@polycode-projects/the-mechanical-code-talker 2.3.0 → 2.3.1

package/corpus/prose/wikipedia/Semantic_Web.txt

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+The Semantic Web, sometimes known as Web 3.0, is an extension of the World Wide Web through standards set by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). The goal of the Semantic Web is to make Internet data machine-readable.
+To enable the encoding of semantics with the data, technologies such as Resource Description Framework (RDF) and Web Ontology Language (OWL) are used. These technologies are used to formally represent metadata. For example, ontology can describe concepts, relationships between entities, and categories of things. These embedded semantics offer significant advantages such as reasoning over data and operating with heterogeneous data sources.
+These standards promote common data formats and exchange protocols on the Web, fundamentally the RDF. According to the W3C, "The Semantic Web provides a common framework that allows data to be shared and reused across application, enterprise, and community boundaries." The Semantic Web is therefore regarded as an integrator across different content and information applications and systems.
+The term was coined by Tim Berners-Lee for a web of data (or data web) that can be processed by machines—that is, one in which much of the meaning is machine-readable. While its critics have questioned its feasibility, proponents argue that applications in library and information science, industry, biology and human sciences research have already proven the validity of the original concept.
+The idea of adding semantics to the Web predates the term itself. Berners-Lee discussed the need for semantics in the Web at the first International World Wide Web Conference in 1994. In 1998, he published a design document titled "Semantic Web Road map", outlining the architecture for a web of machine-processable data. The first patent for the creation of a semantic web was filed by Amit Sheth et al. on 30 October 2001.
+Berners-Lee originally expressed his vision of the Semantic Web in 1999 as follows:
+I have a dream for the Web [in which computers] become capable of analyzing all the data on the Web – the content, links, and transactions between people and computers. A "Semantic Web", which makes this possible, has yet to emerge, but when it does, the day-to-day mechanisms of trade, bureaucracy and our daily lives will be handled by machines talking to machines. The "intelligent agents" people have touted for ages will finally materialize.
+The 2001 Scientific American article by Berners-Lee, Hendler, and Lassila described an expected evolution of the existing Web to a Semantic Web. In 2006, Berners-Lee and colleagues stated that: "This simple idea…remains largely unrealized".
+In 2013, more than four million Web domains (out of roughly 250 million total) contained Semantic Web markup.
+In the following example, the text "Paul Schuster was born in Dresden" on a website will be annotated, connecting a person with their place of birth. The following HTML fragment shows how a small graph is being described, in RDFa-syntax using a schema.org vocabulary and a Wikidata ID:
+The example defines the following five triples (shown in Turtle syntax). Each triple represents one edge in the resulting graph: the first element of the triple (the subject) is the name of the node where the edge starts, the second element (the predicate) the type of the edge, and the last and third element (the object) either the name of the node where the edge ends or a literal value (e.g. a text, a number, etc.).
+The triples result in the graph shown in the given figure.
+One of the advantages of using Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs) is that they can be dereferenced using the HTTP protocol. According to the so-called Linked Open Data principles, such a dereferenced URI should result in a document that offers further data about the given URI. In this example, all URIs, both for edges and nodes (e.g. http://schema.org/Person, http://schema.org/birthPlace, http://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q1731) can be dereferenced and will result in further RDF graphs, describing the URI, e.g. that Dresden is a city in Germany, or that a person, in the sense of that URI, can be fictional.
+The second graph shows the previous example, but now enriched with a few of the triples from the documents that result from dereferencing https://schema.org/Person (green edge) and https://www.wikidata.org/entity/Q1731 (blue edges).
+Additionally to the edges given in the involved documents explicitly, edges can be automatically inferred: the triple
+from the original RDFa fragment and the triple
+from the document at https://schema.org/Person (green edge in the figure) allow to infer the following triple, given OWL semantics (red dashed line in the second Figure):
+The concept of the semantic network model was formed in the early 1960s by researchers such as the cognitive scientist Allan M. Collins, linguist Ross Quillian and psychologist Elizabeth F. Loftus as a form to represent semantically structured knowledge. When applied in the context of the modern internet, it extends the network of hyperlinked human-readable web pages by inserting machine-readable metadata about pages and how they are related to each other. This enables automated agents to access the Web more intelligently and perform more tasks on behalf of users. The term "Semantic Web" was coined by Tim Berners-Lee, the inventor of the World Wide Web and director of the World Wide Web Consortium ("W3C"), which oversees the development of proposed Semantic Web standards. He defines the Semantic Web as "a web of data that can be processed directly and indirectly by machines".
+Many of the technologies proposed by the W3C already existed before they were positioned under the W3C umbrella. These are used in various contexts, particularly those dealing with information that encompasses a limited and defined domain, and where sharing data is a common necessity, such as scientific research or data exchange among businesses. In addition, other technologies with similar goals have emerged, such as microformats.
+Many files on a typical computer can be loosely divided into either human-readable documents, or machine-readable data. Examples of human-readable document files are mail messages, reports, and brochures. Examples of machine-readable data files are calendars, address books, playlists, and spreadsheets, which are presented to a user using an application program that lets the files be viewed, searched, and combined.
+Currently, the World Wide Web is based mainly on documents written in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), a markup convention that is used for coding a body of text interspersed with multimedia objects such as images and interactive forms. Metadata tags provide a method by which computers can categorize the content of web pages. In the examples below, the field names "keywords", "description" and "author" are assigned values such as "computing", and "cheap widgets for sale" and "John Doe".
+Because of this metadata tagging and categorization, other computer systems that want to access and share this data can easily identify the relevant values.
+With HTML and a tool to render it (perhaps web browser software, perhaps another user agent), one can create and present a page that lists items for sale. The HTML of this catalog page can make simple, document-level assertions such as "this document's title is 'Widget Superstore'", but there is no capability within the HTML itself to assert unambiguously that, for example, item number X586172 is an Acme Gizmo with a retail price of €199, or that it is a consumer product. Rather, HTML can only say that the span of text "X586172" is something that should be positioned near "Acme Gizmo" and "€199", etc. There is no way to say "this is a catalog" or even to establish that "Acme Gizmo" is a kind of title or that "€199" is a price. There is also no way to express that these pieces of information are bound together in describing a discrete item, distinct from other items perhaps listed on the page.
+Semantic HTML refers to the traditional HTML practice of markup following intention, rather than specifying layout details directly. For example, the use of <em> denoting "emphasis" rather than <i>, which specifies italics. Layout details are left up to the browser, in combination with Cascading Style Sheets. But this practice falls short of specifying the semantics of objects such as items for sale or prices.
+Microformats extend HTML syntax to create machine-readable semantic markup about objects including people, organizations, events and products. Similar initiatives include RDFa, Microdata and Schema.org.
+The Semantic Web takes the solution further. It involves publishing in languages specifically designed for data: Resource Description Framework (RDF), Web Ontology Language (OWL), and Extensible Markup Language (XML). HTML describes documents and the links between them. RDF, OWL, and XML, by contrast, can describe arbitrary things such as people, meetings, or airplane parts.
+These technologies are combined in order to provide descriptions that supplement or replace the content of Web documents. Thus, content may manifest itself as descriptive data stored in Web-accessible databases, or as markup within documents (particularly, in Extensible HTML (XHTML) interspersed with XML, or, more often, purely in XML, with layout or rendering cues stored separately). The machine-readable descriptions enable content managers to add meaning to the content, i.e., to describe the structure of the knowledge we have about that content. In this way, a machine can process knowledge itself, instead of text, using processes similar to human deductive reasoning and inference, thereby obtaining more meaningful results and helping computers to perform automated information gathering and research.
+An example of a tag that would be used in a non-semantic web page:
