@sap/cds-dk 9.9.3 → 10.0.3

package/node_modules/@sap/cds-compiler/lib/render/toCdl.js

@@ -0,0 +1,3084 @@
+'use strict';
+
+// to.cdl() renderer
+//
+// This file contains the whole to.cdl(), which takes CSN and outputs CDL.
+// It used e.g. by `cds import`.
+//
+//
+// # Development Notes
+//
+// ## Abbreviations used
+//  - fqn : fully qualified name, i.e. a name that is a global definition reference
+//
+
+
+const keywords = require('../base/keywords');
+const { cdlNewLineRegEx } = require('../language/textUtils');
+const { findElement, createExpressionRenderer, withoutCast } = require('./utils/common');
+const { escapeString, hasUnpairedUnicodeSurrogate } = require('./utils/stringEscapes');
+const { checkCSNVersion } = require('../json/csnVersion');
+const { normalizeTypeRef, forEachDefinition } = require('../model/csnUtils');
+const enrichUniversalCsn = require('../transform/universalCsn/universalCsnEnricher');
+const { isBetaEnabled } = require('../base/specialOptions');
+const { ModelError, CompilerAssertion } = require('../base/error');
+const { typeParameters, specialFunctions } = require('../compiler/builtins');
+const { isAnnotationExpression } = require('../base/builtins');
+const { forEach } = require('../utils/objectUtils');
+const { isBuiltinType } = require('../base/builtins');
+const { cloneFullCsn } = require('../base/cloneCsn');
+const { getKeysDict, implicitAs } = require('../base/csnRefs');
+const { undelimitedIdentifierRegex } = require('../parsers/identifiers');
+const { getNormalizedQuery } = require('../model/csnUtils');
+const {
+  line,
+  pretty,
+  nestBy,
+  bracketBlock,
+  joinDocuments,
+} = require('./utils/pretty');
+
+const specialFunctionKeywords = Object.create(null);
+
+const MAX_LINE_WIDTH = 72;
+const INDENT_SIZE = 2;
+
+function format( document ) {
+  return pretty(document, MAX_LINE_WIDTH);
+}
+
+/**
+ * @param {string} path
+ * @returns {string}
+ */
+function rootPathSegment( path ) {
+  // RegEx is at least twice as fast as .split()[0]
+  return path.match(/^[^.]+/)[0];
+}
+
+/**
+ * Path alias to be rendered as a USING statement.
+ */
+class UsingAlias {
+  path;
+  alias;
+
+  /**
+   * @param {string} path
+   * @param {string} alias
+   */
+  constructor(path, alias) {
+    this.path = path;
+    this.alias = alias;
+  }
+
+  requiresExplicitAlias() {
+    return this.alias && implicitAs(this.path) !== this.alias;
+  }
+}
+
+class NameScopeStack {
+  /** @type {DefinitionPathTree[]} */
+  #scopes = [];
+  /** @type {Record<string, UsingAlias>} */
+  #aliasToFqn = Object.create(null);
+  /** @type {Record<string, UsingAlias>} */
+  #fqnToAlias = Object.create(null);
+  /** @type {string|null} */
+  #namespaceAlias = null;
+
+  /**
+   @param {DefinitionPathTree} root
+   @param {CSN.Model} csn
+   */
+  setRootScope( root, csn ) {
+    root.availableRootPaths = Object.assign(Object.create(null), root.children);
+    this.#scopes = [ root ];
+
+    this.#prepareUniqueUsingsForRootPaths(csn);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @param {DefinitionPathTree} scope
+   */
+  pushNameEnv(scope) {
+    const outerScope = this.#scopes.at(-1);
+
+    const isNamespace = this.#scopes.length === 1 && !scope.definition;
+    if (isNamespace)
+      this.#namespaceAlias = implicitAs(scope.name);
+
+    // Own children are always available.
+    // Root paths of the outer scope are also available in the inner scope.
+    scope.availableRootPaths = Object.assign(Object.create(null), outerScope.availableRootPaths, scope.children);
+    this.#scopes.push(scope);
+  }
+
+  popNameEnv() {
+    const popped = this.#scopes.pop();
+    const wasNamespace = this.#scopes.length === 1 && !popped.definition;
+    if (wasNamespace)
+      this.#namespaceAlias = null;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * To be able to refer to definitions outside the current scope, we need to have
+   * unique USING statements.  The most stable way is to create a USING statement for
+   * root path-segments on-demand and give it an alias by having it unique in the set
+   * of all path segments of all definitions.
+   *
+   * While this will still lead to some long paths here and there, it is the most
+   * secure way to avoid ambiguities due to shadowing names.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Model} csn
+   */
+  #prepareUniqueUsingsForRootPaths(csn) {
+    // We include vocabularies here, too, because their names are affected by a global "namespace".
+    const names = [
+      ...Object.keys(csn.definitions || {}),
+      ...Object.keys(csn.vocabularies || {}),
+      ...(csn.extensions || []).map(ext => ext.extend || ext.annotate || ''),
+    ];
+    const segmentedNames = names.map(name => name.split('.'));
+    this.nonRootSegments = new Set(segmentedNames.map(segments => segments.slice(1)).flat(1));
+    // Don't use `this.#scopes[0].availableRootPaths`, as that will contain unreachable paths,
+    // e.g. for a file that contains `namespace a.b`, `a` is not reachable.
+    this.rootSegments = new Set(segmentedNames.map(name => name[0]));
+    this.rootSegments.add('cds'); // builtin namespaces
+    this.rootSegments.add('hana');
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @param {string} fqn Path for which we want to add an alias.
+   */
+  #addUsingAlias( fqn ) {
+    const segments = fqn.split('.');
+    let aliasName = segments.at(-1);
+    // An explicit alias only needs to be used if the implicit one has the possibility of
+    // being shadowed in any scope or if there is already an alias of that name.
+    if (this.nonRootSegments.has(aliasName) || this.#aliasToFqn[aliasName]) {
+      // There is a non-root segment of the same root name, hence the need for aliases.
+      let counter = 0;
+      aliasName += '_';
+      const baseAlias = aliasName;
+      while (this.nonRootSegments.has(aliasName) || this.rootSegments.has(aliasName) || this.#aliasToFqn[aliasName]) {
+        // Alias must be unique among _all_ segments and existing USINGs.
+        aliasName = `${ baseAlias }${ ++counter }`;
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Always add an alias, even if unnecessary, as we'd otherwise try to create
+    // it in #useAliasForPath() again if the same rootName is seen again.
+    if (this.#aliasToFqn[aliasName])
+      throw new CompilerAssertion(`to.cdl: Alias "${ aliasName }" already exists; collision for ${ fqn } and ${ this.#aliasToFqn[aliasName].path }`);
+    const alias = new UsingAlias(fqn, aliasName);
+    this.#aliasToFqn[aliasName] = alias;
+    this.#fqnToAlias[fqn] = alias;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * We assume that definition names, when rendered, are always relative
+   * to the current name environment.
+   *
+   * This function must only be used for statements that _create_ definitions
+   * and not for references _to_ definitions.
+   *
+   * @param {string} fqn
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  definitionName(fqn) {
+    const leaf = this.#scopes.at(-1);
+    if (!leaf?.name)
+      return fqn;
+    if (isBuiltinType(fqn)) {
+      // For e.g. `annotate` statements:
+      // - `annotate String;` is invalid
+      // - `annotate cds.String;` works
+      return fqn;
+    }
+    if (fqn.startsWith(`${ leaf.name }.`))
+      return fqn.substring(leaf.name.length + 1); // '+1' => also remove '.'
+    throw new CompilerAssertion('to.cdl: Definition to be rendered is not in current name scope!');
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Get a relative reference to the given definition name in the current name environment.
+   *
+   * This function must only be used for references _to_ definitions and not
+   * for statements that _create_ definitions, i.e _introduce_ a new name.
+   *
+   * @param {string} fqn
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  definitionReference(fqn) {
+    if (isBuiltinType(fqn)) {
+      const ref = this.builtinShorthandReference(fqn);
+      if (ref !== null)
+        return ref;
+    }
+
+    const name = rootPathSegment(fqn);
+    // Go through all scopes except the root one, since in there, paths are always absolute.
+    for (let i = this.#scopes.length - 1; i >= 1; i--) {
+      const tree = this.#scopes[i];
+
+      if (tree.name && fqn.startsWith(`${ tree.name }.`)) {
+        // FQN is in current scope.
+        const relativeName = fqn.substring(tree.name.length + 1);
+        const relativeRoot = rootPathSegment(relativeName);
+
+        // Since CDS requires root path segments to be _known within a CDL document_, we
+        // need to check if the root path is _known_.  If not, we need a USING statement.
+        // Example: `namespace ns; entity C : ns.D {};` -> must render alias, as 'D' would
+        // be invalid! Required for parseCdl.
+        if (!tree.children[relativeRoot])
+          return this.#useAliasForPathInScope(fqn, tree);
+
+        // Name can be used relative to scope 'tree'.  We now need to check if the relative
+        // name does not collide with more inner scopes by checking for direct children.
+        for (let j = this.#scopes.length - 1; j > i; j--) {
+          if (this.#scopes[j].children[relativeRoot]) {
+            // collision; requires alias
+            return this.#useAliasForPathInScope(fqn, tree);
+          }
+        }
+
+        return relativeName;
+      }
+      else if (name in tree.children) {
+        // Name is in current scope, but it is not the artifact we're looking for.
+        // Use a global alias to avoid confusing it.
+        return this.#useAliasForPathInScope(fqn, null);
+      }
+    }
+
+    // At this point, the path is unknown and outside any non-root scope.
+
+    if (this.#namespaceAlias && (name !== 'cds' || this.#namespaceAlias === 'cds')) {
+      // There is a namespace. We need a USING for all non-builtin paths, but also for
+      // builtins if the namespace alias collides. Builtin collision, e.g.
+      // `type my.cds.String : cds.String;` with common namespace "my.cds".
+      return this.#useAliasForPathInScope(fqn, null);
+    }
+    if (name !== 'cds' && !this.#scopes[0].availableRootPaths?.[name]) {
+      // In case the non-builtin path is unknown, add a using statement. Required for parseCdl.
+      // Completely unknown: -> alias
+      return this.#useAliasForPathInScope(fqn, null);
+    }
+    // Builtin or root path is known.
+    return fqn;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Adapt the FQN to use a global alias.  The alias is created for either
+   * the scope in which the FQN resides or the root path segment.
+   *
+   * @param {string} fqn
+   * @param {DefinitionPathTree} [scope]
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  #useAliasForPathInScope( fqn, scope ) {
+    const path = scope?.name ? scope.name : rootPathSegment(fqn);
+    if (!this.#fqnToAlias[path]?.path)
+      this.#addUsingAlias(path);
+
+    if (this.#fqnToAlias[path].alias === path)
+      return fqn; // shortcut to avoid substring()
+
+    return this.#fqnToAlias[path].alias + fqn.substring(path.length);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns a shorthand reference to the builtin type if possible or
+   * null otherwise, in which case the caller must ensure that the full type
+   * can be used.
+   *
+   * Example:
+   *   cds.Integer -> Integer
+   *   cds.hana.NCHAR -> hana.NCHAR
+   *
+   * @param {string} type
+   * @returns {string|null}
+   */
+  builtinShorthandReference(type) {
+    const shortHand = type.slice(4); // remove 'cds.'
+    const root = rootPathSegment(shortHand);
+    if (this.#scopes.at(-1).availableRootPaths[root])
+      return null; // there is already an artifact of the same name
+    if (this.#namespaceAlias === root)
+      return null; // alias collides with shorthand
+    return shortHand;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Get a list of objects meant to be rendered as USING statements.
+   *
+   * @returns {UsingAlias[]}
+   */
+  getUsings() {
+    const result = [];
+    for (const alias in this.#aliasToFqn)
+      result.push(this.#aliasToFqn[alias]);
+    return result;
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * @see createDefinitionPathTree()
+ */
+class DefinitionPathTree {
+  name = null;
+  /** @type {Record<string, DefinitionPathTree>} */
+  children = Object.create(null);
+  definition = null;
+  /** @type {Record<string, DefinitionPathTree>} */
+  availableRootPaths = null; // used in NameScopeStack
+
+  /**
+   * @param {string} fqn
+   */
+  constructor(fqn) {
+    this.name = fqn;
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * For a CSN model, constructs a tree of all path segments of all definitions, e.g.
+ * definitions `a.b.c.d` and `a.b.e.f` will end up in:
+ * ```
+ * a
+ * └─ b
+ *    ├─ c
+ *    │  └─ d (link to definition)
+ *    └─ e
+ *       └─ f (link to definition)
+ * ```
+ *
+ * @param {CSN.Model} csn
+ * @param {CdlOptions} options
+ * @returns {DefinitionPathTree}
+ */
+function createDefinitionPathTree( csn, options ) {
+  const tree = new DefinitionPathTree('');
+  if (!csn.definitions)
+    return tree;
+
+  const useNesting = options.renderCdlDefinitionNesting !== false;
+
+  for (const defName in csn.definitions) {
+    const segments = defName.split('.');
+    if (!useNesting) {
+      // If we don't want nesting, don't do more work than necessary:
+      // only the first path step is relevant
+      segments.length = 1;
+    }
+    let leaf = tree;
+    for (let i = 0; i < segments.length; i++) {
+      const level = segments[i];
+      const fqn = segments.slice(0, i + 1).join('.');
+      leaf.children[level] ??= new DefinitionPathTree(fqn);
+      leaf = leaf.children[level];
+    }
+    leaf.definition = csn.definitions[defName];
+  }
+  return tree;
+}
+
+
+class CsnToCdl {
+  /**
+   * @param {CSN.Model} csn
+   * @param {CdlOptions} options
+   * @param {object} msg
+   */
+  constructor(csn, options, msg) {
+    this.csn = csn;
+    this.options = options;
+    this.msg = msg;
+
+    if (this.options.csnFlavor === 'universal' && isBetaEnabled(this.options, 'enableUniversalCsn')) {
+      // Since the expander modifies the CSN, we need to clone it first or
+      // toCdl can't guarantee that the input CSN is not modified.
