@php-skir/skir-client 1.0.19

package/src/skir-client.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,4141 @@
+import { decode as decodeCbor, encode as encodeCbor } from "cbor-x";
+import type {
+  Express as ExpressApp,
+  json as ExpressJson,
+  raw as ExpressRaw,
+  Request as ExpressRequest,
+  Response as ExpressResponse,
+  text as ExpressText,
+} from "express";
+
+/**
+ * A single moment in time represented in a platform-independent format, with a
+ * precision of one millisecond.
+ *
+ * A `Timestamp` object can represent a maximum of ±8,640,000,000,000,000
+ * milliseconds, or ±100,000,000 (one hundred million) days, relative to the
+ * Unix epoch. This is the range from April 20, 271821 BC to September 13,
+ * 275760 AD.
+ *
+ * Unlike the Javascript built-in `Date` type, a `Timestamp` is immutable.
+ * Like a `Date`, a `Timestamp` object does not contain a timezone.
+ */
+export class Timestamp {
+  /**
+   * Returns a `Timestamp` representing the same moment in time as the given
+   * Javascript `Date` object.
+   *
+   * @throws if the given `Date` object has a timestamp value of NaN
+   */
+  static from(date: Date): Timestamp {
+    return this.fromUnixMillis(date.getTime());
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Creates a `Timestamp` object from a number of milliseconds from the Unix
+   * epoch.
+   *
+   * If the given number if outside the valid range (±8,640,000,000,000,000),
+   * this function will return `Timestamp.MAX` or `Timestamp.MIN` depending on
+   * the sign of the number.
+   *
+   * @throws if the given number is NaN
+   */
+  static fromUnixMillis(unixMillis: number): Timestamp {
+    if (unixMillis <= this.MIN.unixMillis) {
+      return Timestamp.MIN;
+    } else if (unixMillis < Timestamp.MAX.unixMillis) {
+      return new Timestamp(Math.round(unixMillis));
+    } else if (Number.isNaN(unixMillis)) {
+      throw new Error("Cannot construct Timestamp from NaN");
+    } else {
+      return Timestamp.MAX;
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Creates a `Timestamp` object from a number of seconds from the Unix epoch.
+   *
+   * If the given number if outside the valid range (±8,640,000,000,000), this
+   * function will return `Timestamp.MAX` or `Timestamp.MIN` depending on the
+   * sign of the number.
+   *
+   * @throws if the given number is NaN
+   */
+  static fromUnixSeconds(unixSeconds: number): Timestamp {
+    return this.fromUnixMillis(unixSeconds * 1000);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Parses a date in the date time string format.
+   *
+   * @throws if the given string is not a date in the date time string format
+   * @see https://tc39.es/ecma262/multipage/numbers-and-dates.html#sec-date-time-string-format
+   */
+  static parse(date: string): Timestamp {
+    return this.fromUnixMillis(Date.parse(date));
+  }
+
+  /** Returns a `Timestamp` representing the current moment in time. */
+  static now(): Timestamp {
+    return this.fromUnixMillis(Date.now());
+  }
+
+  /** Thursday, 1 January 1970. */
+  static readonly UNIX_EPOCH = new Timestamp(0);
+
+  /**
+   * Earliest moment in time representable as a `Timestamp`, namely April 20,
+   * 271821 BC.
+   *
+   * @see https://262.ecma-international.org/5.1/#sec-15.9.1.1
+   */
+  static readonly MIN = new Timestamp(-8640000000000000);
+
+  /**
+   * Latest moment in time representable as a `Timestamp`, namely September 13,
+   * 275760 AD.
+   *
+   * @see https://262.ecma-international.org/5.1/#sec-15.9.1.1
+   */
+  static readonly MAX = new Timestamp(8640000000000000);
+
+  private constructor(
+    /** Number of milliseconds ellapsed since the Unix epoch. */
+    readonly unixMillis: number,
+  ) {
+    Object.freeze(this);
+  }
+
+  /** Number of seconds ellapsed since the Unix epoch. */
+  get unixSeconds(): number {
+    return this.unixMillis / 1000.0;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns a `Date` object representing the same moment in time as this
+   * `Timestamp`.
+   */
+  toDate(): Date {
+    return new Date(this.unixMillis);
+  }
+
+  toString(): string {
+    return this.toDate().toISOString();
+  }
+}
+
+/** An immutable array of bytes. */
+export class ByteString {
+  /**
+   * Returns an immutable byte string containing all the bytes of `input` from
+   * `start`, inclusive, up to `end`, exclusive.
+   *
+   * If `input` is an `ArrayBuffer`, this function copies the bytes. Otherwise
+   * this function returns a sliced view of the input `ByteString`.
+   *
+   * @example <caption>Copy an array buffer into a byte string</caption>
+   * const byteString = ByteString.sliceOf(arrayBuffer);
+   */
+  static sliceOf(
+    input: ArrayBuffer | SharedArrayBuffer | ByteString,
+    start = 0,
+    end?: number,
+  ): ByteString {
+    const { byteLength } = input;
+    if (start < 0) {
+      start = 0;
+    }
+    if (end === undefined || end > byteLength) {
+      end = byteLength;
+    }
+    if (end <= start) {
+      return ByteString.EMPTY;
+    }
+    if (input instanceof ByteString) {
+      if (start <= 0 && byteLength <= end) {
+        // Don't copy the ByteString itself.
+        return input;
+      } else {
+        // Don't copy the ArrayBuffer.
+        const newByteOffset = input.byteOffset + start;
+        const newByteLength = end - start;
+        return new ByteString(input.arrayBuffer, newByteOffset, newByteLength);
+      }
+    } else if (input instanceof ArrayBuffer) {
+      return new ByteString(input.slice(start, end));
+    } else if (input instanceof SharedArrayBuffer) {
+      const slice = input.slice(start, end);
+      const newBuffer = new ArrayBuffer(slice.byteLength);
+      new Uint8Array(newBuffer).set(new Uint8Array(slice));
+      return new ByteString(newBuffer);
+    } else {
+      const _: never = input;
+      throw new TypeError(_);
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Decodes a Base64 string, which can be obtained by calling `toBase64()`.
+   *
+   * @throws if the given string is not a valid Base64 string.
+   * @see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base64
+   */
+  static fromBase64(base64: string): ByteString {
+    // See https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Glossary/Base64
+    const binaryString: string = atob(base64);
+    const array = Uint8Array.from(binaryString, (m) => m.codePointAt(0)!);
+    return new this(array.buffer);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Decodes a hexadecimal string, which can be obtained by calling
+   * `toBase16()`.
+   *
+   * @throws if the given string is not a valid Base64 string.
+   */
+  static fromBase16(base16: string): ByteString {
+    const bytes = new Uint8Array(base16.length / 2);
+    for (let i = 0; i < bytes.length; ++i) {
+      const byte = parseInt(base16.substring(i * 2, i * 2 + 2), 16);
+      if (Number.isNaN(byte)) {
+        throw new Error("Not a valid Base64 string");
+      }
+      bytes[i] = byte;
+    }
+    return new ByteString(bytes.buffer);
+  }
+
+  /** An empty byte string. */
+  static readonly EMPTY = new ByteString(new ArrayBuffer(0));
+
+  /** Copies the contents of this byte string into the given array buffer. */
+  copyTo(target: ArrayBuffer, targetOffset = 0): void {
+    new Uint8Array(target).set(this.uint8Array, targetOffset);
+  }
+
+  /** Copies the contents of this byte string into a new array buffer. */
+  toBuffer(): ArrayBuffer {
+    return this.arrayBuffer.slice(
+      this.byteOffset,
+      this.byteOffset + this.byteLength,
+    );
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Encodes this byte string into a Base64 string.
+   *
+   * @see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base64
+   */
+  toBase64(): string {
+    // See https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Glossary/Base64
+    const binaryString = Array.from(this.uint8Array, (x) =>
+      String.fromCodePoint(x),
+    ).join("");
+    return btoa(binaryString);
+  }
+
+  /** Encodes this byte string into a hexadecimal string. */
+  toBase16(): string {
+    return [...this.uint8Array]
+      .map((x) => x.toString(16).padStart(2, "0"))
+      .join("");
+  }
+
+  at(index: number): number | undefined {
+    return this.uint8Array[index < 0 ? index + this.byteLength : index];
+  }
+
+  toString(): string {
+    return `ByteString(${this.byteLength})`;
+  }
+
+  private constructor(
+    private readonly arrayBuffer: ArrayBuffer,
+    private readonly byteOffset = 0,
+    /** The length of this byte string. */
+    readonly byteLength = arrayBuffer.byteLength,
+  ) {
+    this.uint8Array = new Uint8Array(arrayBuffer, byteOffset, byteLength);
+    Object.freeze(this);
+  }
+
+  private readonly uint8Array: Uint8Array;
+}
+
+/** A read-only JSON value. */
+export type Json =
+  | null
+  | boolean
+  | number
+  | string
+  | readonly Json[]
+  | Readonly<{ [name: string]: Json }>;
+
+/**
+ * Resolves to the generated mutable class for a struct.
+ * The type parameter is the generated frozen class.
+ */
+export type MutableForm<Frozen> = //
+  Frozen extends _FrozenBase
+    ? ReturnType<Frozen["toMutable"]> & Freezable<Frozen>
+    : Freezable<Frozen>;
+
+/** Result of encoding a struct using binary encoding format. */
+export interface BinaryForm {
+  /** Length (in bytes) of the binary form. */
+  readonly byteLength: number;
+  /** Copies the contents of the binary form into the given array buffer. */
+  copyTo(target: ArrayBuffer, offset?: number): void;
+  /** Copies the contents of this byte string into a new array buffer. */
+  toBuffer(): ArrayBuffer;
+}
+
+/**
+ * When using the JSON serialization format, you can chose between two flavors.
+ *
+ * The dense flavor is the default flavor and is preferred in most cases.
+ * Structs are converted to JSON arrays, where the number of each field
+ * corresponds to the index of the value in the array. This results in a more
+ * compact representation than when using JSON objects, and this makes
+ * serialization and deserialization a bit faster. Because field names are left
+ * out of the JSON, it is a representation which allows persistence: you can
+ * safely rename a field in a '.skir' file without breaking backwards
+ * compatibility.
+ * One con of this representation is that it is harder to tell, just by looking
+ * at the JSON, what field of the struct each value in the array corresponds to.
+ *
+ * When using the readable flavor, structs are converted to JSON objects. The
+ * name of each field in the '.skir' file is used as-is in the JSON. This
+ * results in a representation which is much more readable by humans, but also
+ * not suited for persistence: when you rename a field in a '.skir' file, you
+ * will no lonnger be able to deserialize old JSONs.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * const jane = Person.create({firstName: "Jane", lastName: "Doe"});
+ *
+ * console.log(Person.serializer.toJson(jane, "dense"));
+ * // Output: ["Jane","Doe"]
+ *
+ * console.log(Person.serializer.toJson(jane));
+ * // Output: ["Jane","Doe"]
+ *
+ * console.log(Person.serializer.toJson(jane, "readable"));
+ * // Output: {
+ * //   "firstName": "Jane",
+ * //   "lastName": "Doe"
+ * // }
+ */
+export type JsonFlavor = "dense" | "readable";
+
+/**
+ * Serializes and deserializes instances of `T`. Supports two serialization
+ * formats: JSON and binary.
+ *
+ * All deserialization methods return a deeply-immutable `T`. If `T` is the
+ * generated frozen class for a struct, all serialization methods accept either
+ * a `T` or a `T.Mutable`.
+ *
+ * Do NOT create your own `Serializer` implementation. Only use implementations
+ * provided by Skir.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * let jane = Person.create({firstName: "Jane", lastName: "Doe"});
+ * const json = Person.serializer.toJson(jane);
+ * jane = Person.serializer.fromJson(json);
+ * expect(jane.firstName).toBe("Jane");
+ */
+export interface Serializer<T> {
+  /**
+   * Converts back the given stringified JSON to `T`.
+   * Works with both [flavors]{@link JsonFlavor} of JSON.
+   *
+   * Pass in "keep-unrecognized-values" if and only if the input JSON comes
+   * from a trusted program which might have been built from more recent
+   * source files.
+   */
+  fromJsonCode(code: string, keep?: "keep-unrecognized-values"): T;
+  /**
+   * Converts back the given JSON to `T`.
+   * Works with both [flavors]{@link JsonFlavor} of JSON.
+   *
+   * Pass in "keep-unrecognized-values" if and only if the input JSON comes
+   * from a trusted program which might have been built from more recent
+   * source files.
+   */
+  fromJson(json: Json, keep?: "keep-unrecognized-values"): T;
+  /**
+   * Converts back the given binary form to `T`.
+   *
+   * Pass in "keep-unrecognized-values" if and only if the input JSON comes
+   * from a trusted program which might have been built from more recent
+   * source files.
+   */
+  fromBytes(bytes: ArrayBuffer, keep?: "keep-unrecognized-values"): T;
+  /**
+   * Converts the given `T` to JSON and returns the stringified JSON. Same as
+   * calling `JSON.stringify()` on the result of `toJson()`.
+   *
+   * @param flavor dense or readable, defaults to dense
+   * @see JsonFlavor
+   */
+  toJsonCode(input: T | MutableForm<T>, flavor?: JsonFlavor): string;
+  /**
+   * Converts the given `T` to JSON. If you only need the stringified JSON, call
+   * `toJsonCode()` instead.
+   *
+   * @param flavor dense or readable, defaults to dense
+   * @see JsonFlavor
+   */
+  toJson(input: T | MutableForm<T>, flavor?: JsonFlavor): Json;
+  /** Converts the given `T` to binary format. */
+  toBytes(input: T | MutableForm<T>): BinaryForm;
+  /** An object describing the type `T`. Enables reflective programming. */
+  typeDescriptor: TypeDescriptorSpecialization<T>;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns a serializer of instances of the given Skir primitive type.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * expect(
+ *   primitiveSerializer("string").toJsonCode("foo")
+ * ).toBe(
+ *   '"foo"'
+ * );
+ */
+export function primitiveSerializer<P extends keyof PrimitiveTypes>(
+  primitiveType: P,
+): Serializer<PrimitiveTypes[P]> {
+  return primitiveSerializers[primitiveType];
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns a serializer of arrays of `Item`s.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * expect(
+ *   arraySerializer(User.serializer).toJsonCode([JANE, JOE])
+ * ).toBe(
+ *   '[["jane"],["joe"]]'
+ * );
+ */
+export function arraySerializer<Item>(
+  item: Serializer<Item>,
+  keyChain?: string,
+): Serializer<ReadonlyArray<Item>> {
+  if (
+    keyChain !== undefined &&
+    !/^[a-z_][a-z0-9_]*(\.[a-z_][a-z0-9_]*)*$/.test(keyChain)
+  ) {
+    throw new Error(`Invalid keyChain "${keyChain}"`);
+  }
+  return new ArraySerializerImpl(item as InternalSerializer<Item>, keyChain);
+}
+
+/** Returns a serializer of nullable `T`s. */
+export function optionalSerializer<T>(
+  other: Serializer<T>,
+): Serializer<T | null> {
+  return other instanceof OptionalSerializerImpl
+    ? other
+    : new OptionalSerializerImpl(other as InternalSerializer<T>);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Describes the type `T`, where `T` is the TypeScript equivalent of a Skir
+ * type. Enables reflective programming.
+ *
+ * Every `TypeDescriptor` instance has a `kind` field which can take one of
+ * these 5 values: `"primitive"`, `"optional"`, `"array"`, `"struct"`, `"enum"`.
+ */
+export type TypeDescriptor<T = unknown> =
+  | OptionalDescriptor<T>
+  | ArrayDescriptor<T>
+  | StructDescriptor<T>
+  | EnumDescriptor<T>
+  | PrimitiveDescriptor;
+
+/** Specialization of `TypeDescriptor<T>` when `T` is known. */
+export type TypeDescriptorSpecialization<T> = //
+  [T] extends [_FrozenBase]
+    ? StructDescriptor<T>
+    : [T] extends [_EnumBase]
+      ? EnumDescriptor<T>
+      : TypeDescriptor<T>;
+
+interface TypeDescriptorBase {
+  /** Returns the JSON representation of this `TypeDescriptor`. */
+  asJson(): Json;
+
+  /**
+   * Returns the JSON code representation of this `TypeDescriptor`.