+Encoding similar information in a semantic web page might look like this:
+Tim Berners-Lee calls the resulting network of Linked Data the Giant Global Graph, in contrast to the HTML-based World Wide Web. Berners-Lee posits that if the past was document sharing, the future is data sharing. His answer to the question of "how" provides three points of instruction. One, a URL should point to the data. Two, anyone accessing the URL should get data back. Three, relationships in the data should point to additional URLs with data.
+Tags, including hierarchical categories and tags that are collaboratively added and maintained (e.g. with folksonomies) can be considered part of, of potential use to or a step towards the semantic Web vision.
+Unique identifiers, including hierarchical categories and collaboratively added ones, analysis tools and metadata, including tags, can be used to create forms of semantic webs – webs that are to a certain degree semantic. In particular, such has been used for structuring scientific research i.a. by research topics and scientific fields by the projects OpenAlex, Wikidata and Scholia which are under development and provide APIs, Web-pages, feeds and graphs for various semantic queries.
+Tim Berners-Lee has described the Semantic Web as a component of Web 3.0.
+People keep asking what Web 3.0 is. I think maybe when you've got an overlay of scalable vector graphics – everything rippling and folding and looking misty – on Web 2.0 and access to a semantic Web integrated across a huge space of data, you'll have access to an unbelievable data resource …
+"Semantic Web" is sometimes used as a synonym for "Web 3.0", though the definition of each term varies.
+The next generation of the Web is often termed Web 4.0, but its definition is not clear. According to some sources, it is a Web that involves artificial intelligence, the internet of things, pervasive computing, ubiquitous computing and the Web of Things among other concepts. According to the European Union, Web 4.0 is "the expected fourth generation of the World Wide Web. Using advanced artificial and ambient intelligence, the internet of things, trusted blockchain transactions, virtual worlds and XR capabilities, digital and real objects and environments are fully integrated and communicate with each other, enabling truly intuitive, immersive experiences, seamlessly blending the physical and digital worlds".
+Some of the challenges for the Semantic Web include vastness, vagueness, uncertainty, inconsistency, and deceit. Automated reasoning systems will have to deal with all of these issues in order to deliver on the promise of the Semantic Web.
+Vastness: The World Wide Web contains many billions of pages. The SNOMED CT medical terminology ontology alone contains 370,000 class names, and existing technology has not yet been able to eliminate all semantically duplicated terms. Any automated reasoning system will have to deal with truly huge inputs.
+Vagueness: These are imprecise concepts like "young" or "tall". This arises from the vagueness of user queries, of concepts represented by content providers, of matching query terms to provider terms and of trying to combine different knowledge bases with overlapping but subtly different concepts. Fuzzy logic is the most common technique for dealing with vagueness.
+Uncertainty: These are precise concepts with uncertain values. For example, a patient might present a set of symptoms that correspond to a number of different distinct diagnoses each with a different probability. Probabilistic reasoning techniques are generally employed to address uncertainty.
+Inconsistency: These are logical contradictions that will inevitably arise during the development of large ontologies, and when ontologies from separate sources are combined. Deductive reasoning fails catastrophically when faced with inconsistency, because "anything follows from a contradiction". Defeasible reasoning and paraconsistent reasoning are two techniques that can be employed to deal with inconsistency.
+Deceit: This is when the producer of the information is intentionally misleading the consumer of the information. Cryptography techniques are currently utilized to alleviate this threat. By providing a means to determine the information's integrity, including that which relates to the identity of the entity that produced or published the information, however credibility issues still have to be addressed in cases of potential deceit.
+This list of challenges is illustrative rather than exhaustive, and it focuses on the challenges to the "unifying logic" and "proof" layers of the Semantic Web. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) Incubator Group for Uncertainty Reasoning for the World Wide Web (URW3-XG) final report lumps these problems together under the single heading of "uncertainty". Many of the techniques mentioned here will require extensions to the Web Ontology Language (OWL) for example to annotate conditional probabilities. This is an area of active research.
+Standardization for Semantic Web in the context of Web 3.0 is under the care of W3C.
+The term "Semantic Web" is often used more specifically to refer to the formats and technologies that enable it. The collection, structuring and recovery of linked data are enabled by technologies that provide a formal description of concepts, terms, and relationships within a given knowledge domain. These technologies are specified as W3C standards and include:
+Resource Description Framework (RDF), a general method for describing information
+RDF Schema (RDFS)
+Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS)
+SPARQL, an RDF query language
+Notation3 (N3), designed with human readability in mind
+N-Triples, a format for storing and transmitting data
+Turtle (Terse RDF Triple Language)
+Web Ontology Language (OWL), a family of knowledge representation languages
+Rule Interchange Format (RIF), a framework of web rule language dialects supporting rule interchange on the Web
+JavaScript Object Notation for Linked Data (JSON-LD), a JSON-based method to describe data
+ActivityPub, a generic way for client and server to communicate with each other. This is used by the popular decentralized social network Mastodon.
+The Semantic Web Stack illustrates the architecture of the Semantic Web. The functions and relationships of the components can be summarized as follows:
+XML provides an elemental syntax for content structure within documents, yet associates no semantics with the meaning of the content contained within. XML is not at present a necessary component of Semantic Web technologies in most cases, as alternative syntaxes exist, such as Turtle. Turtle is a de facto standard, but has not been through a formal standardization process.
+XML Schema is a language for providing and restricting the structure and content of elements contained within XML documents.
+RDF is a simple language for expressing data models, which refer to objects ("web resources") and their relationships. An RDF-based model can be represented in a variety of syntaxes, e.g., RDF/XML, N3, Turtle, and RDFa. RDF is a fundamental standard of the Semantic Web.
+RDF Schema extends RDF and is a vocabulary for describing properties and classes of RDF-based resources, with semantics for generalized-hierarchies of such properties and classes.
+OWL adds more vocabulary for describing properties and classes: among others, relations between classes (e.g. disjointness), cardinality (e.g. "exactly one"), equality, richer typing of properties, characteristics of properties (e.g. symmetry), and enumerated classes.
+SPARQL is a protocol and query language for semantic web data sources.
+RIF is the W3C Rule Interchange Format. It is an XML language for expressing Web rules that computers can execute. RIF provides multiple versions, called dialects. It includes a RIF Basic Logic Dialect (RIF-BLD) and RIF Production Rules Dialect (RIF PRD).
+Well-established standards:
+RDF - Resource Description Framework
+RDFS - Resource Description Framework Schema
+RIF - Rule Interchange Format
+SPARQL - 'SPARQL Protocol and RDF Query Language'
+Unicode
+URI - Uniform Resource Identifier
+OWL - Web Ontology Language
+XML - Extensible Markup Language
+Not yet fully realized:
+Unifying Logic and Proof layers
+SWRL - Semantic Web Rule Language
+The intent is to enhance the usability and usefulness of the Web and its interconnected resources by creating semantic web services, such as:
+Servers that expose existing data systems using the RDF and SPARQL standards. Many converters to RDF exist from different applications. Relational databases are an important source. The semantic web server attaches to the existing system without affecting its operation.
+Documents "marked up" with semantic information (an extension of the HTML <meta> tags used in today's Web pages to supply information for Web search engines using web crawlers). This could be machine-understandable information about the human-understandable content of the document (such as the creator, title, description, etc.) or it could be purely metadata representing a set of facts (such as resources and services elsewhere on the site). Note that anything that can be identified with a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) can be described, so the semantic web can reason about animals, people, places, ideas, etc. There are four semantic annotation formats that can be used in HTML documents; Microformat, RDFa, Microdata and JSON-LD. Semantic markup is often generated automatically, rather than manually.
+Common metadata vocabularies (ontologies) and maps between vocabularies that allow document creators to know how to mark up their documents so that agents can use the information in the supplied metadata (so that Author in the sense of 'the Author of the page' will not be confused with Author in the sense of a book that is the subject of a book review).
+Automated agents to perform tasks for users of the semantic web using this data.