+      this.csn = cloneFullCsn(this.csn, this.options);
+      enrichUniversalCsn(this.csn, this.options);
+    }
+
+    checkCSNVersion(this.csn, this.options);
+
+    this.exprRenderer = this.createCdlExpressionRenderer();
+    this.subelementAnnotates = [];
+  }
+
+  render() {
+    const cdlResult = Object.create(null);
+    cdlResult.model = '';
+
+    const env = createEnv();
+
+    const useNesting = this.options.renderCdlDefinitionNesting !== false;
+    this.definitionTree = createDefinitionPathTree(this.csn, this.options);
+    this.commonNamespace = this.getCommonNamespace();
+
+    env.nameEnvStack.setRootScope(this.definitionTree, this.csn);
+
+    const useNamespace = this.commonNamespace !== this.definitionTree;
+    if (useNamespace)
+      env.nameEnvStack.pushNameEnv(this.commonNamespace);
+
+    cdlResult.model += useNesting
+      ? this.renderNestedDefinitions(env)
+      : this.renderDefinitions(env);
+    // sub-element annotations that can't be written directly.
+    cdlResult.model += this.renderExtensions(this.subelementAnnotates, env);
+
+    if (this.csn.vocabularies)
+      cdlResult.model += this.renderVocabularies(this.csn.vocabularies, env);
+    if (this.csn.extensions)
+      cdlResult.model += this.renderExtensions(this.csn.extensions, env);
+
+    if (useNamespace)
+      env.nameEnvStack.popNameEnv();
+
+    cdlResult.model = this.renderUsingAliases(env.nameEnvStack.getUsings(), env) + cdlResult.model;
+    if (this.csn.requires) {
+      let usingsStr = this.csn.requires.map(req => `using from '${ req }';`).join('\n');
+      usingsStr += '\n\n';
+      cdlResult.model = usingsStr + cdlResult.model;
+    }
+
+    if (this.commonNamespace.name)
+      cdlResult.model = `namespace ${ this.renderArtifactName(this.commonNamespace.name, env) };\n\n${ cdlResult.model }`;
+
+    this.msg.throwWithError();
+    return cdlResult;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Determine a common namespace along all definitions.
+   * Returns this.definitionTree if there is no common namespace.
+   *
+   * @returns {DefinitionPathTree}
+   */
+  getCommonNamespace() {
+    let root = this.definitionTree;
+    if (this.options.renderCdlDefinitionNesting === false || this.options.renderCdlCommonNamespace === false)
+      return root; // User does not want common namespace.
+
+    if (this.csn.vocabularies) {
+      // TODO: With vocabularies, we don't search for a common namespace.
+      //   Reason being that `namespace` statements affect vocabularies, but
+      //   we don't create definition trees for them.
+      return root;
+    }
+    if (this.csn.extensions?.length > 0) {
+      // TODO: Check for the case of `entity Unknown.E {}; annotate Unknown;`
+      //   by going through all extensions.
+      return root;
+    }
+
+    while (root) {
+      const keys = Object.keys(root.children);
+      if (keys.length !== 1 || root.children[keys[0]].definition) {
+        // There is either more than one sibling path, or the path is a definition.
+        // We MUST NOT create a common namespace for `entity A {}; entity A.A {}`!
+        break;
+      }
+      if (keys[0] === 'cds') {
+        // Don't use 'cds' as common namespace _anywhere_, not even in `namespace foo.cds.bar;`
+        // While our code _does_ handle such cases, as it also needs to do so for `String`, etc.,
+        // it would make reading to.cdl() output worse.
+        return this.definitionTree;
+      }
+      root = root.children[keys[0]];
+    }
+
+    return root;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @param {UsingAlias[]} aliases
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  renderUsingAliases(aliases, env) {
+    if (this.options.renderCdlDefinitionNesting !== false) {
+      // openAPI importer searches for a single USING statement and replaces it.
+      // Let's try to be backward compatible.
+      return aliases.length > 0 ? `using { ${ aliases.map(entry => (entry.requiresExplicitAlias()
+        ? `${ this.quotePathIfRequired(entry.path, env) } as ${ this.quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword(entry.alias, env) }`
+        : entry.path)).join(', ') } };\n\n` : '';
+    }
+
+    let result = '';
+    for (const entry of aliases) {
+      if (entry.requiresExplicitAlias())
+        result += `using { ${ this.quotePathIfRequired(entry.path, env) } as ${ this.quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword(entry.alias, env) } };\n`;
+      else
+        result += `using { ${ entry.path } };\n`;
+    }
+    return result !== '' ? `${ result }\n` : result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render definitions in a flat list, i.e. without nesting.
+   *
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  renderDefinitions(env) {
+    let result = '';
+    forEachDefinition(this.csn, (artifact, artifactName) => {
+      const sourceStr = this.renderDefinition(artifactName, artifact, env);
+      if (sourceStr !== '')
+        result += `${ sourceStr }\n`;
+    });
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render entries from the `csn.definitions` dictionary.
+   * Returns an empty string if nothing is rendered.
+   *
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderNestedDefinitions(env) {
+    const that = this;
+    let result = '';
+    renderTree(this.definitionTree);
+    return result;
+
+    /**
+     * @param {DefinitionPathTree} tree
+     */
+    function renderTree( tree ) {
+      for (const name in tree.children) {
+        const entry = tree.children[name];
+        const def = entry.definition;
+
+        if (def?.kind === 'service' || def?.kind === 'context') {
+          // Render service/context with nested definitions.
+          env.path = [ 'definitions', entry.name ];
+          result += that.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(def, env);
+          result += `${ env.indent }${ def.kind } ${ that.renderArtifactName(entry.name, env) } {\n`;
+          env.increaseIndent();
+          env.nameEnvStack.pushNameEnv(entry);
+          if (entry.children)
+            renderTree(entry);
+          env.nameEnvStack.popNameEnv();
+          env.decreaseIndent();
+          if (result.at(-1) === '\n' && result.at(-2) === '\n')
+            result = result.substring(0, result.length - 1); // to get the closing brace on the next line after a definition, remove one linebreak
+          result += `${ env.indent }};\n\n`;
+        }
+        else if (def) {
+          const sourceStr = that.renderDefinition(entry.name, def, env);
+          if (sourceStr !== '')
+            result += `${ sourceStr }\n`;
+          if (entry.children)
+            renderTree(entry);
+        }
+        else if (entry.children) {
+          renderTree(entry);
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render annotation definitions, i.e. entries from csn.vocabularies.
+   * Returns an empty string if there isn't anything to render.
+   *
+   * @param {object} vocabularies
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderVocabularies( vocabularies, env ) {
+    let result = '';
+    for (const key in vocabularies)
+      result += this.renderVocabulariesEntry(key, vocabularies[key], env);
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @param {string} name
+   * @param anno
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  renderVocabulariesEntry( name, anno, env ) {
+    if (anno.$ignore)
+      return '';
+    // This environment is passed down the call hierarchy, for dealing with
+    // indentation and name resolution issues
+    env.path = [ 'vocabularies', name ];
+    const sourceStr = this.renderArtifact(name, anno, env, 'annotation');
+    return `${ sourceStr }\n`;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render 'extend' and 'annotate' statements from the `extensions` array.
+   * Could be annotate-statements for sub-elements annotations or from parseCdl's
+   * extensions array or just unapplied extensions.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Extension[]} extensions
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderExtensions( extensions, env ) {
+    if (!env.path)
+      env = env.cloneWith({ path: [ 'extensions' ] });
+    return extensions.map((ext, index) => this.renderExtension(ext, env.withSubPath([ index ]))).join('\n');
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render an 'extend' and 'annotate' statement.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Extension} ext
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderExtension( ext, env ) {
+    if (ext.extend)
+      return this.renderExtendStatement(ext.extend, ext, env);
+    return this.renderAnnotateStatement(ext, env);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render an 'extend' statement.
+   * `extName` is the extension's artifact's name, most likely `ext.extend`.
+   * This function is recursive, which is why you need to pass it explicitly.
+   *
+   * @param {string} extName
+   * @param {object} ext
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderExtendStatement( extName, ext, env ) {
+    // Element extensions have `kind` set. Don't use for enum extension.
+    const isElementExtend = (ext.kind === 'extend' && !ext.enum);
+    let result = this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(ext, env);
+    extName = this.renderArtifactName(extName, env);
+
+    if (ext.includes && ext.includes.length > 0) {
+      // Includes can't be combined with anything in braces {}.
+      const affix = isElementExtend ? 'element ' : '';
+      const includes = ext.includes.map((inc, i) => this.renderDefinitionReference(inc, env.withSubPath([ 'includes', i ]))).join(', ');
+      result += `${ env.indent }extend ${ affix }${ extName } with ${ includes };\n`;
+      return result;
+    }
+
+    const typeParams = this.renderTypeParameters(ext, true);
+    if (typeParams) {
+      result += `${ env.indent }extend ${ extName } with ${ typeParams };\n`;
+      return result;
+    }
+
+    // If there is nothing to extend, e.g. only annotations, don't render an
+    // empty element list.  This would end up in diffs with parseCdl CSN.
+    if (!ext.elements && !ext.columns && !ext.actions && !ext.enum &&
+        !ext.where && !ext.groupBy && !ext.having && !ext.orderBy && !ext.limit) {
+      result += `${ env.indent }extend ${ extName };\n`;
+      return result;
+    }
+
+    if (ext.elements || ext.columns || ext.actions || ext.enum) {
+      // We have the "old-style" prefix syntax and the "new-style" postfix "with <type>" syntax.
+      // The former one can not only extend (sub-)elements but also actions in the same statement whereas
+      // the latter cannot.
+      // If there are actions, check if there are also elements/columns, and if so, use the prefix notation.
+      const usePrefixNotation = ext.actions && (ext.columns || ext.elements);
+      if (usePrefixNotation)
+        result += `${ env.indent }extend ${ this.getExtendPrefixVariant(ext) } ${ extName } with {\n`;
+      else
+        result += `${ env.indent }extend ${ extName } with ${ this.getExtendPostfixVariant(ext) }{\n`;
+
+      if (ext.columns)
+        result += this.renderViewColumns(ext, env.withIncreasedIndent());
+
+      else if (ext.elements || ext.enum)
+        result += this.renderExtendStatementElements(ext, env);
+
+      // Not part of if/else cascade, because it may be in postfix notation.
+      if (ext.actions) {
+        const childEnv = env.withIncreasedIndent();
+        let actions = '';
+        forEach(ext.actions, (actionName, action) => {
+          actions += this.renderActionOrFunction(actionName, action, childEnv.withSubPath([ 'actions', actionName ]), true);
+        });
+        if (!usePrefixNotation)
+          result += actions;
+        else if (actions !== '')
+          result += `${ env.indent }} actions {\n${ actions }`;
+      }
+
+      result += `${ env.indent }}`;
+    }
+    else {
+      result += `${ env.indent }extend ${ extName } with`;
+    }
+
+    if (ext.where)
+      result += ` where ${ this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(ext.where, env.withSubPath([ 'where' ])) }`;
+    if (ext.groupBy)
+      result += ` group by ${ ext.groupBy.map((expr, i) => this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(expr, env.withSubPath([ 'groupBy', i ]))).join(', ') }`;
+    if (ext.having)
+      result += ` having ${ this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(ext.having, env.withSubPath([ 'having' ])) }`;
+    if (ext.orderBy)
+      result += ` order by ${ ext.orderBy.map((entry, i) => this.renderOrderByEntry(entry, env.withSubPath([ 'orderBy', i ]))).join(', ') }`;
+    if (ext.limit)
+      result += ` ${ this.renderLimit(ext.limit, env.withSubPath([ 'limit' ])) }`;
+
+    result += ';\n';
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * What <extend> prefix type to use.  Used to render `extend <type> <ref>` statements.
+   *
+   * @param {object} ext
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  getExtendPrefixVariant( ext ) {
+    if (ext.kind === 'extend')
+      return 'element'; // element extensions inside an `extend`
+    if (ext.columns)
+      return 'projection';
+    if (ext.elements)
+      return 'entity';
+    return '';
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * What <extend> postfix type to use.  Used to render `extend <ref> with <type>` statements.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Extension} ext
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  getExtendPostfixVariant( ext ) {
+    if (ext.columns)
+      return 'columns ';
+    if (ext.actions)
+      return 'actions ';
+    if (ext.enum)
+      return 'enum ';
+    if (ext.elements) { // enum/elements ambiguity -> look into elements
+      const isLikelyElement = Object.keys(ext.elements)
+        .find(name => ext.elements[name].value !== undefined);
+      if (isLikelyElement)
+        return 'elements ';
+    }
+    // ambiguity; no postfix, i.e. `extend … with { … }`.s
+    return '';
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render the elements inside an `extend` statement. They may themselves be `extend` statements.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Extension} ext
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderExtendStatementElements( ext, env ) {
+    let result = '';
+    const prop = ext.elements ? 'elements' : 'enum';
+    forEach(ext[prop] || {}, (elemName, element) => {
+      const childEnv = env.withIncreasedIndent().withSubPath([ 'elements', elemName ]);
+      if (element.kind === 'extend')
+        result += this.renderExtendStatement(elemName, element, childEnv);
+      else
+        // As soon as we are inside an element, nested `extend` are not possible,
+        // since we can't extend an existing element of a new one.
