instance in a self-referential tree.
-     *
-     * @param {string} [foreignKey='parentId'] - FK column for the parent reference.
-     * @returns {Promise<Model[]>} Flat array of all descendants (breadth-first).
-     *
-     * @example
-     *   const descendants = await category.descendants('parentId');
-     */
-    async descendants(foreignKey = 'parentId')
-    {
-        const ctor = this.constructor;
-        const pk = ctor._primaryKey();
-        const result = [];
-        const queue = [this[pk]];
-        const seen = new Set([this[pk]]);
-
-        while (queue.length)
-        {
-            const parentId = queue.shift();
-            const children = await ctor.find({ [foreignKey]: parentId });
-            for (const child of children)
-            {
-                if (seen.has(child[pk])) continue; // circular reference guard
-                seen.add(child[pk]);
-                result.push(child);
-                queue.push(child[pk]);
-            }
-        }
-
-        return result;
-    }
-}
-
-module.exports = Model;
+/**
+ * @module orm/model
+ * @description Base Model class for defining database-backed entities.
+ *              Provides static CRUD methods, instance-level save/update/delete,
+ *              lifecycle hooks, relationship definitions, computed/virtual columns,
+ *              attribute casting, model events & observers, and advanced relationships.
+ *
+ * @example
+ *   const { Model, Database } = require('@zero-server/sdk');
+ *
+ *   class User extends Model {
+ *       static table = 'users';
+ *       static schema = {
+ *           id:    { type: 'integer', primaryKey: true, autoIncrement: true },
+ *           name:  { type: 'string',  required: true, maxLength: 100 },
+ *           email: { type: 'string',  required: true, unique: true },
+ *           role:  { type: 'string',  enum: ['user','admin'], default: 'user' },
+ *       };
+ *       static timestamps = true;   // auto createdAt/updatedAt
+ *       static softDelete = true;   // deletedAt instead of real delete
+ *   }
+ *
+ *   db.register(User);
+ *
+ *   const user = await User.create({ name: 'Alice', email: 'a@b.com' });
+ *   const users = await User.find({ role: 'admin' });
+ *   const u = await User.findById(1);
+ *   await u.update({ name: 'Alice2' });
+ *   await u.delete();
+ */
+const { validate } = require('./schema');
+const Query = require('./query');
+const crypto = require('crypto');
+const log = require('../debug')('zero:orm');
+const { ValidationError, DatabaseError } = require('../errors');
+const { EventEmitter } = require('events');
+
+class Model
+{
+    /**
+     * Table name — override in subclass.
+     * @type {string}
+     */
+    static table = '';
+
+    /**
+     * Column schema — override in subclass.
+     * @type {Object<string, object>}
+     */
+    static schema = {};
+
+    /**
+     * Enable auto timestamps (createdAt, updatedAt).
+     * @type {boolean}
+     */
+    static timestamps = false;
+
+    /**
+     * Enable soft deletes (deletedAt instead of real deletion).
+     * @type {boolean}
+     */
+    static softDelete = false;
+
+    /**
+     * Fields to hide from toJSON() serialization.
+     * Useful for excluding passwords, tokens, internal fields.
+     * @type {string[]}
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   class User extends Model {
+     *       static hidden = ['password', 'resetToken'];
+     *   }
+     */
+    static hidden = [];
+
+    /**
+     * Named query scopes — reusable query conditions.
+     * Each scope is a function that receives a Query and returns it.
+     * @type {Object<string, Function>}
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   class User extends Model {
+     *       static scopes = {
+     *           active: q => q.where('active', true),
+     *           admins: q => q.where('role', 'admin'),
+     *           olderThan: (q, age) => q.where('age', '>', age),
+     *       };
+     *   }
+     *
+     *   // Use:
+     *   await User.scope('active').scope('admins').limit(5);
+     *   await User.scope('olderThan', 30);
+     */
+    static scopes = {};
+
+    /**
+     * Lifecycle hooks.
+     * Override these in subclasses: `static beforeCreate(data) { return data; }`
+     * @type {object}
+     */
+    static hooks = {};
+
+    // -- Computed & Virtual Columns ---------------------
+
+    /**
+     * Computed column definitions — virtual columns derived from other fields.
+     * Not stored in the database; calculated on the fly.
+     * Each entry maps a column name to a getter function `(instance) => value`.
+     * @type {Object<string, Function>}
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   class User extends Model {
+     *       static computed = {
+     *           fullName: (user) => `${user.firstName} ${user.lastName}`,
+     *           isAdmin:  (user) => user.role === 'admin',
+     *       };
+     *   }
+     *
+     *   const user = await User.findById(1);
+     *   user.fullName // => 'Alice Smith'
+     */
+    static computed = {};
+
+    /**
+     * Attribute casts — automatic type transformations on get/set.
+     * Maps column names to cast types or custom cast objects.
+     *
+     * Built-in cast types:
+     * - `'json'`     — JSON.parse on get, JSON.stringify on set
+     * - `'boolean'`  — Cast to true/false
+     * - `'integer'`  — parseInt
+     * - `'float'`    — parseFloat
+     * - `'date'`     — Cast to Date object
+     * - `'string'`   — Cast to String
+     * - `'array'`    — JSON parse/stringify for array data
+     *
+     * Custom casts:
+     * - `{ get: (v) => transformed, set: (v) => transformed }`
+     *
+     * @type {Object<string, string|{ get: Function, set: Function }>}
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   class Settings extends Model {
+     *       static casts = {
+     *           preferences: 'json',
+     *           isActive:    'boolean',
+     *           loginCount:  'integer',
+     *           tags:        'array',
+     *           metadata:    {
+     *               get: (v) => v ? JSON.parse(v) : {},
+     *               set: (v) => JSON.stringify(v),
+     *           },
+     *       };
+     *   }
+     */
+    static casts = {};
+
+    /**
+     * Custom attribute accessors (getters).
+     * These transform values when reading from the model instance.
+     * Each entry maps a column name to a function `(value, instance) => transformedValue`.
+     * @type {Object<string, Function>}
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   class User extends Model {
+     *       static accessors = {
+     *           email: (val) => val ? val.toLowerCase() : val,
+     *           name:  (val) => val ? val.trim() : val,
+     *       };
+     *   }
+     */
+    static accessors = {};
+
+    /**
+     * Custom attribute mutators (setters).
+     * These transform values before writing to the model instance.
+     * Each entry maps a column name to a function `(value, instance) => transformedValue`.
