@tinypoly/gpu-renderer 0.0.2 → 0.0.4

package/dist/sceneAssets.d.ts

@@ -11,6 +11,11 @@ export interface SceneAssets {
     scene: SerializedScene;
     programs: ShaderPrograms;
     sky: ProceduralSkyEnvironment | null;
+    /** The baked sky, kept by the renderer so a scene with the same sky does not bake it again. */
+    skyBake: {
+        key: string;
+        baked: Promise<ProceduralSkyEnvironment | null>;
+    } | null;
 }
 export interface ProceduralSkyEnvironment {
     environment: PackedEnvironment;
@@ -20,5 +25,18 @@ export interface ProceduralSkyEnvironment {
     background: boolean;
     uniforms: Record<string, UniformValue>;
 }
-export declare function prepareSceneAssets(source: SerializedScene): Promise<SceneAssets>;
+type ProceduralSky = NonNullable<SerializedScene["sky"]>;
+/** What decides a baked sky: the same shader with the same uniforms bakes the same panorama. */
+export declare function skyKey(sky: ProceduralSky | undefined): string;
+export interface SceneAssetOptions {
+    /** Where the sky is baked; without one, on the CPU. */
+    device?: GPUDevice;
+    /** A sky baked for an earlier scene, reused when its key matches this scene's. */
+    sky?: {
+        key: string;
+        baked: Promise<ProceduralSkyEnvironment | null>;
+    } | null;
+}
+export declare function prepareSceneAssets(source: SerializedScene, options?: SceneAssetOptions): Promise<SceneAssets>;
+export {};
 //# sourceMappingURL=sceneAssets.d.ts.map

package/dist/sceneAssets.d.ts.map

@@ -1 +1 @@
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package/dist/sceneAssets.js

@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 import { environmentFromImage } from "./environment.js";
 import { compileShaderPrograms } from "./shaderProgram.js";
+import { bakeSkyOnDevice, compileSkyProgram } from "./skyBake.js";
 import { CpuComputePipeline, CpuEnvironment } from "./upstream.js";
 /** How wide the sky is baked. Its foreground, the sharp part, is evaluated per pixel instead. */
 const SKY_WIDTH = 256;
@@ -48,30 +49,58 @@ function bakeComputations(source) {
         })),
     };
 }
-/** Bakes a procedural sky with the CPU renderer's own interpreter, at the size its environment uses. */
-function bakeSky(scene) {
-    const sky = scene.sky;
-    if (!sky)
-        return null;
+/** Bakes a procedural sky with the CPU renderer's own interpreter: the fallback, when the device cannot run it. */
+function bakeSkyOnCpu(sky) {
     const generator = CpuEnvironment.fromProcedural(sky, SKY_WIDTH);
     let step = generator.next();
     while (!step.done)
         step = generator.next();
     // The snapshot is the environment's public face; its texture is the baked panorama.
     const texture = step.value.snapshot().texture;
-    if (!texture || !(texture.data instanceof Float32Array))
+    return texture && texture.data instanceof Float32Array ? texture.data : null;
+}
+/**
+ * Bakes a procedural sky at the size its environment uses. On a device the sky's shader is translated and run there,
+ * over every texel at once; the CPU renderer's interpreter, which runs it texel by texel, is what is left when there is
+ * no device or the shader does not translate.
+ */
+async function bakeSky(sky, device) {
+    let radiance = null;
+    if (device) {
+        try {
+            radiance = await bakeSkyOnDevice(device, await compileSkyProgram(sky.fragmentShader), sky.uniforms, SKY_WIDTH);
+        }
+        catch (error) {
+            console.warn("GPU renderer: the procedural sky is baked on the CPU, its shader did not run on the device.", error);
+        }
+    }
+    radiance ??= bakeSkyOnCpu(sky);
+    if (!radiance)
         return null;
-    const environment = environmentFromImage(texture.data, texture.width, texture.height, "procedural-sky");
+    const environment = environmentFromImage(radiance, SKY_WIDTH, SKY_WIDTH / 2, "procedural-sky");
     if (!environment)
         return null;
     return { environment, intensity: sky.intensity, background: sky.background, uniforms: sky.uniforms };
 }
-export async function prepareSceneAssets(source) {
+/** What decides a baked sky: the same shader with the same uniforms bakes the same panorama. */
+export function skyKey(sky) {
+    return sky ? JSON.stringify([sky.fragmentShader, sky.uniforms]) : "";
+}
+export async function prepareSceneAssets(source, options = {}) {
     const scene = source.meshes.some(mesh => mesh.materials.some(material => material?.compute))
         ? bakeComputations(source)
         : source;
-    const sky = bakeSky(scene);
-    const programs = await compileShaderPrograms(scene, scene.sky?.foregroundShader);
-    return { scene, programs, sky };
+    const key = skyKey(scene.sky);
+    const reused = options.sky && options.sky.key === key ? options.sky.baked : null;
+    const baked = reused ?? (scene.sky ? bakeSky(scene.sky, options.device) : Promise.resolve(null));
+    const [sky, programs] = await Promise.all([baked, compileShaderPrograms(scene, scene.sky?.foregroundShader)]);
+    // The sky the scene uses, with its baked panorama, for the next scene to reuse.
+    const skyBake = scene.sky ? { key, baked } : null;
+    // The panorama comes from the shader and its uniforms; how strongly it lights and whether it paints the background
+    // are this scene's own.
+    const current = sky && scene.sky
+        ? { ...sky, intensity: scene.sky.intensity, background: scene.sky.background, uniforms: scene.sky.uniforms }
+        : null;
+    return { scene, programs, sky: current, skyBake };
 }
 //# sourceMappingURL=sceneAssets.js.map