+   * Same as calling `JSON.stringify()` on the result of `asJson()`.
+   */
+  asJsonCode(): string;
+
+  /**
+   * Converts from one serialized form to another.
+   *
+   * @example
+   * const denseJson = User.serializer.toJson(user, "dense");
+   * expect(
+   *   User.serializer.typeDescriptor.transform(denseJson, "readable")
+   * ).toMatch(
+   *   User.serializer.toJson(user, "readable")
+   * );
+   */
+  transform(json_or_bytes: Json | ArrayBuffer, out: JsonFlavor): Json;
+  transform(json: Json, out: "bytes"): ArrayBuffer;
+  transform(
+    json_or_bytes: Json | ArrayBuffer,
+    out: JsonFlavor | "bytes",
+  ): Json | ArrayBuffer;
+}
+
+/** Describes a primitive Skir type. */
+export interface PrimitiveDescriptor extends TypeDescriptorBase {
+  kind: "primitive";
+  primitive: keyof PrimitiveTypes;
+}
+
+/**
+ * An interface mapping a primitive Skir type to the corresponding TypeScript
+ * type.
+ */
+export interface PrimitiveTypes {
+  bool: boolean;
+  int32: number;
+  int64: bigint;
+  hash64: bigint;
+  float32: number;
+  float64: number;
+  timestamp: Timestamp;
+  string: string;
+  bytes: ByteString;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Describes an optional type. In a '.skir' file, an optional type is
+ * represented with a question mark at the end of another type.
+ */
+export interface OptionalDescriptor<T> extends TypeDescriptorBase {
+  readonly kind: "optional";
+  /** Describes the other (non-optional) type. */
+  readonly otherType: TypeDescriptor<NonNullable<T>>;
+}
+
+/** Describes an array type. */
+export interface ArrayDescriptor<T> extends TypeDescriptorBase {
+  readonly kind: "array";
+  /** Describes the type of the array items. */
+  readonly itemType: TypeDescriptor<
+    T extends ReadonlyArray<infer Item> ? Item : unknown
+  >;
+  readonly keyChain?: string;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Describes a Skir struct.
+ * The type parameter `T` refers to the generated frozen class for the struct.
+ */
+export interface StructDescriptor<T = unknown> extends TypeDescriptorBase {
+  readonly kind: "struct";
+  /** Name of the struct as specified in the '.skir' file. */
+  readonly name: string;
+  /**
+   * A string containing all the names in the hierarchic sequence above and
+   * including the struct. For example: "Foo.Bar" if "Bar" is nested within a
+   * type called "Foo", or simply "Bar" if "Bar" is defined at the top-level of
+   * the module.
+   */
+  readonly qualifiedName: string;
+  /**
+   * Path to the module where the struct is defined, relative to the root of the
+   * project.
+   */
+  readonly modulePath: string;
+  /**
+   * If the struct is nested within another type, the descriptor for that type.
+   * Undefined if the struct is defined at the top-level of the module.
+   */
+  readonly parentType: StructDescriptor | EnumDescriptor | undefined;
+  /** The fields of the struct in the order they appear in the '.skir' file. */
+  readonly fields: ReadonlyArray<StructField<T>>;
+  /** The field numbers marked as removed. */
+  readonly removedNumbers: ReadonlySet<number>;
+
+  /**
+   * Looks up a field. The key can be one of: the field name (e.g. "user_id");
+   * the name of the property in the generated class (e.g. "userId"), the field
+   * number.
+   *
+   * The return type is `StructField<T> | undefined` unless the key is known at
+   * compile-time to be the name of the property in the generated class, in
+   * which case it is `StructField<T>`.
+   */
+  getField<K extends string | number>(key: K): StructFieldResult<T, K>;
+
+  /**
+   * Returns a new instance of the generated mutable class for a struct.
+   * Performs a shallow copy of `initializer` if `initializer` is specified.
+   */
+  newMutable(initializer?: T | MutableForm<T>): MutableForm<T>;
+}
+
+/** Field of a Skir struct. */
+export interface StructField<Struct = unknown, Value = unknown> {
+  /** Field name as specified in the '.skir' file, e.g. "user_id". */
+  readonly name: string;
+  /** Name of the property in the generated class, e.g. "userId". */
+  readonly property: string;
+  /** Field number. */
+  readonly number: number;
+  /** Describes the field type. */
+  readonly type: TypeDescriptor<Value>;
+  /**
+   * Documentation for this struct field, specified as doc comments in the
+   * '.skir' file. May be empty.
+   */
+  doc: string;
+
+  /** Extracts the value of the field from the given struct. */
+  get(struct: Struct | MutableForm<Struct>): Value;
+  /** Assigns the given value to the field of the given struct. */
+  set(struct: MutableForm<Struct>, value: Value): void;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Return type of the `StructDescriptor.getField` method. If the argument is
+ * known at compile-time to be the name of a property of the generated class,
+ * resolves to `StructField<Struct>`. Otherwise, resolves to
+ * `StructField<Struct> | undefined`.
+ *
+ * @example <caption>The field is kown at compile-time</caption>
+ * const fieldNumber: number =
+ *   User.serializer.typeDescriptor.getField("userId").number;
+ *
+ * @example <caption>The field is not kown at compile-time</caption>
+ * const fieldNumber: number | undefined =
+ *   User.serializer.typeDescriptor.getField(variable)?.number;
+ */
+export type StructFieldResult<Struct, Key extends string | number> =
+  | StructField<Struct>
+  | (Struct extends _FrozenBase
+      ? Key extends keyof NonNullable<Struct[typeof _INITIALIZER]>
+        ? never
+        : undefined
+      : undefined);
+
+/** Describes a Skir enum. */
+export interface EnumDescriptor<T = unknown> extends TypeDescriptorBase {
+  readonly kind: "enum";
+  /** Name of the enum as specified in the '.skir' file. */
+  readonly name: string;
+  /**
+   * A string containing all the names in the hierarchic sequence above and
+   * including the enum. For example: "Foo.Bar" if "Bar" is nested within a type
+   * called "Foo", or simply "Bar" if "Bar" is defined at the top-level of the
+   * module.
+   */
+  readonly qualifiedName: string;
+  /**
+   * Path to the module where the enum is defined, relative to the root of the
+   * project.
+   */
+  readonly modulePath: string;
+  /**
+   * If the enum is nested within another type, the descriptor for that type.
+   * Undefined if the struct is defined at the top-level of the module.
+   */
+  readonly parentType: StructDescriptor | EnumDescriptor | undefined;
+  /**
+   * Includes the UNKNOWN variant, followed by the other variants in the order
+   * they appear in the '.skir' file.
+   */
+  readonly variants: ReadonlyArray<EnumVariant<T>>;
+  /** The variant numbers marked as removed. */
+  readonly removedNumbers: ReadonlySet<number>;
+
+  /**
+   * Looks up a variant. The key can be one of the variant name or the variant
+   * number.
+   *
+   * The return type is `EnumVariant<T> | undefined` unless the key is known at
+   * compile-time to be a variant name of the enum, in which case it is
+   * `EnumVariant<T>`.
+   */
+  getVariant<K extends string | number>(key: K): EnumVariantResult<T, K>;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Variant of a Skir enum. Variants which don't hold any value are called
+ * constant variants. Their name is always in UPPER_CASE. Variants which hold
+ * value of a given type are called wrapper variants, and their name is always
+ * in lower_case.
+ */
+export type EnumVariant<Enum = unknown> =
+  | EnumConstantVariant<Enum>
+  | EnumWrapperVariant<Enum, unknown>;
+
+/** Constant variant of a Skir enum. */
+export interface EnumConstantVariant<Enum = unknown> {
+  /**
+   * Variant name as specified in the '.skir' file, e.g. "MONDAY".
+   * Always in UPPER_CASE format.
+   */
+  readonly name: string;
+  /** Variant number. */
+  readonly number: number;
+  /** The instance of the generated class which corresponds to this variant. */
+  readonly constant: Enum;
+  /** Always undefined, unlike the `type` field of `EnumWrapperVariant`. */
+  readonly type?: undefined;
+  /**
+   * Documentation for this enum variant, specified as doc comments in the
+   * '.skir' file. May be empty.
+   */
+  readonly doc: string;
+}
+
+/** Wrapper variant of a Skir enum. */
+export interface EnumWrapperVariant<Enum = unknown, Value = unknown> {
+  /**
+   * Variant name as specified in the '.skir' file, e.g. "v4".
+   * Always in lower_case format.
+   */
+  readonly name: string;
+  /** Variant number. */
+  readonly number: number;
+  /** Describes the type of the value held by the variant. */
+  readonly type: TypeDescriptor<Value>;
+  /** Always undefined, unlike the `type` field of `EnumConstantVariant`. */
+  readonly constant?: undefined;
+  /**
+   * Documentation for this enum variant, specified as doc comments in the
+   * '.skir' file. May be empty.
+   */
+  readonly doc: string;
+
+  /**
+   * Extracts the value held by the given enum instance if it matches this
+   * enum variant. Returns undefined otherwise.
+   */
+  get(e: Enum): Value | unknown;
+  /**
+   * Returns a new enum instance matching this enum variant and holding the
+   * given value.
+   */
+  wrap(value: Value): Enum;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Return type of the `EnumDescriptor.getVariant` method. If the argument is
+ * known at compile-time to be the name of variant, resolves to
+ * `EnumVariant<Enum>`. Otherwise, resolves to
+ * `EnumVariant<Struct> | undefined`.
+ *
+ * @example <caption>The variant is known at compile-time</caption>
+ * const variantNumber: number =
+ *   Weekday.serializer.typeDescriptor.getVariant("MONDAY").number;
+ *
+ * @example <caption>The variant is not known at compile-time</caption>
+ * const variantNumber: number | undefined =
+ *   Weekday.serializer.typeDescriptor.getVariant(variable)?.number;
+ */
+export type EnumVariantResult<Enum, Key extends string | number> =
+  | EnumVariant<Enum>
+  | (Enum extends _EnumBase
+      ? Key extends Enum["union"]["kind"]
+        ? never
+        : undefined
+      : undefined);
+
+/**
+ * Identifies a procedure (the "P" in "RPC") on both the client side and the
+ * server side.
+ */
+export interface Method<Request, Response> {
+  /** Name of the procedure as specified in the '.skir' file. */
+  name: string;
+  /**
+   * A number which uniquely identifies this procedure.
+   * When it is not specified in the '.skir' file, it is obtained by hashing the
+   * procedure name.
+   */
+  number: number;
+  /** Serializer of request objects. */
+  requestSerializer: Serializer<Request>;
+  /** Serializer of response objects. */
+  responseSerializer: Serializer<Response>;
+  /**
+   * Documentation for this procedure, specified as doc comments in the '.skir'
+   * file. May be empty.
+   */
+  doc: string;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Interface implemented by both the frozen and mutable classes generated for a
+ * struct. `T` is always the generated frozen class.
+ */
+export interface Freezable<T> {
+  /**
+   * Returns a deeply-immutable object, either by making a copy of `this` if
+   * `this` is mutable, or by returning `this` as-is if `this` is already
+   * immutable.
+   */
+  toFrozen(): T;
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Implementation of serializers and type descriptors
+// =============================================================================
+
+/** JSON representation of a `TypeDescriptor`. */
+type TypeDefinition = {
+  type: TypeSignature;
+  records: readonly RecordDefinition[];
+};
+
+/** A type in the JSON representation of a `TypeDescriptor`. */
+type TypeSignature =
+  | {
+      kind: "optional";
+      value: TypeSignature;
+    }
+  | {
+      kind: "array";
+      value: {
+        item: TypeSignature;
+        key_extractor?: string;
+      };
+    }
+  | {
+      kind: "record";
+      value: string;
+    }
+  | {
+      kind: "primitive";
+      value: keyof PrimitiveTypes;
+    };
+
+/**
+ * Definition of a struct field in the JSON representation of a
+ * `TypeDescriptor`.
+ */
+type FieldDefinition = {
+  name: string;
+  type: TypeSignature;
+  number: number;
+  doc?: string;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Definition of an enum variant in the JSON representation of a
+ * `TypeDescriptor`.
+ */
+type VariantDefinition = {
+  name: string;
+  type?: TypeSignature;
+  number: number;
+  doc?: string;
+};
+
+/** Definition of a struct in the JSON representation of a `TypeDescriptor`. */
+type StructDefinition = {
+  kind: "struct";
+  id: string;
+  doc?: string;
+  fields: readonly FieldDefinition[];
+  removed_numbers?: readonly number[];
+};
+
+/** Definition of an enum in the JSON representation of a `TypeDescriptor`. */
+type EnumDefinition = {
+  kind: "enum";
+  id: string;
+  doc?: string;
+  variants: readonly VariantDefinition[];
+  removed_numbers?: readonly number[];
+};
+
+type RecordDefinition = StructDefinition | EnumDefinition;
+
+interface InternalSerializer<T = unknown> extends Serializer<T> {
+  readonly defaultValue: T;
+  isDefault(input: T): boolean;
+  decode(stream: InputStream): T;
+  encode(input: T, stream: OutputStream): void;
+  readonly typeSignature: TypeSignature;
+  addRecordDefinitionsTo(out: { [k: string]: RecordDefinition }): void;
+}
+
+/** Parameter of the {@link InternalSerializer.decode} method. */
+class InputStream {
+  constructor(
+    readonly buffer: ArrayBuffer,
+    keep?: "keep-unrecognized-values",
+  ) {
+    this.dataView = new DataView(buffer);
+    this.keepUnrecognizedValues = !!keep;
+  }
+
+  readonly dataView: DataView;
+  readonly keepUnrecognizedValues: boolean;
+  offset = 0;
+
+  readUint8(): number {
+    return this.dataView.getUint8(this.offset++);
+  }
+}
+
+type DecodeNumberFn = (stream: InputStream) => number | bigint;
+
+// For wires [232, 241]
+const DECODE_NUMBER_FNS: readonly DecodeNumberFn[] = [
+  (s: InputStream): number => s.dataView.getUint16((s.offset += 2) - 2, true),
+  (s: InputStream): number => s.dataView.getUint32((s.offset += 4) - 4, true),
+  (s: InputStream): bigint =>
+    s.dataView.getBigUint64((s.offset += 8) - 8, true),
+  (stream: InputStream): number => stream.readUint8() - 256,
+  (s: InputStream): number =>
+    s.dataView.getUint16((s.offset += 2) - 2, true) - 65536,
+  (s: InputStream): number => s.dataView.getInt32((s.offset += 4) - 4, true),
+  (s: InputStream): bigint => s.dataView.getBigInt64((s.offset += 8) - 8, true),
+  (s: InputStream): bigint => s.dataView.getBigInt64((s.offset += 8) - 8, true),
+  (s: InputStream): number => s.dataView.getFloat32((s.offset += 4) - 4, true),
+  (s: InputStream): number => s.dataView.getFloat64((s.offset += 8) - 8, true),
+];
+
+function decodeNumber(stream: InputStream): number | bigint {
+  const wire = stream.readUint8();
+  return wire < 232 ? wire : DECODE_NUMBER_FNS[wire - 232]!(stream);
+}
+
+function decodeBigInt(stream: InputStream): bigint {
+  const number = decodeNumber(stream);
+  return typeof number === "bigint" ? number : BigInt(Math.round(number));
+}
+
+/** Parameter of the {@link InternalSerializer.encode} method. */
+class OutputStream implements BinaryForm {
+  writeUint8(value: number): void {
+    const dataView = this.reserve(1);
+    dataView.setUint8(++this.offset - 1, value);
+  }
+
+  writeUint16(value: number): void {
+    const dataView = this.reserve(2);
+    dataView.setUint16((this.offset += 2) - 2, value, true);
+  }
+
+  writeUint32(value: number): void {
+    const dataView = this.reserve(4);
+    dataView.setUint32((this.offset += 4) - 4, value, true);
+  }
+
+  writeInt32(value: number): void {
+    const dataView = this.reserve(4);
+    dataView.setInt32((this.offset += 4) - 4, value, true);
+  }
+
+  writeHash64(value: bigint): void {
+    const dataView = this.reserve(8);
+    dataView.setBigUint64((this.offset += 8) - 8, value, true);
+  }
+
+  writeInt64(value: bigint): void {
+    const dataView = this.reserve(8);
+    dataView.setBigInt64((this.offset += 8) - 8, value, true);
+  }
+
+  writeFloat32(value: number): void {
+    const dataView = this.reserve(4);
+    dataView.setFloat32((this.offset += 4) - 4, value, true);
+  }
+
+  writeFloat64(value: number): void {
+    const dataView = this.reserve(8);
+    dataView.setFloat64((this.offset += 8) - 8, value, true);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Encodes the given string to UTF-8 and writes the bytes to this stream.