+     * @type {Object<string, Function>}
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   class User extends Model {
+     *       static mutators = {
+     *           email: (val) => val ? val.toLowerCase().trim() : val,
+     *           password: (val) => hashSync(val),
+     *       };
+     *   }
+     */
+    static mutators = {};
+
+    // -- Model Events -----------------------------------
+
+    /**
+     * Internal event emitter for model-level events.
+     * @type {EventEmitter|null}
+     * @private
+     */
+    static _emitter = null;
+
+    /**
+     * Registered observers for this model.
+     * @type {object[]}
+     * @private
+     */
+    static _observers = [];
+
+    /**
+     * Relationship definitions.
+     * @type {object}
+     * @private
+     */
+    static _relations = {};
+
+    /**
+     * Database adapter reference — set by Database.register().
+     * @type {object|null}
+     * @private
+     */
+    static _adapter = null;
+
+    // -- Constructor ------------------------------------
+
+    /**
+     * @constructor
+     * Create a model instance from a data row.
+     * Generally you won't call this directly — use static methods.
+     *
+     * @param {object} data - Row data.
+     */
+    constructor(data = {})
+    {
+        /** @type {boolean} Whether this instance exists in the database. */
+        this._persisted = false;
+
+        /** @type {object} The original data snapshot for dirty tracking. */
+        this._original = {};
+
+        // Assign data to instance (filter prototype pollution keys)
+        const mutators = this.constructor.mutators || {};
+        const casts = this.constructor.casts || {};
+        for (const key of Object.keys(data))
+        {
+            if (key === '__proto__' || key === 'constructor' || key === 'prototype') continue;
+            let val = data[key];
+            // Apply mutator if defined
+            if (typeof mutators[key] === 'function')
+            {
+                val = mutators[key](val, this);
+            }
+            // Apply cast set if defined
+            else if (casts[key])
+            {
+                val = Model._applyCastSet(val, casts[key]);
+            }
+            this[key] = val;
+        }
+    }
+
+    // -- Instance Methods -------------------------------
+
+    /**
+     * Save this instance to the database. Insert if new, update if persisted.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model>} `this`
+     */
+    async save()
+    {
+        const ctor = this.constructor;
+        if (this._persisted)
+        {
+            const pk = ctor._primaryKey();
+            const changes = this._dirtyFields();
+            if (Object.keys(changes).length === 0) return this;
+
+            if (ctor.timestamps && ctor._fullSchema().updatedAt)
+            {
+                changes.updatedAt = new Date();
+            }
+
+            await ctor._runHook('beforeUpdate', changes);
+            const { valid, errors, sanitized } = validate(changes, ctor._fullSchema(), { partial: true });
+            if (!valid) throw new ValidationError('Validation failed: ' + errors.join(', '), errors);
+
+            try { await ctor._adapter.update(ctor.table, pk, this[pk], sanitized); }
+            catch (e) { log.error('%s update failed: %s', ctor.table, e.message); throw e; }
+            log.debug('%s update id=%s', ctor.table, this[pk]);
+            Object.assign(this, sanitized);
+            await ctor._runHook('afterUpdate', this);
+            this._snapshot();
+        }
+        else
+        {
+            const data = this._toData();
+
+            if (ctor.timestamps)
+            {
+                const now = new Date();
+                if (ctor._fullSchema().createdAt && !data.createdAt) data.createdAt = now;
+                if (ctor._fullSchema().updatedAt && !data.updatedAt) data.updatedAt = now;
+            }
+
+            await ctor._runHook('beforeCreate', data);
+            const { valid, errors, sanitized } = validate(data, ctor._fullSchema());
+            if (!valid) throw new ValidationError('Validation failed: ' + errors.join(', '), errors);
+
+            let result;
+            try { result = await ctor._adapter.insert(ctor.table, sanitized); }
+            catch (e) { log.error('%s insert failed: %s', ctor.table, e.message); throw e; }
+            log.debug('%s insert', ctor.table);
+            const pk = ctor._primaryKey();
+            if (result && result[pk] !== undefined) this[pk] = result[pk];
+            Object.assign(this, sanitized);
+            this._persisted = true;
+            await ctor._runHook('afterCreate', this);
+            this._snapshot();
+        }
+        return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Update specific fields on this instance.
+     * @param {object} data - Fields to update.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model>} `this`
+     */
+    async update(data)
+    {
+        Object.assign(this, this.constructor._stripGuarded(data));
+        return this.save();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Delete this instance from the database.
+     * If softDelete is enabled, sets deletedAt instead.
+     * @returns {Promise<void>}
+     */
+    async delete()
+    {
+        const ctor = this.constructor;
+        const pk = ctor._primaryKey();
+
+        await ctor._runHook('beforeDelete', this);
+
+        if (ctor.softDelete)
+        {
+            this.deletedAt = new Date();
+            try { await ctor._adapter.update(ctor.table, pk, this[pk], { deletedAt: this.deletedAt }); }
+            catch (e) { log.error('%s soft-delete failed: %s', ctor.table, e.message); throw e; }
+        }
+        else
+        {
+            try { await ctor._adapter.remove(ctor.table, pk, this[pk]); }
+            catch (e) { log.error('%s delete failed: %s', ctor.table, e.message); throw e; }
+        }
+
+        log.debug('%s delete id=%s', ctor.table, this[pk]);
+
+        await ctor._runHook('afterDelete', this);
+        this._persisted = false;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Restore a soft-deleted record.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model>} `this`
+     */
+    async restore()
+    {
+        const ctor = this.constructor;
+        if (!ctor.softDelete) throw new Error('Model does not use soft deletes');
+        const pk = ctor._primaryKey();
+        this.deletedAt = null;
+        try { await ctor._adapter.update(ctor.table, pk, this[pk], { deletedAt: null }); }
+        catch (e) { log.error('%s restore failed: %s', ctor.table, e.message); throw e; }
+        return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Increment a numeric field atomically.
+     *
+     * @param {string} field  - Column name to increment.
+     * @param {number} [by=1] - Amount to increment by.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model>} `this`
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   await post.increment('views');
+     *   await product.increment('stock', 10);
+     */
+    async increment(field, by = 1)
+    {
+        const ctor = this.constructor;
+        const pk = ctor._primaryKey();
+        this[field] = (Number(this[field]) || 0) + by;
+        const update = { [field]: this[field] };
+        if (ctor.timestamps && ctor._fullSchema().updatedAt)
+        {
+            update.updatedAt = new Date();
+            this.updatedAt = update.updatedAt;
+        }
+        await ctor._adapter.update(ctor.table, pk, this[pk], update);
+        log.debug('%s increment %s by %d', ctor.table, field, by);
+        this._snapshot();
+        return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Decrement a numeric field atomically.