package/dist/sceneAssets.js.map

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package/dist/skyBake.d.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+import { type ShaderProgram } from "./shaderProgram.js";
+import type { UniformValue } from "./upstream.js";
+/**
+ * The bake's own kernel: the kernel's support code up to the translated shaders, the sky's program, and an entry that
+ * runs it once per texel of the panorama, along the direction the CPU renderer's bake gives that texel. The output
+ * goes to the binding the path tracer accumulates into, which is the one read-write buffer the support code declares.
+ */
+export declare function skyBakeSource(program: ShaderProgram, width: number, height: number): string;
+/** Translates a procedural sky's shader for the bake; the sky reads its direction from `vDirection`, as the CPU's does. */
+export declare function compileSkyProgram(fragmentShader: string): Promise<ShaderProgram>;
+/**
+ * Runs a procedural sky's shader on the device over an equirectangular panorama and reads the radiance back, as RGBA
+ * floats, row by row from the top: the same image the CPU renderer's interpreter bakes, in a fraction of the time. A
+ * texel that comes out not finite reads black, where the CPU bake would have refused the whole sky.
+ */
+export declare function bakeSkyOnDevice(device: GPUDevice, program: ShaderProgram, uniforms: Record<string, UniformValue>, width: number): Promise<Float32Array>;
+//# sourceMappingURL=skyBake.d.ts.map

package/dist/skyBake.d.ts.map

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
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package/dist/skyBake.js

