@paraswap/dex-lib 2.50.7 → 2.50.9

package/src/dex/swaap-v1/libraries/LogExpMath.ts

@@ -1,511 +1,511 @@
-import { BI_MAX_INT, BI_POWS } from '../../../bigint-constants';
-
-const _require = (b: boolean, message: string) => {
-  if (!b) throw new Error(message);
-};
-
-/* solhint-disable */
-
-/**
- * @dev Exponentiation and logarithm functions for 18 decimal fixed point numbers (both base and exponent/argument).
- *
- * Exponentiation and logarithm with arbitrary bases (x^y and log_x(y)) are implemented by conversion to natural
- * exponentiation and logarithm (where the base is Euler's number).
- *
- * @author Fernando Martinelli - @fernandomartinelli
- * @author Sergio Yuhjtman - @sergioyuhjtman
- * @author Daniel Fernandez - @dmf7z
- */
-export class LogExpMath {
-  // All fixed point multiplications and divisions are inlined. This means we need to divide by ONE when multiplying
-  // two numbers, and multiply by ONE when dividing them.
-
-  // All arguments and return values are 18 decimal fixed point numbers.
-  static ONE_18 = BI_POWS[18];
-
-  // Internally, intermediate values are computed with higher precision as 20 decimal fixed point numbers, and in the
-  // case of ln36, 36 decimals.
-  static ONE_20 = BI_POWS[20];
-  static ONE_36 = BI_POWS[36];
-
-  // The domain of natural exponentiation is bound by the word size and number of decimals used.
-  //
-  // Because internally the result will be stored using 20 decimals, the largest possible result is
-  // (2^255 - 1) / 10^20, which makes the largest exponent ln((2^255 - 1) / 10^20) = 130.700829182905140221.
-  // The smallest possible result is 10^(-18), which makes largest negative argument
-  // ln(10^(-18)) = -41.446531673892822312.
-  // We use 130.0 and -41.0 to have some safety margin.
-  static MAX_NATURAL_EXPONENT = 130n * BI_POWS[18];
-  static MIN_NATURAL_EXPONENT = -41n * BI_POWS[18];
-
-  // Bounds for ln_36's argument. Both ln(0.9) and ln(1.1) can be represented with 36 decimal places in a fixed point
-  // 256 bit integer.
-  static LN_36_LOWER_BOUND = this.ONE_18 - BI_POWS[17];
-  static LN_36_UPPER_BOUND = this.ONE_18 + BI_POWS[17];
-
-  static MILD_EXPONENT_BOUND = 2n ** 254n / this.ONE_20;
-
-  // 18 decimalants
-  static x0 = 128000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ7
-  static a0 = 38877084059945950922200000000000000000000000000000000000n; // eˆ(x0) (no decimals)
-  static x1 = 64000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ6
-  static a1 = 6235149080811616882910000000n; // eˆ(x1) (no decimals)
-
-  // 20 decimalants
-  static x2 = 3200000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ5
-  static a2 = 7896296018268069516100000000000000n; // eˆ(x2)
-  static x3 = 1600000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ4
-  static a3 = 888611052050787263676000000n; // eˆ(x3)
-  static x4 = 800000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ3
-  static a4 = 298095798704172827474000n; // eˆ(x4)
-  static x5 = 400000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ2
-  static a5 = 5459815003314423907810n; // eˆ(x5)
-  static x6 = 200000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ1
-  static a6 = 738905609893065022723n; // eˆ(x6)
-  static x7 = 100000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ0
-  static a7 = 271828182845904523536n; // eˆ(x7)
-  static x8 = 50000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ-1
-  static a8 = 164872127070012814685n; // eˆ(x8)
-  static x9 = 25000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ-2
-  static a9 = 128402541668774148407n; // eˆ(x9)
-  static x10 = 12500000000000000000n; // 2ˆ-3
-  static a10 = 113314845306682631683n; // eˆ(x10)
-  static x11 = 6250000000000000000n; // 2ˆ-4
-  static a11 = 106449445891785942956n; // eˆ(x11)
-
-  /**
-   * @dev Exponentiation (x^y) with unsigned 18 decimal fixed point base and exponent.
-   *
-   * Reverts if ln(x) * y is smaller than `MIN_NATURAL_EXPONENT`, or larger than `MAX_NATURAL_EXPONENT`.