+   * Returns the number of bytes written.
+   */
+  putUtf8String(string: string): number {
+    // We do at most 3 writes:
+    //   - First, fill the current buffer as much as possible
+    //   - If there is not enough room, allocate a new buffer of N bytes, where
+    //       N is twice the number of remaining UTF-16 characters in the string,
+    //       and write to it. This new buffer is very likely to have enough
+    //       room.
+    //   - If there was not enough room, try again one last time.
+    //
+    // See https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/TextEncoder
+    let dataView: DataView = this.dataView;
+    let result = 0;
+    while (string) {
+      const encodeResult = textEncoder.encodeInto(
+        string,
+        new Uint8Array(dataView.buffer, this.offset),
+      );
+      this.offset += encodeResult.written;
+      result += encodeResult.written;
+      string = string.substring(encodeResult.read);
+      if (string) {
+        dataView = this.reserve(string.length * 2);
+      }
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  putBytes(bytes: ByteString): void {
+    // We do at most 2 writes:
+    //   - First, fill the current buffer as much as possible
+    //   - If there is not enough room, allocate a new buffer of N bytes, where
+    //       N is at least the number of bytes left in the byte string.
+    const { buffer } = this;
+    const bytesLeftInCurrentBuffer = buffer.byteLength - this.offset;
+    const head = ByteString.sliceOf(bytes, 0, bytesLeftInCurrentBuffer);
+    head.copyTo(buffer, this.offset);
+    this.offset += head.byteLength;
+    const remainingBytes = bytes.byteLength - head.byteLength;
+    if (remainingBytes <= 0) {
+      // Everything was written.
+      return;
+    }
+    const tail = ByteString.sliceOf(bytes, remainingBytes);
+    this.reserve(remainingBytes);
+    tail.copyTo(buffer, this.offset);
+    this.offset += remainingBytes;
+  }
+
+  finalize(): BinaryForm {
+    this.flush();
+    Object.freeze(this.pieces);
+    Object.freeze(this);
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  copyTo(target: ArrayBuffer, offset = 0): void {
+    const targetArea = new Uint8Array(target);
+    for (const piece of this.pieces) {
+      targetArea.set(piece, offset);
+      offset += piece.length;
+    }
+  }
+
+  toBuffer(): ArrayBuffer {
+    const result = new ArrayBuffer(this.byteLength);
+    this.copyTo(result);
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  /** Returns a data view with enough capacity for `bytes` more bytes. */
+  private reserve(bytes: number): DataView {
+    if (this.offset < this.buffer.byteLength - bytes) {
+      // Enough room in the current data view.
+      return this.dataView;
+    }
+    this.flush();
+    const lengthInBytes = Math.max(this.byteLength, bytes);
+    this.offset = 0;
+    this.buffer = new ArrayBuffer(lengthInBytes);
+    return (this.dataView = new DataView(this.buffer));
+  }
+
+  /** Adds the current buffer to `pieces`. Updates `byteLength` accordingly. */
+  private flush(): void {
+    const { offset } = this;
+    this.pieces.push(new Uint8Array(this.dataView.buffer, 0, offset));
+    this.byteLength += offset;
+  }
+
+  buffer = new ArrayBuffer(128);
+  dataView = new DataView(this.buffer);
+  offset = 0;
+  // The final binary form is the result of concatenating these arrays.
+  // The length of each array is approximately twice the length of the previous
+  // array.
+  private readonly pieces: Uint8Array[] = [];
+  // Updated each time `flush()` is called.
+  byteLength = 0;
+}
+
+function encodeUint32(length: number, stream: OutputStream): void {
+  if (length < 232) {
+    stream.writeUint8(length);
+  } else if (length < 65536) {
+    stream.writeUint8(232);
+    stream.writeUint16(length);
+  } else if (length < 4294967296) {
+    stream.writeUint8(233);
+    stream.writeUint32(length);
+  } else {
+    throw new Error(`max length exceeded: ${length}`);
+  }
+}
+
+abstract class AbstractSerializer<T> implements InternalSerializer<T> {
+  fromJsonCode(code: string, keep?: "keep-unrecognized-values"): T {
+    return this.fromJson(JSON.parse(code), keep);
+  }
+
+  fromBytes(bytes: ArrayBuffer, keep?: "keep-unrecognized-values"): T {
+    const inputStream = new InputStream(bytes, keep);
+    inputStream.offset = 4; // Skip the "skir" header.
+    return this.decode(inputStream);
+  }
+
+  toJsonCode(input: T, flavor?: JsonFlavor): string {
+    const indent = flavor === "readable" ? "  " : undefined;
+    return JSON.stringify(this.toJson(input, flavor), undefined, indent);
+  }
+
+  toBytes(input: T): BinaryForm {
+    const stream = new OutputStream();
+    stream.putUtf8String("skir");
+    this.encode(input, stream);
+    return stream.finalize();
+  }
+
+  // Default implementation; this behavior is not correct for all subclasses.
+  isDefault(input: T): boolean {
+    return !input;
+  }
+
+  get typeDescriptor(): TypeDescriptorSpecialization<T> {
+    return this as unknown as TypeDescriptorSpecialization<T>;
+  }
+
+  abstract readonly defaultValue: T;
+  abstract fromJson(json: Json, keep?: "keep-unrecognized-values"): T;
+  abstract toJson(input: T, flavor?: JsonFlavor): Json;
+  abstract decode(stream: InputStream): T;
+  abstract encode(input: T, stream: OutputStream): void;
+
+  abstract readonly typeSignature: TypeSignature;
+  abstract addRecordDefinitionsTo(out: { [k: string]: RecordDefinition }): void;
+
+  asJson(): Json {
+    const recordDefinitions: { [k: string]: RecordDefinition } = {};
+    this.addRecordDefinitionsTo(recordDefinitions);
+    const result: TypeDefinition = {
+      type: this.typeSignature,
+      records: Object.values(recordDefinitions),
+    };
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  asJsonCode(): string {
+    return JSON.stringify(this.asJson(), undefined, "  ");
+  }
+
+  transform(json_or_bytes: Json | ArrayBuffer, out: JsonFlavor): Json;
+  transform(json: Json, out: "bytes"): ArrayBuffer;
+  transform(
+    json_or_bytes: Json | ArrayBuffer,
+    out: JsonFlavor | "bytes",
+  ): Json | ArrayBuffer {
+    const decoded: T =
+      json_or_bytes instanceof ArrayBuffer
+        ? this.fromBytes(json_or_bytes)
+        : this.fromJson(json_or_bytes);
+    return out === "bytes"
+      ? this.toBytes(decoded).toBuffer()
+      : this.toJson(decoded, out);
+  }
+}
+
+// The UNKNOWN variant is common to all enums.
+const UNKNOWN_VARIANT_DEFINITION: VariantDefinition = {
+  name: "UNKNOWN",
+  number: 0,
+};
+
+/**
+ * Returns a `TypeDescriptor` from its JSON representation as returned by
+ * `asJson()`.
+ */
+export function parseTypeDescriptorFromJson(json: Json): TypeDescriptor {
+  const typeDefinition = json as TypeDefinition;
+
+  type RecordBundle = {
+    readonly definition: RecordDefinition;
+    readonly serializer: StructSerializerImpl<Json> | EnumSerializerImpl<Json>;
+  };
+  const recordBundles: { [k: string]: RecordBundle } = {};
+
+  // First loop: create the serializer for each record.
+  // It's not yet initialized.
+  for (const record of typeDefinition.records) {
+    let serializer: StructSerializerImpl<Json> | EnumSerializerImpl<Json>;
+    switch (record.kind) {
+      case "struct":
+        serializer = new StructSerializerImpl<Json>(
+          {},
+          (initializer: AnyRecord) => Object.freeze({ ...initializer }) as Json,
+          (() => ({})) as NewMutableFn<Json>,
+        );
+        break;
+      case "enum":
+        serializer = new EnumSerializerImpl<Json>((o: unknown) => {
+          if (o instanceof UnrecognizedEnum) {
+            return Object.freeze({ kind: "UNKNOWN" });
+          }
+          if (typeof o === "string") {
+            return Object.freeze({ kind: o }) as Json;
+          } else {
+            const kind = (o as AnyRecord).kind;
+            const value = (o as AnyRecord).value;
+            const ret = { kind, value } as Json;
+            return Object.freeze(ret);
+          }
+        });
+        break;
+    }
+    const recordBundle: RecordBundle = {
+      definition: record,
+      serializer: serializer,
+    };
+    recordBundles[record.id] = recordBundle;
+  }
+
+  function parse(ts: TypeSignature): InternalSerializer {
+    switch (ts.kind) {
+      case "array": {
+        const { item, key_extractor } = ts.value;
+        return new ArraySerializerImpl(parse(item), key_extractor);
+      }
+      case "optional":
+        return new OptionalSerializerImpl(parse(ts.value));
+      case "primitive":
+        return primitiveSerializer(ts.value) as InternalSerializer;
+      case "record": {
+        const recordId = ts.value;
+        return recordBundles[recordId]!.serializer;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Second loop: initialize each serializer.
+  const initOps: Array<() => void> = [];
+  for (const recordBundle of Object.values(recordBundles)) {
+    const { definition, serializer } = recordBundle;
+    const { defaultValue } = serializer;
+    const { id, removed_numbers } = definition;
+    const idParts = id.split(":");
+    const module = idParts[0]!;
+    const qualifiedName = idParts[1]!;
+    const nameParts = qualifiedName.split(".");
+    const name = nameParts[nameParts.length - 1]!;
+    const parentId = module + ":" + nameParts.slice(0, -1).join(".");
+    const parentType = recordBundles[parentId]?.serializer;
+    const doc = definition.doc ?? "";
+    switch (definition.kind) {
+      case "struct": {
+        const fields: StructFieldImpl[] = [];
+        for (const f of definition.fields) {
+          const fieldSerializer = parse(f.type!);
+          fields.push(
+            new StructFieldImpl(
+              f.name,
+              f.name,
+              f.number,
+              fieldSerializer,
+              f.doc ?? "",
+            ),
+          );
+          (defaultValue as AnyRecord)[f.name] = fieldSerializer.defaultValue;
+        }
+        const s = serializer as StructSerializerImpl<Json>;
+        initOps.push(() =>
+          s.init(name, module, parentType, doc, fields, removed_numbers ?? []),
+        );
+        break;
+      }
+      case "enum": {
+        const s = serializer as EnumSerializerImpl<Json>;
+        const variants = [UNKNOWN_VARIANT_DEFINITION]
+          .concat(definition.variants)
+          .map((f) =>
+            f.type
+              ? new EnumWrapperVariantImpl<Json>(
+                  f.name,
+                  f.number,
+                  parse(f.type),
+                  f.doc ?? "",
+                  serializer.createFn,
+                )
+              : ({
+                  name: f.name,
+                  number: f.number,
+                  constant: Object.freeze({ kind: f.name }),
+                  doc: f.doc ?? "",
+                } as EnumConstantVariant<Json>),
+          );
+        initOps.push(() =>
+          s.init(
+            name,
+            module,
+            parentType,
+            doc,
+            variants,
+            removed_numbers ?? [],
+          ),
+        );
+        break;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+  // We need to actually initialize the serializers *after* the default values
+  // were constructed, because `init` calls `freezeDeeply` and this might result
+  // in freezing the default of another serializer.
+  initOps.forEach((op) => op());
+
+  return parse(typeDefinition.type).typeDescriptor;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns a `TypeDescriptor` from its JSON code representation as returned by
+ * `asJsonCode()`.
+ */
+export function parseTypeDescriptorFromJsonCode(code: string): TypeDescriptor {
+  return parseTypeDescriptorFromJson(JSON.parse(code));
+}
+
+abstract class AbstractPrimitiveSerializer<P extends keyof PrimitiveTypes>
+  extends AbstractSerializer<PrimitiveTypes[P]>
+  implements PrimitiveDescriptor
+{
+  readonly kind = "primitive";
+
+  get typeSignature(): TypeSignature {
+    return {
+      kind: "primitive",
+      value: this.primitive,
+    };
+  }
+
+  addRecordDefinitionsTo(_out: { [k: string]: RecordDefinition }): void {}
+
+  abstract readonly primitive: P;
+}
+
+class BoolSerializer extends AbstractPrimitiveSerializer<"bool"> {
+  readonly primitive = "bool";
+  readonly defaultValue = false;
+
+  toJson(input: boolean, flavor?: JsonFlavor): boolean | number {
+    return flavor === "readable" ? !!input : input ? 1 : 0;
+  }
+
+  fromJson(json: Json): boolean {
+    return !!json && json !== "0";
+  }
+
+  encode(input: boolean, stream: OutputStream): void {
+    stream.writeUint8(input ? 1 : 0);
+  }
+
+  decode(stream: InputStream): boolean {
+    return !!decodeNumber(stream);
+  }
+}
+
+class Int32Serializer extends AbstractPrimitiveSerializer<"int32"> {
+  readonly primitive = "int32";
+  readonly defaultValue = 0;
+
+  toJson(input: number): number {
+    return input | 0;
+  }
+
+  fromJson(json: Json): number {
+    // `+value` will work if the input JSON value is a string, which is
+    // what the int64 serializer produces.
+    return +(json as number | string) | 0;
+  }
+
+  encode(input: number, stream: OutputStream): void {
+    if (input < 0) {
+      if (input >= -256) {
+        stream.writeUint8(235);
+        stream.writeUint8(input + 256);
+      } else if (input >= -65536) {
+        stream.writeUint8(236);
+        stream.writeUint16(input + 65536);
+      } else {
+        stream.writeUint8(237);
+        stream.writeInt32(input >= -2147483648 ? input : -2147483648);
+      }
+    } else if (input < 232) {
+      stream.writeUint8(input);
+    } else if (input < 65536) {
+      stream.writeUint8(232);
+      stream.writeUint16(input);
+    } else {
+      stream.writeUint8(233);
+      stream.writeUint32(input <= 2147483647 ? input : 2147483647);
+    }
+  }
+
+  decode(stream: InputStream): number {
+    return Number(decodeNumber(stream)) | 0;
+  }
+}
+
+const int32_Serializer = new Int32Serializer();
+
+abstract class FloatSerializer<
+  P extends "float32" | "float64",
+> extends AbstractPrimitiveSerializer<P> {
+  readonly defaultValue = 0;
+
+  toJson(input: number): number | string {
+    if (Number.isFinite(input)) {
+      return input;
+    } else if (typeof input === "number") {
+      // If the number is NaN or +/- Infinity, return a JSON string.
+      return input.toString();
+    }
+    throw new TypeError();
+  }
+
+  fromJson(json: Json): number {
+    return +(json as number | string);
+  }
+
+  decode(stream: InputStream): number {
+    return Number(decodeNumber(stream));
+  }
+
+  override isDefault(input: number): boolean {
+    // Needs to work for NaN.
+    return input === 0;
+  }
+}
+
+class Float32Serializer extends FloatSerializer<"float32"> {
+  readonly primitive = "float32";
+
+  encode(input: number, stream: OutputStream): void {
+    if (input === 0) {
+      stream.writeUint8(0);
+    } else {
+      stream.writeUint8(240);
+      stream.writeFloat32(input);
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+class Float64Serializer extends FloatSerializer<"float64"> {
+  readonly primitive = "float64";
+
+  encode(input: number, stream: OutputStream): void {
+    if (input === 0) {
+      stream.writeUint8(0);
+    } else {
+      stream.writeUint8(241);
+      stream.writeFloat64(input);
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+abstract class AbstractBigIntSerializer<
+  P extends "int64" | "hash64",
+> extends AbstractPrimitiveSerializer<P> {
+  readonly defaultValue = BigInt(0);
+
+  fromJson(json: Json): bigint {
+    try {
+      return BigInt(json as number | string);
+    } catch (e) {
+      if (typeof json === "number") {
+        return BigInt(Math.round(json));
+      } else {
+        throw e;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+const MIN_INT64 = BigInt("-9223372036854775808");
+const MAX_INT64 = BigInt("9223372036854775807");
+
+class Int64Serializer extends AbstractBigIntSerializer<"int64"> {
+  readonly primitive = "int64";
+
+  toJson(input: bigint): number | string {
+    // 9007199254740991 == Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER
+    if (-9007199254740991 <= input && input <= 9007199254740991) {
+      return Number(input);
+    }
+    const s = BigInt(input).toString();
+    // Clamp the number if it's out of bounds.