+        result += this.renderElement(elemName, element, childEnv.withSubPath([ prop, elemName ]));
+    });
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render an 'annotate' statement.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Extension} ext
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderAnnotateStatement( ext, env ) {
+    // Special case: Super annotate has both "returns" and "elements".
+    // Render as separate `annotate`s, but keep the order.
+    if (ext.elements && ext.returns) {
+      const [ , second ] = Object.keys(ext).filter(key => key === 'elements' || key === 'returns');
+
+      // The first of 'elements' or 'returns' gets all other properties as well.
+      // The second only gets one property (itself).
+      let result = this.renderAnnotateStatement({ ...ext, [second]: undefined }, env);
+      result += this.renderAnnotateStatement({ annotate: ext.annotate, [second]: ext[second] }, env);
+
+      return result;
+    }
+
+    // Top-level annotations of the artifact
+    const topLevelAnnotations = this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(ext, env.withIncreasedIndent());
+
+    // Note: Not renderDefinitionReference, because we don't care if there
+    //       are annotations to unknown things. That's allowed!
+    let result = `${ env.indent }annotate ${ this.renderArtifactName(ext.annotate, env) }`;
+
+    if (topLevelAnnotations)
+      result += ` with\n${ topLevelAnnotations }`;
+
+
+    if (ext.params)
+      result += this.renderAnnotateParamsInParentheses(ext, env);
+
+    // Element extensions and annotations (possibly nested)
+    if (ext.elements || ext.enum)
+      result += ` ${ this.renderAnnotateStatementElements(ext, env) }`;
+
+    else if (ext.returns)
+      result += this.renderAnnotateReturns(ext, env);
+
+
+    if (ext.actions) { // Bound action annotations
+      result += ' actions {\n';
+      env.increaseIndent();
+      env.path.push('actions', '');
+      for (const name in ext.actions) {
+        env.path[env.path.length - 1] = name;
+        const action = ext.actions[name];
+        result += this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(action, env) + env.indent + this.quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword(name, env);
+        // Action parameter annotations
+        if (action.params)
+          result += this.renderAnnotateParamsInParentheses(action, env);
+        if (action.returns)
+          result += this.renderAnnotateReturns(action, env);
+
+        result = removeTrailingNewline(result);
+        result += ';\n';
+      }
+      env.decreaseIndent();
+      result += `${ env.indent }}`;
+    }
+
+    result = removeTrailingNewline(result);
+    result += ';\n';
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render the elements-specific part of an 'annotate' statement for an element dictionary
+   * 'ext.elements' (assuming that the surrounding parent has just been rendered, without trailing newline).
+   * Returns the resulting source string, ending without a trailing newline.
+   *
+   * @param {object} ext
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderAnnotateStatementElements( ext, env ) {
+    const elements = ext.enum ? ext.enum : ext.elements;
+    let result = '{\n';
+    env.increaseIndent();
+    env.path.push(ext.enum ? 'enum' : 'elements', '');
+    for (const name in elements) {
+      env.path[env.path.length - 1] = name;
+      const elem = elements[name];
+      result += this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(elem, env);
+      result += env.indent + this.quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword(name, env);
+      if (elem.elements) {
+        env.path.push('elements');
+        result += ` ${ this.renderAnnotateStatementElements(elem, env) }`;
+        env.path.pop();
+      }
+      else if (elem.enum) {
+        env.path.push('enum');
+        result += ` ${ this.renderAnnotateStatementElements(elem, env) }`;
+        env.path.pop();
+      }
+
+      result += ';\n';
+    }
+    env.path.length -= 2;
+    env.decreaseIndent();
+    result += `${ env.indent }}`;
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Renders the `returns` part of an `annotate` statement for (bound) actions.
+   * `ext` must be an object with a `returns` property.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Extension} ext
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderAnnotateReturns( ext, env ) {
+    env = env.withSubPath([ 'returns', 'elements' ]);
+    let result = ' returns';
+
+    const returnAnnos = this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(ext.returns, env.withIncreasedIndent());
+    if (returnAnnos)
+      result += `\n${ returnAnnos }`;
+
+    if (ext.returns.elements) {
+      // Annotations are on separate lines: Have it aligned nicely
+      result += returnAnnos ? `${ env.indent }` : ' ';
+      result += this.renderAnnotateStatementElements(ext.returns, env);
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render a parameter list for `annotate` statements, in parentheses `()`.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Artifact} ext
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderAnnotateParamsInParentheses( ext, env ) {
+    const childEnv = env.withIncreasedIndent();
+    let result = '(\n';
+    const paramAnnotations = [];
+    forEach(ext.params, (paramName, param) => {
+      const annos = this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(param, childEnv);
+      const name = this.quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword(paramName, childEnv);
+      // Not supported, yet (#13052)
+      // const sub = (param.elements || param.enum) ? ` ${renderAnnotateStatementElements(param, childEnv)}` : '';
+      paramAnnotations.push( annos + childEnv.indent + name);
+    });
+    result += `${ paramAnnotations.join(',\n') }\n${ env.indent })`;
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render an artifact. Return the resulting source string.
+   *
+   * @param {string} artifactName
+   * @param {CSN.Artifact} art
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   */
+  renderDefinition( artifactName, art, env ) {
+    env = env.cloneWith({ path: [ 'definitions', artifactName ] });
+
+    const kind = art.kind || 'type'; // the default kind is "type".
+    switch (kind) {
+      case 'entity':
+        if (art.query || art.projection)
+          return this.renderView(artifactName, art, env);
+        return this.renderArtifact(artifactName, art, env);
+      case 'aspect':
+        return this.renderAspect(artifactName, art, env);
+
+      case 'context':
+      case 'service':
+        return this.renderContextOrService(artifactName, art, env);
+
+      case 'annotation': // annotation in 'csn.definitions' for compiler v1 compatibility
+        return this.renderArtifact(artifactName, art, env, 'annotation');
+
+      case 'action':
+      case 'function':
+        return this.renderActionOrFunction(artifactName, art, env, false);
+
+      case 'type':
+      case 'event':
+        return this.renderArtifact(artifactName, art, env);
+
+      default:
+        throw new ModelError(`to.cdl: Unknown artifact kind: '${ art.kind }' at ${ JSON.stringify(env.path) }`);
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @param {string} artifactName
+   * @param {CSN.Artifact} art
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @param {string} [overrideKind] If set, override the artifact kind.
+   */
+  renderArtifact( artifactName, art, env, overrideKind ) {
+    let result = this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(art, env);
+    let kind = overrideKind || art.$syntax === 'aspect' && 'aspect' || art.kind;
+    if (art.abstract)
+      kind = `abstract ${ kind }`;
+    // Vocabularies are in a separate name environment. We can't shorten them.
+    const normalizedArtifactName = kind !== 'annotation'
+      ? this.renderArtifactName(artifactName, env)
+      : this.quotePathIfRequired(artifactName, env);
+    result += `${ env.indent }${ kind } ${ normalizedArtifactName }`;
+
+    if (art.params)
+      result += this.renderParameters(art, env);
+
+    let isDirectStruct = false;
+    const isQuery = art.query || art.projection;
+    if (isQuery) {
+      result += ' : ';
+      // types/events (should) only support "projections"
+      result += this.renderQuery(getNormalizedQuery(art).query, true, 'projection',
+                                 env.withSubPath([ art.projection ? 'projection' : 'query' ]));
+    }
+    else {
+      const type = this.renderTypeReferenceAndProps(art, env);
+      if (type) {
+        isDirectStruct = type.startsWith('{');
+
+        if (art.includes?.length && isDirectStruct) {
+          // We can only render includes, if the type is directly structured. Otherwise, we would
+          // render e.g. `type T : Include : T2;`, which is invalid.  We use `extend` in such cases.
+          result += this.renderIncludes(art.includes, env);
+        }
+
+        // For nicer output, no colon if unnamed structure is used.
+        result += (!art.type && art.elements) ? ` ${ type }` : ` : ${ type }`;
+      }
+      else {
+        this.msg.warning('syntax-missing-type', env.path, { '#': art.kind, name: artifactName }, {
+          std: 'Missing type for definition $(NAME); can\'t be represented in CDL',
+          entity: 'Missing elements for entity $(NAME); can\'t be represented in CDL',
+        });
+      }
+    }
+
+    if (art.actions) {
+      if (!isQuery && !isDirectStruct) {
+        // If there are no elements nor query, but actions, CDL syntax requires braces.
+        result += ' { }';
+      }
+      result += this.renderBoundActionsAndFunctions(art, env);
+    }
+
+    result += ';\n';
+
+    if (art.includes?.length && !isDirectStruct) {
+      // If we're not a directly structured type, render the `includes` as `extend`
+      // statements directly below the type definition.
+      result += this.renderExtendStatement(artifactName, { includes: art.includes }, env);
+    }
+
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @param {string} artifactName
+   * @param {CSN.Artifact} art
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  renderContextOrService( artifactName, art, env ) {
+    let result = this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(art, env);
+    result += `${ env.indent }${ art.kind } ${ this.renderArtifactName(artifactName, env) }`;
+    return `${ result } {};\n`;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render an aspect. Return the resulting source string.
+   * Behaves very similar to renderEntity, _except_ that aspects are
+   * allowed to _not_ have elements, e.g. `aspect A;`.
+   *
+   * @param {string} artifactName
+   * @param {CSN.Artifact} art
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderAspect( artifactName, art, env ) {
+    let result = this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(art, env);
+    result += `${ env.indent }aspect ${ this.renderArtifactName(artifactName, env) }`;
+    if (art.includes)
+      result += this.renderIncludes(art.includes, env);
+
+    if (art.elements)
+      result += ` ${ this.renderElements(art, env) }`;
+    else if (art.actions)
+      // if there are no elements, but actions, CDL syntax requires braces.
+      result += ' { }';
+
+    result += `${ this.renderBoundActionsAndFunctions(art, env) };\n`;
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render a list of elements enclosed in braces.  If the list is empty, returns `{ }`.
+   *
+   * @param {object} artifact Artifact with `elements` property.
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderElements( artifact, env ) {
+    let elements = '';
+    const childEnv = env.withIncreasedIndent();
+    for (const name in artifact.elements)
+      elements += this.renderElement(name, artifact.elements[name], childEnv.withSubPath([ 'elements', name ]));
+
+    return (elements === '') ? '{ }' : `{\n${ elements }${ env.indent }}`;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render an element (of an entity, type or annotation, not a projection or view)
+   * or an enum symbol.
+   * Returns the resulting source string.
+   *
+   * @param {string} elementName
+   * @param {CSN.Element} element
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   */
+  renderElement( elementName, element, env ) {
+    const isCalcElement = (element.value !== undefined);
+    let result = this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(element, env);
+    result += env.indent;
+    result += element.virtual ? 'virtual ' : '';
+    result += element.key ? 'key ' : '';
+    result += this.quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword(elementName, env);
+    if (element['#'] !== undefined) { // enum symbol reference
+      result += ` = #${ element['#'] }`;
+    }
+    else if (element.val !== undefined) { // enum value
+      result += ` = ${ this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(element, env) }`;
+    }
+    else if (!isCalcElement || !isDirectAssocOrComp(element.type) && !element.$filtered && !element.$enclosed) {
+      // If the element is a calculated element _and_ a direct association or
+      // composition, we'd render `Association to F on (cond) = calcValue;` which
+      // would alter the ON-condition.
+      // If it is a calculated element _and_ an indirect association (via type chain),
+      // we'd get a cast to an association.
+      const props = this.renderTypeReferenceAndProps(element, env);
+      if (props !== '')
+        result += ` : ${ props }`;
+    }
+
+    if (isCalcElement) { // calculated element // @ts-ignore
+      result += ' = ';
+      env.path.push('value');
+      const isSubExpr = (element.value.xpr && xprContainsCondition(element.value.xpr));
+      result += isSubExpr
+        ? this.exprRenderer.renderSubExpr(element.value, env)
+        : this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(element.value, env);
+      if (element.value.stored === true)
+        result += ' stored';
+      env.path.length -= 1;
+    }
+
+    return `${ result };\n`;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render annotations that were extended to a query element of a view or projection (they only
+   * appear in the view's 'elements', not in their 'columns' for client CSN, because the element
+   * itself may not even be in 'columns', e.g. if it was expanded from a '*').  Return the
+   * resulting rendered 'annotate' statement or an empty string if none required.
+   *
+   * Note: In the past, we checked if the annotation also exists in the respective column,
+   *       however, in client CSN, annotations are not part of the column and in parseCdl CSN,
+   *       no `elements` exist.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Artifact} art
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderQueryElementAndEnumAnnotations( art, env ) {
+    const annotate = this.collectAnnotationsOfElementsAndEnum(art, env);
+    if (annotate)
+      return this.renderExtensions([ annotate ], env);
+    return '';
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Create an "annotate" statement as a CSN extension for all annotations of (sub-)elements.