-   */
-  static pow(x: bigint, y: bigint): bigint {
-    if (y == 0n) {
-      // We solve the 0^0 indetermination by making it equal one.
-      return this.ONE_18;
-    }
-
-    if (x == 0n) {
-      return 0n;
-    }
-
-    // Instead of computing x^y directly, we instead rely on the properties of logarithms and exponentiation to
-    // arrive at that result. In particular, exp(ln(x)) = x, and ln(x^y) = y * ln(x). This means
-    // x^y = exp(y * ln(x)).
-
-    // The ln function takes a signed value, so we need to make sure x fits in the signed 256 bit range.
-    _require(x < 2n ** 255n, 'Err.X_OUT_OF_BOUNDS');
-    const x_int256 = x;
-
-    // We will compute y * ln(x) in a single step. Depending on the value of x, we can either use ln or ln_36. In
-    // both cases, we leave the division by ONE_18 (due to fixed point multiplication) to the end.
-
-    // This prevents y * ln(x) from overflowing, and at the same time guarantees y fits in the signed 256 bit range.
-    _require(y < this.MILD_EXPONENT_BOUND, 'Err.Y_OUT_OF_BOUNDS');
-    const y_int256 = y;
-
-    let logx_times_y;
-    if (
-      this.LN_36_LOWER_BOUND < x_int256 &&
-      x_int256 < this.LN_36_UPPER_BOUND
-    ) {
-      const ln_36_x = this._ln_36(x_int256);
-
-      // ln_36_x has 36 decimal places, so multiplying by y_int256 isn't as straightforward, since we can't just
-      // bring y_int256 to 36 decimal places, as it might overflow. Instead, we perform two 18 decimal
-      // multiplications and add the results: one with the first 18 decimals of ln_36_x, and one with the
-      // (downscaled) last 18 decimals.
-      logx_times_y =
-        (ln_36_x / this.ONE_18) * y_int256 +
-        ((ln_36_x % this.ONE_18) * y_int256) / this.ONE_18;
-    } else {
-      logx_times_y = this._ln(x_int256) * y_int256;
-    }
-    logx_times_y /= this.ONE_18;
-
-    // Finally, we compute exp(y * ln(x)) to arrive at x^y
-    _require(
-      this.MIN_NATURAL_EXPONENT <= logx_times_y &&
-        logx_times_y <= this.MAX_NATURAL_EXPONENT,
-      'Err.PRODUCT_OUT_OF_BOUNDS',
-    );
-
-    return this.exp(logx_times_y);
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * @dev Natural exponentiation (e^x) with signed 18 decimal fixed point exponent.
-   *
-   * Reverts if `x` is smaller than MIN_NATURAL_EXPONENT, or larger than `MAX_NATURAL_EXPONENT`.
-   */
-  static exp(x: bigint): bigint {
-    _require(
-      x >= this.MIN_NATURAL_EXPONENT && x <= this.MAX_NATURAL_EXPONENT,
-      'Err.INVALID_EXPONENT',
-    );
-
-    if (x < 0) {
-      // We only handle positive exponents: e^(-x) is computed as 1 / e^x. We can safely make x positive since it
-      // fits in the signed 256 bit range (as it is larger than MIN_NATURAL_EXPONENT).
-      // Fixed point division requires multiplying by ONE_18.
-      return (this.ONE_18 * this.ONE_18) / this.exp(-x);
-    }
-
-    // First, we use the fact that e^(x+y) = e^x * e^y to decompose x into a sum of powers of two, which we call x_n,
-    // where x_n == 2^(7 - n), and e^x_n = a_n has been precomputed. We choose the first x_n, x0, to equal 2^7
-    // because all larger powers are larger than MAX_NATURAL_EXPONENT, and therefore not present in the
-    // decomposition.
-    // At the end of this process we will have the product of all e^x_n = a_n that apply, and the remainder of this
-    // decomposition, which will be lower than the smallest x_n.
-    // exp(x) = k_0 * a_0 * k_1 * a_1 * ... + k_n * a_n * exp(remainder), where each k_n equals either 0 or 1.
-    // We mutate x by subtracting x_n, making it the remainder of the decomposition.
-
-    // The first two a_n (e^(2^7) and e^(2^6)) are too large if stored as 18 decimal numbers, and could cause
-    // intermediate overflows. Instead we store them as plain integers, with 0 decimals.
-    // Additionally, x0 + x1 is larger than MAX_NATURAL_EXPONENT, which means they will not both be present in the
-    // decomposition.