+    return s.length <= 18
+      ? // Small optimization for "small" numbers. The max int64 has 19 digits.
+        s
+      : input < MIN_INT64
+        ? MIN_INT64.toString()
+        : input < MAX_INT64
+          ? s
+          : MAX_INT64.toString();
+  }
+
+  encode(input: bigint, stream: OutputStream): void {
+    if (input) {
+      if (-2147483648 <= input && input <= 2147483647) {
+        int32_Serializer.encode(Number(input), stream);
+      } else {
+        stream.writeUint8(238);
+        // Clamp the number if it's out of bounds.
+        stream.writeInt64(
+          input < MIN_INT64 ? MIN_INT64 : input < MAX_INT64 ? input : MAX_INT64,
+        );
+      }
+    } else {
+      stream.writeUint8(0);
+    }
+  }
+
+  decode(stream: InputStream): bigint {
+    return decodeBigInt(stream);
+  }
+}
+
+const MAX_HASH64 = BigInt("18446744073709551615");
+
+class Hash64Serializer extends AbstractBigIntSerializer<"hash64"> {
+  readonly primitive = "hash64";
+
+  toJson(input: bigint): number | string {
+    if (input <= 9007199254740991) {
+      return input <= 0 ? 0 : Number(input);
+    }
+    input = BigInt(input);
+    return MAX_HASH64 < input ? MAX_HASH64.toString() : input.toString();
+  }
+
+  encode(input: bigint, stream: OutputStream): void {
+    if (input < 232) {
+      stream.writeUint8(input <= 0 ? 0 : Number(input));
+    } else if (input < 4294967296) {
+      if (input < 65536) {
+        stream.writeUint8(232);
+        stream.writeUint16(Number(input));
+      } else {
+        stream.writeUint8(233);
+        stream.writeUint32(Number(input));
+      }
+    } else {
+      stream.writeUint8(234);
+      stream.writeHash64(input <= MAX_HASH64 ? input : MAX_HASH64);
+    }
+  }
+
+  decode(stream: InputStream): bigint {
+    return decodeBigInt(stream);
+  }
+}
+
+type TimestampReadableJson = {
+  unix_millis: number;
+  formatted: string;
+};
+
+class TimestampSerializer extends AbstractPrimitiveSerializer<"timestamp"> {
+  readonly primitive = "timestamp";
+  readonly defaultValue = Timestamp.UNIX_EPOCH;
+
+  toJson(
+    input: Timestamp,
+    flavor?: JsonFlavor,
+  ): number | TimestampReadableJson {
+    return flavor === "readable"
+      ? {
+          unix_millis: input.unixMillis,
+          formatted: input.toDate().toISOString(),
+        }
+      : input.unixMillis;
+  }
+
+  fromJson(json: Json): Timestamp {
+    return Timestamp.fromUnixMillis(
+      typeof json === "number"
+        ? json
+        : typeof json === "string"
+          ? +json
+          : (json as TimestampReadableJson)["unix_millis"],
+    );
+  }
+
+  encode(input: Timestamp, stream: OutputStream): void {
+    const { unixMillis } = input;
+    if (unixMillis) {
+      stream.writeUint8(239);
+      stream.writeInt64(BigInt(unixMillis));
+    } else {
+      stream.writeUint8(0);
+    }
+  }
+
+  decode(stream: InputStream): Timestamp {
+    const unixMillis = decodeNumber(stream);
+    return Timestamp.fromUnixMillis(Number(unixMillis));
+  }
+
+  override isDefault(input: Timestamp): boolean {
+    return !input.unixMillis;
+  }
+}
+
+class StringSerializer extends AbstractPrimitiveSerializer<"string"> {
+  readonly primitive = "string";
+  readonly defaultValue = "";
+
+  toJson(input: string): string {
+    if (typeof input === "string") {
+      return input;
+    }
+    throw this.newTypeError(input);
+  }
+
+  fromJson(json: Json): string {
+    if (typeof json === "string") {
+      return json;
+    }
+    if (json === 0) {
+      return "";
+    }
+    throw this.newTypeError(json);
+  }
+
+  encode(input: string, stream: OutputStream): void {
+    if (!input) {
+      stream.writeUint8(242);
+      return;
+    }
+    stream.writeUint8(243);
+    // We don't know the length of the UTF-8 string until we actually encode the
+    // string. We just know that it's at most 3 times the length of the input
+    // string.
+    const maxEncodedLength = input.length * 3;
+    // Write zero in place of the UTF-8 sequence length. We will override this
+    // number later.
+    if (maxEncodedLength < 232) {
+      stream.writeUint8(0);
+    } else if (maxEncodedLength < 65536) {
+      stream.writeUint8(232);
+      stream.writeUint16(0);
+    } else {
+      stream.writeUint8(233);
+      stream.writeUint32(0);
+    }
+    const { dataView, offset } = stream;
+    // Write the UTF-8 string and record the number of bytes written.
+    const encodedLength = stream.putUtf8String(input);
+    // Write the length of the UTF-8 string where we wrote 0.
+    if (maxEncodedLength < 232) {
+      dataView.setUint8(offset - 1, encodedLength);
+    } else if (maxEncodedLength < 65536) {
+      dataView.setUint16(offset - 2, encodedLength, true);
+    } else {
+      dataView.setUint32(offset - 4, encodedLength, true);
+    }
+  }
+
+  decode(stream: InputStream): string {
+    const wire = stream.readUint8();
+    if (wire === 0 || wire === 242) {
+      return "";
+    }
+    const encodedLength = decodeNumber(stream) as number;
+    return textDecoder.decode(
+      new Uint8Array(
+        stream.buffer,
+        (stream.offset += encodedLength) - encodedLength,
+        encodedLength,
+      ),
+    );
+  }
+
+  private newTypeError(actual: unknown): TypeError {
+    return new TypeError(`expected: string; actual: ${typeof actual}`);
+  }
+}
+
+class ByteStringSerializer extends AbstractPrimitiveSerializer<"bytes"> {
+  readonly primitive = "bytes";
+  readonly defaultValue = ByteString.EMPTY;
+
+  toJson(input: ByteString, flavor?: JsonFlavor): string {
+    return flavor === "readable" ? "hex:" + input.toBase16() : input.toBase64();
+  }
+
+  fromJson(json: Json): ByteString {
+    if (json === 0) {
+      return ByteString.EMPTY;
+    }
+    const string = json as string;
+    return string.startsWith("hex:")
+      ? ByteString.fromBase16(string.substring(4))
+      : ByteString.fromBase64(string);
+  }
+
+  encode(input: ByteString, stream: OutputStream): void {
+    const { byteLength } = input;
+    if (byteLength) {
+      stream.writeUint8(245);
+      encodeUint32(byteLength, stream);
+      stream.putBytes(input);
+    } else {
+      stream.writeUint8(244);
+    }
+  }
+
+  decode(stream: InputStream): ByteString {
+    const wire = stream.readUint8();
+    if (wire === 0 || wire === 244) {
+      return ByteString.EMPTY;
+    }
+    const lengthInBytes = decodeNumber(stream) as number;
+    return ByteString.sliceOf(
+      stream.buffer,
+      stream.offset,
+      (stream.offset += lengthInBytes),
+    );
+  }
+
+  override isDefault(input: ByteString): boolean {
+    return !input.byteLength;
+  }
+}
+
+type AnyRecord = Record<string, unknown>;
+
+class StructFieldImpl<Struct = unknown, Value = unknown>
+  implements StructField<Struct, Value>
+{
+  constructor(
+    readonly name: string,
+    readonly property: string,
+    readonly number: number,
+    readonly serializer: InternalSerializer<Value>,
+    readonly doc: string,
+  ) {}
+
+  get type(): TypeDescriptor<Value> {
+    return this.serializer.typeDescriptor;
+  }
+
+  get(struct: Struct | MutableForm<Struct>): Value {
+    return Reflect.get(struct as AnyRecord, this.property) as Value;
+  }
+
+  set(struct: MutableForm<Struct>, value: Value): void {
+    Reflect.set(struct, this.property, value);
+  }
+}
+
+type EnumVariantImpl<Enum = unknown> =
+  | EnumConstantVariantImpl<Enum>
+  | EnumWrapperVariantImpl<Enum, unknown>;
+
+const textEncoder = new TextEncoder();
+const textDecoder = new TextDecoder();
+
+class ArraySerializerImpl<Item>
+  extends AbstractSerializer<readonly Item[]>
+  implements ArrayDescriptor<readonly Item[]>
+{
+  constructor(
+    readonly itemSerializer: InternalSerializer<Item>,
+    readonly keyExtractor?: string,
+  ) {
+    super();
+  }
+
+  readonly kind = "array";
+  readonly defaultValue = _EMPTY_ARRAY;
+
+  toJson(input: ReadonlyArray<Item>, flavor?: JsonFlavor): Json[] {
+    return input.map((e) => this.itemSerializer.toJson(e, flavor));
+  }
+
+  fromJson(json: Json, keep?: "keep-unrecognized-values"): ReadonlyArray<Item> {
+    if (json === 0) {
+      return _EMPTY_ARRAY;
+    }
+    return freezeArray(
+      (json as readonly Json[]).map((e) =>
+        this.itemSerializer.fromJson(e, keep),
+      ),
+    );
+  }
+
+  encode(input: ReadonlyArray<Item>, stream: OutputStream): void {
+    const { length } = input;
+    if (length <= 3) {
+      stream.writeUint8(246 + length);
+    } else {
+      stream.writeUint8(250);
+      encodeUint32(length, stream);
+    }
+    const { itemSerializer } = this;
+    for (let i = 0; i < input.length; ++i) {
+      itemSerializer.encode(input[i]!, stream);
+    }
+  }
+
+  decode(stream: InputStream): readonly Item[] {
+    const wire = stream.readUint8();
+    if (wire === 0 || wire === 246) {
+      return _EMPTY_ARRAY;
+    }
+    const length = wire === 250 ? (decodeNumber(stream) as number) : wire - 246;
+    const { itemSerializer } = this;
+    const result = new Array<Item>(length);
+    for (let i = 0; i < length; ++i) {
+      result[i] = itemSerializer.decode(stream);
+    }
+    return freezeArray(result);
+  }
+
+  override isDefault(input: ReadonlyArray<Item>): boolean {
+    return !input.length;
+  }
+
+  get itemType(): TypeDescriptor<Item> {
+    return this.itemSerializer.typeDescriptor;
+  }
+
+  get typeSignature(): TypeSignature {
+    return {
+      kind: "array",
+      value: {
+        item: this.itemSerializer.typeSignature,
+        key_extractor: this.keyExtractor,
+      },
+    };
+  }
+
+  addRecordDefinitionsTo(out: { [k: string]: RecordDefinition }): void {
+    this.itemSerializer.addRecordDefinitionsTo(out);
+  }
+}
+
+class OptionalSerializerImpl<Other>
+  extends AbstractSerializer<Other | null>
+  implements OptionalDescriptor<Other | null>
+{
+  constructor(readonly otherSerializer: InternalSerializer<Other>) {
+    super();
+  }
+
+  readonly kind = "optional";
+  readonly defaultValue = null;
+
+  toJson(input: Other, flavor?: JsonFlavor): Json {
+    return input !== null ? this.otherSerializer.toJson(input, flavor) : null;
+  }
+
+  fromJson(json: Json, keep?: "keep-unrecognized-values"): Other | null {
+    return json !== null ? this.otherSerializer.fromJson(json, keep) : null;
+  }
+
+  encode(input: Other | null, stream: OutputStream): void {
+    if (input === null) {
+      stream.writeUint8(255);
+    } else {
+      this.otherSerializer.encode(input, stream);
+    }
+  }
+
+  decode(stream: InputStream): Other | null {
+    const wire = stream.dataView.getUint8(stream.offset);
+    if (wire === 255) {
+      ++stream.offset;
+      return null;
+    }
+    return this.otherSerializer.decode(stream);
+  }
+
+  override isDefault(input: Other | null): boolean {
+    return input === null;
+  }
+
+  get otherType(): TypeDescriptor<NonNullable<Other>> {
+    return this.otherSerializer.typeDescriptor as TypeDescriptor<
+      NonNullable<Other>
+    >;
+  }
+
+  get typeSignature(): TypeSignature {
+    return {
+      kind: "optional",
+      value: this.otherSerializer.typeSignature,
+    };
+  }
+
+  addRecordDefinitionsTo(out: { [k: string]: RecordDefinition }): void {
+    this.otherSerializer.addRecordDefinitionsTo(out);
+  }
+}
+
+const primitiveSerializers: {
+  [P in keyof PrimitiveTypes]: Serializer<PrimitiveTypes[P]>;
+} = {
+  bool: new BoolSerializer(),
+  int32: int32_Serializer,
+  int64: new Int64Serializer(),
+  hash64: new Hash64Serializer(),
+  float32: new Float32Serializer(),
+  float64: new Float64Serializer(),
+  timestamp: new TimestampSerializer(),
+  string: new StringSerializer(),
+  bytes: new ByteStringSerializer(),
+};
+
+type NewMutableFn<Frozen> = (
+  initializer?: Frozen | MutableForm<Frozen>,
+) => MutableForm<Frozen>;
+
+function decodeUnused(stream: InputStream): void {
+  const wire = stream.readUint8();
+  if (wire < 232) {
+    return;
+  }
+  switch (wire - 232) {
+    case 0: // uint16
+    case 4: // uint16 - 65536
+      stream.offset += 2;
+      break;
+    case 1: // uint32
+    case 5: // int32
+    case 8: // float32
+      stream.offset += 4;
+      break;
+    case 2: // hash64
+    case 6: // int64
+    case 7: // hash64 timestamp
+    case 9: // float64
+      stream.offset += 8;
+      break;
+    case 3: // uint8 - 256
+      ++stream.offset;
+      break;
+    case 11: // string
+    case 13: {
+      // bytes
+      const length = decodeNumber(stream) as number;
+      stream.offset += length;
+      break;
+    }
+    case 15: // array length==1
+    case 19: // enum value kind==1
+    case 20: // enum value kind==2
+    case 21: // enum value kind==3
+    case 22: // enum value kind==4
+      decodeUnused(stream);
+      break;
+    case 16: // array length==2
+      decodeUnused(stream);
+      decodeUnused(stream);
+      break;
+    case 17: // array length==3
+      decodeUnused(stream);
+      decodeUnused(stream);
+      decodeUnused(stream);
+      break;
+    case 18: {
+      // array length==N
+      const length = decodeNumber(stream);
+      for (let i = 0; i < length; ++i) {
+        decodeUnused(stream);
+      }
+      break;
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+abstract class AbstractRecordSerializer<T, F> extends AbstractSerializer<T> {
+  /** Uniquely identifies this record serializer. */
+  readonly token: symbol = Symbol();
+  abstract kind: "struct" | "enum";
+  name = "";
+  modulePath = "";
+  parentType: StructDescriptor | EnumDescriptor | undefined;
+  doc = "";
+  removedNumbers = new Set<number>();
+  initialized?: true;
+
+  init(
+    name: string,
+    modulePath: string,
+    parentType: StructDescriptor | EnumDescriptor | undefined,
+    doc: string,
+    fieldsOrVariants: readonly F[],
+    removedNumbers: readonly number[],
+  ): void {
+    this.name = name;
+    this.modulePath = modulePath;
+    this.parentType = parentType;
+    this.doc = doc;
+    this.removedNumbers = new Set(removedNumbers);
+    this.registerFieldsOrVariants(fieldsOrVariants);
+    this.initialized = true;
+    freezeDeeply(this);
+  }
+
+  get qualifiedName(): string {
+    const { name, parentType } = this;
+    return parentType ? `${parentType.name}.${name}` : name;
+  }
+
+  abstract registerFieldsOrVariants(fieldsOrVariants: readonly F[]): void;
+
+  addRecordDefinitionsTo(out: { [k: string]: RecordDefinition }): void {
+    const recordId = `${this.modulePath}:${this.qualifiedName}`;
+    if (out[recordId]) {
+      return;
+    }
+    const recordDefinition = this.makeRecordDefinition(recordId);
+    if (this.doc) {
+      recordDefinition.doc = this.doc;
+    }
+    if (this.removedNumbers.size) {
+      recordDefinition.removed_numbers = [...this.removedNumbers];
+    }
+    out[recordId] = recordDefinition;
+    for (const dependency of this.dependencies()) {
+      dependency.addRecordDefinitionsTo(out);
+    }
+  }
+
+  abstract makeRecordDefinition(recordId: string): RecordDefinition;
+  abstract dependencies(): InternalSerializer[];
+}
+
+/** Unrecognized fields found when deserializing a struct. */
+class UnrecognizedFields {
+  constructor(
+    /** Uniquely identifies the struct. */
+    readonly token: symbol,
+    /** Total number of fields in the struct. */
+    readonly totalSlots: number,
+    readonly json?: ReadonlyArray<Json>,
+    readonly bytes?: ByteString,
+  ) {
+    Object.freeze(this);
+  }
+}
+
+class StructSerializerImpl<T = unknown>
+  extends AbstractRecordSerializer<T, StructFieldImpl<T>>
+  implements StructDescriptor<T>
+{
+  constructor(
+    readonly defaultValue: T,
+    readonly createFn: (initializer: AnyRecord) => T,
+    readonly newMutableFn: NewMutableFn<T>,
+  ) {
+    super();
+  }
+
+  readonly kind = "struct";
+  // Fields in the order they appear in the '.skir' file.