@@ -0,0 +1,97 @@
+import { compileProgram } from "./shaderProgram.js";
+import { createShaderModule } from "./shaderModule.js";
+import { BVH_WGSL } from "./wgsl/bvh.wgsl.js";
+import { COMMON_WGSL } from "./wgsl/common.wgsl.js";
+import { RANDOM_WGSL } from "./wgsl/random.wgsl.js";
+import { SAMPLING_WGSL } from "./wgsl/sampling.wgsl.js";
+import { SHADER_SUPPORT_WGSL } from "./wgsl/shaderSupport.wgsl.js";
+import { TEXTURE_WGSL } from "./wgsl/texture.wgsl.js";
+const WORKGROUP = 8;
+/**
+ * The bake's own kernel: the kernel's support code up to the translated shaders, the sky's program, and an entry that
+ * runs it once per texel of the panorama, along the direction the CPU renderer's bake gives that texel. The output
+ * goes to the binding the path tracer accumulates into, which is the one read-write buffer the support code declares.
+ */
+export function skyBakeSource(program, width, height) {
+    return `${COMMON_WGSL}${RANDOM_WGSL}${BVH_WGSL}${SAMPLING_WGSL}${TEXTURE_WGSL}${SHADER_SUPPORT_WGSL}
+${program.wgsl}
+
+@compute @workgroup_size(${WORKGROUP}, ${WORKGROUP})
+fn main(@builtin(global_invocation_id) id: vec3<u32>) {
+  if (id.x >= ${width}u || id.y >= ${height}u) {
+    return;
+  }
+
+  let u = (f32(id.x) + 0.5) / ${width}.0;
+  let v = (f32(id.y) + 0.5) / ${height}.0;
+  let phi = (u - 0.5) * 2.0 * PI;
+  let theta = v * PI;
+  var input: ShaderInput;
+  input.data = 0u;
+  input.direction = vec3<f32>(sin(theta) * cos(phi), cos(theta), sin(theta) * sin(phi));
+  input.fragCoord = vec4<f32>(f32(id.x) + 0.5, f32(id.y) + 0.5, 0.0, 1.0);
+  input.diffuseColor = vec4<f32>(0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0);
+
+  accumulation[id.y * ${width}u + id.x] = p${program.id}_run(input).color;
+}
+`;
+}
+/** Translates a procedural sky's shader for the bake; the sky reads its direction from `vDirection`, as the CPU's does. */
+export function compileSkyProgram(fragmentShader) {
+    return compileProgram(0, "foreground", { fragment: fragmentShader, defines: {} }, true);
+}
+/**
+ * Runs a procedural sky's shader on the device over an equirectangular panorama and reads the radiance back, as RGBA
+ * floats, row by row from the top: the same image the CPU renderer's interpreter bakes, in a fraction of the time. A
+ * texel that comes out not finite reads black, where the CPU bake would have refused the whole sky.
+ */
+export async function bakeSkyOnDevice(device, program, uniforms, width) {
+    const height = width / 2;
+    const texels = width * height;
+    const words = program.packUniforms(uniforms, new Map());
+    const module = createShaderModule(device, "sky bake", skyBakeSource(program, width, height));
+    const layout = device.createBindGroupLayout({
+        label: "sky bake",
+        entries: [
+            { binding: 7, visibility: GPUShaderStage.COMPUTE, buffer: { type: "storage" } },
+            { binding: 8, visibility: GPUShaderStage.COMPUTE, buffer: { type: "read-only-storage" } },
+        ],
+    });
+    const pipeline = await device.createComputePipelineAsync({
+        label: "sky bake",
+        layout: device.createPipelineLayout({ bindGroupLayouts: [layout] }),
+        compute: { module, entryPoint: "main" },
+    });
+    const output = device.createBuffer({ size: texels * 16, usage: GPUBufferUsage.STORAGE | GPUBufferUsage.COPY_SRC });
+    const data = device.createBuffer({
+        size: Math.max(16, words.byteLength), usage: GPUBufferUsage.STORAGE | GPUBufferUsage.COPY_DST,
+    });
+    const staging = device.createBuffer({ size: texels * 16, usage: GPUBufferUsage.MAP_READ | GPUBufferUsage.COPY_DST });
+    try {
+        device.queue.writeBuffer(data, 0, words);
+        const encoder = device.createCommandEncoder({ label: "sky bake" });
+        const pass = encoder.beginComputePass({ label: "sky bake" });
+        pass.setPipeline(pipeline);
+        pass.setBindGroup(0, device.createBindGroup({
+            layout,
+            entries: [{ binding: 7, resource: { buffer: output } }, { binding: 8, resource: { buffer: data } }],
+        }));
+        pass.dispatchWorkgroups(Math.ceil(width / WORKGROUP), Math.ceil(height / WORKGROUP));
+        pass.end();
+        encoder.copyBufferToBuffer(output, 0, staging, 0, texels * 16);
+        device.queue.submit([encoder.finish()]);
+        await staging.mapAsync(GPUMapMode.READ);
+        const radiance = new Float32Array(staging.getMappedRange().slice(0));
+        staging.unmap();
+        for (let i = 0; i < radiance.length; i++)
+            if (!Number.isFinite(radiance[i]))
+                radiance[i] = 0;
+        return radiance;
+    }
+    finally {
+        output.destroy();
+        data.destroy();
+        staging.destroy();
+    }
+}
+//# sourceMappingURL=skyBake.js.map