-
-    // For each x_n, we test if that term is present in the decomposition (if x is larger than it), and if so deduct
-    // it and compute the accumulated product.
-
-    let firstAN;
-    if (x >= this.x0) {
-      x -= this.x0;
-      firstAN = this.a0;
-    } else if (x >= this.x1) {
-      x -= this.x1;
-      firstAN = this.a1;
-    } else {
-      firstAN = 1n; // One with no decimal places
-    }
-
-    // We now transform x into a 20 decimal fixed point number, to have enhanced precision when computing the
-    // smaller terms.
-    x *= 100n;
-
-    // `product` is the accumulated product of all a_n (except a0 and a1), which starts at 20 decimal fixed point
-    // one. Recall that fixed point multiplication requires dividing by ONE_20.
-    let product = this.ONE_20;
-
-    if (x >= this.x2) {
-      x -= this.x2;
-      product = (product * this.a2) / this.ONE_20;
-    }
-    if (x >= this.x3) {
-      x -= this.x3;
-      product = (product * this.a3) / this.ONE_20;
-    }
-    if (x >= this.x4) {
-      x -= this.x4;
-      product = (product * this.a4) / this.ONE_20;
-    }
-    if (x >= this.x5) {
-      x -= this.x5;
-      product = (product * this.a5) / this.ONE_20;
-    }
-    if (x >= this.x6) {
-      x -= this.x6;
-      product = (product * this.a6) / this.ONE_20;
-    }
-    if (x >= this.x7) {
-      x -= this.x7;
-      product = (product * this.a7) / this.ONE_20;
-    }
-    if (x >= this.x8) {
-      x -= this.x8;
-      product = (product * this.a8) / this.ONE_20;
-    }
-    if (x >= this.x9) {
-      x -= this.x9;
-      product = (product * this.a9) / this.ONE_20;
-    }
-
-    // x10 and x11 are unnecessary here since we have high enough precision already.
-
-    // Now we need to compute e^x, where x is small (in particular, it is smaller than x9). We use the Taylor series
-    // expansion for e^x: 1 + x + (x^2 / 2!) + (x^3 / 3!) + ... + (x^n / n!).
-
-    let seriesSum = this.ONE_20; // The initial one in the sum, with 20 decimal places.
-    let term; // Each term in the sum, where the nth term is (x^n / n!).
-
-    // The first term is simply x.
-    term = x;
-    seriesSum += term;
-
-    // Each term (x^n / n!) equals the previous one times x, divided by n. Since x is a fixed point number,
-    // multiplying by it requires dividing by ONE_20, but dividing by the non-fixed point n values does not.
-
-    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 2n;
-    seriesSum += term;
-
-    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 3n;
-    seriesSum += term;
-
-    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 4n;
-    seriesSum += term;
-
-    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 5n;
-    seriesSum += term;
-
-    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 6n;
-    seriesSum += term;
-
-    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 7n;
-    seriesSum += term;
-
-    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 8n;
-    seriesSum += term;
-
-    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 9n;
-    seriesSum += term;
-
-    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 10n;
-    seriesSum += term;
-
-    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 11n;
-    seriesSum += term;
-
-    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 12n;
-    seriesSum += term;
-
-    // 12 Taylor terms are sufficient for 18 decimal precision.
-
-    // We now have the first a_n (with no decimals), and the product of all other a_n present, and the Taylor
-    // approximation of the exponentiation of the remainder (both with 20 decimals). All that remains is to multiply
-    // all three (one 20 decimal fixed point multiplication, dividing by ONE_20, and one integer multiplication),
-    // and then drop two digits to return an 18 decimal value.
-
-    return (((product * seriesSum) / this.ONE_20) * firstAN) / 100n;
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * @dev Logarithm (log(arg, base), with signed 18 decimal fixed point base and argument.
-   */
-  static log(arg: bigint, base: bigint): bigint {
-    // This performs a simple base change: log(arg, base) = ln(arg) / ln(base).
-
-    // Both logBase and logArg are computed as 36 decimal fixed point numbers, either by using ln_36, or by
-    // upscaling.