+     *
+     * @param {string} field  - Column name to decrement.
+     * @param {number} [by=1] - Amount to decrement by.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model>} `this`
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   await product.decrement('stock');
+     *   await account.decrement('balance', 50);
+     */
+    async decrement(field, by = 1)
+    {
+        return this.increment(field, -by);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Reload this instance from the database.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model>} `this`
+     */
+    async reload()
+    {
+        const ctor = this.constructor;
+        const pk = ctor._primaryKey();
+        const fresh = await ctor.findById(this[pk]);
+        if (!fresh) throw new Error('Record not found');
+        Object.assign(this, fresh);
+        this._snapshot();
+        return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Convert to plain object (for JSON serialization).
+     * Respects `static hidden = [...]` to exclude sensitive fields.
+     * Includes computed columns and applies accessor transformations.
+     * @returns {object} Plain data object with hidden fields excluded.
+     */
+    toJSON()
+    {
+        const data = {};
+        const ctor = this.constructor;
+        const schema = ctor._fullSchema();
+        const hidden = ctor.hidden || [];
+        const accessors = ctor.accessors || {};
+        const casts = ctor.casts || {};
+        for (const key of Object.keys(schema))
+        {
+            if (this[key] !== undefined && !hidden.includes(key))
+            {
+                let val = this[key];
+                // Apply accessor if defined
+                if (typeof accessors[key] === 'function')
+                {
+                    val = accessors[key](val, this);
+                }
+                // Apply cast get if defined (and no accessor)
+                else if (casts[key])
+                {
+                    val = Model._applyCastGet(val, casts[key]);
+                }
+                data[key] = val;
+            }
+        }
+        // Include computed columns
+        const computed = ctor.computed || {};
+        for (const [name, fn] of Object.entries(computed))
+        {
+            if (!hidden.includes(name) && typeof fn === 'function')
+            {
+                data[name] = fn(this);
+            }
+        }
+        return data;
+    }
+
+    // -- Internal Instance Helpers ----------------------
+
+    /** @private Snapshot current data for dirty tracking. */
+    _snapshot()
+    {
+        this._original = { ...this._toData() };
+    }
+
+    /** @private Get only data columns (exclude internal props). */
+    _toData()
+    {
+        const data = {};
+        const schema = this.constructor._fullSchema();
+        for (const key of Object.keys(schema))
+        {
+            if (this[key] !== undefined) data[key] = this[key];
+        }
+        return data;
+    }
+
+    /** @private Get fields that changed since last snapshot. */
+    _dirtyFields()
+    {
+        const data = this._toData();
+        const changes = {};
+        for (const [k, v] of Object.entries(data))
+        {
+            if (v !== this._original[k]) changes[k] = v;
+        }
+        return changes;
+    }
+
+    // -- Static CRUD ------------------------------------
+
+    /**
+     * Create and persist a new record.
+     *
+     * @param {object} data - Record data.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model>} The created instance.
+     */
+    static async create(data)
+    {
+        const instance = new this(this._stripGuarded(data));
+        return instance.save();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Create multiple records at once.
+     * Uses batch INSERT when the adapter supports it (much faster for SQL databases).
+     *
+     * @param {object[]} dataArray - Array of record data.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model[]>} Created model instances.
+     */
+    static async createMany(dataArray)
+    {
+        if (!dataArray.length) return [];
+
+        // Validate, apply hooks & timestamps for each row
+        const fullSchema = this._fullSchema();
+        const sanitizedRows = [];
+        for (const data of dataArray)
+        {
+            const row = this._stripGuarded({ ...data });
+            if (this.timestamps)
+            {
+                const now = new Date();
+                if (fullSchema.createdAt && !row.createdAt) row.createdAt = now;
+                if (fullSchema.updatedAt && !row.updatedAt) row.updatedAt = now;
+            }
+            await this._runHook('beforeCreate', row);
+            const { valid, errors, sanitized } = validate(row, fullSchema);
+            if (!valid) throw new ValidationError('Validation failed: ' + errors.join(', '), errors);
+            sanitizedRows.push(sanitized);
+        }
+
+        // Use batch insertMany if adapter supports it
+        if (typeof this._adapter.insertMany === 'function')
+        {
+            let results;
+            try { results = await this._adapter.insertMany(this.table, sanitizedRows); }
+            catch (e) { log.error('%s insertMany failed: %s', this.table, e.message); throw e; }
+
+            const instances = results.map(row => {
+                const inst = this._fromRow(row);
+                return inst;
+            });
+
+            for (const inst of instances) await this._runHook('afterCreate', inst);
+            return instances;
+        }
+
+        // Fallback: individual inserts
+        return Promise.all(dataArray.map(d => this.create(d)));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Find records matching conditions.
+     *
+     * @param {object} [conditions={}] - WHERE conditions `{ key: value }`.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model[]>} Matching records.
+     */
+    static async find(conditions = {})
+    {
+        const q = this.query().where(conditions);
+        return q.exec();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Find a single record matching conditions.
+     *
+     * @param {object} conditions - WHERE conditions.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model|null>} First matching record, or null.
+     */
+    static async findOne(conditions)
+    {
+        return this.query().where(conditions).first();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Find a record by primary key.
+     *
+     * @param {*} id - Primary key value.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model|null>} Matching record, or null.
+     */
+    static async findById(id)
+    {
+        const pk = this._primaryKey();
+        return this.query().where(pk, id).first();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Find one or create if not found.
+     *
+     * @param {object} conditions - Search conditions.
+     * @param {object} [defaults={}] - Additional data for creation.
+     * @returns {Promise<{ instance: Model, created: boolean }>}
+     */
+    static async findOrCreate(conditions, defaults = {})
+    {
+        const existing = await this.findOne(conditions);
+        if (existing) return { instance: existing, created: false };
+        const instance = await this.create({ ...conditions, ...defaults });
+        return { instance, created: true };
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Update records matching conditions.
+     *
+     * @param {object} conditions - WHERE conditions.
+     * @param {object} data       - Fields to update.
+     * @returns {Promise<number>} Number of updated records.