+Semantic translation. An alternative or complementary approach are improvements to contextual and semantic understanding of texts – these could be aided via Semantic Web methods so that only increasingly small numbers of mistranslations need to be corrected in manual or semi-automated post-editing.
+Web-based services (often with agents of their own) to supply information specifically to agents, for example, a Trust service that an agent could ask if some online store has a history of poor service or spamming.
+Semantic Web ideas are implemented in collaborative structured argument mapping sites where their relations are organized semantically, arguments can be mirrored (linked) to multiple places, reused (copied), rated, and changed as semantic distinct units. Ideas for such, or a more widely adopted "World Wide Argument Web", go back to at least 2007 and have been implemented to some degree in Argüman and Kialo. Further steps towards semantic web services may include enabling "Querying", argument search engines, and "summarizing the contentious and agreed-upon points of a discussion".
+Such services could be useful to public search engines, or could be used for knowledge management within an organization. Business applications include:
+Facilitating the integration of information from mixed sources
+Dissolving ambiguities in corporate terminology
+Improving information retrieval thereby reducing information overload and increasing the refinement and precision of the data retrieved
+Identifying relevant information with respect to a given domain
+Providing decision making support
+In a corporation, there is a closed group of users and the management is able to enforce company guidelines like the adoption of specific ontologies and use of semantic annotation. Compared to the public Semantic Web there are lesser requirements on scalability and the information circulating within a company can be more trusted in general; privacy is less of an issue outside of handling of customer data.
+Critics question the basic feasibility of a complete or even partial fulfillment of the Semantic Web, pointing out both difficulties in setting it up and a lack of general-purpose usefulness that prevents the required effort from being invested. In a 2003 paper, Marshall and Shipman point out the cognitive overhead inherent in formalizing knowledge, compared to the authoring of traditional web hypertext:
+While learning the basics of HTML is relatively straightforward, learning a knowledge representation language or tool requires the author to learn about the representation's methods of abstraction and their effect on reasoning. For example, understanding the class-instance relationship, or the superclass-subclass relationship, is more than understanding that one concept is a "type of" another concept. [...] These abstractions are taught to computer scientists generally and knowledge engineers specifically but do not match the similar natural language meaning of being a "type of" something. Effective use of such a formal representation requires the author to become a skilled knowledge engineer in addition to any other skills required by the domain. [...] Once one has learned a formal representation language, it is still often much more effort to express ideas in that representation than in a less formal representation [...]. Indeed, this is a form of programming based on the declaration of semantic data and requires an understanding of how reasoning algorithms will interpret the authored structures.
+According to Marshall and Shipman, the tacit and changing nature of much knowledge adds to the knowledge engineering problem, and limits the Semantic Web's applicability to specific domains. A further issue that they point out are domain- or organization-specific ways to express knowledge, which must be solved through community agreement rather than only technical means. As it turns out, specialized communities and organizations for intra-company projects have tended to adopt semantic web technologies greater than peripheral and less-specialized communities. The practical constraints toward adoption have appeared less challenging where domain and scope is more limited than that of the general public and the World-Wide Web.
+Finally, Marshall and Shipman see pragmatic problems in the idea of (Knowledge Navigator-style) intelligent agents working in the largely manually curated Semantic Web:
+In situations in which user needs are known and distributed information resources are well described, this approach can be highly effective; in situations that are not foreseen and that bring together an unanticipated array of information resources, the Google approach is more robust. Furthermore, the Semantic Web relies on inference chains that are more brittle; a missing element of the chain results in a failure to perform the desired action, while the human can supply missing pieces in a more Google-like approach. [...] cost-benefit tradeoffs can work in favor of specially-created Semantic Web metadata directed at weaving together sensible well-structured domain-specific information resources; close attention to user/customer needs will drive these federations if they are to be successful.
+Cory Doctorow's critique ("metacrap") is from the perspective of human behavior and personal preferences. For example, people may include spurious metadata into Web pages in an attempt to mislead Semantic Web engines that naively assume the metadata's veracity. This phenomenon was well known with metatags that fooled the Altavista ranking algorithm into elevating the ranking of certain Web pages: the Google indexing engine specifically looks for such attempts at manipulation. Peter Gärdenfors and Timo Honkela point out that logic-based semantic web technologies cover only a fraction of the relevant phenomena related to semantics.
+Enthusiasm about the semantic web could be tempered by concerns regarding censorship and privacy. For instance, text-analyzing techniques can now be easily bypassed by using other words, metaphors for instance, or by using images in place of words. An advanced implementation of the semantic web would make it much easier for governments to control the viewing and creation of online information, as this information would be much easier for an automated content-blocking machine to understand. In addition, the issue has also been raised that, with the use of FOAF files and geolocation meta-data, there would be very little anonymity associated with the authorship of articles on things such as a personal blog. Some of these concerns were addressed in the "Policy Aware Web" project and is an active research and development topic.
+Another criticism of the semantic web is that it would be much more time-consuming to create and publish content because there would need to be two formats for one piece of data: one for human viewing and one for machines. However, many web applications in development are addressing this issue by creating a machine-readable format upon the publishing of data or the request of a machine for such data. The development of microformats has been one reaction to this kind of criticism. Another argument in defense of the feasibility of semantic web is the likely falling price of human intelligence tasks in digital labor markets, such as Amazon's Mechanical Turk.
+Specifications such as eRDF and RDFa allow arbitrary RDF data to be embedded in HTML pages. The GRDDL (Gleaning Resource Descriptions from Dialects of Language) mechanism allows existing material (including microformats) to be automatically interpreted as RDF, so publishers only need to use a single format, such as HTML.
+The first research group explicitly focusing on the Corporate Semantic Web was the ACACIA team at INRIA-Sophia-Antipolis, founded in 2002. Results of their work include the RDF(S) based Corese search engine, and the application of semantic web technology in the realm of distributed artificial intelligence for knowledge management (e.g. ontologies and multi-agent systems for corporate semantic Web) and E-learning.
+Since 2008, the Corporate Semantic Web research group, located at the Free University of Berlin, focuses on building blocks: Corporate Semantic Search, Corporate Semantic Collaboration, and Corporate Ontology Engineering.
+Ontology engineering research includes the question of how to involve non-expert users in creating ontologies and semantically annotated content and for extracting explicit knowledge from the interaction of users within enterprises.
+Tim O'Reilly, who coined the term Web 2.0, proposed a long-term vision of the Semantic Web as a web of data, where sophisticated applications are navigating and manipulating it. The data web transforms the World Wide Web from a distributed file system into a distributed database.
+Liyang Yu (December 14, 2014). A Developer's Guide to the Semantic Web, 2nd ed. Springer. ISBN 978-3-662-43796-4.
+Aaron Swartz's A Programmable Web: An unfinished Work donated by Morgan & Claypool Publishers after Aaron Swartz's death in January 2013.
+Grigoris Antoniou, Frank van Harmelen (March 31, 2008). A Semantic Web Primer, 2nd Edition. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-01242-3.
+Allemang, Dean; Hendler, James; Gandon, Fabien (August 3, 2020). Semantic Web for the Working Ontologist : Effective Modeling for Linked Data, RDFS, and OWL (Third ed.). [New York, NY, USA]: ACM Books; 3rd edition. ISBN 978-1450376143.
+Pascal Hitzler; Markus Krötzsch; Sebastian Rudolph (August 25, 2009). Foundations of Semantic Web Technologies. CRCPress. ISBN 978-1-4200-9050-5.
+Thomas B. Passin (March 1, 2004). Explorer's Guide to the Semantic Web. Manning Publications. ISBN 978-1-932394-20-7.
+Jeffrey T. Pollock (March 23, 2009). Semantic Web For Dummies. For Dummies. ISBN 978-0-470-39679-7.
+Hitzler, Pascal (February 2021). "A Review of the Semantic Web Field". Communications of the ACM. 64 (2): 76–83. doi:10.1145/3397512.
+Unni, Deepak (March 2023). "FAIRification of health-related data using semantic web technologies in the Swiss Personalized Health Network". Scientific Data. 10 (1) 127. Bibcode:2023NatSD..10..127T. doi:10.1038/s41597-023-02028-y. PMC 10006404. PMID 36899064.
+Official website