+  readonly fields: Array<StructFieldImpl<T>> = [];
+  readonly fieldMapping: { [key: string | number]: StructFieldImpl<T> } = {};
+  // Fields sorted by number in descending order.
+  private reversedFields: Array<StructFieldImpl<T>> = [];
+  // This is *not* a dense array, missing slots correspond to removed fields.
+  private readonly slots: Array<StructFieldImpl<T>> = [];
+  private recognizedSlots = 0;
+  // Contains one zero for every field number.
+  private readonly zeros: Json[] = [];
+  private readonly initializerTemplate: Record<string, unknown> = {};
+
+  toJson(input: T, flavor?: JsonFlavor): Json {
+    if (input === this.defaultValue) {
+      return flavor === "readable" ? {} : [];
+    }
+    if (flavor === "readable") {
+      const { fields } = this;
+      const result: { [name: string]: Json } = {};
+      for (const field of fields) {
+        const { serializer } = field;
+        const value = (input as AnyRecord)[field.property];
+        if (field.serializer.isDefault(value)) {
+          continue;
+        }
+        result[field.name] = serializer.toJson(value, flavor);
+      }
+      return result;
+    } else {
+      // Dense flavor.
+      const { slots } = this;
+      let result: Json[];
+      const unrecognizedFields = //
+        (input as AnyRecord)["^"] as UnrecognizedFields;
+      if (
+        unrecognizedFields &&
+        unrecognizedFields.json &&
+        unrecognizedFields.token === this.token
+      ) {
+        // We'll need to copy the unrecognized fields to the JSON.
+        result = this.zeros.concat(unrecognizedFields.json);
+        for (const field of this.fields) {
+          result[field.number] = field.serializer.toJson(
+            (input as AnyRecord)[field.property],
+            flavor,
+          );
+        }
+      } else {
+        result = [];
+        const arrayLength = this.getArrayLength(input);
+        for (let i = 0; i < arrayLength; ++i) {
+          const field = slots[i];
+          result[i] = field
+            ? field.serializer.toJson(
+                (input as AnyRecord)[field.property],
+                flavor,
+              )
+            : 0;
+        }
+      }
+      return result;
+    }
+  }
+
+  fromJson(json: Json, keep?: "keep-unrecognized-values"): T {
+    if (!json) {
+      return this.defaultValue;
+    }
+    const initializer = { ...this.initializerTemplate };
+    if (json instanceof Array) {
+      const { slots, recognizedSlots } = this;
+      // Dense flavor.
+      if (json.length > recognizedSlots) {
+        // We have some unrecognized fields.
+        if (keep) {
+          const unrecognizedFields = new UnrecognizedFields(
+            this.token,
+            json.length,
+            copyJson(json.slice(recognizedSlots)),
+          );
+          initializer["^"] = unrecognizedFields;
+        }
+        // Now that we have stored the unrecognized fields in `initializer`, we
+        // can remove them from `json`.
+        json = json.slice(0, recognizedSlots);
+      }
+      for (let i = 0; i < json.length && i < slots.length; ++i) {
+        const field = slots[i];
+        if (field) {
+          initializer[field.property] = field.serializer.fromJson(
+            json[i]!,
+            keep,
+          );
+        }
+        // Else the field was removed.
+      }
+      return this.createFn(initializer);
+    } else if (json instanceof Object) {
+      // Readable flavor.
+      const { fieldMapping } = this;
+      for (const name in json) {
+        const field = fieldMapping[name];
+        if (field) {
+          initializer[field.property] = field.serializer.fromJson(
+            json[name]!,
+            keep,
+          );
+        }
+      }
+      return this.createFn(initializer);
+    }
+    throw TypeError();
+  }
+
+  encode(input: T, stream: OutputStream): void {
+    // Total number of slots to write. Includes removed and unrecognized fields.
+    let totalSlots: number;
+    let recognizedSlots: number;
+    let unrecognizedBytes: ByteString | undefined;
+    const unrecognizedFields = (input as AnyRecord)["^"] as UnrecognizedFields;
+    if (
+      unrecognizedFields &&
+      unrecognizedFields.bytes &&
+      unrecognizedFields.token === this.token
+    ) {
+      totalSlots = unrecognizedFields.totalSlots;
+      recognizedSlots = this.recognizedSlots;
+      unrecognizedBytes = unrecognizedFields.bytes;
+    } else {
+      // No unrecognized fields.
+      totalSlots = recognizedSlots = this.getArrayLength(input);
+    }
+
+    if (totalSlots <= 3) {
+      stream.writeUint8(246 + totalSlots);
+    } else {
+      stream.writeUint8(250);
+      encodeUint32(totalSlots, stream);
+    }
+    const { slots } = this;
+    for (let i = 0; i < recognizedSlots; ++i) {
+      const field = slots[i];
+      if (field) {
+        field.serializer.encode((input as AnyRecord)[field.property], stream);
+      } else {
+        // Append '0' if the field was removed.
+        stream.writeUint8(0);
+      }
+    }
+    if (unrecognizedBytes) {
+      // Copy the unrecognized fields.
+      stream.putBytes(unrecognizedBytes);
+    }
+  }
+
+  decode(stream: InputStream): T {
+    const wire = stream.readUint8();
+    if (wire === 0 || wire === 246) {
+      return this.defaultValue;
+    }
+    const initializer = { ...this.initializerTemplate };
+    const encodedSlots =
+      wire === 250 ? (decodeNumber(stream) as number) : wire - 246;
+    const { slots, recognizedSlots } = this;
+    // Do not read more slots than the number of recognized slots.
+    for (let i = 0; i < encodedSlots && i < recognizedSlots; ++i) {
+      const field = slots[i];
+      if (field) {
+        initializer[field.property] = field.serializer.decode(stream);
+      } else {
+        // The field was removed.
+        decodeUnused(stream);
+      }
+    }
+    if (encodedSlots > recognizedSlots) {
+      // We have some unrecognized fields.
+      const start = stream.offset;
+      for (let i = recognizedSlots; i < encodedSlots; ++i) {
+        decodeUnused(stream);
+      }
+      if (stream.keepUnrecognizedValues) {
+        const end = stream.offset;
+        const unrecognizedBytes = ByteString.sliceOf(stream.buffer, start, end);
+        const unrecognizedFields = new UnrecognizedFields(
+          this.token,
+          encodedSlots,
+          undefined,
+          unrecognizedBytes,
+        );
+        initializer["^"] = unrecognizedFields;
+      }
+    }
+    return this.createFn(initializer);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Returns the length of the JSON array for the given input, which is also the
+   * number of slots and includes removed fields.
+   * Assumes that `input` does not contain unrecognized fields.
+   */
+  private getArrayLength(input: T): number {
+    const { reversedFields } = this;
+    for (let i = 0; i < reversedFields.length; ++i) {
+      const field = reversedFields[i]!;
+      const isDefault = //
+        field.serializer.isDefault((input as AnyRecord)[field.property]);
+      if (!isDefault) {
+        return field.number + 1;
+      }
+    }
+    return 0;
+  }
+
+  override isDefault(input: T): boolean {
+    if (input === this.defaultValue) {
+      return true;
+    }
+    // It's possible for a value of type T to be equal to T.DEFAULT but to not
+    // be the reference to T.DEFAULT.
+    if ((input as AnyRecord)["^"] as UnrecognizedFields) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    return this.fields.every((f) =>
+      f.serializer.isDefault((input as AnyRecord)[f.property]),
+    );
+  }
+
+  get typeSignature(): TypeSignature {
+    return {
+      kind: "record",
+      value: `${this.modulePath}:${this.qualifiedName}`,
+    };
+  }
+
+  getField<K extends string | number>(key: K): StructFieldResult<T, K> {
+    return this.fieldMapping[key]!;
+  }
+
+  newMutable(initializer?: T | MutableForm<T>): MutableForm<T> {
+    return this.newMutableFn(initializer);
+  }
+
+  registerFieldsOrVariants(fields: ReadonlyArray<StructFieldImpl<T>>): void {
+    for (const field of fields) {
+      const { name, number, property } = field;
+      this.fields.push(field);
+      this.slots[number] = field;
+      this.fieldMapping[name] = field;
+      this.fieldMapping[property] = field;
+      this.fieldMapping[number] = field;
+      this.initializerTemplate[property] = (this.defaultValue as AnyRecord)[
+        field.property
+      ];
+    }
+    // Removed numbers count as recognized slots.
+    this.recognizedSlots =
+      Math.max(this.slots.length - 1, ...this.removedNumbers) + 1;
+    this.zeros.push(...Array<Json>(this.recognizedSlots).fill(0));
+    this.reversedFields = [...this.fields].sort((a, b) => b.number - a.number);
+  }
+
+  makeRecordDefinition(recordId: string): StructDefinition {
+    return {
+      kind: "struct",
+      id: recordId,
+      doc: undefined,
+      fields: this.fields.map((f) => ({
+        name: f.name,
+        number: f.number,
+        type: f.serializer.typeSignature,
+        doc: emptyToUndefined(f.doc),
+      })),
+    };
+  }
+
+  dependencies(): InternalSerializer[] {
+    return this.fields.map((f) => f.serializer);
+  }
+}
+
+class UnrecognizedEnum {
+  constructor(
+    readonly token: symbol,
+    readonly json?: Json,
+    readonly bytes?: ByteString,
+  ) {
+    Object.freeze(this);
+  }
+}
+
+interface EnumConstantVariantImpl<Enum> extends EnumConstantVariant<Enum> {
+  readonly serializer?: undefined;
+}
+
+class EnumWrapperVariantImpl<Enum, Value = unknown> {
+  constructor(
+    readonly name: string,
+    readonly number: number,
+    readonly serializer: InternalSerializer<Value>,
+    readonly doc: string,
+    private createFn: (initializer: { kind: string; value: unknown }) => Enum,
+  ) {}
+
+  get type(): TypeDescriptor<Value> {
+    return this.serializer.typeDescriptor;
+  }
+
+  readonly constant?: undefined;
+
+  get(e: Enum): Value | undefined {
+    return (e as AnyRecord).kind === this.name
+      ? ((e as AnyRecord).value as Value)
+      : undefined;
+  }
+
+  wrap(value: Value): Enum {
+    return this.createFn({ kind: this.name, value: value });
+  }
+}
+
+class EnumSerializerImpl<T = unknown>
+  extends AbstractRecordSerializer<T, EnumVariantImpl<T>>
+  implements EnumDescriptor<T>
+{
+  constructor(readonly createFn: (initializer: unknown) => T) {
+    super();
+    this.defaultValue = createFn("UNKNOWN");
+  }
+
+  readonly kind = "enum";
+  readonly defaultValue: T;
+  readonly variants: EnumVariantImpl<T>[] = [];
+  private readonly variantMapping: {
+    [key: string | number]: EnumVariantImpl<T>;
+  } = {};
+
+  toJson(input: T, flavor?: JsonFlavor): Json {
+    const unrecognized = (input as AnyRecord)["^"] as
+      | UnrecognizedEnum
+      | undefined;
+    const kind = (input as AnyRecord).kind as string;
+    if (
+      kind === "UNKNOWN" &&
+      unrecognized &&
+      unrecognized.json &&
+      unrecognized.token === this.token
+    ) {
+      // Unrecognized variant.
+      return unrecognized.json;
+    }
+    if (kind === "UNKNOWN") {
+      return flavor === "readable" ? "unknown" : 0;
+    }
+    const variant = this.variantMapping[kind]!;
+    const { serializer } = variant;
+    if (serializer) {
+      const value = (input as AnyRecord).value;
+      if (flavor === "readable") {
+        return {
+          kind: variant.name,
+          value: serializer.toJson(value, flavor),
+        };
+      } else {
+        // Dense flavor.
+        return [variant.number, serializer.toJson(value, flavor)];
+      }
+    } else {
+      // A constant variant.
+      return flavor === "readable"
+        ? variant.name.toLowerCase()
+        : variant.number;
+    }
+  }
+
+  fromJson(json: Json, keep?: "keep-unrecognized-values"): T {
+    const isNumber = typeof json === "number";
+    if (isNumber || typeof json === "string") {
+      const variant = this.variantMapping[isNumber ? json : String(json)];
+      if (!variant) {
+        // Check if the variant was removed, in which case we want to return
+        // UNKNOWN, or is unrecognized.
+        return !keep || (isNumber && this.removedNumbers.has(json))
+          ? this.defaultValue
+          : this.createFn(new UnrecognizedEnum(this.token, copyJson(json)));
+      }
+      if (variant.serializer) {
+        // A constant variant became a wrapper variant.
+        return variant.wrap(variant.serializer.defaultValue);
+      }
+      return variant.constant;
+    }
+    let variantKey: number | string;
+    let valueAsJson: Json;
+    if (json instanceof Array) {
+      variantKey = json[0] as number;
+      valueAsJson = json[1]!;
+    } else if (json instanceof Object) {
+      variantKey = json["kind"] as string;
+      valueAsJson = json["value"]!;
+    } else {
+      throw TypeError();
+    }
+    const variant = this.variantMapping[variantKey];
+    if (!variant) {
+      // Check if the variant was removed, in which case we want to return
+      // UNKNOWN, or is unrecognized.
+      return !keep ||
+        (typeof variantKey === "number" && this.removedNumbers.has(variantKey))
+        ? this.defaultValue
+        : this.createFn(
+            new UnrecognizedEnum(this.token, copyJson(json), undefined),
+          );
+    }
+    const { serializer } = variant;
+    if (!serializer) {
+      // A wrapper variant became a constant variant.
+      return variant.constant;
+    }
+    return variant.wrap(serializer.fromJson(valueAsJson, keep));
+  }
+
+  encode(input: T, stream: OutputStream): void {
+    const unrecognized = //
+      (input as AnyRecord)["^"] as UnrecognizedEnum | undefined;
+    const kind = (input as AnyRecord).kind as string;
+    if (
+      kind === "UNKNOWN" &&
+      unrecognized &&
+      unrecognized.bytes &&
+      unrecognized.token === this.token
+    ) {
+      // Unrecognized variant.
+      stream.putBytes(unrecognized.bytes);
+      return;
+    }
+    if (kind === "UNKNOWN") {
+      stream.writeUint8(0);
+      return;
+    }
+    const variant = this.variantMapping[kind]!;
+    const { number, serializer } = variant;
+    if (serializer) {
+      // A wrapper variant.
+      const value = (input as AnyRecord).value;
+      if (number < 5) {
+        // The number can't be 0 or else kind == "UNKNOWN".
+        stream.writeUint8(250 + number);
+      } else {
+        stream.writeUint8(248);
+        encodeUint32(number, stream);
+      }
+      serializer.encode(value, stream);
+    } else {
+      // A constant variant.