package/dist/skyBake.js.map

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
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package/package.json

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 {
   "name": "@tinypoly/gpu-renderer",
-  "version": "0.0.2",
+  "version": "0.0.4",
   "description": "WebGPU path tracer for Three.js scenes: BVH traversal, progressive accumulation and tone mapping in WGSL compute shaders.",
   "keywords": [
     "three",

package/src/imageResolve.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,136 @@
+import { createShaderModule } from "./shaderModule.js";
+import type { RenderToneMapping } from "./upstream.js";
+import { PRESENT_WGSL } from "./wgsl/present.wgsl.js";
+
+/** The order the presentation shader's `toneMapping` switch expects. */
+const TONE_MAPPING = ["aces", "agx", "neutral", "linear"] as const;
+
+const UNIFORM_BYTES = 48;
+
+const WORKGROUP = 8;
+
+/**
+ * The finished image, resolved on the device: the presentation pass's display transform, run as a compute pass that
+ * writes straight-alpha sRGB bytes, four per pixel. Reading those back is a sixth of the float accumulation and needs
+ * no loop over the pixels on the page, which is what held it for seconds at the end of a large frame.
+ *
+ * It follows the image `render()` has always resolved: no grain, and the vignette measured from each pixel's corner.
+ */
+export const IMAGE_RESOLVE_WGSL = /* wgsl */ `${PRESENT_WGSL}
+@group(0) @binding(3) var<storage, read_write> pixels: array<u32>;
+
+fn encodeByte(value: f32) -> u32 {
+  return u32(round(clamp(value, 0.0, 1.0) * 255.0));
+}
+
+@compute @workgroup_size(${WORKGROUP}, ${WORKGROUP})
+fn resolveMain(@builtin(global_invocation_id) id: vec3<u32>) {
+  let width = present.resolution.x;
+  let height = present.resolution.y;
+
+  if (id.x >= width || id.y >= height) {
+    return;
+  }
+
+  let index = id.y * width + id.x;
+  let stored = accumulation[index];
+  let samples = stored.w;
+  var alpha = 1.0;
+
+  if (present.transparent != 0u) {
+    alpha = select(0.0, clamp(accumulation[width * height + index].x / samples, 0.0, 1.0), samples > 0.0);
+  }
+
+  var color = vec3<f32>(0.0);
+
+  if (samples > 0.0 && alpha > 0.0) {
+    let mean = select(stored.rgb / samples, denoised[index].rgb, present.denoised != 0u);
+    let centred = vec2<f32>(f32(id.x) / f32(width), f32(id.y) / f32(height)) - 0.5;
+    let falloff = max(0.0, 1.0 - present.vignette * dot(centred, centred) * 2.0);
+
+    color = mean / alpha * falloff;
+  }
+
+  let encoded = linearToSrgb(toneMap(color));
+
+  pixels[index] = encodeByte(encoded.r) | (encodeByte(encoded.g) << 8u) | (encodeByte(encoded.b) << 16u)
+    | (encodeByte(alpha) << 24u);
+}
+`;
+
+export interface ResolveSettings {
+  exposure: number;
+  toneMapping: RenderToneMapping;