package/corpus/prose/wikipedia/Semantic_reasoner.txt

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+A semantic reasoner, reasoning engine, rules engine, or simply a reasoner, is a piece of software able to infer logical consequences from a set of asserted facts or axioms. The notion of a semantic reasoner generalizes that of an inference engine, by providing a richer set of mechanisms to work with. The inference rules are commonly specified by means of an ontology language, and often a description logic language. Many reasoners use first-order predicate logic to perform reasoning; inference commonly proceeds by forward chaining and backward chaining. There are also examples of probabilistic reasoners, including non-axiomatic reasoning systems, and probabilistic logic networks.
+Notable semantic reasoners and related software:
+Cyc inference engine, a forward and backward chaining inference engine with numerous specialized modules for high-order logic.
+KAON2 is an infrastructure for managing OWL-DL, SWRL, and F-Logic ontologies.
+Cwm, a forward-chaining reasoner used for querying, checking, transforming and filtering information. Its core language is RDF, extended to include rules, and it uses RDF/XML or N3 serializations as required.
+Drools, a forward-chaining inference-based rules engine which uses an enhanced implementation of the Rete algorithm.
+Evrete, a forward-chaining Java rule engine that uses the Rete algorithm and is compliant with the Java Rule Engine API (JSR 94).
+EYE, a reasoning engine performing forward- and backward-chaining along Euler paths, supporting the Semantic Web Stack and implementing Notation3.
+D3web, a platform for knowledge-based systems (expert systems).
+Flora-2, an object-oriented, rule-based knowledge-representation and reasoning system.
+Jena, an open-source semantic-web framework for Java which includes a number of different semantic-reasoning modules.
+OWLSharp, a lightweight and friendly .NET library for realizing intelligent Semantic Web applications.
+NRules a forward-chaining inference-based rules engine implemented in C# which uses an enhanced implementation of the Rete algorithm
+Prova, a semantic-web rule engine which supports data integration via SPARQL queries and type systems (RDFS, OWL ontologies as type system).
+DIP, Defeasible-Inference Platform (DIP) is a Web Ontology Language reasoner and Protégé desktop plugin for representing and reasoning with defeasible subsumption. It implements a Preferential entailment style of reasoning that reduces to "classical entailment" i.e., without the need to modify the underlying decision procedure.
+S-LOR (Sensor-based Linked Open Rules) semantic reasoner
+S-LOR is under GNU GPLv3 license.
+S-LOR (Sensor-based Linked Open Rules) is a rule-based reasoning engine and an approach for sharing and reusing interoperable rules to deduce meaningful knowledge from sensor measurements.
+Business rules engine
+Doxastic logic
+Expert systems
+Logic programming
+Method of analytic tableaux
+Solver
+OWL 2 Reasoners listed on W3C SW Working Group homepage
+SPARQL Query Language for RDF
+Marko Luther, Thorsten Liebig, Sebastian Böhm, Olaf Noppens: Who the Heck Is the Father of Bob?. ESWC 2009: 66–80
+Jurgen Bock, Peter Haase, Qiu Ji, Raphael Volz. Benchmarking OWL Reasoners. Mirror available. In ARea2008 – Workshop on Advancing Reasoning on the Web: Scalability and Commonsense (June 2008)
+Tom Gardiner, Ian Horrocks, Dmitry Tsarkov. Automated Benchmarking of Description Logic Reasoners. Description Logics Workshop 2006

package/corpus/prose/wikipedia/Snow.txt

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+Snow is a form of ice. Snow forms when water in the atmosphere becomes frozen. It comprises individual ice crystals that grow while suspended in the atmosphere—usually within clouds—and then fall, accumulating on the ground where they undergo further changes. Snow comes in all different shapes and sizes.
+At the freezing point of water (0° Celsius, 32° Fahrenheit), snow melts and becomes liquid water. Sometimes, the snow will melt very fast and become water vapor. This is called sublimation. The opposite, where water vapor becomes snow, is called deposition.
+Snow is used for some winter sport activities like skiing and sledding. Sometimes people make artificial snow so they can ski. People also commonly build things out of snow for fun.
+Snow can also be dangerous, as it can lower visibility and make driving very difficult. When it snows, the snow will melt a little during the daytime and freeze again at night. This makes ice which can make driving conditions very treacherous. Snow plows are used to remove snow from roads to make driving easier and safer. Also, sand or salt may be added to the road to help tires grip the road. When salt is mixed with snow, the snow will melt more easily. This is because salt water has a lower melting point than fresh water (water without salt).
+A blizzard is a dangerous type of a snowstorm. A blizzard produces strong winds that keep the snow in the air, thus reducing visibility. Sometimes it produce thunder snow, which is snow with lightning and thunder.