+      encodeUint32(number, stream);
+    }
+  }
+
+  decode(stream: InputStream): T {
+    const startOffset = stream.offset;
+    const wire = stream.dataView.getUint8(startOffset);
+    if (wire < 242) {
+      // A number
+      const number = decodeNumber(stream) as number;
+      const variant = this.variantMapping[number];
+      if (!variant) {
+        // Check if the variant was removed, in which case we want to return
+        // UNKNOWN, or is unrecognized.
+        if (!stream.keepUnrecognizedValues || this.removedNumbers.has(number)) {
+          return this.defaultValue;
+        } else {
+          const { offset } = stream;
+          const bytes = ByteString.sliceOf(stream.buffer, startOffset, offset);
+          return this.createFn(
+            new UnrecognizedEnum(this.token, undefined, bytes),
+          );
+        }
+      }
+      if (variant.serializer) {
+        // A constant variant became a wrapper variant.
+        return variant.wrap(variant.serializer.defaultValue);
+      }
+      return variant.constant;
+    } else {
+      ++stream.offset;
+      const number =
+        wire === 248 ? (decodeNumber(stream) as number) : wire - 250;
+      const variant = this.variantMapping[number];
+      if (!variant) {
+        decodeUnused(stream);
+        // Check if the variant was removed, in which case we want to return
+        // UNKNOWN, or is unrecognized.
+        if (!stream.keepUnrecognizedValues || this.removedNumbers.has(number)) {
+          return this.defaultValue;
+        } else {
+          const { offset } = stream;
+          const bytes = ByteString.sliceOf(stream.buffer, startOffset, offset);
+          return this.createFn(
+            new UnrecognizedEnum(this.token, undefined, bytes),
+          );
+        }
+      }
+      const { serializer } = variant;
+      if (!serializer) {
+        decodeUnused(stream);
+        // A wrapper variant became a constant variant.
+        return variant.constant;
+      }
+      return variant.wrap(serializer.decode(stream));
+    }
+  }
+
+  get typeSignature(): TypeSignature {
+    return {
+      kind: "record",
+      value: `${this.modulePath}:${this.qualifiedName}`,
+    };
+  }
+
+  override isDefault(input: T): boolean {
+    type Kinded = { kind: string };
+    return (input as Kinded).kind === "UNKNOWN" && !(input as AnyRecord)["^"];
+  }
+
+  getVariant<K extends string | number>(key: K): EnumVariantResult<T, K> {
+    return this.variantMapping[key]!;
+  }
+
+  registerFieldsOrVariants(variants: ReadonlyArray<EnumVariantImpl<T>>): void {
+    for (const variant of variants) {
+      this.variants.push(variant);
+      this.variantMapping[variant.name] = variant;
+      // Register case aliases for constant variants so that both UPPER_CASE
+      // and lower_case names are accepted when parsing readable JSON.
+      if (variant.serializer === undefined) {
+        const nameUpper = variant.name.toUpperCase();
+        if (nameUpper !== variant.name) {
+          this.variantMapping[nameUpper] = variant;
+        }
+        const nameLower = variant.name.toLowerCase();
+        if (nameLower !== variant.name) {
+          this.variantMapping[nameLower] = variant;
+        }
+      }
+      this.variantMapping[variant.number] = variant;
+    }
+  }
+
+  makeRecordDefinition(recordId: string): EnumDefinition {
+    return {
+      kind: "enum",
+      id: recordId,
+      doc: undefined,
+      variants: this.variants
+        // Skip the UNKNOWN variant.
+        .filter((f) => f.number)
+        .map((f) => {
+          const result = {
+            name: f.name.toLowerCase(),
+            number: f.number,
+            doc: emptyToUndefined(f.doc),
+          };
+          const type = f?.serializer?.typeSignature;
+          return type ? { ...result, type: type } : result;
+        }),
+    };
+  }
+
+  dependencies(): InternalSerializer[] {
+    const result: InternalSerializer[] = [];
+    for (const f of this.variants) {
+      if (f.serializer) {
+        result.push(f.serializer);
+      }
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+}
+
+function copyJson(input: readonly Json[]): Json[];
+function copyJson(input: Json): Json;
+function copyJson(input: Json): Json {
+  if (input instanceof Array) {
+    return Object.freeze(input.map(copyJson));
+  } else if (input instanceof Object) {
+    return Object.freeze(
+      Object.fromEntries(Object.entries(input).map((k, v) => [k, copyJson(v)])),
+    );
+  }
+  // A boolean, a number, a string or null.
+  return input;
+}
+
+function freezeDeeply(o: unknown): void {
+  if (!(o instanceof Object)) {
+    return;
+  }
+  if (o instanceof _FrozenBase || o instanceof _EnumBase) {
+    return;
+  }
+  if (o instanceof AbstractRecordSerializer && !o.initialized) {
+    return;
+  }
+  if (Object.isFrozen(o)) {
+    return;
+  }
+  Object.freeze(o);
+  for (const v of Object.values(o)) {
+    freezeDeeply(v);
+  }
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Frozen arrays
+// =============================================================================
+
+interface FrozenArrayInfo {
+  keyFnToIndexing?: Map<unknown, Map<unknown, unknown>>;
+}
+
+const frozenArrayRegistry = new WeakMap<
+  ReadonlyArray<unknown>,
+  FrozenArrayInfo
+>();
+
+function freezeArray<T>(array: readonly T[]): readonly T[] {
+  if (!frozenArrayRegistry.has(array)) {
+    frozenArrayRegistry.set(Object.freeze(array), {});
+  }
+  return array;
+}
+
+export const _EMPTY_ARRAY = freezeArray([]);
+
+export function _toFrozenArray<T, Initializer>(
+  initializers: readonly Initializer[],
+  itemToFrozenFn?: (item: Initializer) => T,
+): readonly T[] {
+  if (!initializers.length) {
+    return _EMPTY_ARRAY;
+  }
+  if (frozenArrayRegistry.has(initializers)) {
+    // No need to make a copy: the given array is already deeply-frozen.
+    return initializers as unknown as readonly T[];
+  }
+  const ret = Object.freeze(
+    itemToFrozenFn
+      ? initializers.map(itemToFrozenFn)
+      : (initializers.slice() as unknown as readonly T[]),
+  );
+  frozenArrayRegistry.set(ret, {});
+  return ret;
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Shared implementation of generated classes
+// =============================================================================
+
+export declare const _INITIALIZER: unique symbol;
+
+const PRIVATE_KEY: unique symbol = Symbol();
+
+function forPrivateUseError(t: unknown): Error {
+  const clazz = Object.getPrototypeOf(t).constructor as AnyRecord;
+  const { qualifiedName } = clazz.serializer as StructDescriptor;
+  return Error(
+    [
+      "Do not call the constructor directly; ",
+      `instead, call ${qualifiedName}.create(...)`,
+    ].join(""),
+  );
+}
+
+export abstract class _FrozenBase {
+  protected constructor(privateKey: symbol) {
+    if (privateKey !== PRIVATE_KEY) {
+      throw forPrivateUseError(this);
+    }
+  }
+
+  toMutable(): unknown {
+    return new (Object.getPrototypeOf(this).constructor.Mutable)(this);
+  }
+
+  toFrozen(): this {
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  toString(): string {
+    return toStringImpl(this);
+  }
+
+  declare [_INITIALIZER]: unknown;
+}
+
+export abstract class _EnumBase {
+  protected constructor(
+    privateKey: symbol,
+    kind: string,
+    value: unknown,
+    unrecognized?: UnrecognizedEnum,
+  ) {
+    if (privateKey !== PRIVATE_KEY) {
+      throw forPrivateUseError(this);
+    }
+    (this as AnyRecord).kind = kind;
+    (this as AnyRecord).value = value;
+    if (unrecognized) {
+      if (!(unrecognized instanceof UnrecognizedEnum)) {
+        throw new TypeError();
+      }
+      (this as AnyRecord)["^"] = unrecognized;
+    }
+    Object.freeze(this);
+  }
+
+  declare readonly union: {
+    kind: unknown;
+    value: unknown;
+  };
+
+  toString(): string {
+    return toStringImpl(this);
+  }
+}
+
+// The TypeScript compiler complains if we define the property within the class.
+Object.defineProperty(_EnumBase.prototype, "union", {
+  get: function () {
+    return this;
+  },
+});
+
+function toStringImpl<T>(value: T): string {
+  const serializer = Object.getPrototypeOf(value).constructor
+    .serializer as InternalSerializer<T>;
+  return serializer.toJsonCode(value, "readable");
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// SkirRPC services
+// =============================================================================
+
+/** Metadata of an HTTP request sent by a service client. */
+export type RequestMeta = Omit<RequestInit, "body" | "method">;
+
+/** Wire format used for SkirRPC HTTP request and response bodies. */
+export type TransportCodec = "legacy" | "cbor";
+
+/** Configuration options for a SkirRPC service client. */
+export interface ServiceClientOptions {
+  /**
+   * Codec used for RPC request and response bodies.
+   *
+   * Defaults to `legacy`, which preserves the original Skir colon-separated
+   * request body and JSON response body.
+   */
+  transportCodec?: TransportCodec;
+}
+
+export type RawRequestBody = string | Uint8Array | ArrayBuffer;
+
+function encodeCborJson(value: Json): Uint8Array {
+  const encoded = encodeCbor(value);
+  return new Uint8Array(encoded.buffer, encoded.byteOffset, encoded.byteLength);
+}
+
+function decodeCborJson(value: Uint8Array | ArrayBuffer): Json {
+  const bytes = value instanceof Uint8Array ? value : new Uint8Array(value);
+  return decodeCbor(bytes) as Json;
+}
+
+function normalizeHeaders(headers: RequestInit["headers"]): Headers {
+  return new Headers(headers);
+}
+
+/** Sends RPCs to a SkirRPC service. */
+export class ServiceClient {
+  constructor(
+    private readonly serviceUrl: string,
+    private readonly getRequestMetadata: (
+      m: Method<unknown, unknown>,
+    ) => Promise<RequestMeta> | RequestMeta = (): RequestMeta => ({}),
+    private readonly options: ServiceClientOptions = {},
+  ) {
+    const url = new URL(serviceUrl);
+    if (url.search) {
+      throw new Error("Service URL must not contain a query string");
+    }
+  }
+
+  /** Invokes the given method on the remote server through an RPC. */
+  async invokeRemote<Request, Response>(
+    method: Method<Request, Response>,
+    request: Request,
+    httpMethod: "GET" | "POST" = "POST",
+  ): Promise<Response> {
+    const requestInit: RequestInit = {
+      ...(await Promise.resolve(this.getRequestMetadata(method))),
+    };
+    const url = new URL(this.serviceUrl);
+    requestInit.method = httpMethod;
+
+    if (this.options.transportCodec === "cbor") {
+      if (httpMethod !== "POST") {
+        throw new Error("CBOR transport only supports POST requests");
+      }
+
+      const headers = normalizeHeaders(requestInit.headers);
+      headers.set("Content-Type", "application/cbor");
+      headers.set("Accept", "application/cbor");
+      requestInit.headers = headers;
+      requestInit.body = encodeCborJson({
+        method: method.name,
+        request: method.requestSerializer.toJson(request, "dense"),
+      });
+    } else {
+      const requestJson = method.requestSerializer.toJsonCode(request);
+      const requestBody = [method.name, method.number, "", requestJson].join(
+        ":",
+      );
+      if (httpMethod === "POST") {
+        requestInit.body = requestBody;
+      } else {
+        url.search = requestBody.replace(/%/g, "%25");
+      }
+    }
+
+    const httpResponse = await fetch(url, requestInit);
+    const responseData = await httpResponse.blob();
+    if (httpResponse.ok) {
+      if (this.options.transportCodec === "cbor") {
+        return method.responseSerializer.fromJson(
+          decodeCborJson(await responseData.arrayBuffer()),
+          "keep-unrecognized-values",
+        );
+      } else {
+        const jsonCode = await responseData.text();
+        return method.responseSerializer.fromJsonCode(
+          jsonCode,
+          "keep-unrecognized-values",
+        );
+      }
+    } else {
+      let message = "";
+      if (/text\/plain\b/.test(responseData.type)) {
+        message = `: ${await responseData.text()}`;
+      }
+      throw new Error(`HTTP status ${httpResponse.status}${message}`);
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+/** Raw response returned by the server. */
+export interface RawResponse {
+  readonly data: string | Uint8Array;
+  readonly statusCode: number;
+  readonly contentType: string;
+}
+
+function makeOkJsonResponse(data: string): RawResponse {
+  return {
+    data: data,
+    statusCode: 200,
+    contentType: "application/json",
+  };
+}
+
+function makeOkCborResponse(data: Json): RawResponse {
+  return {
+    data: encodeCborJson(data),
+    statusCode: 200,
+    contentType: "application/cbor",
+  };
+}
+
+function makeOkHtmlResponse(data: string): RawResponse {
+  return {
+    data: data,
+    statusCode: 200,
+    contentType: "text/html; charset=utf-8",
+  };
+}
+
+function makeBadRequestResponse(data: string): RawResponse {
+  return {
+    data: data,
+    statusCode: 400,
+    contentType: "text/plain; charset=utf-8",
+  };
+}
+
+function makeServerErrorResponse(data: string, statusCode = 500): RawResponse {
+  return {
+    data: data,
+    statusCode: statusCode,
+    contentType: "text/plain; charset=utf-8",
+  };
+}
+
+function getStudioHtml(studioAppJsUrl: string): string {
+  // Copied from
+  //   https://github.com/gepheum/skir-studio/blob/main/index.jsdeliver.html
+
+  // 'studioAppJsUrl' is produced by new URL(...).toString() so it can't contain
+  // any special characters that need escaping in HTML.
+  return `<!DOCTYPE html>
+
+<html>
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8" />
+    <title>RPC Studio</title>
+    <link rel="icon" href="data:image/svg+xml,<svg xmlns=%22http://www.w3.org/2000/svg%22 viewBox=%220 0 100 100%22><text y=%22.9em%22 font-size=%2290%22>🐙</text></svg>">
+    <script src="${studioAppJsUrl}"></script>
+  </head>
+  <body style="margin: 0; padding: 0;">
+    <skir-studio-app></skir-studio-app>
+  </body>
+</html>
+`;
+}
+
+/**
+ * If this error is thrown from a method implementation, the specified status
+ * code and message will be returned in the HTTP response.
+ *
+ * If any other type of exception is thrown, the response status code will be
+ * 500 (Internal Server Error).
+ */
+export class ServiceError extends Error {
+  constructor(
+    private readonly spec:
+      | {
+          statusCode: 400;
+          desc: "Bad Request";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 401;
+          desc: "Unauthorized";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 402;
+          desc: "Payment Required";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 403;
+          desc: "Forbidden";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 404;
+          desc: "Not Found";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 405;
+          desc: "Method Not Allowed";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 406;
+          desc: "Not Acceptable";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 407;
+          desc: "Proxy Authentication Required";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 408;
+          desc: "Request Timeout";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 409;
+          desc: "Conflict";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 410;
+          desc: "Gone";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 411;
+          desc: "Length Required";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 412;
+          desc: "Precondition Failed";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 413;
+          desc: "Content Too Large";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 414;
+          desc: "URI Too Long";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 415;
+          desc: "Unsupported Media Type";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 416;
+          desc: "Range Not Satisfiable";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 417;
+          desc: "Expectation Failed";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 418;
+          desc: "I'm a teapot";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 421;
+          desc: "Misdirected Request";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 422;
+          desc: "Unprocessable Content";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 423;
+          desc: "Locked";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 424;
+          desc: "Failed Dependency";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 425;
+          desc: "Too Early";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 426;
+          desc: "Upgrade Required";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 428;
+          desc: "Precondition Required";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 429;
+          desc: "Too Many Requests";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 431;
+          desc: "Request Header Fields Too Large";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 451;
+          desc: "Unavailable For Legal Reasons";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 500;
+          desc: "Internal Server Error";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 501;
+          desc: "Not Implemented";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 502;
+          desc: "Bad Gateway";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 503;
+          desc: "Service Unavailable";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 504;
+          desc: "Gateway Timeout";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 505;
+          desc: "HTTP Version Not Supported";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 506;
+          desc: "Variant Also Negotiates";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 507;
+          desc: "Insufficient Storage";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 508;
+          desc: "Loop Detected";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 510;
+          desc: "Not Extended";
+          message?: string;
+        }
+      | {
+          statusCode: 511;
+          desc: "Network Authentication Required";
+          message?: string;
+        },
+  ) {
+    super(spec.message ?? spec.desc);
+  }
+
+  toRawResponse(): RawResponse {
+    return makeServerErrorResponse(
+      this.spec.message ?? this.spec.desc,
+      this.spec.statusCode,
+    );
+  }
+}
+
+export interface RequestHandler<RequestMeta = ExpressRequest> {
+  /**
+   * Parses the content of a user request and invokes the appropriate method.