+  vignette: number;
+  transparent: boolean;
+}
+
+export class ImageResolvePass {
+  private readonly pipeline: GPUComputePipeline;
+  private readonly uniforms: GPUBuffer;
+  private readonly values = new ArrayBuffer(UNIFORM_BYTES);
+
+  constructor(private readonly device: GPUDevice) {
+    const module = createShaderModule(device, "image resolve", IMAGE_RESOLVE_WGSL);
+
+    this.pipeline = device.createComputePipeline({ layout: "auto", compute: { module, entryPoint: "resolveMain" } });
+    this.uniforms = device.createBuffer({
+      size: UNIFORM_BYTES, usage: GPUBufferUsage.UNIFORM | GPUBufferUsage.COPY_DST,
+    });
+  }
+
+  /** The image as RGBA bytes, straight alpha, row by row from the top. */
+  async read(accumulation: GPUBuffer, denoised: GPUBuffer | null, width: number, height: number,
+    settings: ResolveSettings): Promise<Uint8ClampedArray<ArrayBuffer>> {
+    const floats = new Float32Array(this.values), integers = new Uint32Array(this.values);
+
+    integers.fill(0);
+    integers[0] = width;
+    integers[1] = height;
+    floats[2] = settings.exposure;
+    integers[3] = Math.max(0, TONE_MAPPING.indexOf(settings.toneMapping));
+    floats[4] = settings.vignette;
+    integers[7] = settings.transparent ? 1 : 0;
+    integers[8] = denoised ? 1 : 0;
+    this.device.queue.writeBuffer(this.uniforms, 0, this.values);
+
+    const bytes = width * height * 4;
+    const output = this.device.createBuffer({ size: bytes, usage: GPUBufferUsage.STORAGE | GPUBufferUsage.COPY_SRC });
+    const staging = this.device.createBuffer({ size: bytes, usage: GPUBufferUsage.MAP_READ | GPUBufferUsage.COPY_DST });
+
+    try {
+      const encoder = this.device.createCommandEncoder({ label: "image resolve" });
+      const pass = encoder.beginComputePass({ label: "image resolve" });
+
+      pass.setPipeline(this.pipeline);
+      pass.setBindGroup(0, this.device.createBindGroup({
+        layout: this.pipeline.getBindGroupLayout(0),
+        entries: [
+          { binding: 0, resource: { buffer: this.uniforms } },
+          { binding: 1, resource: { buffer: accumulation } },
+          { binding: 2, resource: { buffer: denoised ?? accumulation } },
+          { binding: 3, resource: { buffer: output } },
+        ],
+      }));
+      pass.dispatchWorkgroups(Math.ceil(width / WORKGROUP), Math.ceil(height / WORKGROUP));
+      pass.end();
+      encoder.copyBufferToBuffer(output, 0, staging, 0, bytes);
+      this.device.queue.submit([encoder.finish()]);
+
+      await staging.mapAsync(GPUMapMode.READ);
+
+      const data = new Uint8ClampedArray(staging.getMappedRange().slice(0));
+
+      staging.unmap();
+
+      return data;
+    } finally {
+      output.destroy();
+      staging.destroy();
+    }
+  }
+
+  dispose() {
+    this.uniforms.destroy();
+  }
+}