+   * If no annotation was found, we return `null`.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Artifact} artifact
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {CSN.Extension|null}
+   */
+  collectAnnotationsOfElementsAndEnum( artifact, env ) {
+    // Array, which may be annotated as well.
+    if (artifact.items) {
+      env = env.withSubPath([ 'items' ]);
+      artifact = artifact.items;
+    }
+
+    if (!artifact.elements && !artifact.enum && !artifact.keys)
+      return null;
+
+    const annotate = { annotate: env.path[1] };
+
+    // Based on the current path, create a correctly nested structure
+    // of elements for which we collect annotations.
+    let obj = annotate;
+    for (let i = 2; i < env.path.length; ++i) {
+      const key = env.path[i];
+      if (key === 'elements' || key === 'actions' || key === 'params') {
+        obj[key] = Object.create(null);
+        const elem = env.path[i + 1];
+        obj[key][elem] = {};
+        obj = obj[key][elem];
+      }
+      else if (key === 'returns') {
+        obj.returns = {};
+        obj = obj.returns;
+      }
+      else {
+        // ignore others, e.g. 'items'
+      }
+    }
+    return collectAnnos(obj, artifact) ? annotate : null;
+
+    /**
+     * Recursive function to collect annotations. `annotateObj` will get an `elements`
+     * object with annotations only if there are annotations on `art`'s (sub-)elements or
+     * enums.  Returned object will use "elements" even for enums, since that is
+     * expected in extensions.
+     *
+     * @return {boolean} True, if there were annotations, false otherwise.
+     */
+    function collectAnnos( annotateObj, art ) {
+      if (!Object.hasOwnProperty.call(art, 'elements') &&
+        !Object.hasOwnProperty.call(art, 'enum') &&
+        !Object.hasOwnProperty.call(art, 'keys'))
+        return false;
+
+      const dict = art.enum || art.keys && getKeysDict(art) || art.elements;
+      // Use "elements" for all. This is allowed in extensions.
+      const collected = { elements: Object.create(null) };
+      let hasAnnotation = false;
+
+      forEach(dict, (elemName, element) => {
+        if (!collected.elements[elemName])
+          collected.elements[elemName] = { };
+
+        let hasElementAnnotations = false;
+        for (const name in element) {
+          if (name.startsWith('@')) {
+            collected.elements[elemName][name] = element[name];
+            hasElementAnnotations = true;
+            hasAnnotation = true;
+          }
+        }
+
+        const hasSubAnnotations = collectAnnos(collected.elements[elemName], element);
+        if (!hasElementAnnotations && !hasSubAnnotations)
+          delete collected.elements[elemName]; // delete if no annotations exist
+        hasAnnotation = hasAnnotation || hasSubAnnotations;
+      });
+
+      if (hasAnnotation)
+        annotateObj.elements = collected.elements;
+
+      return hasAnnotation;
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render the source of a query, which may be a path reference, possibly with an alias,
+   * or a subselect, or a join operation, as seen from artifact 'art'.
+   * Returns the source as a string.
+   *
+   * @param {object} source
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderViewSource( source, env ) {
+    // Sub-SELECT
+    if (source.SELECT || source.SET) {
+      const subEnv = env.withIncreasedIndent();
+      let result = `(\n${ subEnv.indent }${ this.renderQuery(source, false, 'view', subEnv) }\n${ env.indent })`;
+      if (source.as)
+        result += this.renderAlias(source.as, env);
+
+      return result;
+    }
+    // JOIN
+    else if (source.join) {
+      // One join operation, possibly with ON-condition
+      env.path.push('args', 0);
+      let result = `(${ this.renderViewSource(source.args[0], env) }`;
+      for (let i = 1; i < source.args.length; i++) {
+        env.path[env.path.length - 1] = i;
+        result += ` ${ source.join } `;
+        result += this.renderJoinCardinality(source.cardinality);
+        result += `join ${ this.renderViewSource(source.args[i], env) }`;
+      }
+      env.path.length -= 2;
+      if (source.on) {
+        env.path.push('on');
+        result += ` on ${ this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(source.on, env.withSubPath([ 'on' ])) }`;
+        env.path.length -= 1;
+      }
+      result += ')';
+      return result;
+    }
+    // Ordinary path, possibly with an alias
+
+    return this.renderAbsolutePathWithAlias(source, env);
+  }
+
+  renderJoinCardinality( card ) {
+    let result = '';
+    if (card) {
+      if (card.srcmin && card.srcmin === 1)
+        result += 'exact ';
+      result += card.src && card.src === 1 ? 'one ' : 'many ';
+      result += 'to ';
+      if (card.min && card.min === 1)
+        result += 'exact ';
+      if (card.max)
+        result += (card.max === 1) ? 'one ' : 'many ';
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render a path that starts with an absolute name (as used e.g. for the source of a query),
+   * with plain or quoted names, depending on options. Expects an object 'path' that has a 'ref'.
+   * Returns the name as a string.
+   *
+   * @param {object} path
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderAbsolutePath( path, env ) {
+    // Sanity checks
+    if (!path.ref)
+      throw new ModelError(`Expecting ref in path: ${ JSON.stringify(path) }`);
+
+    // Determine the absolute name of the first artifact on the path (before any associations or element traversals)
+    const firstArtifactName = path.ref[0].id || path.ref[0];
+
+    // Render the first path step (absolute name, with different quoting/naming ..)
+    let result = this.renderDefinitionReference(firstArtifactName, env);
+
+    // Even the first step might have parameters and/or a filter
+    env.path.push('ref', 0);
+    if (path.ref[0].args)
+      result += `(${ this.renderArguments(path.ref[0], ':', env) })`;
+    if (path.ref[0].where)
+      result += this.renderFilterAndCardinality(path.ref[0], env);
+    env.path.length -= 2;
+
+    // Add any path steps (possibly with parameters and filters) that may follow after that
+    if (path.ref.length > 1)
+      result += `:${ this.exprRenderer.renderExpr({ ref: path.ref.slice(1) }, env) }`;
+
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render a path that starts with an absolute name (as used for the source of a query),
+   * possibly with an alias, with plain or quoted names, depending on options. Expects an object 'path' that has a
+   * 'ref' and (in case of an alias) an 'as'. If necessary, an artificial alias
+   * is created to the original implicit name.
+   * Returns the name and alias as a string.
+   *
+   * @param {object} path
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderAbsolutePathWithAlias( path, env ) {
+    // We may have changed the implicit alias due to renderAbsolutePath() and renderDefinitionReference()
+    // introducing USING statements. We need to ensure that the implicit alias stays the same.
+    const isElementRef = path.ref.length > 1;
+    const alias = path.as || implicitAs(path.ref);
+
+    let result = this.renderAbsolutePath(path, env);
+    if (path.as) {
+      // Source had an alias - render it
+      result += this.renderAlias(path.as, env);
+    }
+    else if (!isElementRef) {
+      const defName = path.ref[0].id || path.ref[0];
+      const sourcePath = env.nameEnvStack.definitionReference(defName);
+      // Source did not have an alias, but we add one as we'd
+      // otherwise have a different implicit alias.
+      if (sourcePath.split('.').at(-1) !== alias)
+        result += this.renderAlias(alias, env);
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render the given columns / select items.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Extension | CSN.QuerySelect} art
+   * @param {object} elements
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderViewColumns( art, env, elements = Object.create(null) ) {
+    env.path.push( 'columns', -1 );
+    const result = art.columns.map((col, i) => {
+      env.path[env.path.length - 1] = i;
+      return this.renderViewColumn(col, env, findElement(elements, col));
+    }).join(',\n');
+    env.path.length -= 2;
+    return `${ result }\n`;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render a single view or projection column 'col', as it occurs in a select list or
+   * projection list within 'art', possibly with annotations.
+   * Return the resulting source string (no trailing LF).
+   *
+   * @param {object} col
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @param {CSN.Element} element Element corresponding to the column. Generated by the compiler.
+   */
+  renderViewColumn( col, env, element ) {
+    // Annotations and column
+    let result = '';
+    if (!col.doc) {
+      // TODO: In contrast to annotations, we do not render the doc comment as part
+      //       of an `annotate` statement.  That may change in the future.
+      result += this.renderDocComment(element, env);
+    }
+    result += this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(col, env);
+    result += env.indent;
+
+    // only if column is virtual, keyword virtual was present in the source text
+    result += col.virtual ? 'virtual ' : '';
+    result += col.key ? 'key ' : '';
+
+    let exprResult;
+    // Use special rendering for .expand/.inline - renderExpr cannot easily handle some cases
+    if (col.expand || col.inline)
+      exprResult = this.renderInlineExpand(col, env);
+    else if (col.xpr && xprContainsCondition(col.xpr))
+      exprResult = this.exprRenderer.renderSubExpr(withoutCast(col), env);
+    else
+      exprResult = this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(withoutCast(col), env);
+
+    result += exprResult;
+
+    // A new association (cast with `type` and `target`) uses `as` as its primary name, not alias.
+    // The same for `virtual <name>`, which is a new element definition instead of a reference.
+    const isNewElementDefinition = exprResult === '';
+    if (isNewElementDefinition && col.as) {
+      result += this.quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword(col.as, env);
+    }
+    else if (col.as && !col.inline && !col.expand) {
+      // Alias for inline/expand is already handled by renderInlineExpand
+      result += this.renderAlias(col.as, env);
+    }
+
+
+    // Explicit type provided for the view element?
+    if (col.cast) {
+      env.path.push('cast');
+      // Special case: Explicit association type is actually a redirect
+      if (col.cast.target && !col.cast.type)
+        result += ` : ${ this.renderRedirectedTo(col.cast, env) }`;
+      else
+        result += ` : ${ this.renderTypeReferenceAndProps(col.cast, env, { noAnnoCollect: true }) }`;
+      env.path.length -= 1;
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * For the current column, render a (nested) inline/expand. If the current column
+   * does not have an .expand/.inline, '' is returned
+   *
+   * @param {object} obj Thing with .expand or .inline
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  renderInlineExpand( obj, env ) {
+    // No expression to render for { * } as alias
+    let result = (obj.as && obj.expand && !obj.ref) ? '' : this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(withoutCast(obj), env);
+
+    const isAnonymousExpand = (obj.expand && !obj.ref);
+
+
+    // s as alias { * }
+    if (obj.as && !isAnonymousExpand)
+      result += this.renderAlias(obj.as, env);
+
+    // We found a leaf - no further drilling
+    if (!obj.inline && !obj.expand) {
+      env.path.push('cast');
+      if (obj.cast && obj.cast.type)
+        result += ` : ${ this.renderTypeReferenceAndProps(obj.cast, env, { noAnnoCollect: true }) }`;
+      else if (obj.cast && obj.cast.target) // test tbd
+        result += ` : ${ this.renderRedirectedTo(obj.cast, env) }`;
+      env.path.length -= 1;
+      return result;
+    }
+
+    if (obj.inline)
+      result += '.{\n';
+    else
+      result += result !== '' ? ' {\n' : '{\n';
+
+    // Drill down and render children of the expand/inline
+    const childEnv = env.withIncreasedIndent();
+    const expandInline = obj.expand || obj.inline;
+    result += expandInline //
+      .map(elm => this.renderViewColumn(elm, childEnv))
+      .join(',\n');
+    result += `\n${ env.indent }}`;
+
+    // Don't forget about the .excluding
+    if (obj.excluding)
+      result += ` excluding { ${ obj.excluding.join(',') } }`;
+
+    // { * } as expand
+    if (obj.as && isAnonymousExpand)
+      result += this.renderAlias(obj.as, env);
+
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render .doc properties as comments in CDL
+   *
+   * @param {object} obj Object to render for
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @returns {String}
+   */
+  renderDocComment( obj, env ) {
+    if (!obj || obj && obj.doc === undefined)
+      return '';
+    else if (obj && obj.doc === null) // empty doc comment needs to be rendered
+      return `\n${ env.indent }/** */\n`;
+
+    let { doc } = obj;
+    if (/[*]\//.test(doc)) // only escape sequence allowed in CDL for doc comments
+      doc = doc.replace(/[*]\//g, '*\\/');
+
+    // Smaller comment for single-line comments.  If the comment starts or ends with whitespace
+    // we must use a block comment, or it will be lost when compiling the source again.
+    if (!obj.doc.includes('\n') && !/(^\s)|(\s$)/.test(obj.doc))
+      return `${ env.indent }/** ${ doc } */\n`;
+
+    const comment = doc.split('\n').map(l => `${ env.indent } * ${ l }`).join('\n');
+    return `${ env.indent }/**\n${ comment }\n${ env.indent } */\n`;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @param {string} artifactName
+   * @param {CSN.Artifact} art
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   */
+  renderView( artifactName, art, env ) {
+    const syntax = (art.projection) ? 'projection' : 'entity';
+    let result = this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(art, env);
+    result += `${ env.indent }entity ${ this.renderArtifactName(artifactName, env) }`;
+    if (art.params)
+      result += this.renderParameters(art, env);
+    result += ' as ';
+    result += this.renderQuery(getNormalizedQuery(art).query, true, syntax, env.withSubPath([ art.projection ? 'projection' : 'query' ]), art.elements);
+    if (art.actions) // Views/Projections also allow actions. Just the VIEW keyword variant did not.