+   * If you are using ExpressJS as your web application framework, you don't
+   * need to call this method, you can simply call the
+   * `installServiceOnExpressApp()` top-level function.
+   *
+   * If the request is a GET request, pass in the decoded query string as the
+   * request's body. The query string is the part of the URL after '?', and it
+   * can be decoded with DecodeURIComponent.
+   */
+  handleRequest(
+    reqBody: RawRequestBody,
+    reqMeta: RequestMeta,
+  ): Promise<RawResponse>;
+}
+
+/** Configuration options for a SkirRPC service. */
+export interface ServiceOptions<RequestMeta = ExpressRequest> {
+  /**
+   * Codec used for RPC request and response bodies.
+   *
+   * Defaults to `legacy`, which accepts the original Skir colon-separated
+   * string and JSON-object request formats and returns JSON responses.
+   */
+  transportCodec: TransportCodec;
+
+  /**
+   * Whether to keep unrecognized values when deserializing requests.
+   *
+   * **WARNING:** Only enable this for data from trusted sources. Malicious
+   * actors could inject fields with IDs not yet defined in your schema. If you
+   * preserve this data and later define those IDs in a future schema version,
+   * the injected data could be deserialized as valid fields, leading to
+   * security vulnerabilities or data corruption.
+   *
+   * Defaults to `false`.
+   */
+  keepUnrecognizedValues: boolean;
+
+  /**
+   * Whether the message of an unknown error (i.e. not a `ServiceError`) can be
+   * sent to the client in the response body, which can help with debugging.
+   *
+   * By default, unknown errors are masked and the client receives a generic
+   * 'server error' message with status 500. This is to prevent leaking
+   * sensitive information to the client.
+   *
+   * You can enable this if your server is internal or if you are sure that your
+   * error messages are safe to expose. By passing a predicate instead of true
+   * or false, you can control on a per-error basis whether to expose the error
+   * message; for example, you can send error messages only if the user is an
+   * admin.
+   *
+   * Defaults to `false`.
+   */
+  canSendUnknownErrorMessage:
+    | boolean
+    | ((errorInfo: MethodErrorInfo<RequestMeta, unknown>) => boolean);
+
+  /**
+   * Callback invoked whenever an error is thrown during method execution.
+   *
+   * Use this to log errors for monitoring, debugging, or alerting purposes.
+   *
+   * Defaults to function which logs the method name and error message via
+   * `console.error()`.
+   */
+  errorLogger: (errorInfo: MethodErrorInfo<RequestMeta, unknown>) => void;
+
+  /**
+   * URL to the JavaScript file for the Skir Studio app.
+   *
+   * Skir Studio is a web interface for exploring and testing your SkirRPC service.
+   * It is served when the service receives a request at '${serviceUrl}?studio'.
+   */
+  studioAppJsUrl: string;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Information about an error thrown during the execution of a method on the
+ * server side.
+ */
+interface MethodErrorInfo<RequestMeta, Request> {
+  /** The error thrown during the execution of the method. */
+  readonly error: any;
+  readonly method: Method<Request, unknown>;
+  readonly request: Request;
+  /**
+   * Metadata coming from the HTTP headers of the request.
+   * Undefined if the error was thrown in the execution of the function passed
+   * to `withMetaTransformer()`.
+   */
+  readonly reqMeta: RequestMeta | undefined;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Implementation of a SkirRPC service.
+ *
+ * Usage: call `.addMethod()` to register methods, then install the service on
+ * an HTTP server either by:
+ *   - calling the `installServiceOnExpressApp()` top-level function if you are
+ *       using ExpressJS
+ *   - writing your own implementation of `installServiceOn*()` which calls
+ *       `.handleRequest()` if you are using another web application framework
+ *
+ * ## Handling Request Metadata
+ *
+ * The `RequestMeta` type parameter specifies what metadata (authentication,
+ * headers, etc.) your method implementations receive. There are two approaches:
+ *
+ * ### Approach 1: Use the framework's request type directly
+ *
+ * Set `RequestMeta` to your framework's request type (e.g., `ExpressRequest`).
+ * All method implementations will receive the full framework request object.
+ *
+ * ```typescript
+ * const service = new Service<ExpressRequest>();
+ * service.addMethod(myMethod, async (req, expressReq) => {
+ *   const isAdmin = expressReq.user?.role === 'admin';
+ *   // ...
+ * });
+ * installServiceOnExpressApp(app, '/api', service, text, json);
+ * ```
+ *
+ * ### Approach 2: Use a simplified custom type
+ *
+ * Set `RequestMeta` to a minimal type containing only what your service needs.
+ * Use `withMetaTransformer()` to extract this data from the framework request
+ * when installing the service.
+ *
+ * ```typescript
+ * const service = new Service<{ isAdmin: boolean }>();
+ * service.addMethod(myMethod, async (req, { isAdmin }) => {
+ *   // Implementation is framework-agnostic and easy to unit test
+ *   if (!isAdmin) throw new ServiceError({ statusCode: 403, desc: "Forbidden" });
+ *   // ...
+ * });
+ *
+ * // Adapt to Express when installing
+ * const handler = service.withMetaTransformer((req: ExpressRequest) => ({
+ *   isAdmin: req.user?.role === 'admin'
+ * }));
+ * installServiceOnExpressApp(app, '/api', handler, text, json);
+ * ```
+ *
+ * This approach decouples your service from the HTTP framework, making it easier
+ * to test and clearer about what request data it actually uses.
+ */
+export class Service<RequestMeta = ExpressRequest>
+  implements RequestHandler<RequestMeta>
+{
+  constructor(options?: Partial<ServiceOptions<RequestMeta>>) {
+    this.options = {
+      transportCodec:
+        options?.transportCodec ?? DEFAULT_SERVICE_OPTIONS.transportCodec,
+      keepUnrecognizedValues:
+        options?.keepUnrecognizedValues ??
+        DEFAULT_SERVICE_OPTIONS.keepUnrecognizedValues,
+      canSendUnknownErrorMessage:
+        options?.canSendUnknownErrorMessage ??
+        DEFAULT_SERVICE_OPTIONS.canSendUnknownErrorMessage,
+      errorLogger: options?.errorLogger ?? DEFAULT_SERVICE_OPTIONS.errorLogger,
+      studioAppJsUrl: new URL(
+        options?.studioAppJsUrl ?? DEFAULT_SERVICE_OPTIONS.studioAppJsUrl,
+      ).toString(),
+    };
+  }
+
+  addMethod<Request, Response>(
+    method: Method<Request, Response>,
+    impl: (req: Request, reqMeta: RequestMeta) => Promise<Response>,
+  ): Service<RequestMeta> {
+    const { number } = method;
+    if (this.methodImpls[number]) {
+      throw new Error(
+        `Method with the same number already registered (${number})`,
+      );
+    }
+    this.methodImpls[number] = {
+      method: method,
+      impl: impl,
+    } as MethodImpl<unknown, unknown, RequestMeta>;
+    return this;
+  }
+
+  async handleRequest(
+    reqBody: RawRequestBody,
+    reqMeta: RequestMeta,
+  ): Promise<RawResponse> {
+    return this.doHandleRequest(reqBody, reqMeta, (m) => m);
+  }
+
+  private async doHandleRequest<OriginalRequestMeta>(
+    reqBody: RawRequestBody,
+    originalReqMeta: OriginalRequestMeta,
+    transformReqMeta: (
+      m: OriginalRequestMeta,
+    ) => RequestMeta | Promise<RequestMeta>,
+  ): Promise<RawResponse> {
+    if (typeof reqBody === "string" && reqBody === "list") {
+      const json = {
+        methods: Object.values(this.methodImpls).map((methodImpl) => ({
+          method: methodImpl.method.name,
+          number: methodImpl.method.name,
+          request: methodImpl.method.requestSerializer.typeDescriptor.asJson(),
+          response:
+            methodImpl.method.responseSerializer.typeDescriptor.asJson(),
+          doc: emptyToUndefined(methodImpl.method.doc),
+        })),
+      };
+      const jsonCode = JSON.stringify(json, undefined, "  ");
+      return makeOkJsonResponse(jsonCode);
+    } else if (
+      typeof reqBody === "string" &&
+      (reqBody === "" || reqBody === "studio")
+    ) {
+      const studioHtml = getStudioHtml(this.options.studioAppJsUrl);
+      return makeOkHtmlResponse(studioHtml);
+    }
+
+    // Parse request
+    let methodName: string;
+    let methodNumber: number | undefined;
+    let format: string;
+    let requestData: ["json", Json] | ["json-code", string];
+
+    if (this.options.transportCodec === "cbor") {
+      if (typeof reqBody === "string") {
+        return makeBadRequestResponse("bad request: invalid CBOR");
+      }
+
+      let reqBodyJson: Json;
+      try {
+        reqBodyJson = decodeCborJson(reqBody);
+      } catch (_e) {
+        return makeBadRequestResponse("bad request: invalid CBOR");
+      }
+
+      if (
+        typeof reqBodyJson !== "object" ||
+        reqBodyJson === null ||
+        Array.isArray(reqBodyJson)
+      ) {
+        return makeBadRequestResponse("bad request: CBOR body must be a map");
+      }
+
+      const methodField = (reqBodyJson as AnyRecord)["method"];
+      if (methodField === undefined) {
+        return makeBadRequestResponse(
+          "bad request: missing 'method' field in CBOR",
+        );
+      }
+      if (typeof methodField === "string") {
+        methodName = methodField;
+        methodNumber = undefined;
+      } else if (typeof methodField === "number") {
+        methodName = "?";
+        methodNumber = methodField;
+      } else {
+        return makeBadRequestResponse(
+          "bad request: 'method' field must be a string or a number",
+        );
+      }
+      format = "cbor";
+      const requestField = (reqBodyJson as AnyRecord)["request"];
+      if (requestField === undefined) {
+        return makeBadRequestResponse(
+          "bad request: missing 'request' field in CBOR",
+        );
+      }
+      requestData = ["json", requestField as Json];
+    } else if (typeof reqBody !== "string") {
+      return makeBadRequestResponse("bad request: invalid request format");
+    } else {
+      const firstChar = reqBody.charAt(0);
+      if (/\s/.test(firstChar) || firstChar === "{") {
+        // A JSON object
+        let reqBodyJson: Json;
+        try {
+          reqBodyJson = JSON.parse(reqBody);
+        } catch (_e) {
+          return makeBadRequestResponse("bad request: invalid JSON");
+        }
+        const methodField = (reqBodyJson as AnyRecord)["method"];
+        if (methodField === undefined) {
+          return makeBadRequestResponse(
+            "bad request: missing 'method' field in JSON",
+          );
+        }
+        if (typeof methodField === "string") {
+          methodName = methodField;
+          methodNumber = undefined;
+        } else if (typeof methodField === "number") {
+          methodName = "?";
+          methodNumber = methodField;
+        } else {
+          return makeBadRequestResponse(
+            "bad request: 'method' field must be a string or a number",
+          );
+        }
+        format = "readable";
+        const requestField = (reqBodyJson as AnyRecord)["request"];
+        if (requestField === undefined) {
+          return makeBadRequestResponse(
+            "bad request: missing 'request' field in JSON",
+          );
+        }
+        requestData = ["json", requestField as Json];
+      } else {
+        // A colon-separated string
+        const match = reqBody.match(/^([^:]*):([^:]*):([^:]*):([\S\s]*)$/);
+        if (!match) {
+          return makeBadRequestResponse("bad request: invalid request format");
+        }
+        methodName = match[1]!;
+        const methodNumberStr = match[2]!;
+        format = match[3]!;
+        requestData = ["json-code", match[4]!];
+
+        if (methodNumberStr) {
+          if (!/^-?[0-9]+$/.test(methodNumberStr)) {
+            return makeBadRequestResponse(
+              "bad request: can't parse method number",
+            );
+          }
+          methodNumber = parseInt(methodNumberStr);
+        } else {
+          methodNumber = undefined;
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    // Look up method by number or name
+    if (methodNumber === undefined) {
+      // Try to get the method number by name
+      const allMethods = Object.values(this.methodImpls);
+      const nameMatches = allMethods.filter(
+        (m) => m.method.name === methodName,
+      );
+      if (nameMatches.length === 0) {
+        return makeBadRequestResponse(
+          `bad request: method not found: ${methodName}`,
+        );
+      } else if (nameMatches.length > 1) {
+        return makeBadRequestResponse(
+          `bad request: method name '${methodName}' is ambiguous; use method number instead`,
+        );
+      }
+      methodNumber = nameMatches[0]!.method.number;
+    }
+
+    const methodImpl = this.methodImpls[methodNumber];
+    if (!methodImpl) {
+      return makeBadRequestResponse(
+        `bad request: method not found: ${methodName}; number: ${methodNumber}`,
+      );
+    }
+
+    let req: unknown;
+    try {
+      if (requestData[0] == "json") {
+        req = methodImpl.method.requestSerializer.fromJson(
+          requestData[1],
+          this.options.keepUnrecognizedValues
+            ? "keep-unrecognized-values"
+            : undefined,
+        );
+      } else {
+        req = methodImpl.method.requestSerializer.fromJsonCode(
+          requestData[1],
+          this.options.keepUnrecognizedValues
+            ? "keep-unrecognized-values"
+            : undefined,
+        );
+      }
+    } catch (e) {
+      return makeBadRequestResponse(`bad request: can't parse JSON: ${e}`);
+    }
+
+    let res: unknown;
+    let reqMeta: RequestMeta | undefined;
+    try {
+      reqMeta = await Promise.resolve(transformReqMeta(originalReqMeta));
+      res = await methodImpl.impl(req, reqMeta);
+    } catch (e) {
+      const errorInfo: MethodErrorInfo<RequestMeta, unknown> = {
+        error: e,
+        method: methodImpl.method,
+        request: req,
+        reqMeta: reqMeta,
+      };
+      this.options.errorLogger(errorInfo);
+      if (e instanceof ServiceError) {
+        return e.toRawResponse();
+      } else {
+        let { canSendUnknownErrorMessage } = this.options;
+        if (typeof canSendUnknownErrorMessage !== "boolean") {
+          canSendUnknownErrorMessage = canSendUnknownErrorMessage(errorInfo);
+        }
+        const message = canSendUnknownErrorMessage
+          ? `server error: ${e}`
+          : "server error";
+        return makeServerErrorResponse(message);
+      }
+    }
+
+    let resJson: Json | string;
+    try {
+      const flavor = format === "readable" ? "readable" : "dense";
+      resJson =
+        format === "cbor"
+          ? methodImpl.method.responseSerializer.toJson(res, "dense")
+          : methodImpl.method.responseSerializer.toJsonCode(res, flavor);
+    } catch (e) {
+      return makeServerErrorResponse(
+        `server error: can't serialize response to JSON: ${e}`,
+      );
+    }
+
+    return format === "cbor"
+      ? makeOkCborResponse(resJson as Json)
+      : makeOkJsonResponse(resJson as string);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Creates a request handler that extracts simplified request metadata from
+   * framework-specific request objects before passing it to this service.
+   *
+   * This decouples your service implementation from the HTTP framework, making
+   * it easier to unit test (tests don't need to mock framework objects) and
+   * making the service implementation clearer by explicitly declaring exactly
+   * what request data it needs.
+   *
+   * @param transformFn Function that extracts the necessary data from the
+   *   framework-specific request object. Can be async or sync.
+   * @returns A request handler that accepts the framework-specific request type.
+   *
+   * @example
+   * ```typescript
+   * // Define a service that only needs to know if the user is an admin
+   *
+   * const service = new Service<{ isAdmin: boolean }>();
+   *
+   * service.addMethod(myMethod, async (req, { isAdmin }) => {
+   *   // Implementation is framework-agnostic and easy to test
+   *   if (!isAdmin) throw new ServiceError({ statusCode: 403, desc: "Forbidden" });
+   *   // ...