package/src/renderer.ts

@@ -1,16 +1,16 @@
 import { PerspectiveCamera, type LightProbe, type Material, type Object3D, type Scene } from "three";
 import { Accumulator } from "./accumulator.js";
-import { type PackedBvh } from "./bvh.js";
 import { BvhBuilder, createDefaultBvhWorker, type BvhWorkerFactory } from "./bvhBuilder.js";
 import { cameraMatrices, type CameraMatrices } from "./camera.js";
 import { requestRenderDevice, type RenderDevice } from "./device.js";
 import { loadEnvironment, type PackedEnvironment } from "./environment.js";
 import { DispatchScheduler } from "./dispatchScheduler.js";
-import { packGeometry, type PackedGeometry } from "./geometry.js";
+import { packGeometry } from "./geometry.js";
 import { packLights } from "./lights.js";
 import { NO_PROGRAM } from "./materialLayout.js";
-import { NO_TEXTURE, planTextures, writeTextures, type PackedTextures } from "./texturePack.js";
+import { NO_TEXTURE, planTextures, writeTextures } from "./texturePack.js";
 import { PathTracePass, type FrameUniforms } from "./pathTracePass.js";
+import { ImageResolvePass } from "./imageResolve.js";
 import { PresentPass } from "./presentPass.js";
 import {
   CONVERGED_ERROR,
@@ -27,7 +27,6 @@ import { environmentPower, uploadScene, type SceneBuffers } from "./sceneUpload.
 import {
   DEFAULT_RENDER_ENVIRONMENT,
   DEFAULT_RENDER_SETTINGS,
-  encodeColor,
   EventEmitter,
   mergeSettings,
   serializeCamera,
@@ -161,8 +160,18 @@ function rowRanges(rows: readonly number[]): [number, number][] {
 const CAPTURE_SAMPLES = 32;
 
 /** A scene on the device, with where its extra words went. */
+/**
+ * What is kept of a packed scene once it is on the device: whether it follows the camera, and where each texture's
+ * texels start, for the captures that write into them. The packed arrays themselves, hundreds of megabytes for a large
+ * scene, are let go as soon as they are uploaded.
+ */
+interface PackedSummary {
+  cameraDependent: boolean;
+  textureOffsets: ReadonlyMap<string, number>;
+}
+
 interface PackedTarget {
-  packed: { geometry: PackedGeometry; bvh: PackedBvh; textures: PackedTextures };
+  packed: PackedSummary;
   buffers: SceneBuffers;
   skyData: number;
   volumetricData: number;
@@ -178,6 +187,10 @@ export class GpuRenderer extends EventEmitter<GpuRendererEvents> {
   private environment: RenderEnvironment;
   // Serializing walks the whole scene, so it is started by the setter and awaited by the frame that needs it.
   private scene: Promise<SerializedScene> = Promise.resolve(EMPTY_SCENE);
+  // The snapshot `setScene` was last handed, so handing the same one again keeps everything prepared for it.
+  private snapshot: SerializedScene | null = null;
+  // The last sky baked, which a scene with the same sky reuses instead of baking it again.
+  private skyBake: SceneAssets["skyBake"] = null;
   // A LightProbe's harmonics, which the snapshot does not carry: read from the live scene when there is one.
   private probe: number[] = new Array(27).fill(0);
   // A Three camera is kept by reference and read at every `render()`, as the CPU renderer does; a snapshot stays fixed.
@@ -197,7 +210,8 @@ export class GpuRenderer extends EventEmitter<GpuRendererEvents> {
   private pathTrace: PathTracePass | null = null;
   private present: PresentPass | null = null;
   private buffers: SceneBuffers | null = null;
-  private packed: { geometry: PackedGeometry; bvh: PackedBvh; textures: PackedTextures } | null = null;
+  private packed: PackedSummary | null = null;
+  private imageResolve: ImageResolvePass | null = null;
   private sceneDirty = true;
   // Compute bakes, the procedural sky and translated shaders: prepared once per scene.
   private assets: Promise<SceneAssets> | null = null;
@@ -332,13 +346,18 @@ export class GpuRenderer extends EventEmitter<GpuRendererEvents> {
 