+     */
+    static async updateWhere(conditions, data)
+    {
+        data = this._stripGuarded(data);
+        if (this.timestamps && this._fullSchema().updatedAt)
+        {
+            data.updatedAt = new Date();
+        }
+        await this._runHook('beforeUpdate', data);
+        try { return await this._adapter.updateWhere(this.table, conditions, data); }
+        catch (e) { log.error('%s updateWhere failed: %s', this.table, e.message); throw e; }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Delete records matching conditions.
+     *
+     * @param {object} conditions - WHERE conditions.
+     * @returns {Promise<number>} Number of deleted records.
+     */
+    static async deleteWhere(conditions)
+    {
+        if (this.softDelete)
+        {
+            try { return await this._adapter.updateWhere(this.table, conditions, { deletedAt: new Date() }); }
+            catch (e) { log.error('%s deleteWhere (soft) failed: %s', this.table, e.message); throw e; }
+        }
+        try { return await this._adapter.deleteWhere(this.table, conditions); }
+        catch (e) { log.error('%s deleteWhere failed: %s', this.table, e.message); throw e; }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Count records matching conditions.
+     *
+     * @param {object} [conditions={}] - WHERE conditions.
+     * @returns {Promise<number>} Number of matching records.
+     */
+    static async count(conditions = {})
+    {
+        return this.query().where(conditions).count();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Check whether any records matching conditions exist.
+     *
+     * @param {object} [conditions={}] - WHERE conditions.
+     * @returns {Promise<boolean>} True if any matching records exist.
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   if (await User.exists({ email: 'a@b.com' })) { ... }
+     */
+    static async exists(conditions = {})
+    {
+        return this.query().where(conditions).exists();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Insert or update a record matching conditions.
+     * If a matching record exists, update it. Otherwise, create a new one.
+     *
+     * @param {object} conditions - Search conditions (unique fields).
+     * @param {object} data       - Data to set (merged with conditions on create).
+     * @returns {Promise<{ instance: Model, created: boolean }>}
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   const { instance, created } = await User.upsert(
+     *       { email: 'a@b.com' },
+     *       { name: 'Alice', role: 'admin' }
+     *   );
+     */
+    static async upsert(conditions, data = {})
+    {
+        const existing = await this.findOne(conditions);
+        if (existing)
+        {
+            await existing.update(data);
+            return { instance: existing, created: false };
+        }
+        const instance = await this.create({ ...conditions, ...data });
+        return { instance, created: true };
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Start a query with a named scope applied.
+     *
+     * @param {string} name   - Scope name (from `static scopes`).
+     * @param {...*}   [args] - Additional arguments passed to the scope function.
+     * @returns {Query} Scoped query builder.
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   await User.scope('active').where('role', 'admin');
+     *   await User.scope('olderThan', 21).limit(10);
+     */
+    static scope(name, ...args)
+    {
+        if (!this.scopes || typeof this.scopes[name] !== 'function')
+        {
+            throw new Error(`Unknown scope "${name}" on ${this.name}`);
+        }
+        const q = this.query();
+        this.scopes[name](q, ...args);
+        return q;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Start a fluent query builder.
+     *
+     * @returns {Query} New fluent query builder.
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   const results = await User.query()
+     *       .where('age', '>', 18)
+     *       .orderBy('name')
+     *       .limit(10);
+     */
+    static query()
+    {
+        if (!this._adapter) throw new Error(`Model "${this.name}" is not registered with a database`);
+        const q = new Query(this, this._adapter);
+
+        // Auto-exclude soft-deleted records
+        if (this.softDelete)
+        {
+            q.whereNull('deletedAt');
+        }
+
+        return q;
+    }
+
+    // -- LINQ-Inspired Static Shortcuts -----------------
+
+    /**
+     * Find the first record matching optional conditions.
+     *
+     * @param {object} [conditions={}] - WHERE conditions.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model|null>} First matching record, or null.
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   const admin = await User.first({ role: 'admin' });
+     *   const oldest = await User.first(); // first by PK
+     */
+    static async first(conditions = {})
+    {
+        return this.query().where(conditions).first();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Find the last record matching optional conditions.
+     *
+     * @param {object} [conditions={}] - WHERE conditions.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model|null>} Last matching record, or null.
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   const newest = await User.last();
+     *   const lastAdmin = await User.last({ role: 'admin' });
+     */
+    static async last(conditions = {})
+    {
+        return this.query().where(conditions).last();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Rich pagination with metadata.
+     * Returns `{ data, total, page, perPage, pages, hasNext, hasPrev }`.
+     *
+     * @param {number} page           - 1-indexed page number.
+     * @param {number} [perPage=20]   - Items per page.
+     * @param {object} [conditions={}] - Optional WHERE conditions.
+     * @returns {Promise<object>} Pagination result with data, total, page, perPage, pages, hasNext, hasPrev.
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   const result = await User.paginate(2, 10, { role: 'admin' });
+     *   // { data: [...], total: 53, page: 2, perPage: 10,
+     *   //   pages: 6, hasNext: true, hasPrev: true }
+     */
+    static async paginate(page, perPage = 20, conditions = {})
+    {
+        return this.query().where(conditions).paginate(page, perPage);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Process all matching records in batches.
+     * Calls `fn(batch, batchIndex)` for each chunk.
+     *
+     * @param {number}   size            - Batch size.
+     * @param {Function} fn              - Called with (batch: Model[], index: number).
+     * @param {object}   [conditions={}] - Optional WHERE conditions.
+     * @returns {Promise<void>}
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   await User.chunk(100, async (users, i) => {
+     *       for (const u of users) await u.update({ migrated: true });
+     *   }, { active: true });
+     */
+    static async chunk(size, fn, conditions = {})
+    {
+        return this.query().where(conditions).chunk(size, fn);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Get all records, optionally filtered.
+     * Alias for find() — for LINQ-familiarity.
+     *
+     * @param {object} [conditions={}] - WHERE conditions.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model[]>} All matching records.
+     */
+    static async all(conditions = {})
+    {
+        return this.find(conditions);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Get a random record.
+     *
+     * @param {object} [conditions={}] - Optional WHERE conditions.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model|null>} Random matching record, or null.
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   const luckyUser = await User.random();
+     *   const randomAdmin = await User.random({ role: 'admin' });
+     */
+    static async random(conditions = {})
+    {
+        const total = await this.count(conditions);
+        if (total === 0) return null;
+        const idx = Math.floor(Math.random() * total);
+        return this.query().where(conditions).offset(idx).first();
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Pluck values for a single column across all matching records.
+     *
+     * @param {string} field            - Column name to extract.
+     * @param {object} [conditions={}]  - Optional WHERE conditions.