-
-    let logBase;
-    if (this.LN_36_LOWER_BOUND < base && base < this.LN_36_UPPER_BOUND) {
-      logBase = this._ln_36(base);
-    } else {
-      logBase = this._ln(base) * this.ONE_18;
-    }
-
-    let logArg;
-    if (this.LN_36_LOWER_BOUND < arg && arg < this.LN_36_UPPER_BOUND) {
-      logArg = this._ln_36(arg);
-    } else {
-      logArg = this._ln(arg) * this.ONE_18;
-    }
-
-    // When dividing, we multiply by ONE_18 to arrive at a result with 18 decimal places
-    return (logArg * this.ONE_18) / logBase;
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * @dev Natural logarithm (ln(a)) with signed 18 decimal fixed point argument.
-   */
-  static ln(a: bigint): bigint {
-    // The real natural logarithm is not defined for negative numbers or zero.
-    _require(a > 0, 'Err.OUT_OF_BOUNDS');
-    if (this.LN_36_LOWER_BOUND < a && a < this.LN_36_UPPER_BOUND) {
-      return this._ln_36(a) / this.ONE_18;
-    } else {
-      return this._ln(a);
-    }
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * @dev Internal natural logarithm (ln(a)) with signed 18 decimal fixed point argument.
-   */
-  static _ln(a: bigint): bigint {
-    if (a < this.ONE_18) {
-      // Since ln(a^k) = k * ln(a), we can compute ln(a) as ln(a) = ln((1/a)^(-1)) = - ln((1/a)). If a is less
-      // than one, 1/a will be greater than one, and this if statement will not be entered in the recursive call.
-      // Fixed point division requires multiplying by ONE_18.
-      return -this._ln((this.ONE_18 * this.ONE_18) / a);
-    }
-
-    // First, we use the fact that ln^(a * b) = ln(a) + ln(b) to decompose ln(a) into a sum of powers of two, which
-    // we call x_n, where x_n == 2^(7 - n), which are the natural logarithm of precomputed quantities a_n (that is,
-    // ln(a_n) = x_n). We choose the first x_n, x0, to equal 2^7 because the exponential of all larger powers cannot
-    // be represented as 18 fixed point decimal numbers in 256 bits, and are therefore larger than a.
-    // At the end of this process we will have the sum of all x_n = ln(a_n) that apply, and the remainder of this
-    // decomposition, which will be lower than the smallest a_n.
-    // ln(a) = k_0 * x_0 + k_1 * x_1 + ... + k_n * x_n + ln(remainder), where each k_n equals either 0 or 1.
-    // We mutate a by subtracting a_n, making it the remainder of the decomposition.
-
-    // For reasons related to how `exp` works, the first two a_n (e^(2^7) and e^(2^6)) are not stored as fixed point
-    // numbers with 18 decimals, but instead as plain integers with 0 decimals, so we need to multiply them by
-    // ONE_18 to convert them to fixed point.
-    // For each a_n, we test if that term is present in the decomposition (if a is larger than it), and if so divide
-    // by it and compute the accumulated sum.
-
-    let sum = 0n;
-    if (a >= this.a0 * this.ONE_18) {
-      a /= this.a0; // Integer, not fixed point division
-      sum += this.x0;
-    }
-
-    if (a >= this.a1 * this.ONE_18) {
-      a /= this.a1; // Integer, not fixed point division
-      sum += this.x1;
-    }
-
-    // All other a_n and x_n are stored as 20 digit fixed point numbers, so we convert the sum and a to this format.
-    sum *= 100n;
-    a *= 100n;
-
-    // Because further a_n are  20 digit fixed point numbers, we multiply by ONE_20 when dividing by them.
-
-    if (a >= this.a2) {
-      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a2;
-      sum += this.x2;
-    }
-
-    if (a >= this.a3) {
-      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a3;
-      sum += this.x3;
-    }
-
-    if (a >= this.a4) {
-      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a4;
-      sum += this.x4;
-    }
-
-    if (a >= this.a5) {
-      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a5;
-      sum += this.x5;
-    }
-
-    if (a >= this.a6) {
-      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a6;
-      sum += this.x6;
-    }
-
-    if (a >= this.a7) {
-      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a7;
-      sum += this.x7;
-    }
-
-    if (a >= this.a8) {
-      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a8;
-      sum += this.x8;
-    }
-
-    if (a >= this.a9) {
-      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a9;
-      sum += this.x9;
-    }
-
-    if (a >= this.a10) {
-      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a10;
-      sum += this.x10;
-    }
-
-    if (a >= this.a11) {
-      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a11;
-      sum += this.x11;
-    }
-
-    // a is now a small number (smaller than a_11, which roughly equals 1.06). This means we can use a Taylor series
-    // that converges rapidly for values of `a` close to one - the same one used in ln_36.