+      result += this.renderBoundActionsAndFunctions(art, env);
+    result += ';\n';
+    result += this.renderQueryElementAndEnumAnnotations(art, env);
+    if (art.includes)
+      result += this.renderExtension({ extend: artifactName, includes: art.includes }, env);
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render a query 'query', i.e. a select statement with where-condition etc.
+   * If 'isLeadingQuery' is true, mixins, actions and functions of 'art' are
+   * also rendered into the query. Use 'syntax' style ('projection', 'view',
+   * or 'entity')
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Query} query
+   * @param {boolean} isLeadingQuery
+   * @param {string} syntax The query syntax, either "projection", "entity" or "view"
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @param {object} [elements]
+   */
+  renderQuery( query, isLeadingQuery, syntax, env, elements = query.elements || Object.create(null) ) {
+    const that = this;
+    if (query.SET) {
+      // Set operator, such as UNION, INTERSECT, or EXCEPT...
+      return renderQuerySet();
+    }
+    else if (!query.SELECT) {
+      // ...otherwise must have a SELECT
+      throw new ModelError(`Unexpected query operation ${ JSON.stringify(query) }`);
+    }
+
+    let result = '';
+    const select = query.SELECT;
+
+    // If not a projection, must be view/entity.
+    result += (syntax === 'projection') ? 'projection on ' : 'select from ';
+
+    env.path.push('from');
+    result += this.renderViewSource(select.from, env);
+    env.path.length -= 1;
+
+    if (select.mixin) {
+      let elems = '';
+      env.path.push('mixin', '');
+      env.increaseIndent();
+      forEach(select.mixin, (name, mixin) => {
+        env.path[env.path.length - 1] = name;
+        elems += this.renderElement(name, mixin, env);
+      });
+      env.decreaseIndent();
+      env.path.length -= 2;
+      if (elems) {
+        result += ' mixin {\n';
+        result += elems;
+        result += `${ env.indent }} into`;
+      }
+    }
+    result += select.distinct ? ' distinct' : '';
+    if (select.columns) {
+      result += ' {\n';
+      env.increaseIndent();
+      result += this.renderViewColumns(select, env, elements);
+      env.decreaseIndent();
+      result += `${ env.indent }}`;
+    }
+
+    const childEnv = env.withIncreasedIndent();
+    if (select.excluding) {
+      const excludes = select.excluding.map(id => `${ childEnv.indent }${ this.quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword(id, env) }`).join(',\n');
+      result += ` excluding {\n${ excludes }\n`;
+      result += `${ env.indent }}`;
+    }
+
+    if (isLeadingQuery && query.actions)
+      result += this.renderBoundActionsAndFunctions(query, env);
+
+    if (select.where)
+      result += `${ continueIndent(result, env) }where ${ this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(select.where, env.withSubPath([ 'where' ])) }`;
+
+    if (select.groupBy)
+      result += `${ continueIndent(result, env) }group by ${ select.groupBy.map((expr, i) => this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(expr, env.withSubPath([ 'groupBy', i ]))).join(', ') }`;
+
+    if (select.having)
+      result += `${ continueIndent(result, env) }having ${ this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(select.having, env.withSubPath([ 'having' ])) }`;
+
+    if (select.orderBy)
+      result += `${ continueIndent(result, env) }order by ${ select.orderBy.map((entry, i) => this.renderOrderByEntry(entry, env.withSubPath([ 'orderBy', i ]))).join(', ') }`;
+
+    if (select.limit)
+      result += `${ continueIndent(result, env) }${ this.renderLimit(select.limit, env.withSubPath([ 'limit' ])) }`;
+
+    return result;
+
+    /**
+     * Utility function to make sure that we continue with the same indentation in WHERE, GROUP BY, ... after a closing curly brace and beyond
+     *
+     * @param {string} str
+     * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} indentEnv
+     * @return {string}
+     */
+    function continueIndent( str, indentEnv ) {
+      if (str.endsWith('}') || str.endsWith('})')) {
+        // The preceding clause ended with '}', just append after that
+        return ' ';
+      }
+      // Otherwise, start new line and indent normally
+      return `\n${ indentEnv.withIncreasedIndent().indent }`;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Render UNION, INTERSECT, and EXCEPT, i.e. sets.
+     *
+     * @return {string}
+     */
+    function renderQuerySet() {
+      const subQueries = query.SET.args.map((arg, i) => {
+        // First arg may be leading query
+        const subEnv = env.withSubPath([ 'SET', 'args', i ]);
+        const subQuery = that.renderQuery(arg, isLeadingQuery && (i === 0), 'view', subEnv, elements);
+        return `(${ subQuery })`;
+      });
+
+      let setResult = subQueries.join(`\n${ env.indent }${ query.SET.op }${ query.SET.all ? ' all' : '' } `);
+      // Set operation may also have an ORDER BY and LIMIT/OFFSET (in contrast to the ones belonging to
+      // each SELECT)
+      if (query.SET.orderBy)
+        setResult += `${ continueIndent(setResult, env) }order by ${ query.SET.orderBy.map((entry, i) => that.renderOrderByEntry(entry, env.withSubPath([ 'SET', 'orderBy', i ]))).join(', ') }`;
+
+      if (query.SET.limit)
+        setResult += `${ continueIndent(setResult, env) }${ that.renderLimit(query.SET.limit, env.withSubPath([ 'SET', 'limit' ])) }`;
+      return setResult;
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render one entry of a query's ORDER BY clause (which always has a 'value' expression, and may
+   * have a 'sort' property for ASC/DESC and a 'nulls' for FIRST/LAST
+   *
+   * @param {object} entry
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderOrderByEntry( entry, env ) {
+    let result = this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(entry, env) + this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(entry, env);
+    if (entry.sort)
+      result += ` ${ entry.sort }`;
+
+    if (entry.nulls)
+      result += ` nulls ${ entry.nulls }`;
+
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render a query's LIMIT clause, which may also have OFFSET.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.QueryLimit} limit
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} limitEnv
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderLimit( limit, limitEnv ) {
+    let limitStr = '';
+    if (limit.rows !== undefined)
+      limitStr += `limit ${ this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(limit.rows, limitEnv.withSubPath([ 'rows' ])) }`;
+
+    if (limit.offset !== undefined) {
+      const offsetIndent = (limitStr === '') ? '' : `\n${ limitEnv.withIncreasedIndent().indent }`;
+      limitStr += `${ offsetIndent }offset ${ this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(limit.offset, limitEnv.withSubPath([ 'offset' ])) }`;
+    }
+    return limitStr;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render an entity's actions and functions (if any)
+   * (expect an entity with trailing '}' or an 'extend' statement ending with 'with'
+   * to have just been rendered).
+   * Return the resulting source string.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Artifact} art
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderBoundActionsAndFunctions( art, env ) {
+    let result = '';
+    if (art.actions) {
+      const childEnv = env.withIncreasedIndent();
+      for (const name in art.actions)
+        result += this.renderActionOrFunction(name, art.actions[name], childEnv.withSubPath([ 'actions', name ]), true);
+      result = (result === '')
+        ? ' actions { }'
+        : ` actions {\n${ result }${ env.indent }}`;
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render an action or function 'act' with name 'actName'. Return the resulting source string.
+   *
+   * @param {string} actionName
+   * @param {CSN.Action} act
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @param {boolean} isBound
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderActionOrFunction( actionName, act, env, isBound ) {
+    let result = this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(act, env) + env.indent + act.kind;
+    if (isBound) {
+      // for bound actions, paths are not global
+      result += ` ${ this.quotePathIfRequired(actionName, env) }`;
+    }
+    else {
+      result += ` ${ this.renderArtifactName(actionName, env) }`;
+    }
+    result += this.renderParameters(act, env);
+    if (act.returns) {
+      let actEnv = env.withSubPath([ 'returns' ]);
+      const annos = this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(act.returns, actEnv.withIncreasedIndent());
+      if (annos) // if `returns` has annotations, increase indent for nicer aligned output
+        actEnv = actEnv.withIncreasedIndent();
+      const type = this.renderTypeReferenceAndProps(act.returns, actEnv);
+      result += ` returns${ annos ? '\n' : ' ' }${ annos }${ annos ? actEnv.indent : '' }${ type }`;
+    }
+
+    result += ';\n';
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render art.params, i.e. list of parameter in parentheses.  If there is only one
+   * parameter, a single line is used, otherwise an indented list is used.
+   * If there are no params, an empty list `()` is returned.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Artifact} art
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  renderParameters( art, env ) {
+    const childEnv = env.withIncreasedIndent();
+    const parameters = Object.keys(art.params || {}).map(name => this.renderParameter(name, art.params[name], childEnv));
+    if (parameters.length === 0)
+      return '()';
+    return `(\n${ parameters.join(',\n') }\n${ env.indent })`;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render an action or function parameter 'par' with name 'parName'. Return the resulting source string (no trailing LF).
+   *
+   * @param {string} parName
+   * @param {object} par
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderParameter( parName, par, env ) {
+    env = env.withSubPath( [ 'params', parName ]);
+    let result = `${ this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(par, env) }${ env.indent }`;
+    result += `${ this.quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword(parName, env) } : ${ this.renderTypeReferenceAndProps(par, env) }`;
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render a reference to a type used by 'artifact' (named or inline) and (element) properties
+   * such as `not null` and `default <xpr>`.
+   * Allow suppressing rendering of structs such as enums - used in columns for example.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Artifact} artifact
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @param {object} [config={}]
+   * @param {boolean} [config.typeRefOnly] Whether to only render type defs, no arrayed/structured/enum.
+   * @param {boolean} [config.noAnnoCollect] Do not collect annotations of sub-elements.
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderTypeReferenceAndProps( artifact, env, config = {} ) {
+    let result = '';
+    const { typeRefOnly, noAnnoCollect } = config;
+
+    if (typeRefOnly && !artifact.type)
+      throw new ModelError(`Expected artifact to have a type; in: ${ JSON.stringify(env.path) }`);
+
+    if (artifact.localized) // works even for type definitions
+      result += 'localized ';
+
+    // Some properties are always "top-level", even for "many", e.g. "default" or
+    // "not null". Keep a reference to the outer artifact.
+    const origArtifact = artifact;
+    if (!artifact.type && artifact.items) {
+      this.checkArrayedArtifact(artifact, env);
+      result += 'many '; // alternative: 'array of'; but not used
+      artifact = artifact.items;
+      env = env.withSubPath([ 'items' ]);
+    }
+
+    const type = normalizeTypeRef(artifact.type);
+
+    if (!type && artifact.elements) {
+      result += this.renderElements(artifact, env);
+      result += this.renderNullability(artifact.notNull);
+      // structured default not possible at the moment
+      return result;
+    }
+
+    const defaultValue = origArtifact.default ? origArtifact.default : artifact.default;
+    const notNull = origArtifact.notNull ? origArtifact.notNull : artifact.notNull;
+
+    // Association type
+    if (isDirectAssocOrComp(type)) {
+      const isComp = type === 'cds.Composition';
+      // Type, cardinality and target; CAPire uses CamelCase
+      result += isComp ? 'Composition' : 'Association';
+      result += this.renderCardinality(artifact);
+
+      // `targetAspect` may be set by the core compiler and refers to the original named or unnamed aspect.
+      // In parseCdl, `target` may still be an object containing elements.  This would be replaced
+      // by targetAspect in client CSN, but we can't rely on that.
+      // If a name exists (either in target or targetAspect), prefer it over rendering elements.
+      const elements = artifact.target?.elements || artifact.targetAspect?.elements;
+      if (typeof artifact.target === 'string' || typeof artifact.targetAspect === 'string') {
+        result += this.renderAbsolutePath({ ref: [ artifact.target || artifact.targetAspect ] },
+                                          { ...env, additionalKeywords: [ 'MANY', 'ONE' ] });
+      }
+      else if (elements) {
+        // anonymous aspect, either parseCdl or client CSN.
+        result += this.renderElements({ elements }, env.withSubPath([ artifact.target?.elements ? 'target' : 'targetAspect' ]));
+      }
+      else {
+        throw new ModelError('Association/Composition is missing its target! Throwing exception to trigger recompilation.');
+      }
+
+      // ON-condition (if any)
+      if (artifact.on)
+        result += ` on ${ this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(artifact.on, env.withSubPath([ 'on' ])) }`;
+
+      // Foreign keys (if any, unless we also have an ON-condition (which means we have been transformed from managed to unmanaged)
+      if (artifact.keys && !artifact.on) {
+        const keys = this.renderForeignKeys(artifact, env, false);
+        if (keys)
+          result += ` ${ keys }`;
+      }
+
+      if (!artifact.on) {
+        // unmanaged associations can't be followed by "not null" or "default"
+        result += this.renderNullability(notNull);
+        result += this.renderDefaultExpr(defaultValue, env.withSubPath([ 'default' ]));
+      }
+      return result;
+    }
+
+    // At this point, we will render a named type.
+
+    // If we have a type and elements, we may have sub-structure annotates that would
+    // get lost if we only render the type name.
+    // We only extract annotations of enums, if "typeRefOnly" is true.  Otherwise, since
+    // the full enum is rendered below, we would have unnecessary annotations.