+     * @returns {Promise<Array>} Values for the specified column.
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   const emails = await User.pluck('email');
+     *   const adminNames = await User.pluck('name', { role: 'admin' });
+     */
+    static async pluck(field, conditions = {})
+    {
+        return this.query().where(conditions).pluck(field);
+    }
+
+    // -- Relationships ----------------------------------
+
+    /**
+     * Define a hasMany relationship.
+     * @param {Function} RelatedModel - The related Model class.
+     * @param {string}   foreignKey   - Foreign key column on the related table.
+     * @param {string}   [localKey]   - Local key (default: primary key).
+     */
+    static hasMany(RelatedModel, foreignKey, localKey)
+    {
+        const pk = localKey || this._primaryKey();
+        if (!this._relations) this._relations = {};
+        this._relations[RelatedModel.name] = { type: 'hasMany', model: RelatedModel, foreignKey, localKey: pk };
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Define a hasOne relationship.
+     * @param {Function} RelatedModel - The related Model class.
+     * @param {string}   foreignKey   - Foreign key column on the related table.
+     * @param {string}   [localKey]   - Local key (default: primary key).
+     */
+    static hasOne(RelatedModel, foreignKey, localKey)
+    {
+        const pk = localKey || this._primaryKey();
+        if (!this._relations) this._relations = {};
+        this._relations[RelatedModel.name] = { type: 'hasOne', model: RelatedModel, foreignKey, localKey: pk };
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Define a belongsTo relationship.
+     * @param {Function} RelatedModel - The related Model class.
+     * @param {string}   foreignKey   - Foreign key column on THIS table.
+     * @param {string}   [otherKey]   - Key on the related table (default: its primary key).
+     */
+    static belongsTo(RelatedModel, foreignKey, otherKey)
+    {
+        const ok = otherKey || RelatedModel._primaryKey();
+        if (!this._relations) this._relations = {};
+        this._relations[RelatedModel.name] = { type: 'belongsTo', model: RelatedModel, foreignKey, localKey: ok };
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Define a many-to-many relationship through a junction/pivot table.
+     *
+     * @param {Function} RelatedModel   - The related Model class.
+     * @param {object}   opts           - Relationship options.
+     * @param {string}   opts.through   - Junction table name (e.g. 'user_roles').
+     * @param {string}   opts.foreignKey   - Column on the junction table referencing THIS model.
+     * @param {string}   opts.otherKey     - Column on the junction table referencing the related model.
+     * @param {string}   [opts.localKey]   - Local key (default: primary key).
+     * @param {string}   [opts.relatedKey] - Related model key (default: its primary key).
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   User.belongsToMany(Role, {
+     *       through: 'user_roles',
+     *       foreignKey: 'userId',
+     *       otherKey: 'roleId'
+     *   });
+     *   const roles = await user.load('Role'); // returns Role[]
+     */
+    static belongsToMany(RelatedModel, opts = {})
+    {
+        if (!opts.through || !opts.foreignKey || !opts.otherKey)
+        {
+            throw new Error('belongsToMany requires through, foreignKey, and otherKey');
+        }
+        const pk = opts.localKey || this._primaryKey();
+        const rpk = opts.relatedKey || RelatedModel._primaryKey();
+        if (!this._relations) this._relations = {};
+        this._relations[RelatedModel.name] = {
+            type: 'belongsToMany',
+            model: RelatedModel,
+            through: opts.through,
+            foreignKey: opts.foreignKey,
+            otherKey: opts.otherKey,
+            localKey: pk,
+            relatedKey: rpk,
+        };
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Load a related model for this instance.
+     *
+     * @param {string} relationName - Name of the related Model class or relation alias.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model|Model[]|null>} The related model(s) or null.
+     */
+    async load(relationName)
+    {
+        const ctor = this.constructor;
+        const rel = ctor._relations && ctor._relations[relationName];
+        if (!rel) throw new Error(`Unknown relation "${relationName}" on ${ctor.name}`);
+
+        switch (rel.type)
+        {
+            case 'hasMany':
+                return rel.model.find({ [rel.foreignKey]: this[rel.localKey] });
+            case 'hasOne':
+                return rel.model.findOne({ [rel.foreignKey]: this[rel.localKey] });
+            case 'belongsTo':
+                return rel.model.findOne({ [rel.localKey]: this[rel.foreignKey] });
+            case 'belongsToMany':
+            {
+                // Query the junction table to find related IDs
+                const junctionRows = await ctor._adapter.execute({
+                    action: 'select',
+                    table: rel.through,
+                    fields: [rel.otherKey],
+                    where: [{ field: rel.foreignKey, op: '=', value: this[rel.localKey], logic: 'AND' }],
+                    orderBy: [], joins: [], groupBy: [], having: [],
+                    limit: null, offset: null, distinct: false,
+                });
+                if (!junctionRows.length) return [];
+                const relatedIds = junctionRows.map(r => r[rel.otherKey]);
+                return rel.model.query().whereIn(rel.relatedKey, relatedIds).exec();
+            }
+            case 'morphOne':
+            {
+                const typeCol = `${rel.morphName}_type`;
+                const idCol = `${rel.morphName}_id`;
+                return rel.model.findOne({ [typeCol]: ctor.name, [idCol]: this[rel.localKey] });
+            }
+            case 'morphMany':
+            {
+                const typeCol = `${rel.morphName}_type`;
+                const idCol = `${rel.morphName}_id`;
+                return rel.model.find({ [typeCol]: ctor.name, [idCol]: this[rel.localKey] });
+            }
+            case 'hasManyThrough':
+            {
+                // Get intermediate records
+                const throughRecords = await rel.through.find({ [rel.firstKey]: this[rel.localKey] });
+                if (!throughRecords.length) return [];
+                const throughIds = throughRecords.map(r => r[rel.secondLocalKey]);
+                return rel.model.query().whereIn(rel.secondKey, throughIds).exec();
+            }
+            default:
+                throw new Error(`Unknown relation type "${rel.type}"`);
+        }
+    }
+
+    // -- Internal Static Helpers ------------------------
+
+    /**
+     * Strip guarded fields from a data object.
+     * Guarded fields are defined in the schema with `guarded: true`.
+     * They cannot be set via mass-assignment (create / update with object).
+     *
+     * @param {object} data - The input data.
+     * @returns {object} A copy of data without guarded fields.