-    // Let z = (a - 1) / (a + 1).
-    // ln(a) = 2 * (z + z^3 / 3 + z^5 / 5 + z^7 / 7 + ... + z^(2 * n + 1) / (2 * n + 1))
-
-    // Recall that 20 digit fixed point division requires multiplying by ONE_20, and multiplication requires
-    // division by ONE_20.
-    const z = ((a - this.ONE_20) * this.ONE_20) / (a + this.ONE_20);
-    const z_squared = (z * z) / this.ONE_20;
-
-    // num is the numerator of the series: the z^(2 * n + 1) term
-    let num = z;
-
-    // seriesSum holds the accumulated sum of each term in the series, starting with the initial z
-    let seriesSum = num;
-
-    // In each step, the numerator is multiplied by z^2
-    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_20;
-    seriesSum += num / 3n;
-
-    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_20;
-    seriesSum += num / 5n;
-
-    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_20;
-    seriesSum += num / 7n;
-
-    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_20;
-    seriesSum += num / 9n;
-
-    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_20;
-    seriesSum += num / 11n;
-
-    // 6 Taylor terms are sufficient for 36 decimal precision.
-
-    // Finally, we multiply by 2 (non fixed point) to compute ln(remainder)
-    seriesSum *= 2n;
-
-    // We now have the sum of all x_n present, and the Taylor approximation of the logarithm of the remainder (both
-    // with 20 decimals). All that remains is to sum these two, and then drop two digits to return a 18 decimal
-    // value.
-
-    return (sum + seriesSum) / 100n;
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * @dev Intrnal high precision (36 decimal places) natural logarithm (ln(x)) with signed 18 decimal fixed point argument,
-   * for x close to one.
-   *
-   * Should only be used if x is between LN_36_LOWER_BOUND and LN_36_UPPER_BOUND.
-   */
-  static _ln_36(x: bigint): bigint {
-    // Since ln(1) = 0, a value of x close to one will yield a very small result, which makes using 36 digits
-    // worthwhile.
-
-    // First, we transform x to a 36 digit fixed point value.
-    x *= this.ONE_18;
-
-    // We will use the following Taylor expansion, which converges very rapidly. Let z = (x - 1) / (x + 1).
-    // ln(x) = 2 * (z + z^3 / 3 + z^5 / 5 + z^7 / 7 + ... + z^(2 * n + 1) / (2 * n + 1))
-
-    // Recall that 36 digit fixed point division requires multiplying by ONE_36, and multiplication requires
-    // division by ONE_36.
-    const z = ((x - this.ONE_36) * this.ONE_36) / (x + this.ONE_36);
-    const z_squared = (z * z) / this.ONE_36;
-
-    // num is the numerator of the series: the z^(2 * n + 1) term
-    let num = z;
-
-    // seriesSum holds the accumulated sum of each term in the series, starting with the initial z
-    let seriesSum = num;
-
-    // In each step, the numerator is multiplied by z^2
-    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_36;
-    seriesSum += num / 3n;
-
-    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_36;
-    seriesSum += num / 5n;
-
-    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_36;
-    seriesSum += num / 7n;
-
-    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_36;
-    seriesSum += num / 9n;
-
-    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_36;
-    seriesSum += num / 11n;
-
-    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_36;
-    seriesSum += num / 13n;
-
-    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_36;
-    seriesSum += num / 15n;
-
-    // 8 Taylor terms are sufficient for 36 decimal precision.
-
-    // All that remains is multiplying by 2 (non fixed point).
-    return seriesSum * 2n;
-  }
-}
+import { BI_MAX_INT, BI_POWS } from '../../../bigint-constants';
+
+const _require = (b: boolean, message: string) => {
+  if (!b) throw new Error(message);
+};
+
+/* solhint-disable */
+
+/**
+ * @dev Exponentiation and logarithm functions for 18 decimal fixed point numbers (both base and exponent/argument).
+ *
+ * Exponentiation and logarithm with arbitrary bases (x^y and log_x(y)) are implemented by conversion to natural
+ * exponentiation and logarithm (where the base is Euler's number).