package/corpus/prose/wikipedia/Sun.txt

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+The Sun, also known as Sol, is a star at the center of the solar system. It is a white star that gives off different types of energy such as infrared energy (heat), ultraviolet light, radio waves and light. It gives off the light and heat that make life on Earth possible. Without it, Earth would be a frozen, lifeless place. It is a huge ball of hot gases, mostly hydrogen and helium.
+The Sun is nearly a perfect sphere and has a diameter of about 1.39 million kilometers (or 864,000 miles), which is about 109 times wider than Earth. Its mass is 333,000 times heavier than Earth, and it makes up over 99.8% of all the mass in the Solar System. That is why its gravity controls the movement of all the planets, moons, asteroids, and comets. The Sun’s energy comes from nuclear reactions deep inside it, where hydrogen is turned into helium. This process releases a lot of energy, which travels as light and heat across space to reach Earth. It takes about 8 minutes for sunlight to travel the 150 million kilometers (93 million miles) from the Sun to Earth. This distance is called 1 Astronomical Unit (AU). The Sun is also part of the Milky Way galaxy, slowly orbiting around the galaxy’s center at a distance of about 24,000 to 28,000 light-years. Its outer layer, called the photosphere, is mostly hydrogen (~73%) and helium (~25%), but also contains tiny amounts of other elements like oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron.
+The Sun is a type of star called a G-type main-sequence star, sometimes nicknamed a yellow dwarf, even though its light is actually white, not yellow. It looks yellow because of the atmosphere. Sunlight is made up of all the colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. When sunlight passes through Earth’s atmosphere, the shorter wavelengths, like blue and violet, get scattered in all directions. That is also why the sky looks blue. The longer wavelengths, like yellow and red, do not scatter as much, so they reach our eyes more directly. That is why the Sun looks yellow when it is seen from the ground. But if the Sun is seen from space, where there is no atmosphere, it would look white, which is its real color.
+The Sun was born about 4.6 billion years ago. It formed when a huge cloud of gas and dust in space began to collapse under its own gravity. Most of the material got pulled into the center, which became the Sun. The leftover material flattened into a spinning disk and formed the planets, moons, asteroids, and comets, creating the Solar System. As the Sun's core got hot and dense, it started a process called nuclear fusion. This is when hydrogen atoms combine to make helium, releasing an enormous amount of energy. Every second, the Sun turns about 600 billion kilograms of hydrogen into helium and converts 4 billion kilograms of matter into energy. This energy is what gives us sunlight and heat, keeping our planet warm and life-friendly.
+The Sun gives off a stream of particles, which reaches Earth as "solar wind". The source of all this energy is nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion is the reaction in the star which turns hydrogen into helium and makes huge amounts of energy. It is a nearly perfect ball of hot plasma. The Sun looks yellow to people on Earth, but it is really white. The Sun is a star like many others in our Milky Way galaxy. The Sun is a type of star called a G-type main-sequence star based on its spectral class.

package/corpus/prose/wikipedia/Teacher.txt

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+A teacher is a person who helps people to learn. A teacher often works in a classroom.
+There are many different kinds of teachers. Some teachers teach young children in kindergarten or primary schools. Others teach older children in middle, junior high, and high schools. Some teachers teach adults in colleges and universities. Some teachers are called professors.
+Teachers are usually professionals with credentials from college and/or graduate school. They use various methods to teach. Teachers explain new knowledge using different pedagogical strategies. Teachers use various tools, from blackboards/whiteboards to computers. Many teachers are exploring artificial intelligence in their lesson planning.
+Parents can become teachers by homeschooling.

package/corpus/prose/wikipedia/Team.txt

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+A team is a group of people who have a certain task to complete. In order to meet their target, the members of the group must work well with each other.
+Successful team - a group of people who tend to meet their target despite barriers. The group members cooperate with each other and take other members' ideas into consideration.
+Unsuccessful team - a group of people who have a very difficult time when attempting to complete a certain task. This may be because the members of the group think of only themselves and create an uncomfortable environment for other members of the team.

package/corpus/prose/wikipedia/Text-based_game.txt

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+A text game or text-based game is an electronic game that uses a text-based user interface, that is, the user interface employs a set of encodable characters, such as ASCII, instead of bitmap or vector graphics.
+Text-based games have been well documented since at least the 1960s, when teleprinters were interlaced with mainframe computers as a form of input, where the output was printed on paper. With that, notable titles were developed for those computers using the sprinter in the 1960s and 1970s and more numerous game titles have been developed for other video terminals since at least the mid-1970s, having reached their peak popularity in that decade and the 1980s, and continued as early online games into the mid-1990s.
+Although generally replaced in favor of video games that use non-textual graphics, text-based games continue to be written by independent developers. They have been the basis of instigating genres of video gaming, especially adventure and role-playing video games.
+Strictly speaking, text-based means employing an encoding system of characters designed to be printable as text data. As most computers
+only read binary code, encoding formats are typically written in such, where a bit is the smallest unit of data that has two possible values and each combination of bits represents a byte. That said, a text-based game is any electronic game whereby information is conveyed as encoded text in the user interface.
+Although technically graphical when displayed on a computer monitor, text data is sometimes contrasted with graphics as the former is text-only; data representation conveyed via an output device is restricted to a given set of encodable characters and the total number thereof, as well as graphical capabilities. For example, ASCII uses 96 printable characters in its set of 128, whereas ANSI uses both ASCII and 128 additional characters from extended ASCII and allows the text to be variously colored, allowing for further possibilities. Text data also has the advantage of requiring small processing power and minimal graphical capabilities by modern standards, as well as significantly reducing production costs compared to graphical data.
+Text-based games trace as far back as teleprinters in the 1960s, when they were installed on early mainframe computers as an input-and-output form. At that time, video terminals were expensive and being experimented as "glass teletypes", and the user would submit commands via the teleprinter interfaced with the mainframe, the output being printed on paper. Notable early mainframe games include The Sumerian Game, Lunar Lander, The Oregon Trail, and Star Trek.
+In the mid-1970s, when video terminals became the cheapest means for multiple users to interact with mainframes, text-based games were designed in universities for mainframes partly as an experiment on artificial intelligence, the majority of these games being either based on the 1974 role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons or inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien's works. As with other games, they often lacked functionalities such as saving. Proposed reasons for the absence of the ability to save included the fact that early computer games were often simple and gaming sessions were brief, as well as hardware limitations and costs. This may partly explain why earlier computer games were developed instead under the episodic structure, but such computer games whose source code could be accessed by anyone could be modified, and as designers wrote larger game worlds, gaming sessions lengthened, and the need to resume where left off became inevitable. This started in 1977 with Don Woods' revision of the 1976 text-based adventure game Colossal Cave Adventure (later renamed to Adventure), which saw expanded gameplay and story and, notably, the ability to save.
+Text-based games were also early forerunners to online gaming. From the late-1970s until the worldwide dominance of the Internet in the mid-1990s, home computer users could still interact remotely with other computers by using dial-up modems, connecting them via telephone wires. These computers were often directed via text-based terminal emulators to hobbyist-run bulletin board systems (BBSes), which tended to be accessible—often freely—by area codes to cut costs from more distant communications. Without a graphical program for clients, most online computer games could only run using textual graphics, and where the user did have such a program, the often limited bandwidth of the modem made downloading graphics much slower than text. Online games designed for BBSes initially used ASCII as the character set, but since the late-1980s, most BBSes employed colored ANSI art as the graphical standard. These online games became known as "BBS door games", as connecting to a BBS opened the "door" between the client and the games on the BBS.
+However, terminal emulators are still in use today, and people continue playing MUDs (multi-user dungeon) and exploring interactive fiction. The Interactive Fiction Competition was established in 1995 to encourage development of and explore independent interactive fiction titles, and has since held annual competitions for who can develop the best such game.
+Although text-based games are not limited to any specific genre, several notable genres started as and were popularized by text-based games.
+Text adventures (sometimes synonymously referred to as interactive fiction) are text-based games wherein worlds are described in the narrative and the player submits typically simple commands to interact with the worlds. Colossal Cave Adventure is considered to be the first adventure game, and indeed the name of the genre adventure game is derived from the title. As text-based adventure games reached their peak in popularity in the late 1970s and 1980s, notable text-based adventure titles were released by various developers, including Zork and The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by Infocom.
+An MUD (originally Multi-user dungeon, with later variants Multi-User Dimension and Multi-User Domain), is a multi-user real-time online virtual world. Most MUDs are represented entirely in text, but graphical MUDs are not unknown. MUDs combine elements of role-playing games, hack and slash, interactive fiction, and online chat. Players can read or view depictions of rooms, objects, other players, non-player characters, and actions performed in the virtual world. Players typically interact with each other and the world by typing commands that resemble a natural language.
+The roguelike is a subgenre of role-playing video games, characterized by randomization for replayability, permanent death, and turn-based movement. Many early roguelikes featured ASCII graphics. Games are typically dungeon crawls, with many monsters, items, and environmental features. Computer roguelikes usually employ the majority of the keyboard to facilitate interaction with items and the environment. The name of the genre comes from the 1980 game Rogue.
+ASCII art
+List of text-based computer games
+Online text-based role-playing game