+     * @private
+     */
+    static _stripGuarded(data)
+    {
+        const schema = this.schema;
+        const guardedKeys = Object.entries(schema)
+            .filter(([, def]) => def.guarded)
+            .map(([name]) => name);
+        if (guardedKeys.length === 0) return data;
+        const cleaned = { ...data };
+        for (const key of guardedKeys) delete cleaned[key];
+        return cleaned;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Get the full schema including auto-fields.
+     * @returns {object} Schema with auto-generated timestamp and soft-delete columns.
+     * @private
+     */
+    static _fullSchema()
+    {
+        const s = { ...this.schema };
+        if (this.timestamps)
+        {
+            if (!s.createdAt) s.createdAt = { type: 'datetime', default: () => new Date() };
+            if (!s.updatedAt) s.updatedAt = { type: 'datetime', default: () => new Date() };
+        }
+        if (this.softDelete)
+        {
+            if (!s.deletedAt) s.deletedAt = { type: 'datetime', nullable: true };
+        }
+        return s;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Get the primary key column name(s).
+     * Returns a single string for simple PKs, or an array for composite PKs.
+     * @returns {string|string[]} Primary key column name(s).
+     * @private
+     */
+    static _primaryKey()
+    {
+        const pks = [];
+        for (const [name, def] of Object.entries(this.schema))
+        {
+            if (def.primaryKey) pks.push(name);
+        }
+        if (pks.length === 0) return 'id'; // convention
+        if (pks.length === 1) return pks[0];
+        return pks; // composite PK
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Create a model instance from a raw database row.
+     * @param {object} row - Data row object.
+     * @returns {Model} Hydrated model instance.
+     * @private
+     */
+    static _fromRow(row)
+    {
+        const instance = new this(row);
+        instance._persisted = true;
+        instance._snapshot();
+        return instance;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Run a lifecycle hook if defined.
+     * Also emits model events and notifies observers.
+     * @param {string} hookName - Lifecycle hook name.
+     * @param {*} data - Record data object.
+     * @returns {Promise<*>} Resolved value.
+     * @private
+     */
+    static async _runHook(hookName, data)
+    {
+        // Check for static hook on class
+        if (typeof this[hookName] === 'function')
+        {
+            await this[hookName](data);
+        }
+        // Check hooks object
+        else if (this.hooks && typeof this.hooks[hookName] === 'function')
+        {
+            await this.hooks[hookName](data);
+        }
+
+        // Emit model event
+        this._emit(hookName, data);
+
+        // Notify observers
+        this._notifyObservers(hookName, data);
+
+        return data;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Sync the table schema with the database (create table if not exists).
+     * @returns {Promise<void>}
+     */
+    static async sync()
+    {
+        if (!this._adapter) throw new Error(`Model "${this.name}" is not registered with a database`);
+        return this._adapter.createTable(this.table, this._fullSchema());
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Drop the table.
+     * @returns {Promise<void>}
+     */
+    static async drop()
+    {
+        if (!this._adapter) throw new Error(`Model "${this.name}" is not registered with a database`);
+        return this._adapter.dropTable(this.table);
+    }
+
+    // -- Attribute Casting Helpers ----------------------
+
+    /**
+     * Apply a cast transformation on get (reading from model).
+     * @param {*} value - Raw stored value.
+     * @param {string|object} cast - Cast type or custom cast object.
+     * @returns {*} Transformed value.
+     * @private
+     */
+    static _applyCastGet(value, cast)
+    {
+        if (value === null || value === undefined) return value;
+        if (typeof cast === 'object' && typeof cast.get === 'function')
+        {
+            return cast.get(value);
+        }
+        switch (cast)
+        {
+            case 'json':
+            case 'array':
+                return typeof value === 'string' ? JSON.parse(value) : value;
+            case 'boolean':
+                if (typeof value === 'boolean') return value;
+                if (typeof value === 'number') return value !== 0;
+                if (typeof value === 'string') return ['true', '1', 'yes'].includes(value.toLowerCase());
+                return Boolean(value);
+            case 'integer':
+                return parseInt(value, 10) || 0;
+            case 'float':
+                return parseFloat(value) || 0;
+            case 'date':
+                return value instanceof Date ? value : new Date(value);
+            case 'string':
+                return String(value);
+            default:
+                return value;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Apply a cast transformation on set (writing to model).
+     * @param {*} value - Input value.
+     * @param {string|object} cast - Cast type or custom cast object.
+     * @returns {*} Transformed value for storage.
+     * @private
+     */
+    static _applyCastSet(value, cast)
+    {
+        if (value === null || value === undefined) return value;
+        if (typeof cast === 'object' && typeof cast.set === 'function')
+        {
+            return cast.set(value);
+        }
+        switch (cast)
+        {
+            case 'json':
+            case 'array':
+                return typeof value === 'string' ? value : JSON.stringify(value);
+            case 'boolean':
+                if (typeof value === 'boolean') return value;
+                if (typeof value === 'number') return value !== 0;
+                if (typeof value === 'string') return ['true', '1', 'yes'].includes(value.toLowerCase());
+                return Boolean(value);
+            case 'integer':
+                return parseInt(value, 10) || 0;
+            case 'float':
+                return parseFloat(value) || 0;
+            case 'date':
+                return value instanceof Date ? value : new Date(value);
+            case 'string':
+                return String(value);
+            default:
+                return value;
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Get an attribute value with accessor/cast applied.
+     *
+     * @param {string} key - Attribute name.
+     * @returns {*} Transformed value.
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   const email = user.getAttribute('email');
+     */
+    getAttribute(key)
+    {
+        const ctor = this.constructor;
+        const accessors = ctor.accessors || {};
+        const casts = ctor.casts || {};
+        const computed = ctor.computed || {};
+
+        // Check computed first
+        if (typeof computed[key] === 'function')
+        {
+            return computed[key](this);
+        }
+
+        let val = this[key];
+
+        // Apply accessor
+        if (typeof accessors[key] === 'function')
+        {
+            return accessors[key](val, this);
+        }
+
+        // Apply cast get
+        if (casts[key])
+        {
+            return Model._applyCastGet(val, casts[key]);
+        }
+
+        return val;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Set an attribute value with mutator/cast applied.
+     *
+     * @param {string} key   - Attribute name.
+     * @param {*}      value - Value to set.
+     * @returns {Model} `this` for chaining.