   /**
    * Takes a Three scene, serialized in the background, or the result of `serializeScene`. The live scene is not read
-   * again until this is called once more.
+   * again until this is called once more. Handing over the same snapshot again keeps what was prepared for it, its
+   * packed triangles, hierarchy and textures, so a new frame of an unchanged scene starts tracing at once.
    */
   setScene(scene: RenderScene | SerializedScene) {
-    this.probe = "isScene" in scene && scene.isScene ? lightProbes(scene as Scene) : new Array(27).fill(0);
-    this.scene = "isScene" in scene && scene.isScene
-      ? serializeLive(scene as Scene)
-      : Promise.resolve("meshes" in scene ? scene : (scene as { scene: SerializedScene }).scene);
+    const live = "isScene" in scene && scene.isScene;
+    const snapshot = live ? null : "meshes" in scene ? scene as SerializedScene : (scene as { scene: SerializedScene }).scene;
+
+    if (snapshot && snapshot === this.snapshot) return;
+
+    this.snapshot = snapshot;
+    this.probe = live ? lightProbes(scene as Scene) : new Array(27).fill(0);
+    this.scene = snapshot ? Promise.resolve(snapshot) : serializeLive(scene as Scene);
     this.sceneDirty = true;
     this.assets = null;
   }
@@ -463,6 +482,8 @@ export class GpuRenderer extends EventEmitter<GpuRendererEvents> {
     this.buffers?.destroy();
     this.accumulator?.destroy();
     this.denoisePass?.destroy();
+    this.imageResolve?.dispose();
+    this.imageResolve = null;
     this.gpu?.device.destroy();
     this.buffers = null;
     this.accumulator = null;
@@ -516,10 +537,12 @@ export class GpuRenderer extends EventEmitter<GpuRendererEvents> {
     const width = this.renderWidth, height = this.renderHeight;
 
     this.check(revision);
-    this.assets ??= prepareSceneAssets(scene);
+    this.assets ??= prepareSceneAssets(scene, { device: gpu.device, sky: this.skyBake });
 
     const assets = await this.assets;
 
+    this.skyBake = assets.skyBake;
+
     this.check(revision);
     await this.prepare(gpu, revision, assets, camera, width, height, environment);
     this.output = { width, height, data: new Uint8ClampedArray(width * height * 4) };
@@ -687,17 +710,22 @@ export class GpuRenderer extends EventEmitter<GpuRendererEvents> {
     const environment = assets.sky?.environment ?? image;
     const matrices = cameraMatrices(camera, width, height);
     const view = `${JSON.stringify(camera)}|${width}|${height}`;
-    const moved = (!!this.packed?.geometry.cameraDependent || this.planar) && view !== this.packedView;
+    const moved = (!!this.packed?.cameraDependent || this.planar) && view !== this.packedView;
 
     if (this.sceneDirty || !this.buffers || moved) {
       // Planar surfaces need their captures, from this camera, before the scene that samples them is packed.
       const planar = planarCaptures(assets.scene, camera, width, height);
 
+      // The scene on the device is replaced: letting it go first keeps the two from being held at once.
+      this.buffers?.destroy();
+      this.buffers = null;
+      this.target = null;
+      this.packed = null;
+
       const packed = await this.packScene(
         gpu, revision, planar?.scene ?? assets.scene, assets, matrices, width, height, environment);
 
       this.packed = packed.packed;
-      this.buffers?.destroy();
       this.buffers = packed.buffers;
       this.target = packed;
       this.sceneDirty = false;
@@ -791,8 +819,9 @@ export class GpuRenderer extends EventEmitter<GpuRendererEvents> {
     // Nothing is on the device yet, so a frame replaced while the hierarchy was built has nothing to give back.
     this.check(revision);
 