+    if (!noAnnoCollect && (!artifact.enum || typeRefOnly)) {
+      const annotate = this.collectAnnotationsOfElementsAndEnum(artifact, env);
+      if (annotate)
+        this.subelementAnnotates.push(annotate);
+    }
+
+    // Reference to another artifact
+    if (typeof type === 'string') {
+      // If we get here, it must be a named type
+      result += this.renderNamedTypeWithParameters(artifact, env);
+    }
+    else if (type?.ref) {
+      result += this.renderAbsolutePath(artifact.type, env);
+    }
+
+    if (artifact.enum && !typeRefOnly)
+      result += this.renderEnum(artifact.enum, env);
+
+    result += this.renderNullability(notNull);
+    // If there is a default value, and it's a calculated element, do not
+    // render the default (because it's not supported for calc elements).
+    if (defaultValue !== undefined && !artifact.value)
+      result += this.renderDefaultExpr(defaultValue, env.withSubPath([ 'default' ]));
+
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render REDIRECTED TO with its keys/on condition for the given artifact.
+   *
+   * @param {object} art
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderRedirectedTo( art, env ) {
+    let result = `redirected to ${ this.renderDefinitionReference(art.target, env) }`;
+    if (art.on) {
+      result += ` on ${ this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(art.on, env.withSubPath([ 'on' ])) }`;
+    }
+    else if (art.keys) {
+      const keys = this.renderForeignKeys(art, env, true);
+      if (keys)
+        result += ` ${ keys }`;
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render the named type with optional parameters, e.g. `MyString(length: 10)`.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Artifact} artWithType
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderNamedTypeWithParameters( artWithType, env ) {
+    const type = normalizeTypeRef(artWithType.type);
+    let result = this.renderDefinitionReference(type, env);
+    result += this.renderTypeParameters(artWithType);
+    return result;
+  }
+
+
+  /**
+   * Render the 'enum { ... } part of a type declaration
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.EnumList} enumPart
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderEnum( enumPart, env ) {
+    let result = ' enum {\n';
+    const childEnv = env.withIncreasedIndent();
+    for (const name in enumPart)
+      result += this.renderElement(name, enumPart[name], childEnv.withSubPath([ 'enum', name ]));
+    result += `${ env.indent }}`;
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render an annotation value, which is either
+   *  - a normal expressions
+   *  - a somewhat simplified expression, with slightly different representation
+   *
+   * @param {any} annoValue
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   */
+  renderAnnotationValue( annoValue, env, isTopLevel = false ) {
+    if (Array.isArray(annoValue))
+      return this.renderAnnotationArrayValue( annoValue, env );
+
+    // Null
+    if (annoValue === null)
+      return 'null';
+
+    if (typeof annoValue !== 'object') {
+      // Primitive: string, number, boolean
+      // Quote strings, leave all others as they are
+      return (typeof annoValue === 'string') ? renderString(annoValue, env) : String(annoValue);
+    }
+    // Enum symbol (is also annotation expression, but rendered without `(…)`
+    if (annoValue['#'] !== undefined)
+      return `#${ annoValue['#'] }`;
+
+    if (isAnnotationExpression(annoValue)) {
+      // Once inside an expression, we stay there.
+      const xpr = this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(annoValue, env);
+      return `( ${ xpr } )`;
+    }
+    // Unchecked reference in `=` (with additional props: render as struct if not top-level)
+    if (typeof annoValue['='] === 'string' &&
+        (isTopLevel || Object.keys(annoValue).length === 1)) {
+      // TODO: the to.cdl backend could issue a warning if there are non-`=`
+      // properties in a structure outside an array (not representable in CDL)
+      return (annoValue['='].startsWith('@'))
+        ? this.quoteAnnotationPathIfRequired(annoValue['='], env)
+        : this.quotePathIfRequired(annoValue['='], env);
+    }
+    // Ellipsis: `... up to <val>`
+    if (annoValue['...'] !== undefined) {
+      return (annoValue['...'] === true)
+        ? '...'
+        : `... up to ${ this.renderAnnotationValue(annoValue['...'], env) }`;
+    }
+
+    // Struct value (TODO: issue warning if outside an array, possible via CSN input)
+    // Render as one-liner if there is at most one key.  Render as multi-line
+    // struct if there are more and use nicer indentation.
+    const keys = Object.keys(annoValue);
+    const childEnv = env.withIncreasedIndent();
+    const values = keys.map(key => `${ this.quoteAnnotationPathIfRequired(key, env) }: ${ this.renderAnnotationValue(annoValue[key], childEnv.withSubPath([ key ])) }`);
+    const result = joinDocuments(values, [ ',', line() ]);
+    return format(nestBy(env.indent.length, bracketBlock(INDENT_SIZE, '{', result, '}') ));
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Renders an array annotation value.  Uses a heuristic to put each element on its own line
+   * if a single-line becomes longer than 100 characters or if any sub-expression already
+   * contains a line break.  The latter checks makes nested arrays with structures more
+   * readable.
+   *
+   * @param {any[]} annoValue
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderAnnotationArrayValue( annoValue, env ) {
+    const childEnv = env.withIncreasedIndent();
+    // Render array parts as values.
+    const items = annoValue.map((item, i) => this.renderAnnotationValue(item, childEnv.withSubPath([ i ])));
+    const result = joinDocuments(items, [ ',', line() ]);
+    return format(nestBy(env.indent.length, bracketBlock(INDENT_SIZE, '[', result, ']')));
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render a single path step 's' at path position 'idx', which can have filters or parameters or be a function
+   *
+   * @param {string|object} s
+   * @param {number} idx
+   * @param {object} env
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  renderPathStep( s, idx, env ) {
+    // Simple id or absolute name
+    if (typeof s === 'string') {
+      // In first path position, do not quote $projection and magic $-variables like CURRENT_DATE, $now etc.
+      // FIXME: We should rather explicitly recognize quoting somehow
+      if (idx === 0 && s.startsWith('$'))
+        return s;
+      return this.quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword(s, env);
+    }
+    // ID with filters or parameters
+    else if (typeof s === 'object') {
+      // Sanity check
+      if (!s.func && !s.id)
+        throw new ModelError(`Unknown path step object: ${ JSON.stringify(s) }`);
+
+      // Not really a path step but an object-like function call
+      if (s.func)
+        return `${ s.func }(${ this.renderArguments(s, '=>', env) })`;
+
+      // Path step, possibly with view parameters and/or filters
+      let result = `${ this.quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword(s.id, env) }`;
+      if (s.args) {
+        // View parameters
+        result += `(${ this.renderArguments(s, ':', env) })`;
+      }
+
+      result += this.renderFilterAndCardinality(s, env);
+
+      return result;
+    }
+
+    throw new ModelError(`Unknown path step: ${ JSON.stringify(s) }`);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render function arguments or view parameters (positional if array, named if object/dict),
+   * using 'sep' as separator for named parameters
+   *
+   * @param {object} node with `args` to render
+   * @param {string} sep
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  renderArguments( node, sep, env ) {
+    if (!node.args)
+      return '';
+    else if (Array.isArray(node.args))
+      return this.renderPositionalArguments(node, env);
+    else if (typeof node.args === 'object')
+      return this.renderNamedArguments(node, sep, env);
+    throw new ModelError(`Unknown args: ${ JSON.stringify(node.args) }; expected array/object`);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render named function arguments or view parameters,
+   * using 'sep' as separator.
+   *
+   * @param {object} node with `args` to render
+   * @param {string} separator
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  renderNamedArguments( node, separator, env ) {
+    const that = this;
+    return Object.keys(node.args).map(function renderNamedArgument(key) {
+      return `${ that.quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword(key, env) } ${ separator } ${ that.renderArgument(node.args[key], env.withSubPath([ 'args', key ])) }`;
+    }).join(', ');
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render a comma separated list of positional function arguments.
+   *
+   * @param {object} node with `args` to render
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  renderPositionalArguments( node, env ) {
+    if (!node.args)
+      return '';
+    const func = node.func?.toUpperCase();
+    const that = this;
+    if (func) {
+      return node.args.map(function renderFunctionArg(arg, i) {
+        return that.renderArgument(arg, env.withSubPath([ 'args', i ]), getKeywordsForSpecialFunctionArgument(func, i));
+      }).join(', ');
+    }
+    return node.args.map((arg, i) => this.renderArgument(arg, env.withSubPath([ 'args', i ]))).join(', ');
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render a function argument, e.g. for generic functions or CAST().
+   * Ensures that parentheses are used if necessary, e.g. for `someFct( (1=1), (1=1) )`.
+   *
+   * @param {any} arg
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @param {string[]} additionalKeywords
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderArgument( arg, env, additionalKeywords = [] ) {
+    // If the argument is a xpr with e.g. `=`, it may require parentheses.
+    // For nested xpr, `exprRenderer.renderExpr()` will already add parentheses.
+    env = env.cloneWith({ additionalKeywords });
+    if (isSimpleFunctionExpression(arg && arg.xpr, additionalKeywords))
+      return this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(arg, env);
+    return this.exprRenderer.renderSubExpr(arg, env);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render an artifact's cardinality.
+   *
+   * @param artifact
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  renderCardinality( artifact ) {
+    if (this.isSimpleCardinality(artifact.cardinality))
+      return this.renderSimpleCardinality(artifact);
+    return this.renderBracketCardinality(artifact);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render a cardinality (only those parts that were actually provided)
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Artifact} art
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderBracketCardinality( art ) {
+    const isComp = normalizeTypeRef(art.type) === 'cds.Composition';
+    const suffix = (isComp ? ' of ' : ' to ');
+    const card = art.cardinality;
+
+    if (!card)
+      return suffix;
+
+    let result = '[';
+    if (card.src !== undefined)
+      result += `${ card.src }, `;
+    if (card.min !== undefined)
+      result += `${ card.min }..`;
+    if (card.max !== undefined)
+      result += card.max;
+    // srcmin can't be represented in CDL
+    return `${ result }]${ suffix }`;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * A "simple" cardinality is one that only has a "max" cardinality property
+   * which is either '*' or 1.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Cardinality} cardinality
+   * @return {boolean}
+   */
+  isSimpleCardinality( cardinality ) {
+    return !cardinality || (
+      cardinality.min === undefined &&
+      cardinality.src === undefined &&
+      cardinality.srcmin === undefined &&
+      (cardinality.max === '*' || cardinality.max === 1)
+    );
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Renders the simple cardinality of an association/composition, i.e. "many"/"one",
+   * including the "of"/"to" part.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Element} elem
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderSimpleCardinality( elem ) {
+    let result = (normalizeTypeRef(elem.type) === 'cds.Association' ? ' to ' : ' of ');
+    if (!elem.cardinality)
+      return result;
+    if (elem.cardinality.max === '*')
+      result += 'many ';
+    else if (elem.cardinality.max === 1)
+      result += 'one ';
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  renderFilterAndCardinality( s, env ) {
+    let result = '';
+    const cardinality = s.cardinality ? (`${ s.cardinality.max }: `) : '';
+    let filter = '';
+
+    // TODO: Unify with other filter rendering for SELECT
+    if (s.groupBy)
+      filter += ` group by ${ s.groupBy.map((expr, i) => this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(expr, env.withSubPath([ 'groupBy', i ]))).join(', ') }`;
+    if (s.having)
+      filter += ` having ${ this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(s.having, env.withSubPath([ 'having' ])) }`;
+    if (s.orderBy)
+      filter += ` order by ${ s.orderBy.map((entry, i) => this.renderOrderByEntry(entry, env.withSubPath([ 'orderBy', i ]))).join(', ') }`;
+    if (s.limit)
+      filter += ` ${ this.renderLimit(s.limit, env.withSubPath([ 'limit' ])) }`;
+
+    if (s.where) {
+      let where = this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(s.where, env.withSubPath([ 'where' ]));
+      // Special rules in CDS parser: If filter starts with one of these SQL keywords, WHERE is mandatory.
+      if (filter || /^(?:group|having|order|limit)\s/i.test(where))
+        where = ` where ${ where }`;
+      filter = `${ where } ${ filter }`;
+    }
+
+    const hasFilter = filter.length > 0; // filter may be empty after trimming
+    filter = filter.trim();
+
+    if (cardinality || hasFilter) {
+      if (filter.endsWith(']')) // for cases such as [… ![id] ]
+        result += `[ ${ cardinality }${ filter } ]`;
+      else
+        result += `[${ cardinality }${ filter }]`;
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  renderDefaultExpr( defaultValue, env ) {
+    if (!defaultValue)
+      return '';
+    let result = ' default ';
+    if (defaultValue.xpr && xprContainsCondition( defaultValue.xpr))
+      result += this.exprRenderer.renderSubExpr(withoutCast(defaultValue), env);
+    else
+      result += this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(withoutCast(defaultValue), env);
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  // Render the nullability of an element or parameter (can be unset, true, or false)
+  renderNullability( notNull /* , env */) {
+    if (notNull === undefined) {
+      // Attribute not set at all
+      return '';
+    }
+    return notNull ? ' not null' : ' null';
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render foreign keys.  We only render foreign keys if necessary or if we can't say for sure
+   * that the foreign keys would match the implicitly generated ones.
+   *
+   * @param {object} art
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @param {boolean} alwaysRenderForeignKeys
+   *     If false, only render foreign keys if necessary (i.e. can't be inferred by compiler again).
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderForeignKeys( art, env, alwaysRenderForeignKeys = false ) {
+    const renderedKeys = [];
+    let hasAnnotations = false;
+    env = env.withSubPath([ 'keys', -1 ]);
+    env.increaseIndent();
+
+    for (let i = 0; i < art.keys.length; ++i) {
+      env.path[env.path.length - 1] = i;
+      const fKey = art.keys[i];
+
+      const annos = this.renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment(fKey, env).trim();
+      if (annos) {
+        hasAnnotations = true;
+        renderedKeys.push(annos);
+      }
+
+      const alias = fKey.as ? this.renderAlias(fKey.as, env) : '';
+      const key = this.exprRenderer.renderExpr(fKey, env);
+      renderedKeys.push(`${ key }${ alias },`);
+    }
+
+    // Annotations on foreign keys always require rendering of explicit keys.