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   user.setAttribute('email', 'ALICE@EXAMPLE.COM');
+     *   // If mutator lowercases: user.email => 'alice@example.com'
+     */
+    setAttribute(key, value)
+    {
+        const ctor = this.constructor;
+        const mutators = ctor.mutators || {};
+        const casts = ctor.casts || {};
+
+        if (typeof mutators[key] === 'function')
+        {
+            this[key] = mutators[key](value, this);
+        }
+        else if (casts[key])
+        {
+            this[key] = Model._applyCastSet(value, casts[key]);
+        }
+        else
+        {
+            this[key] = value;
+        }
+        return this;
+    }
+
+    // -- Model Events -----------------------------------
+
+    /**
+     * Get or create the EventEmitter for this model class.
+     * @returns {EventEmitter} The model's event emitter.
+     * @private
+     */
+    static _getEmitter()
+    {
+        if (!this.hasOwnProperty('_emitter') || !this._emitter)
+        {
+            this._emitter = new EventEmitter();
+        }
+        return this._emitter;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Register an event listener on this model.
+     * Supported events: `creating`, `created`, `updating`, `updated`,
+     * `deleting`, `deleted`, `saving`, `saved`.
+     *
+     * @param {string}   event    - Event name.
+     * @param {Function} listener - Callback `(data) => {}`.
+     * @returns {typeof Model} The model class (for chaining).
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   User.on('created', (user) => {
+     *       console.log('New user:', user.name);
+     *   });
+     *
+     *   User.on('updating', (changes) => {
+     *       console.log('Updating fields:', Object.keys(changes));
+     *   });
+     */
+    static on(event, listener)
+    {
+        this._getEmitter().on(event, listener);
+        return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Register a one-time event listener.
+     *
+     * @param {string}   event    - Event name.
+     * @param {Function} listener - Callback function.
+     * @returns {typeof Model} The model class (for chaining).
+     */
+    static once(event, listener)
+    {
+        this._getEmitter().once(event, listener);
+        return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Remove an event listener.
+     *
+     * @param {string}   event    - Event name.
+     * @param {Function} listener - Callback to remove.
+     * @returns {typeof Model} The model class (for chaining).
+     */
+    static off(event, listener)
+    {
+        this._getEmitter().off(event, listener);
+        return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Remove all listeners for an event, or all listeners entirely.
+     *
+     * @param {string} [event] - Event name. If omitted, removes all listeners.
+     * @returns {typeof Model} The model class (for chaining).
+     */
+    static removeAllListeners(event)
+    {
+        if (event !== undefined)
+        {
+            this._getEmitter().removeAllListeners(event);
+        }
+        else
+        {
+            this._getEmitter().removeAllListeners();
+        }
+        return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Emit a model event.
+     * @param {string} event - Event name.
+     * @param {*} data - Event data.
+     * @private
+     */
+    static _emit(event, data)
+    {
+        // Map hook names to event names
+        const eventMap = {
+            beforeCreate: 'creating',
+            afterCreate:  'created',
+            beforeUpdate: 'updating',
+            afterUpdate:  'updated',
+            beforeDelete: 'deleting',
+            afterDelete:  'deleted',
+        };
+        const eventName = eventMap[event];
+        if (eventName && this.hasOwnProperty('_emitter') && this._emitter)
+        {
+            this._emitter.emit(eventName, data);
+        }
+    }
+
+    // -- Observers --------------------------------------
+
+    /**
+     * Register an observer for this model.
+     * An observer is an object with methods named after lifecycle events:
+     * `creating`, `created`, `updating`, `updated`, `deleting`, `deleted`.
+     *
+     * @param {object} observer - Observer object with event handler methods.
+     * @returns {typeof Model} The model class (for chaining).
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   const UserObserver = {
+     *       created(user) { console.log('New user:', user.name); },
+     *       updating(changes) { console.log('Updating:', changes); },
+     *       deleted(user) { console.log('Deleted user:', user.id); },
+     *   };
+     *
+     *   User.observe(UserObserver);
+     */
+    static observe(observer)
+    {
+        if (!this.hasOwnProperty('_observers'))
+        {
+            this._observers = [];
+        }
+        this._observers.push(observer);
+        return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Remove an observer from this model.
+     *
+     * @param {object} observer - Observer to remove.
+     * @returns {typeof Model} The model class (for chaining).
+     */
+    static unobserve(observer)
+    {
+        if (this.hasOwnProperty('_observers'))
+        {
+            this._observers = this._observers.filter(o => o !== observer);
+        }
+        return this;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Notify all registered observers of a lifecycle event.
+     * @param {string} hookName - Hook name (e.g. 'beforeCreate').
+     * @param {*} data - Event data.
+     * @private
+     */
+    static _notifyObservers(hookName, data)
+    {
+        const eventMap = {
+            beforeCreate: 'creating',
+            afterCreate:  'created',
+            beforeUpdate: 'updating',
+            afterUpdate:  'updated',
+            beforeDelete: 'deleting',
+            afterDelete:  'deleted',
+        };
+        const eventName = eventMap[hookName];
+        if (!eventName) return;
+
+        const observers = this.hasOwnProperty('_observers') ? this._observers : [];
+        for (const observer of observers)
+        {
+            if (typeof observer[eventName] === 'function')
+            {
+                observer[eventName](data);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    // -- Advanced Relationships -------------------------
+
+    /**
+     * Define a polymorphic one-to-one relationship (morphOne).
+     * The related table uses two columns: a type column and an ID column.
+     *
+     * @param {Function} RelatedModel - The related Model class.
+     * @param {string}   morphName    - Base name for the polymorphic columns (e.g. 'commentable').
+     * @param {string}   [localKey]   - Local key (default: primary key).
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   // Image can belong to either User or Post
+     *   User.morphOne(Image, 'imageable');
+     *   // Related table has: imageable_type, imageable_id columns
+     *   const avatar = await user.load('Image'); // Image where imageable_type='User', imageable_id=user.id
+     */
+    static morphOne(RelatedModel, morphName, localKey)
+    {
+        const pk = localKey || this._primaryKey();
+        if (!this._relations) this._relations = {};
+        this._relations[RelatedModel.name] = {
+            type: 'morphOne',
+            model: RelatedModel,
+            morphName,
+            localKey: pk,
+        };
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Define a polymorphic one-to-many relationship (morphMany).
+     * The related table uses two columns: a type column and an ID column.
+     *
+     * @param {Function} RelatedModel - The related Model class.
+     * @param {string}   morphName    - Base name for the polymorphic columns (e.g. 'commentable').
+     * @param {string}   [localKey]   - Local key (default: primary key).