package/corpus/prose/wikipedia/Tool.txt

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+Tools are things used to make tasks easier. Tools have changed over time. The first tools were made in the Stone Age and Bronze Age. Throughout history, people have made many new and more complicated tools.
+Some examples of tools that are often used today are the hammer, the wrench (also called a spanner), saws, shovel, telephone, and the computer. Very basic things like knives, pens, and pencils are also tools. The bludgeon (a stick or rock used as a weapon to smash things) was one of the first tools made by humans. The knife is also one of the first tools humans made.
+A hand tool is powered by the muscles of the person using it. Most hand tools are hand-held (small enough to be carried and used in the hands). Hammers, wrenches, and knives are examples of hand tools.
+A power tool is powered by another source of energy like electricity. A power tool is otherwise similar to a hand tool. Most power tools are also hand-held or portable (small enough to be easily moved). Hand-held electric drills and chainsaws are examples of power tools.

package/corpus/prose/wikipedia/Tree.txt

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+A tree is a tall plant with a trunk and branches made of wood.
+Trees can live for many years. The oldest living tree found is about 5,000 years old. The oldest tree from the UK is about 1,000 years old.
+The four main parts of a tree are the roots, the trunk, the branches, and the leaves. Trees are a wide variety of plant species that have independently evolved a trunk and branches as a way to tower above other plants to compete for sunlight.
+The roots of a tree are usually under the ground. However, this is not always true. The roots of the mangrove tree are mostly under water. A single tree has many roots. The roots carry nutrients and water from the ground through the trunk and branches to the leaves of the tree. Leaves can also breathe in air. Sometimes, roots are specialized into aerial roots, which can also provide support, as is the case with the banyan tree.
+The trunk is the main body of the tree. The trunk is covered with bark which protects it from damage. Branches grow from the trunk. They spread out so that the leaves can get more sunlight.
+The leaves of a tree are green most of the time, but they can come in many colors, shapes and sizes. The leaves take in sunlight and use water and food from the roots to make the tree grow, and to reproduce.
+Trees and shrubs take in water and carbon dioxide and give out oxygen with sunlight to form sugars. This is the opposite of what animals do in respiration. Plants also do some respiration using oxygen the way animals do. They need oxygen as well as carbon dioxide to live. Trees are renewable resources because, if cut down, other trees can grow in their place.

package/corpus/prose/wikipedia/Weather.txt

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+Weather is the day-to-day or hour-to-hour change in the atmosphere. Weather includes wind, lightning, storms, hurricanes, tornadoes, rain, hail, snow, and lots more. Energy from the Sun affects the weather too.
+Climate tells us what kinds of weather usually happen in an area at different times of the year.
+Changes in weather can affect the mood and life of many living things. People wear different clothes and do different things in different weather conditions. They also choose different food in different seasons.
+Weather stations around the world measure different parts of weather. Ways to measure weather are wind speed, wind direction, temperature and humidity. People try to use these measurements to make weather forecasts for the future. These people are scientists that are called meteorologists. They use computers to build large mathematical models to follow weather trends.