+    // Otherwise, we'd have to use annotate statements here.
+    if (hasAnnotations) {
+      const sep = `\n${ env.indent }`;
+      env.decreaseIndent();
+      return `{${ sep }${ renderedKeys.join(sep) }\n${ env.indent }}`;
+    }
+
+    if (!alwaysRenderForeignKeys && this.foreignKeysMatchImplicitOnes( art ))
+      return '';
+
+    let result = renderedKeys.join(' ');
+    if (result[result.length - 1] === ',') // remove trailing comma
+      result = result.slice(0, -1);
+    return `{ ${ result } }`;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns true, if `to.cdl()` could leave out explicit foreign keys in the rendered output
+   * without changing recompilation.  We do so, because explicit foreign keys are not promoted
+   * on CAPire.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Artifact} art
+   * @returns {boolean}
+   */
+  foreignKeysMatchImplicitOnes( art ) {
+    if (art.cardinality && art.cardinality.max !== 1)
+      return false; // e.g. to-many assocs
+
+    const target = this.csn.definitions[art.target];
+    if (!art.keys?.length || !art.target || !target?.elements)
+      return false;
+
+    // We could improve to.cdl() to properly check if keys match, but then we'd have to look
+    // at sub-elements, structures, etc.;  for now, we only check “simple” foreign keys that
+    // don't have any alias.
+    const hasComplexKeys = art.keys.some(key => key.ref?.length !== 1 || key.as !== undefined);
+    if (hasComplexKeys)
+      return false;
+
+    const targetKeys = Object.keys(target.elements).filter(name => target.elements[name]?.key);
+    if (targetKeys.length === 0)
+      return false; // always require explicit keys if there are no target side keys
+
+    const foreignKeys = art.keys.map(key => key.ref[0]);
+    if (foreignKeys.length !== targetKeys.length)
+      return false;
+
+    // We require the _same_ order! Otherwise, recompilation would change the generated foreign key order!
+    for (let i = 0; i < foreignKeys.length; ++i) {
+      if (foreignKeys[i] !== targetKeys[i])
+        return false;
+    }
+    return true;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render an explicit alias, e.g. for columns.
+   *
+   * @param {string} alias
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderAlias( alias, env ) {
+    return ` as ${ this.quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword(alias, env) }`;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render (primitive) type parameters of artifact 'artWithType', i.e.
+   * length, precision and scale (even if incomplete), plus any other unknown ones.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Artifact} artWithType
+   * @param {boolean} noShortVersion If true, parameters will not be shortened, e.g. `(10)`
+   *                                 for length instead of `(length: 10)`.
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  renderTypeParameters( artWithType, noShortVersion = false ) {
+    const params = typeParameters.list.filter(param => artWithType[param] !== undefined);
+    if (params.length === 0)
+      return '';
+
+    if (!noShortVersion) {
+    // Special cases for 1 or 2 arguments.
+      if (params.length === 1 && artWithType.length !== undefined)
+        return `(${ artWithType.length })`;
+      if (params.length === 2 && artWithType.precision !== undefined && artWithType.scale !== undefined)
+        return `(${ artWithType.precision }, ${ artWithType.scale })`;
+    }
+
+    // Render named params
+    const renderedParams = [];
+    for (const param of params)
+      renderedParams.push(`${ param }: ${ artWithType[param] }`);
+
+    return `(${ renderedParams.join(', ') })`;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render all annotation assignments of annotatable object 'obj'.
+   *
+   * @param {object} obj Object that has annotations
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @param {{parentheses: boolean}} [config] Config for renderAnnotationAssignment()
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderAnnotationAssignmentsAndDocComment( obj, env, config ) {
+    let result = this.renderDocComment(obj, env);
+    for (const name in obj) {
+      if (name.startsWith('@'))
+        result += this.renderAnnotationAssignment(obj[name], name, env.withSubPath([ name ]), config);
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render a single annotation assignment 'anno' with fully qualified name 'name' (no trailing LF).
+   * We might see variants like 'A.B.C#foo' or even 'A.B#foo.C'. The latter needs to be quoted as
+   * dots in the variant are not recognized by the compiler.
+   *
+   * @param {any} anno Annotation value
+   * @param {string} name Annotation name, e.g. `@A.B.C#foo.C`
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @param {object} [config] parentheses: Whether the annotation assignment must be surrounded by parentheses.
+   * @return {string} Rendered annotation, possibly quoted: `@![A.B.C#foo.C]: value`
+   */
+  renderAnnotationAssignment( anno, name, env, config = { parentheses: false } ) {
+    name = name.substring(1);
+    // Take the annotation assignment apart into <nameBeforeVariant>#<variantAndRest>
+    const parts = name.split('#');
+    let nameBeforeVariant = parts[0];
+    const variant = parts.length > 1 ? parts.slice(1).join('#') : undefined;
+    const { parentheses } = config;
+
+    let result = `${ env.indent }@`;
+    if (parentheses)
+      result += '(';
+
+    // if the variant is empty, render '#' as part of the name, e.g `variant !== undefined`.
+    if (variant === '')
+      nameBeforeVariant += '#';
+
+    result += this.quoteAnnotationPathIfRequired(nameBeforeVariant, env);
+
+    if (variant !== undefined && variant !== '') {
+      // Unfortunately, the compiler does not allow `.@` after the first variant identifier,
+      // nor multiple `#`, so we're back at simple paths that are possibly quoted.
+      result += `#${ this.quotePathIfRequired(variant, env) }`;
+    }
+    result += ` : ${ this.renderAnnotationValue(anno, env, true) }`;
+
+    if (parentheses)
+      result += ')';
+    return `${ result }\n`;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render the name of an artifact, quote path steps if necessary.
+   *
+   * @param {string} artifactName Artifact name to render
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string} Artifact name ready for rendering
+   */
+  renderArtifactName( artifactName, env ) {
+    return this.quotePathIfRequired(env.nameEnvStack.definitionName(artifactName), env);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Render the name of a definition.  Ensures the first segment of the name
+   * is available in the rendered CDL.  Otherwise, a USING is added.
+   *
+   * @param {string} name
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderDefinitionReference( name, env ) {
+    if (name === '$self' && !this.csn.definitions.$self)
+      return '$self';
+    name = env.nameEnvStack.definitionReference(name);
+    return this.quotePathIfRequired(name, env);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @param {string[]} includes
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  renderIncludes( includes, env ) {
+    return ` : ${ includes.map((name, i) => this.renderDefinitionReference(name, env.withSubPath([ 'includes', i ]))).join(', ') }`;
+  }
+
+  createCdlExpressionRenderer() {
+    const that = this;
+    return createExpressionRenderer({
+      finalize: x => x,
+      typeCast(x) {
+        const typeRef = that.renderTypeReferenceAndProps(x.cast, this.env.withSubPath([ 'cast' ]), { typeRefOnly: true, noAnnoCollect: true });
+        const arg = { ...x, cast: null }; // "arg" without cast to avoid recursion.
+        return `cast(${ that.renderArgument(arg, this.env) } as ${ typeRef })`;
+      },
+      val(x) {
+        // Literal value, possibly with explicit 'literal' property
+        switch (x.literal || typeof x.val) {
+          case 'number':
+          case 'boolean':
+          case 'null':
+            return x.val;
+          case 'x':
+          case 'date':
+          case 'time':
+          case 'timestamp':
+            return `${ x.literal }'${ x.val }'`;
+          case 'string':
+            return renderString(x.val, this.env);
+          case 'object':
+            if (x.val === null)
+              return 'null';
+            // otherwise fall through to
+          default:
+            throw new ModelError(`Unknown literal or type: ${ JSON.stringify(x) }`);
+        }
+      },
+      enum: x => `#${ x['#'] }`,
+      ref(x) {
+        return `${ x.param ? ':' : '' }${ x.ref.map((step, index) => that.renderPathStep(step, index, this.env.withSubPath([ 'ref', index ]))).join('.') }`;
+      },
+      windowFunction(x) {
+        const funcDef = this.func(x);
+        return `${ funcDef } ${ this.renderExpr(x.xpr, this.env.withSubPath([ 'xpr' ])) }`; // xpr[0] is 'over'
+      },
+      func(x) {
+        if (keywords.cdl_functions.includes(x.func.toUpperCase()) && !x.args)
+          return x.func;
+        const name = that.quoteFunctionIfRequired(x.func, this.env);
+        if (!x.args) // e.g. for methods without arguments, `args` is not set at all.
+          return `${ name }`;
+        return `${ name }(${ that.renderArguments( x, '=>', this.env ) })`;
+      },
+      xpr(x) {
+        const xprEnv = this.env.withSubPath([ 'xpr' ]);
+        if (this.isNestedXpr && !x.cast)
+          return `(${ this.renderExpr(x.xpr, xprEnv) })`;
+        return this.renderExpr(x.xpr, xprEnv);
+      },
+      // Sub-queries in expressions need to be in parentheses, otherwise
+      // left-associativity of UNIONS may result in different results.
+      // For example: `select from E where id in (select from E union select from E);`:
+      // Without parentheses, it would be different query.
+      SET(x) {
+        return `(${ that.renderQuery(x, false, 'view', this.env.withIncreasedIndent()) })`;
+      },
+      SELECT(x) {
+        return `(${ that.renderQuery(x, false, 'view', this.env.withIncreasedIndent()) })`;
+      },
+    });
+  }
+
+  // checks -------------------------------------------------------------------
+  // The CDL backend has very few checks, but we need to tell the user if
+  // something can't be rendered.
+
+  /**
+   * If an artifact is an array via `.items`, some properties on `art` can't be rendered,
+   * for example "not null", because there is no CDL representation for it.  Only "not null"
+   * on `.items` can be rendered.
+   *
+   * Furthermore, to.cdl() can only render one nesting level of `items`.  `items` inside
+   *  `items, etc. can't be represented in CDL, hence can't be rendered.
+   *
+   * @param {CSN.Artifact} art
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   */
+  checkArrayedArtifact( art, env ) {
+    if (!art.items)
+      return;
+    if (art.notNull !== undefined) {
+      this.msg.warning('def-unexpected-nullability', env.path, { prop: 'not null', otherprop: 'items' },
+                       'Property $(PROP) not rendered, because it can only be rendered inside $(OTHERPROP) for arrayed artifacts');
+    }
+
+    if (art.items.items && !art.items.type)
+      this.msg.message('type-invalid-items', [ ...env.path, 'items' ], { '#': 'nested', prop: 'items' } );
+
+    const type = art.items.type && normalizeTypeRef(art.items.type);
+    if (type === 'cds.Association' || type === 'cds.Composition') {
+      // check for `art.items.target` not sufficient; could be indirect type reference
+      const isComp = type === 'cds.Composition';
+      this.msg.message('type-invalid-items', [ ...env.path, 'items' ], { '#': isComp ? 'comp' : 'assoc', prop: 'items' });
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Quote simple path steps with `![]` if necessary. For simple ids such as
+   * `elem` use `quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword` instead.
+   *
+   * In contrast to quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword, does not handle additional keywords,
+   * because it was not required, yet.
+   *
+   * Due to token rewrite, all keywords after a dot (`.`) are rewritten to
+   * identifiers, i.e. we only need to check for the identifier RegEx.
+   *
+   * @param {string} path
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  quotePathIfRequired( path, env ) {
+    return path.split('.').map((step, index) => {
+      if (index === 0)
+        return this.quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword(step, env);
+      else if (!undelimitedIdentifierRegex.test(step))
+        return this.delimitedId(step, env);
+      return step;
+    }).join('.');
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Quote the id with `![]` if necessary. For paths such as `E.key` use
+   * `quotePathIfRequired` instead.
+   * See quoteNonIdentifier() if you want to ignore keywords.
+   *
+   * Set env.additionalKeywords to an array of UPPERCASE keywords
+   * that also need quoting, e.g. in special functions.
+   *
+   * @param {string} id
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword( id, env ) {
+    // Quote if required for CDL
+    if (requiresQuotingForCdl(id, env?.additionalKeywords || []))
+      return this.delimitedId(id, env);
+    return id;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Quote the id with `![]` if necessary. For paths such as `E.key` use
+   * `quotePathIfRequired` instead.
+   * See quoteNonIdentifierOrKeyword() if you want to quote identifiers
+   * that are keywords as well.
+   *
+   * Does not quote the given id if it is a keyword.
+   *
+   * @param {string} id
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  quoteNonIdentifier( id, env ) {
+    if (!undelimitedIdentifierRegex.test(id))
+      return this.delimitedId(id, env);
+    return id;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Quote the given function name if required.
+   *
+   * @param {string} funcName
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  quoteFunctionIfRequired( funcName, env ) {
+    if (cdlNewLineRegEx.test(funcName)) {
+      this.msg.error('name-invalid-identifier', env.path, {},
+                     'An identifier can\'t contain newline characters in CDL');
+    }
+    return apiSmartFunctionId(funcName);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Quote an annotation path, e.g. `@My.@Anno.Description` if necessary.
+   * `anno` can start with `@` but is not required to be.