-    const packed = { geometry, bvh, textures };
-    const buffers = uploadScene(gpu.device, geometry, packed.bvh, textures, lights, environment, cdf);
+    const buffers = uploadScene(gpu.device, geometry, bvh, textures, lights, environment, cdf);
+    const textureOffsets = new Map([...textures.indexOf].map(([id, index]) => [id, textures.data[index * 16 + 2]]));
+    const packed: PackedSummary = { cameraDependent: geometry.cameraDependent, textureOffsets };
 
     if (buffers.bytes.largest > gpu.maxStorageBufferBindingSize) {
       buffers.destroy();
@@ -858,9 +887,7 @@ export class GpuRenderer extends EventEmitter<GpuRendererEvents> {
         }
 
         const offset = (id: string | undefined) => {
-          const index = id === undefined ? undefined : main.packed.textures.indexOf.get(id);
-
-          return index === undefined ? NO_TEXTURE : main.packed.textures.data[index * 16 + 2];
+          return (id === undefined ? undefined : main.packed.textureOffsets.get(id)) ?? NO_TEXTURE;
         };
 
         const encoder = gpu.device.createCommandEncoder();
@@ -1010,55 +1037,14 @@ export class GpuRenderer extends EventEmitter<GpuRendererEvents> {
   private async readImage(
     gpu: RenderDevice, width: number, height: number, denoised: GPUBuffer | null): Promise<RenderImage> {
     const accumulator = this.accumulator as Accumulator;
-    // The radiance and the coverage; the guides and the row flags after them are not part of the image.
-    const length = width * height * 32;
-
-    const read = async(buffer: GPUBuffer, bytes: number) => {
-      const usage = GPUBufferUsage.MAP_READ | GPUBufferUsage.COPY_DST;
-      const staging = gpu.device.createBuffer({ size: bytes, usage });
-      const encoder = gpu.device.createCommandEncoder();
-
-      encoder.copyBufferToBuffer(buffer, 0, staging, 0, bytes);
-      gpu.device.queue.submit([encoder.finish()]);
-      await staging.mapAsync(GPUMapMode.READ);
-
-      const floats = new Float32Array(staging.getMappedRange().slice(0));
-
-      staging.unmap();
-      staging.destroy();
-
-      return floats;
-    };
-
-    const floats = await read(accumulator.buffer, length);
-    // The denoiser's output is the mean radiance itself, one vec4 per pixel.
-    const filtered = denoised ? await read(denoised, width * height * 16) : null;
-
-    const data = new Uint8ClampedArray(width * height * 4);
     const { exposure, toneMapping, vignette } = this.current;
     const transparent = this.current.background.mode === "transparent";
-    const coverage = width * height * 4;
-
-    for (let pixel = 0; pixel < width * height; pixel++) {
-      const samples = floats[pixel * 4 + 3];
-      const x = (pixel % width) / width - 0.5, y = Math.floor(pixel / width) / height - 0.5;
-      const falloff = Math.max(0, 1 - vignette * (x * x + y * y) * 2);
-
-      // The radiance is premultiplied by the coverage, which a transparent background makes the alpha.
-      const alpha = !transparent ? 1
-        : samples > 0 ? Math.min(1, Math.max(0, floats[coverage + pixel * 4] / samples)) : 0;
 
-      const mean = (channel: number) =>
-        (filtered ? filtered[pixel * 4 + channel] : floats[pixel * 4 + channel] / samples);
+    // Resolved on the device, so the page only copies the bytes of the image.
+    this.imageResolve ??= new ImageResolvePass(gpu.device);
 
-      const color = samples > 0 && alpha > 0
-        ? [0, 1, 2].map(channel => mean(channel) / alpha * falloff)
-        : [0, 0, 0];
-
-      const [r, g, b] = encodeColor(color, exposure, toneMapping);
-
-      data.set([r, g, b, Math.round(alpha * 255)], pixel * 4);
-    }
+    const data = await this.imageResolve.read(accumulator.buffer, denoised, width, height,
+      { exposure, toneMapping, vignette, transparent });
 
     return { width, height, data };
   }