+   * });
+   *
+   * // Adapt it to work with Express
+   * const expressHandler = service.withMetaTransformer(
+   *   (req: ExpressRequest) => ({
+   *     isAdmin: req.user?.role === 'admin'
+   *   })
+   * );
+   * installServiceOnExpressApp(app, '/api', expressHandler, text, json);
+   * ```
+   */
+  withMetaTransformer<OriginalRequestMeta>(
+    transformFn: (
+      reqMeta: OriginalRequestMeta,
+    ) => RequestMeta | Promise<RequestMeta>,
+  ): RequestHandler<OriginalRequestMeta> {
+    return {
+      handleRequest: async (
+        reqBody: RawRequestBody,
+        reqMeta: OriginalRequestMeta,
+      ): Promise<RawResponse> => {
+        return this.doHandleRequest(reqBody, reqMeta, transformFn);
+      },
+    };
+  }
+
+  private readonly options: ServiceOptions<RequestMeta>;
+  private readonly methodImpls: {
+    [number: number]: MethodImpl<unknown, unknown, RequestMeta>;
+  } = {};
+}
+
+const DEFAULT_SERVICE_OPTIONS: ServiceOptions<unknown> = {
+  transportCodec: "legacy",
+  keepUnrecognizedValues: false,
+  canSendUnknownErrorMessage: false,
+  errorLogger: (errorInfo: MethodErrorInfo<unknown, unknown>) => {
+    console.error(`Error in method ${errorInfo.method.name}:`, errorInfo.error);
+  },
+  studioAppJsUrl:
+    "https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/skir-studio/dist/skir-studio-standalone.js",
+};
+
+interface MethodImpl<Request, Response, RequestMeta> {
+  method: Method<Request, Response>;
+  impl: (req: Request, reqMeta: RequestMeta) => Promise<Response>;
+}
+
+export function installServiceOnExpressApp(
+  app: ExpressApp,
+  queryPath: string,
+  service: RequestHandler<ExpressRequest>,
+  text: typeof ExpressText,
+  json: typeof ExpressJson,
+  raw?: typeof ExpressRaw,
+): void {
+  const callback = async (
+    req: ExpressRequest,
+    res: ExpressResponse,
+  ): Promise<void> => {
+    let body: RawRequestBody;
+    const indexOfQuestionMark = req.originalUrl.indexOf("?");
+    if (indexOfQuestionMark >= 0) {
+      const queryString = req.originalUrl.substring(indexOfQuestionMark + 1);
+      body = decodeURIComponent(queryString);
+    } else {
+      body =
+        req.body instanceof Uint8Array
+          ? req.body
+          : typeof req.body === "string"
+            ? req.body
+            : typeof req.body === "object"
+              ? JSON.stringify(req.body)
+              : "";
+    }
+    const rawResponse = await service.handleRequest(body, req);
+    res
+      .status(rawResponse.statusCode)
+      .contentType(rawResponse.contentType)
+      .send(rawResponse.data);
+  };
+  app.get(queryPath, callback);
+  const middleware = raw
+    ? [text(), json(), raw({ type: "application/cbor" }), callback]
+    : [text(), json(), callback];
+  app.post(queryPath, ...middleware);
+}
+
+// =============================================================================
+// Module classes initialization
+// =============================================================================
+
+interface StructSpec {
+  kind: "struct";
+  ctor: { new (privateKey: symbol): unknown };
+  initFn: (target: unknown, initializer: unknown) => void;
+  name: string;
+  parentCtor?: { new (): unknown };
+  doc?: string;
+  fields: readonly StructFieldSpec[];
+  removedNumbers?: readonly number[];
+}
+
+interface StructFieldSpec {
+  name: string;
+  property: string;
+  number: number;
+  type: TypeSpec;
+  doc?: string;
+  mutableGetter?: string;
+  indexable?: IndexableSpec;
+}
+
+interface IndexableSpec {
+  searchMethod: string;
+  keyFn: (v: unknown) => unknown;
+  keyToHashable?: (v: unknown) => unknown;
+}
+
+interface EnumSpec<Enum = unknown> {
+  kind: "enum";
+  ctor: {
+    new (
+      privateKey: symbol,
+      kind: string,
+      value?: unknown,
+      unrecognized?: UnrecognizedEnum,
+    ): Enum;
+  };
+  createValueFn?: (initializer: unknown) => unknown;
+  name: string;
+  parentCtor?: { new (): unknown };
+  doc?: string;
+  variants: EnumVariantSpec[];
+  removedNumbers?: readonly number[];
+}
+
+interface EnumVariantSpec {
+  name: string;
+  number: number;
+  type?: TypeSpec;
+  doc?: string;
+}
+
+type TypeSpec =
+  | {
+      kind: "optional";
+      other: TypeSpec;
+    }
+  | {
+      kind: "array";
+      item: TypeSpec;
+      keyChain?: string;
+    }
+  | {
+      kind: "record";
+      ctor: { new (): unknown };
+    }
+  | {
+      kind: "primitive";
+      primitive: keyof PrimitiveTypes;
+    };
+
+// The UNKNOWN variant is common to all enums.
+const UNKNOWN_VARIANT_SPEC: EnumVariantSpec = {
+  name: "UNKNOWN",
+  number: 0,
+};
+
+export function _initModuleClasses(
+  modulePath: string,
+  records: ReadonlyArray<StructSpec | EnumSpec>,
+): void {
+  const privateKey = PRIVATE_KEY;
+
+  // First loop: add a serializer property to every record class.
+  for (const record of records) {
+    const clazz = record.ctor as unknown as AnyRecord;
+    switch (record.kind) {
+      case "struct": {
+        const { ctor, initFn } = record;
+        // Create the DEFAULT value. It will be initialized in a second loop.
+        // To see why we can't initialize it in the first loop, consider this
+        // example:
+        //   struct Foo { bar: Bar; }
+        //   struct Bar { foo: Foo; }
+        // The default value for Foo must contain a reference to the default
+        // value for Bar, and the default value for Bar also needs to contain
+        // a reference to the default value for Foo.
+        clazz.DEFAULT = new ctor(privateKey);
+        // Expose the mutable class as a static property of the frozen class.
+        const mutableCtor = makeMutableClassForRecord(record, clazz.DEFAULT);
+        clazz.Mutable = mutableCtor;
+        // Define the 'create' static factory function.
+        const createFn = (initializer: unknown): unknown => {
+          if (initializer instanceof ctor) {
+            return initializer;
+          }
+          const ret = new ctor(privateKey);
+          initFn(ret, initializer);
+          if ((initializer as AnyRecord)["^"]) {
+            (ret as AnyRecord)["^"] = (initializer as AnyRecord)["^"];
+          }
+          return Object.freeze(ret);
+        };
+        clazz.create = createFn;
+        // Create the serializer. It will be initialized in a second loop.
+        clazz.serializer = new StructSerializerImpl(
+          clazz.DEFAULT,
+          createFn as (initializer: AnyRecord) => unknown,
+          () => new mutableCtor() as Freezable<unknown>,
+        );
+        break;
+      }
+      case "enum": {
+        // Create the constants.
+        // Prepend the UNKNOWN variant to the array of variants specified from the
+        // generated code.
+        record.variants = [UNKNOWN_VARIANT_SPEC].concat(record.variants);
+        for (const variant of record.variants) {
+          if (variant.type) {
+            continue;
+          }
+          const property = variant.name;
+          clazz[property] = new record.ctor(PRIVATE_KEY, variant.name);
+        }
+        // Define the 'create' static factory function.
+        const createFn = makeCreateEnumFunction(record);
+        clazz.create = createFn;
+        // Create the serializer. It will be initialized in a second loop.
+        clazz.serializer = new EnumSerializerImpl(createFn);
+        break;
+      }
+    }
+    // If the record is nested, expose the record class as a static property of
+    // the parent class.
+    if (record.parentCtor) {
+      (record.parentCtor as unknown as AnyRecord)[record.name] = record.ctor;
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Second loop: initialize the serializer of every record, initialize the
+  // default value of every struct, and freeze every class so new properties
+  // can't be added to it.
+  for (const record of records) {
+    const clazz = record.ctor as unknown as AnyRecord;
+    const parentTypeDescriptor = (record.parentCtor as unknown as AnyRecord)
+      ?.serializer as StructDescriptor | EnumDescriptor | undefined;
+    switch (record.kind) {
+      case "struct": {
+        // Initializer serializer.
+        const fields = record.fields.map(
+          (f) =>
+            new StructFieldImpl(
+              f.name,
+              f.property,
+              f.number,
+              getSerializerForType(f.type) as InternalSerializer,
+              f.doc ?? "",
+            ),
+        );
+        const serializer = clazz.serializer as StructSerializerImpl;
+        serializer.init(
+          record.name,
+          modulePath,
+          parentTypeDescriptor,
+          record.doc ?? "",
+          fields,
+          record.removedNumbers ?? [],
+        );
+        // Initialize DEFAULT.
+        const { DEFAULT } = clazz;
+        record.initFn(DEFAULT as AnyRecord, {});
+        Object.freeze(DEFAULT);
+        // Define the mutable getters in the Mutable class.
+        const mutableCtor = clazz.Mutable as new (i: unknown) => unknown;
+        for (const field of record.fields) {
+          if (field.mutableGetter) {
+            Object.defineProperty(mutableCtor.prototype, field.mutableGetter, {
+              get: makeMutableGetterFn(field),
+            });
+          }
+        }
+        // Define the search methods in the frozen class.
+        for (const field of record.fields) {
+          if (field.indexable) {
+            record.ctor.prototype[field.indexable.searchMethod] =
+              makeSearchMethod(field);
+          }
+        }
+        // Freeze the frozen class and the mutable class.
+        Object.freeze(record.ctor);
+        Object.freeze(record.ctor.prototype);
+        Object.freeze(clazz.Mutable);
+        Object.freeze((clazz.Mutable as AnyRecord).prototype);
+        break;
+      }
+      case "enum": {
+        const serializer = clazz.serializer as EnumSerializerImpl;
+        const variants = record.variants.map((f) =>
+          f.type
+            ? new EnumWrapperVariantImpl(
+                f.name,
+                f.number,
+                getSerializerForType(f.type) as InternalSerializer,
+                f.doc ?? "",
+                serializer.createFn,
+              )
+            : {
+                name: f.name,
+                number: f.number,
+                constant: clazz[f.name],
+                doc: f.doc ?? "",
+              },
+        );
+        serializer.init(
+          record.name,
+          modulePath,
+          parentTypeDescriptor,
+          record.doc ?? "",
+          variants,
+          record.removedNumbers ?? [],
+        );
+        // Freeze the enum class.
+        Object.freeze(record.ctor);
+        Object.freeze(record.ctor.prototype);
+        break;
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+function makeCreateEnumFunction(
+  enumSpec: EnumSpec,
+): (initializer: unknown) => unknown {
+  const { ctor, createValueFn } = enumSpec;
+  const createValue = createValueFn || ((): undefined => undefined);
+  const privateKey = PRIVATE_KEY;
+  return (initializer: unknown) => {
+    if (initializer instanceof ctor) {
+      return initializer;
+    }
+    if (typeof initializer === "string") {
+      const maybeResult = (ctor as unknown as AnyRecord)[initializer];
+      if (maybeResult instanceof ctor) {
+        return maybeResult;
+      }
+      throw new Error(`Constant not found: ${initializer}`);
+    }
+    if (initializer instanceof UnrecognizedEnum) {
+      return new ctor(privateKey, "UNKNOWN", undefined, initializer);
+    }
+    const kind = (initializer as { kind: string }).kind;
+    if (kind === undefined) {
+      throw new Error("Missing entry: kind");
+    }
+    const unrecognized = (initializer as AnyRecord)["^"] as
+      | UnrecognizedEnum
+      | undefined;
+    const value = createValue(initializer);
+    if (value === undefined) {
+      const maybeConstant = (ctor as unknown as AnyRecord)[kind];
+      if (!(maybeConstant instanceof ctor)) {
+        throw new Error(`Wrapper variant not found: ${kind}`);
+      }
+      return unrecognized
+        ? new ctor(privateKey, kind, undefined, unrecognized)
+        : maybeConstant;
+    }
+    return new ctor(privateKey, kind, value, unrecognized);
+  };
+}
+
+function makeMutableClassForRecord(
+  structSpec: StructSpec,
+  defaultFrozen: unknown,
+): new (initializer?: unknown) => unknown {
+  const { ctor: frozenCtor, initFn } = structSpec;
+  const frozenClass = frozenCtor as unknown as AnyRecord;
+  class Mutable {
+    constructor(initializer: unknown = defaultFrozen) {
+      initFn(this, initializer);
+      if ((initializer as AnyRecord)["^"]) {
+        (this as AnyRecord)["^"] = (initializer as AnyRecord)["^"];
+      }
+      Object.seal(this);
+    }
+
+    toFrozen(): unknown {
+      return (frozenClass.create as (i: unknown) => unknown)(this);
+    }
+
+    toString(): string {
+      const serializer = frozenClass.serializer as Serializer<unknown>;
+      return serializer.toJsonCode(this, "readable");
+    }
+  }
+  return Mutable;
+}
+
+function getSerializerForType(type: TypeSpec): Serializer<unknown> {
+  switch (type.kind) {
+    case "array":
+      return arraySerializer(getSerializerForType(type.item), type.keyChain);
+    case "optional":
+      return optionalSerializer(getSerializerForType(type.other));
+    case "primitive":
+      return primitiveSerializer(type.primitive);
+    case "record":
+      return (type.ctor as unknown as AnyRecord)
+        .serializer as Serializer<unknown>;
+  }
+}
+
+// The `mutableArray()` getter of the Mutable class returns `this.array` if and
+// only if `mutableArray()` was never called before or if `this.array` is the
+// last value returned by `mutableArray()`.
+// Otherwise, it makes a mutable copy of `this.array`, assigns it to
+// `this.array` and returns it.
+const arraysReturnedByMutableGetters = new WeakMap<
+  ReadonlyArray<unknown>,
+  unknown
+>();
+
+function makeMutableGetterFn(field: StructFieldSpec): () => unknown {
+  const { property, type } = field;
+  switch (type.kind) {
+    case "array": {
+      class Class {
+        static ret(): unknown {
+          const value = this[property] as readonly unknown[];
+          if (arraysReturnedByMutableGetters.get(value) === this) {
+            return value;
+          }
+          const copy = [...value];
+          arraysReturnedByMutableGetters.set(copy, this);
+          return (this[property] = copy);
+        }
+
+        static [_: string]: unknown;
+      }
+      return Class.ret;
+    }
+    case "record": {
+      const mutableCtor = (type.ctor as unknown as AnyRecord).Mutable as new (
+        i: unknown,
+      ) => unknown;
+      class Class {
+        static ret(): unknown {
+          const value = this[property];
+          if (value instanceof mutableCtor) {
+            return value;
+          }
+          return (this[property] = new mutableCtor(value));
+        }
+
+        static [_: string]: unknown;
+      }
+      return Class.ret;
+    }
+    default: {
+      throw new Error();
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+function makeSearchMethod(field: StructFieldSpec): (key: unknown) => unknown {
+  const { property } = field;
+  const indexable = field.indexable!;
+  const { keyFn } = indexable;
+  const keyToHashable = indexable.keyToHashable ?? ((e: unknown): unknown => e);
+  class Class {
+    ret(key: unknown): unknown {
+      const array = this[property] as ReadonlyArray<unknown>;
+      const frozenArrayInfo = frozenArrayRegistry.get(array)!;
+      let { keyFnToIndexing } = frozenArrayInfo;
+      if (!keyFnToIndexing) {
+        frozenArrayInfo.keyFnToIndexing = keyFnToIndexing = //
+          new Map<unknown, Map<unknown, unknown>>();
+      }
+      let hashableToValue = keyFnToIndexing.get(keyFn);
+      if (!hashableToValue) {
+        // The array has not been indexed yet. Index it.
+        hashableToValue = new Map<unknown, unknown>();
+        for (const v of array) {
+          const hashable = keyToHashable(keyFn(v));
+          hashableToValue.set(hashable, v);
+        }
+        keyFnToIndexing.set(keyFn, hashableToValue);
+      }
+      return hashableToValue.get(keyToHashable(key));
+    }
+
+    [_: string]: unknown;
+  }
+  return Class.prototype.ret;
+}
+
+function emptyToUndefined(str: string): string | undefined {
+  return str ? str : undefined;
+}