+   * Example of an annotation path that needs to be quoted:
+   * `@![ spaces in path ].@!["double quotes"]`.
+   *
+   * @param {string} anno
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @returns {string}
+   */
+  quoteAnnotationPathIfRequired( anno, env ) {
+    return anno.split('.').map((segment) => {
+      if (segment.startsWith('@'))
+        return `@${ this.quoteNonIdentifier(segment.slice(1), env) }`;
+      return this.quoteNonIdentifier(segment, env);
+    }).join('.');
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * The same as the exported function apiDelimitedId, but checks that we can actually represent the
+   * string: newline characters are not allowed.
+   *
+   * @param {string} id
+   * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+   * @return {string}
+   */
+  delimitedId( id, env ) {
+    if (cdlNewLineRegEx.test(id)) {
+      this.msg.error('name-invalid-identifier', env.path, {},
+                     'An identifier can\'t contain newline characters in CDL');
+    }
+    return apiDelimitedId(id);
+  }
+}
+
+class CdlRenderEnvironment {
+  indent = '';
+  path = null;
+  elementName = null;
+  additionalKeywords = [];
+  nameEnvStack = new NameScopeStack();
+
+  constructor(values) {
+    Object.assign(this, values);
+  }
+
+  increaseIndent() {
+    this.indent = `  ${ this.indent }`;
+  }
+  decreaseIndent() {
+    this.indent = this.indent.substring(0, this.indent.length - INDENT_SIZE);
+  }
+  withIncreasedIndent() {
+    const indent = ' '.repeat(this.indent.length + INDENT_SIZE);
+    return new CdlRenderEnvironment({ ...this, indent });
+  }
+  withSubPath(path) {
+    return new CdlRenderEnvironment({ ...this, path: [ ...this.path, ...path ] });
+  }
+  cloneWith(values) {
+    return Object.assign(new CdlRenderEnvironment(this), values);
+  }
+}
+
+
+/**
+ * Returns a newly created default environment (which keeps track of indentation, required USING
+ * declarations and name prefixes.
+ *
+ * @param {object} [values]
+ * @return {CdlRenderEnvironment}
+ */
+function createEnv( values = {} ) {
+  return new CdlRenderEnvironment( values );
+}
+
+/**
+ * Remove a trailing `\n`/newline/LF from `str` and return the modified string.
+ * Useful if you want to append a `;` to the string, but not on a separate line.
+ *
+ * @param {string} str
+ * @return {string}
+ */
+function removeTrailingNewline( str ) {
+  if (str[str.length - 1] === '\n')
+    str = str.substring(0, str.length - 1);
+  return str;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns true if 'id' requires quotes for CDL, i.e. if 'id'
+ * does not match the first part of the `ident` rule of `lib/parsers/Lexer.js`
+ * or if 'id' is a reserved keyword.
+ *
+ * Set additionalKeywords to an array of UPPERCASE keywords
+ * that also need quoting, e.g. in special functions.
+ *
+ * @param {string} id
+ * @param {string[]} [additionalKeywords]
+ * @return {boolean}
+ */
+function requiresQuotingForCdl( id, additionalKeywords ) {
+  return !undelimitedIdentifierRegex.test(id) ||
+    keywords.cdl.includes(id.toUpperCase()) ||
+    keywords.cdl_functions.includes(id.toUpperCase()) ||
+    additionalKeywords.includes(id.toUpperCase());
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns true if the given type is an association or composition,
+ * without type indirection.
+ *
+ * @param {string|string[]} type
+ * @return {boolean}
+ */
+
+function isDirectAssocOrComp( type ) {
+  type = normalizeTypeRef(type);
+  return (type === 'cds.Association' || type === 'cds.Composition');
+}
+
+const conditionOperators = [
+  // Antlr rule 'condition', 'conditionAnd'
+  'AND', 'OR',
+
+  // redepage CdlGrammar.g4 rule 'expression'
+  '=', '<>', '>', '>=', '<', '<=', '==', '!=',
+  // These are not forbidden, since they must be preceded by one of the comparators above.
+  // 'any', 'some', 'all',
+
+  'IS', 'IN', 'NOT', 'NULL', 'EXISTS',
+  // Antlr rule 'predicate'
+  'BETWEEN', 'LIKE', 'ESCAPE',
+];
+
+/**
+ * Returns true if the given xpr-array can be rendered without parentheses
+ * in a `fct(<xpr>)` expression such as `cast(<xpr> as Type)`.  We only need to
+ * look at the first nesting level.  Otherwise, `renderExpr()` will already add parentheses.
+ *
+ * The list of `conditionOperators` was created by looking at the `expression` Antlr rule.
+ * Because of token-rewrites, there are functions that allow operators/tokens that would
+ * require parentheses in other functions.  For example *regex functions allow `IN` but
+ * if `IN` is used in other functions, it requires parentheses.  To allow for that case,
+ * you can set `additionalAllowedKeywords` to list of tokens that are allowed.
+ *
+ * Note that this is more of a heuristic for "nicer" CDL output.  For example the
+ * following snippet is parsable without parentheses:
+ *   `cast( case when int > 1 then int else 0 end as Integer ),`
+ * However, because it is a flat xpr-array, we see `>` and assume that it is not
+ * a simple expression.
+ *
+ * @param {any[]} xpr
+ * @param {string[]} additionalAllowedKeywords
+ * @return {boolean}
+ */
+function isSimpleFunctionExpression( xpr, additionalAllowedKeywords = [] ) {
+  return !xpr || xpr.every(val => typeof val !== 'string' ||
+      (additionalAllowedKeywords.includes(val.toUpperCase()) ||
+        !conditionOperators.includes(val.toUpperCase())));
+}
+
+/**
+ * If `xpr` contains tokens that are used in conditions, it may be required to put the
+ * rendered expression in parentheses.  This function checks if any direct entry in
+ * `xpr` is a condition token such as `AND`.
+ *
+ * May report false positives for e.g. `CASE WHEN 1>1 THEN …`.
+ *
+ * @param {any[]} xpr
+ * @return {boolean}
+ */
+function xprContainsCondition( xpr ) {
+  return xpr && xpr.some(val => typeof val === 'string' &&
+    conditionOperators.includes(val.toUpperCase()));
+}
+
+/**
+ * Special functions may have special parser rules, such as SAP HANA RegEx functions.
+ * They allow certain keywords in their arguments.
+ *
+ * This function is used to determine if arguments need to be put in parentheses or not.
+ * See {@link isSimpleFunctionExpression}.
+ *
+ * @param {string} funcName
+ * @param {number} argumentIndex
+ * @returns {string[]}
+ */
+function getKeywordsForSpecialFunctionArgument( funcName, argumentIndex ) {
+  const f = specialFunctions[funcName] && specialFunctions[funcName][argumentIndex];
+  if (!f)
+    return [];
+  const additionalKeywords = [];
+  if (f.intro)
+    additionalKeywords.push(...f.intro);
+  if (f.expr)
+    additionalKeywords.push(...f.expr);
+  if (f.separator)
+    additionalKeywords.push(...f.separator);
+  return additionalKeywords;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Get a list of all special keywords for the given function.
+ *
+ * @param {string} funcName
+ * @return {undefined|string[]}
+ */
+function getAllKeywordsForSpecialFunction( funcName ) {
+  if (specialFunctionKeywords[funcName])
+    return specialFunctionKeywords[funcName];
+  else if (!specialFunctions[funcName])
+    return undefined;
+
+  const additionalKeywords = [];
+  for (const arg of specialFunctions[funcName]) {
+    if (arg.intro)
+      additionalKeywords.push(...arg.intro);
+    if (arg.expr)
+      additionalKeywords.push(...arg.expr);
+    if (arg.separator)
+      additionalKeywords.push(...arg.separator);
+  }
+  specialFunctionKeywords[funcName] = additionalKeywords;
+  return additionalKeywords;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Render the given string.  Uses back-tick strings.
+ * env is used for indentation of three-back-tick strings.
+ *
+ * @param {string} str
+ * @param {CdlRenderEnvironment} env
+ * @returns {string}
+ */
+function renderString( str, env ) {
+  if (isSimpleString(str))
+    return `'${ str.replace(/'/g, '\'\'') }'`;
+
+  // We try to work similar to how JavaScript implements JSON.stringify.
+  // JSON.stringify() also checks for unpaired unicode surrogates (see §25.5.2.2,
+  // <https://tc39.es/ecma262/#sec-quotejsonstring>).
+  str = escapeString(str, {
+    $: '\\$',
+    '`': '\\`',
+    '\\': '\\\\',
+    // Replace commonly known escape sequences for control characters
+    // See lib/language/multiLineStringParser.js
+    '\f': '\\f',
+    '\v': '\\v',
+    '\t': '\\t',
+    '\b': '\\b',
+    // If CR, LS, or PS appear, they have been encoded explicitly.  If we don't escape
+    // them, a recompilation may yield different results because of newline normalization.
+    '\r': '\\r',
+    '\u{2028}': '\\u{2028}',
+    '\u{2029}': '\\u{2029}',
+    // Don't encode LF
+    '\n': '\n',
+    // JSON.stringify() is not required to escape all control characters, but if used, files may
+    // be interpreted as binary.  Therefore, we replace them.
+    // We exclude LF from this list (\n). Characters with "nice" escapes have been replaced above.
+    control: hexEscape,
+    unpairedSurrogate: hexEscape,
+  });
+
+  // Note: String is normalized, only \n is the line separator.
+  const lines = str.split('\n');
+  // We don't know whether a text block was used or not.  But if there
+  // are more than three lines, text blocks with indentation "look nicer".
+  // This value was chosen by personal taste.
+  if (lines.length > 3) {
+    str = lines.join(`\n${ env.indent }`);
+    return `\`\`\`\n${ env.indent }${ str }\n${ env.indent }\`\`\``;
+  }
+
+  return `\`${ str }\``;
+}
+
+/** @param {number} codePoint */
+function hexEscape( codePoint ) {
+  const hex = codePoint.toString(16);
+  return `\\u{${ hex }}`;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns true if the given string can be represented by using single quotes.
+ * @param {string} str
+ */
+function isSimpleString( str ) {
+  // A single-line string allows everything except certain line separators/breaks.
+  // See ANTLR grammar for specifics.
+  // Furthermore, if control characters are used, we escape them,
+  // as these are explicitly mentioned in the JSON spec (§9):
+  // <https://www.ecma-international.org/wp-content/uploads/ECMA-404_2nd_edition_december_2017.pdf>
+  // On top, because (invalid) surrogate pairs need to be handled, we check for them as well.
+  // v3: Not a simple string if ' (\u0027) is in string.
+  // eslint-disable-next-line no-control-regex
+  return str === '' || (/^[^\u{0000}-\u{001F}\u2028\u2029]+$/u.test(str) &&
+    !hasUnpairedUnicodeSurrogate(str));
+}
+
+/**
+ * Quotes the identifier using CDL-style ![]-quotes.
+ *
+ * NOTE: It is not guaranteed that the resulting string can _always_ be parsed!
+ *       If `id` contains newline characters, the resulting delimited identifier
+ *       will not be parsable by the compiler!
+ *
+ * @param id
+ * @returns {string}
+ */
+function apiDelimitedId( id ) {
+  return `![${ id.replace(/]/g, ']]') }]`;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns a delimited identifier if the given identifier needs quoting.
+ * Because "special functions" such as SAP HANA RegEx functions have local keywords that
+ * are not default CDL keywords, specify a function name to take care of that.
+ *
+ * NOTE: It is not guaranteed that the resulting string can _always_ be parsed!
+ *       If `id` contains newline characters, the resulting delimited identifier
+ *       will not be parsable by the compiler!
+ *
+ * @param {string} id
+ * @param {null|string} insideFunction
+ * @return {string}
+ */
+function apiSmartId( id, insideFunction = null ) {
+  insideFunction = insideFunction?.toUpperCase();
+  const extra = insideFunction && specialFunctions[insideFunction] ? getAllKeywordsForSpecialFunction(insideFunction) : [];
+  if (requiresQuotingForCdl(id, extra))
+    return apiDelimitedId(id);
+  return id;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Quote the given function name if required.
+ *
+ * NOTE: It is not guaranteed that the resulting string can _always_ be parsed!
+ *       If `funcName` contains newline characters, the resulting delimited identifier
+ *       will not be parsable by the compiler!
+ *
+ * @param {string} funcName
+ * @return {string}
+ */
+function apiSmartFunctionId( funcName ) {
+  const funcId = funcName.toUpperCase();
+  const requiresQuoting = !undelimitedIdentifierRegex.test(funcName) ||
+    (keywords.cdl.includes(funcId) && !specialFunctions[funcId]);
+  if (requiresQuoting)
+    return apiDelimitedId(funcName);
+  return funcName;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Render the CSN model 'model' to CDS source text.
+ * Returned object has the following properties:
+ *  - `model`: CSN model rendered as CDL (string).
+ *  - `namespace`: Namespace statement + `using from './model.cds'.
+ *
+ * @param {CSN.Model} csn
+ * @param {CdlOptions} options
+ * @param {object} msg Message Functions
+ */
+function csnToCdl( csn, options, msg ) {
+  const renderer = new CsnToCdl(csn, options, msg);
+  return renderer.render();
+}
+
+
+module.exports = {
+  csnToCdl,
+  smartId: apiSmartId,
+  smartFunctionId: apiSmartFunctionId,
+  delimitedId: apiDelimitedId,
+};