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   // Comments can belong to either Post or Video
+     *   Post.morphMany(Comment, 'commentable');
+     *   const comments = await post.load('Comment');
+     */
+    static morphMany(RelatedModel, morphName, localKey)
+    {
+        const pk = localKey || this._primaryKey();
+        if (!this._relations) this._relations = {};
+        this._relations[RelatedModel.name] = {
+            type: 'morphMany',
+            model: RelatedModel,
+            morphName,
+            localKey: pk,
+        };
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Define a has-many-through relationship.
+     * Accesses distant relations through an intermediate table.
+     *
+     * @param {Function} RelatedModel      - The distant related Model class.
+     * @param {Function} ThroughModel      - The intermediate Model class.
+     * @param {string}   firstKey          - FK on the through table referencing this model.
+     * @param {string}   secondKey         - FK on the related table referencing the through table.
+     * @param {string}   [localKey]        - Local key (default: primary key).
+     * @param {string}   [secondLocalKey]  - Key on the through table matched by secondKey (default: through model PK).
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   // Country → User → Post
+     *   // A country has many posts through users
+     *   Country.hasManyThrough(Post, User, 'countryId', 'userId');
+     *   const posts = await country.load('Post');
+     */
+    static hasManyThrough(RelatedModel, ThroughModel, firstKey, secondKey, localKey, secondLocalKey)
+    {
+        const pk = localKey || this._primaryKey();
+        const throughPk = secondLocalKey || ThroughModel._primaryKey();
+        if (!this._relations) this._relations = {};
+        this._relations[RelatedModel.name] = {
+            type: 'hasManyThrough',
+            model: RelatedModel,
+            through: ThroughModel,
+            firstKey,
+            secondKey,
+            localKey: pk,
+            secondLocalKey: throughPk,
+        };
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Define a self-referential relationship for tree/graph structures.
+     * Sets up both parent and children relationships.
+     *
+     * @param {object}   opts              - Relationship options.
+     * @param {string}   opts.foreignKey   - FK column referencing self (e.g. 'parentId').
+     * @param {string}   [opts.localKey]   - Local key (default: primary key).
+     * @param {string}   [opts.parentName='parent']     - Name for the parent relationship.
+     * @param {string}   [opts.childrenName='children']  - Name for the children relationship.
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   Category.selfReferential({
+     *       foreignKey: 'parentId',
+     *       parentName: 'parent',
+     *       childrenName: 'children',
+     *   });
+     *
+     *   const parent = await category.load('parent');
+     *   const children = await category.load('children');
+     *   const tree = await Category.tree(); // full tree structure
+     */
+    static selfReferential(opts = {})
+    {
+        if (!opts.foreignKey) throw new Error('selfReferential requires foreignKey');
+        const pk = opts.localKey || this._primaryKey();
+        const parentName = opts.parentName || 'parent';
+        const childrenName = opts.childrenName || 'children';
+
+        if (!this._relations) this._relations = {};
+
+        // Parent relationship (belongsTo self)
+        this._relations[parentName] = {
+            type: 'belongsTo',
+            model: this,
+            foreignKey: opts.foreignKey,
+            localKey: pk,
+        };
+
+        // Children relationship (hasMany self)
+        this._relations[childrenName] = {
+            type: 'hasMany',
+            model: this,
+            foreignKey: opts.foreignKey,
+            localKey: pk,
+        };
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Build a full tree structure from self-referential records.
+     * Returns nested objects with a `children` array property.
+     *
+     * @param {object}   [options]           - Configuration options.
+     * @param {string}   [options.foreignKey='parentId'] - FK column for the parent reference.
+     * @param {string}   [options.childrenKey='children'] - Property name for nested children.
+     * @param {*}        [options.rootValue=null]         - Value of foreignKey that indicates a root node.
+     * @returns {Promise<object[]>} Array of root nodes with nested children.
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   const tree = await Category.tree({ foreignKey: 'parentId' });
+     *   // [{ id: 1, name: 'Root', children: [{ id: 2, name: 'Child', children: [] }] }]
+     */
+    static async tree(options = {})
+    {
+        const { foreignKey = 'parentId', childrenKey = 'children', rootValue = null } = options;
+        const all = await this.find();
+        const pk = this._primaryKey();
+        const map = new Map();
+        const roots = [];
+
+        for (const node of all) { node[childrenKey] = []; map.set(node[pk], node); }
+
+        for (const node of all)
+        {
+            const parentId = node[foreignKey];
+            if (parentId === rootValue || parentId === null || parentId === undefined)
+            {
+                roots.push(node);
+            }
+            else
+            {
+                const parent = map.get(parentId);
+                if (parent) parent[childrenKey].push(node);
+                else roots.push(node); // orphan → treat as root
+            }
+        }
+
+        return roots;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Get all ancestors of this instance in a self-referential tree.
+     *
+     * @param {string} [foreignKey='parentId'] - FK column for the parent reference.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model[]>} Array of ancestors from immediate parent to root.
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   const ancestors = await category.ancestors('parentId');
+     *   // [parentCategory, grandparentCategory, rootCategory]
+     */
+    async ancestors(foreignKey = 'parentId')
+    {
+        const ctor = this.constructor;
+        const pk = ctor._primaryKey();
+        const result = [];
+        let currentId = this[foreignKey];
+        const seen = new Set();
+
+        while (currentId !== null && currentId !== undefined)
+        {
+            if (seen.has(currentId)) break; // circular reference guard
+            seen.add(currentId);
+            const parent = await ctor.findById(currentId);
+            if (!parent) break;
+            result.push(parent);
+            currentId = parent[foreignKey];
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Get all descendants of this instance in a self-referential tree.
+     *
+     * @param {string} [foreignKey='parentId'] - FK column for the parent reference.
+     * @returns {Promise<Model[]>} Flat array of all descendants (breadth-first).
+     *
+     * @example
+     *   const descendants = await category.descendants('parentId');
+     */
+    async descendants(foreignKey = 'parentId')
+    {
+        const ctor = this.constructor;
+        const pk = ctor._primaryKey();
+        const result = [];
+        const queue = [this[pk]];
+        const seen = new Set([this[pk]]);
+
+        while (queue.length)
+        {
+            const parentId = queue.shift();
+            const children = await ctor.find({ [foreignKey]: parentId });
+            for (const child of children)
+            {
+                if (seen.has(child[pk])) continue; // circular reference guard
+                seen.add(child[pk]);
+                result.push(child);
+                queue.push(child[pk]);
+            }
+        }
+
+        return result;
+    }
+}
+
+module.exports = Model;