package/corpus/prose/wikipedia/Web_Ontology_Language.txt

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+The Web Ontology Language (OWL) is a family of knowledge representation languages for authoring ontologies. Ontologies are a formal way to describe taxonomies and classification networks, essentially defining the structure of knowledge for various domains: the nouns representing classes of objects and the verbs representing relations between the objects.
+Ontologies resemble class hierarchies in object-oriented programming but there are several critical differences. Class hierarchies are meant to represent structures used in source code that evolve fairly slowly (perhaps with monthly revisions) whereas ontologies are meant to represent information on the Internet and are expected to be evolving almost constantly. Similarly, ontologies are typically far more flexible as they are meant to represent information on the Internet coming from all sorts of heterogeneous data sources. Class hierarchies on the other hand tend to be fairly static and rely on far less diverse and more structured sources of data such as corporate databases.
+The OWL languages are characterized by formal semantics. They are built upon the World Wide Web Consortium's (W3C) standard for objects called the Resource Description Framework (RDF). OWL and RDF have attracted significant academic, medical and commercial interest.
+In October 2007, a new W3C working group was started to extend OWL with several new features as proposed in the OWL 1.1 member submission. W3C announced the new version of OWL on 27 October 2009. This new version, called OWL 2, soon found its way into semantic editors such as Protégé and semantic reasoners such as Pellet, RacerPro, FaCT++ and HermiT.
+The OWL family contains many species, serializations, syntaxes and specifications with similar names. OWL and OWL2 are used to refer to the 2004 and 2009 specifications, respectively. Full species names will be used, including specification version (for example, OWL2 EL). When referring more generally, OWL Family will be used.
+There is a long history of ontological development in philosophy and computer science. Since the 1990s, a number of research efforts have explored how the idea of knowledge representation (KR) from artificial intelligence (AI) could be made useful on the World Wide Web. These included languages based on HTML (called SHOE), based on XML (called XOL, later OIL), and various frame-based KR languages and knowledge acquisition approaches.
+In 2000 in the United States, DARPA started development of DAML led by James Hendler.
+In March 2001, the Joint EU/US Committee on Agent Markup Languages decided that DAML should be merged with OIL.
+The EU/US ad hoc Joint Working Group on Agent Markup Languages was convened to develop DAML+OIL as a web ontology language. This group was jointly funded by the DARPA (under the DAML program) and the European Union's Information Society Technologies (IST) funding project. DAML+OIL was intended to be a thin layer above RDFS,
+with formal semantics based on a description logic (DL).
+DAML+OIL is a particularly major influence on OWL; OWL's design was specifically based on DAML+OIL.
+The Semantic Web provides a common framework that allows data to be shared and reused across application, enterprise, and community boundaries.
+a declarative representation language influenced by ideas from knowledge representation
+In the late 1990s, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) Metadata Activity started work on RDF Schema (RDFS), a language for RDF vocabulary sharing. The RDF became a W3C Recommendation in February 1999, and RDFS a Candidate Recommendation in March 2000. In February 2001, the Semantic Web Activity replaced the Metadata Activity. In 2004 (as part of a wider revision of RDF) RDFS became a W3C Recommendation.
+Though RDFS provides some support for ontology specification, the need for a more expressive ontology language had become clear.
+As of Monday, the 31st of May, our working group will officially come to an end. We have achieved all that we were chartered to do, and I believe our work is being quite well appreciated.
+The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) created the Web-Ontology Working Group as part of their Semantic Web Activity. It began work on November 1, 2001, with co-chairs James Hendler and Guus Schreiber. The first working drafts of the abstract syntax, reference and synopsis were published in July 2002. OWL became a formal W3C recommendation on February 10, 2004, and the working group was disbanded on May 31, 2004.
+In 2005, at the OWL Experiences And Directions Workshop a consensus formed that recent advances in description logic would allow a more expressive revision to satisfy user requirements more comprehensively whilst retaining good computational properties.
+In December 2006, the OWL1.1 Member Submission was made to the W3C. The W3C chartered the OWL Working Group as part of the Semantic Web Activity in September 2007. In April 2008, this group decided to call this new language OWL2, indicating a substantial revision.
+OWL 2 became a W3C recommendation in October 2009. OWL 2 introduces profiles to improve scalability in typical applications.
+Why not be inconsistent in at least one aspect of a language which is all about consistency?
+OWL was chosen as an easily pronounced acronym that would yield good logos, suggest wisdom, and honor William A. Martin's One World Language knowledge representation project from the 1970s.
+A 2006 survey of ontologies available on the web collected 688 OWL ontologies. Of these, 199 were OWL Lite, 149 were OWL DL and 337 OWL Full (by syntax). They found that 19 ontologies had in excess of 2,000 classes, and that 6 had more than 10,000. The same survey collected 587 RDFS vocabularies.
+An ontology is an explicit specification of a conceptualization.
+The data described by an ontology in the OWL family is interpreted as a set of "individuals" and a set of "property assertions" which relate these individuals to each other. An ontology consists of a set of axioms which place constraints on sets of individuals (called "classes") and the types of relationships permitted between them. These axioms provide semantics by allowing systems to infer additional information based on the data explicitly provided. A full introduction to the expressive power of the OWL is provided in the W3C's OWL Guide.
+OWL ontologies can import other ontologies, adding information from the imported ontology to the current ontology.
+An ontology describing families might include axioms stating that a "hasMother" property is only present between two individuals when "hasParent" is also present, and that individuals of class "HasTypeOBlood" are never related via "hasParent" to members of the "HasTypeABBlood" class. If it is stated that the individual Harriet is related via "hasMother" to the individual Sue, and that Harriet is a member of the "HasTypeOBlood" class, then it can be inferred that Sue is not a member of "HasTypeABBlood". This is, however, only true if the concepts of "Parent" and "Mother" only mean biological parent or mother and not social parent or mother.
+To choose a subset of first-order logic that is decidable, propositional logic was used, increasing its power by adding logics represented by convention with acronyms:
+The W3C-endorsed OWL specification includes the definition of three variants of OWL, with different levels of expressiveness. These are OWL Lite, OWL DL and OWL Full (ordered by increasing expressiveness). Each of these sublanguages is a syntactic extension of its simpler predecessor. The following set of relations hold. Their inverses do not.
+Every legal OWL Lite ontology is a legal OWL DL ontology.
+Every legal OWL DL ontology is a legal OWL Full ontology.
+Every valid OWL Lite conclusion is a valid OWL DL conclusion.
+Every valid OWL DL conclusion is a valid OWL Full conclusion.
+OWL Lite was originally intended to support those users primarily needing a classification hierarchy and simple constraints. For example, while it supports cardinality constraints, it only permits cardinality values of 0 or 1. It was hoped that it would be simpler to provide tool support for OWL Lite than its more expressive relatives, allowing quick migration path for systems using thesauri and other taxonomies. In practice, however, most of the expressiveness constraints placed on OWL Lite amount to little more than syntactic inconveniences: most of the constructs available in OWL DL can be built using complex combinations of OWL Lite features, and is equally expressive as the description logic
+S
+H
+I
+F
+(
+D
+)
+{\displaystyle {\mathcal {SHIF}}(\mathbf {D} )}
+. Development of OWL Lite tools has thus proven to be almost as difficult as development of tools for OWL DL, and OWL Lite is not widely used.
+OWL DL is designed to provide the maximum expressiveness possible while retaining computational completeness (either φ or ¬φ holds), decidability (there is an effective procedure to determine whether φ is derivable or not), and the availability of practical reasoning algorithms. OWL DL includes all OWL language constructs, but they can be used only under certain restrictions (for example, number restrictions may not be placed upon properties which are declared to be transitive; and while a class may be a subclass of many classes, a class cannot be an instance of another class). OWL DL is so named due to its correspondence with description logic, a field of research that has studied the logics that form the formal foundation of OWL.
+This one can be expressed as
+S
+H
+O
+I
+N
+(
+D
+)
+{\displaystyle {\mathcal {SHOIN}}(\mathbf {D} )}
+, using the letters logic above.
+OWL Full is based on a different semantics from OWL Lite or OWL DL, and was designed to preserve some compatibility with RDF Schema. For example, in OWL Full a class can be treated simultaneously as a collection of individuals and as an individual in its own right; this is not permitted in OWL DL. OWL Full allows an ontology to augment the meaning of the pre-defined (RDF or OWL) vocabulary. OWL Full is undecidable, so no reasoning software is able to perform complete reasoning for it.
+In OWL2 there are three sublanguages (known as profiles):
+OWL2 EL is a fragment that has polynomial time reasoning complexity. It is based on the description logic
+E
+L
+{\displaystyle {\mathcal {EL}}}
+.
+OWL2 QL is designed to enable easier access and query to data stored in databases. It is based on the DL-Lite family of description logics.
+OWL2 RL is a rule subset of OWL 2 (the acronym "RL" stands for "Rule Language"). It is based on the so-called description logic programs (DLP). Later, a logic called
+R
+L
+{\displaystyle {\mathcal {RL}}}
+corresponding to this profile has been introduced.
+The OWL family of languages supports a variety of syntaxes. It is useful to distinguish high level syntaxes aimed at specification from exchange syntaxes more suitable for general use.
+These are close to the ontology structure of languages in the OWL family.
+High level syntax is used to specify the OWL ontology structure and semantics.
+The OWL abstract syntax presents an ontology as a sequence of annotations, axioms and facts. Annotations carry machine and human oriented meta-data. Information about the classes, properties and individuals that compose the ontology is contained in axioms and facts only.
+Each class, property and individual is either anonymous or identified by an URI reference. Facts state data either about an individual or about a pair of individual identifiers (that the objects identified are distinct or the same). Axioms specify the characteristics of classes and properties. This style is similar to frame languages, and quite dissimilar to well known syntaxes for DLs and Resource Description Framework (RDF).
+Sean Bechhofer, et al. argue that though this syntax is hard to parse, it is quite concrete. They conclude that the name abstract syntax may be somewhat misleading.
+This syntax closely follows the structure of an OWL2 ontology. It is used by OWL2 to specify semantics, mappings to exchange syntaxes and profiles.
+Syntactic mappings into RDF are specified
+for languages in the OWL family. Several RDF serialization formats have been devised. Each leads to a syntax for languages in the OWL family through this mapping. RDF/XML is normative.
+OWL2 specifies an XML serialization that closely models the structure of an OWL2 ontology.
+The Manchester Syntax is a compact, human readable syntax with a style close to frame languages.
+Variations are available for OWL and OWL2. Not all OWL and OWL2 ontologies can be expressed in this syntax.
+The W3C OWL 2 Web Ontology Language provides syntax examples.
+Consider an ontology for tea based on a Tea class. First, an ontology identifier is needed. Every OWL ontology must be identified by a URI (http://www.example.org/tea.owl, say). This example provides a sense of the syntax. To save space below, preambles and prefix definitions have been skipped.
+OWL2 Functional Syntax
+OWL2 XML Syntax
+Manchester Syntax
+RDF/XML syntax
+RDF/Turtle
+OWL classes correspond to description logic (DL) concepts, OWL properties to DL roles, while individuals are called the same way in both the OWL and the DL terminology.
+In the beginning, IS-A was quite simple. Today, however, there are almost as many meanings for this inheritance link as there are knowledge-representation systems.
+Early attempts to build large ontologies were plagued by a lack of clear definitions. Members of the OWL family have model theoretic formal semantics, and so have strong logical foundations.
+Description logics are a family of logics that are decidable fragments of first-order logic with attractive and well-understood computational properties. OWL DL and OWL Lite semantics are based on DLs.
+They combine a syntax for describing and exchanging ontologies, and formal semantics that gives them meaning. For example, OWL DL corresponds to the
+S
+H
+O
+I
+N
+(
+D
+)
+{\displaystyle {\mathcal {SHOIN}}^{\mathcal {(D)}}}
+description logic, while OWL 2 corresponds to the
+S
+R
+O
+I
+Q
+(
+D
+)
+{\displaystyle {\mathcal {SROIQ}}^{\mathcal {(D)}}}
+logic. Sound, complete, terminating reasoners (i.e. systems which are guaranteed to derive every consequence of the knowledge in an ontology) exist for these DLs.
+OWL Full is intended to be compatible with RDF Schema (RDFS), and to be capable of augmenting the meanings of existing Resource Description Framework (RDF) vocabulary. A model theory describes the formal semantics for
+RDF. This interpretation provides the meaning of RDF and RDFS vocabulary. So, the meaning of OWL Full ontologies are defined by extension of the RDFS meaning, and OWL Full is a semantic extension of RDF.
+[The closed] world assumption implies that everything we don't know is false, while the open world assumption states that everything we don't know is undefined.
+The languages in the OWL family use the open world assumption. Under the open world assumption, if a statement cannot be proven to be true with current knowledge, we cannot draw the conclusion that the statement is false.
+A relational database consists of sets of tuples with the same attributes. SQL is a query and management language for relational databases. Prolog is a logical programming language. Both use the closed world assumption.
+OBO Foundry
+NCBO BioPortal
+NCI Enterprise Vocabulary Services
+Suggested Upper Merged Ontology (SUMO)
+TDWG
+PROV-O, the ontology version of the W3C's PROV-DM
+Basic Formal Ontology (BFO)
+European Materials Modelling Ontology (EMMO)
+The following tools include public ontology browsers:
+Protégé OWL
+Swoogle
+No direct language support for n-ary relationships. For example, modelers may wish to describe the qualities of a relation, to relate more than 2 individuals or to relate an individual to a list. This cannot be done within OWL. They may need to adopt a pattern instead which encodes the meaning outside the formal semantics.
+Bechhofer, Sean; Horrocks, Ian; Patel-Schneider, Peter F. (2021). "Tutorial on OWL". Archived from the original on 15 July 2017.
+Franconi, Enrico (2002). "Introduction to Description Logics". Free University of Bolzano.
+Horrocks, Ian (2010). Description Logic: A Formal Foundation for Ontology Languages and Tools, Part 1: Languages (PDF). SemTech 2010.
+Horrocks, Ian (2010). Description Logic: A Formal Foundation for Ontology Languages and Tools, Part 2: Tools (PDF). SemTech 2010.

package/corpus/prose/wikipedia/Wind.txt

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+Wind is the flow of gases. On Earth, wind is mostly the movement of air. In outer space, solar wind is the movement of gases or particles from the sun through space. The strongest winds seen on a planet in our solar system are on Neptune and Saturn.
+Short bursts of fast winds are called gusts. Strong winds that go on for about one minute are called squalls. Winds that go on for a long time are called many different things, such as breeze, gale, hurricane, and typhoon.
+Wind can move land, especially in deserts. Cold wind can sometimes have a bad effect on livestock. Wind also affects animals' food stores, their hunting and the way they protect themselves.
+Sunlight drives the Earth's atmospheric circulation. The resulting winds blow over land and sea, producing weather.
+A high pressure area (that makes an anticyclone) near a low pressure system (that makes a cyclone), makes air move from the high pressure to the low pressure to try to even out the pressures. The Coriolis effect causes the winds to spiral around. A big difference in pressure can make high winds. In some storms, such as hurricanes, typhoons, cyclones, or tornadoes, it can cause winds faster than 200 mph (320 kilometres per hour). This can damage houses and other buildings, and can kill people.
+Wind can also be caused by the rising of hot air, or the falling of cool air. When hot air rises, it creates a low pressure underneath it, and air moves in to equalize the pressure. When cold air drops (because it is denser or heavier than warm air), it creates a high pressure and flows out to even out the pressure with the low pressure around it.
+The wind is usually invisible, but rain, dust, or snow can show how it is blowing. A weathervane can also show you where the wind is coming from. The Beaufort scale is a way to tell how strong the wind is. It is used at sea when no land can be seen. The direction of the wind is a compass point. For example, a north wind is from the north. A north to northwest wind is from a direction somewhere between north and northwest.
+The increase in wind causes an increase in the rate of evaporation.

package/corpus/prose/wikipedia/Writing.txt

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+Writing is the art/act of recording language on a visual medium using a set of symbols. The symbols must be known to others, so that the text may be read.
+A text may also use other visual systems, such as illustrations and decorations. These are not called writing, but may help the message work. Usually, all educated people in a country use the same writing system to record the same language. To be able to read and write is to be literate.
+Writing differs from speech because the readers need not be present at the time. We can read writing from long ago, and from different parts of the world. Text stores and communicates knowledge. Writing is one of the greatest inventions of the human species. It was invented after people settled in towns, and after agriculture started. Writing dates from about 3,300BC, which is over 5000 years ago, in the Middle East.
+Writing today is usually on paper, though there are ways to print on almost any surface. Television and movie screens can also display writing, and so can computer screens. Many writing materials were invented, long before paper. Clay, papyrus, wood, slate and parchment (prepared animal skins) have all been used. The Romans wrote on waxed tablets with a pointed stylus; this was popular for temporary notes and messages. The later invention of paper by the Chinese was a big step forward.
+Writing is traditionally done using a hand tool such as a pencil, a pen, or a brush. More and more, however, text is created by input on a computer keyboard.

package/package.json

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 {
   "name": "@polycode-projects/the-mechanical-code-talker",
-  "version": "2.3.0",
+  "version": "2.3.1",
   "private": false,
   "type": "module",
   "description": "The Mechanical Code Talker (tmct) — a tolerant, offline, $0 chat surface that guides you toward precision queries about a software repository. ELIZA/PARRY-style but domain-obsessed with code. No model calls; no codebase index of its own.",
@@ -122,6 +122,7 @@
     "build:demo-memory": "node scripts/build-demo-memory.mjs",
     "gen:tool-docs": "node scripts/generate-tool-docs.mjs",
     "gen:collisions": "node scripts/generate-real-word-collisions.mjs",
+    "gen:prose-corpus": "node scripts/fetch-prose-corpus.mjs",
     "gen:variants": "node scripts/generate-template-variants.mjs",
     "extract:facts": "node scripts/extract-facts-from-text.mjs"
   },