+ *
+ * @author Fernando Martinelli - @fernandomartinelli
+ * @author Sergio Yuhjtman - @sergioyuhjtman
+ * @author Daniel Fernandez - @dmf7z
+ */
+export class LogExpMath {
+  // All fixed point multiplications and divisions are inlined. This means we need to divide by ONE when multiplying
+  // two numbers, and multiply by ONE when dividing them.
+
+  // All arguments and return values are 18 decimal fixed point numbers.
+  static ONE_18 = BI_POWS[18];
+
+  // Internally, intermediate values are computed with higher precision as 20 decimal fixed point numbers, and in the
+  // case of ln36, 36 decimals.
+  static ONE_20 = BI_POWS[20];
+  static ONE_36 = BI_POWS[36];
+
+  // The domain of natural exponentiation is bound by the word size and number of decimals used.
+  //
+  // Because internally the result will be stored using 20 decimals, the largest possible result is
+  // (2^255 - 1) / 10^20, which makes the largest exponent ln((2^255 - 1) / 10^20) = 130.700829182905140221.
+  // The smallest possible result is 10^(-18), which makes largest negative argument
+  // ln(10^(-18)) = -41.446531673892822312.
+  // We use 130.0 and -41.0 to have some safety margin.
+  static MAX_NATURAL_EXPONENT = 130n * BI_POWS[18];
+  static MIN_NATURAL_EXPONENT = -41n * BI_POWS[18];
+
+  // Bounds for ln_36's argument. Both ln(0.9) and ln(1.1) can be represented with 36 decimal places in a fixed point
+  // 256 bit integer.
+  static LN_36_LOWER_BOUND = this.ONE_18 - BI_POWS[17];
+  static LN_36_UPPER_BOUND = this.ONE_18 + BI_POWS[17];
+
+  static MILD_EXPONENT_BOUND = 2n ** 254n / this.ONE_20;
+
+  // 18 decimalants
+  static x0 = 128000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ7
+  static a0 = 38877084059945950922200000000000000000000000000000000000n; // eˆ(x0) (no decimals)
+  static x1 = 64000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ6
+  static a1 = 6235149080811616882910000000n; // eˆ(x1) (no decimals)
+
+  // 20 decimalants
+  static x2 = 3200000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ5
+  static a2 = 7896296018268069516100000000000000n; // eˆ(x2)
+  static x3 = 1600000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ4
+  static a3 = 888611052050787263676000000n; // eˆ(x3)
+  static x4 = 800000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ3
+  static a4 = 298095798704172827474000n; // eˆ(x4)
+  static x5 = 400000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ2
+  static a5 = 5459815003314423907810n; // eˆ(x5)
+  static x6 = 200000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ1
+  static a6 = 738905609893065022723n; // eˆ(x6)
+  static x7 = 100000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ0
+  static a7 = 271828182845904523536n; // eˆ(x7)
+  static x8 = 50000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ-1
+  static a8 = 164872127070012814685n; // eˆ(x8)
+  static x9 = 25000000000000000000n; // 2ˆ-2
+  static a9 = 128402541668774148407n; // eˆ(x9)
+  static x10 = 12500000000000000000n; // 2ˆ-3
+  static a10 = 113314845306682631683n; // eˆ(x10)
+  static x11 = 6250000000000000000n; // 2ˆ-4
+  static a11 = 106449445891785942956n; // eˆ(x11)
+
+  /**
+   * @dev Exponentiation (x^y) with unsigned 18 decimal fixed point base and exponent.
+   *
+   * Reverts if ln(x) * y is smaller than `MIN_NATURAL_EXPONENT`, or larger than `MAX_NATURAL_EXPONENT`.
+   */
+  static pow(x: bigint, y: bigint): bigint {
+    if (y == 0n) {
+      // We solve the 0^0 indetermination by making it equal one.
+      return this.ONE_18;
+    }
+
+    if (x == 0n) {
+      return 0n;
+    }
+
+    // Instead of computing x^y directly, we instead rely on the properties of logarithms and exponentiation to
+    // arrive at that result. In particular, exp(ln(x)) = x, and ln(x^y) = y * ln(x). This means
+    // x^y = exp(y * ln(x)).
+
+    // The ln function takes a signed value, so we need to make sure x fits in the signed 256 bit range.
+    _require(x < 2n ** 255n, 'Err.X_OUT_OF_BOUNDS');
+    const x_int256 = x;
+
+    // We will compute y * ln(x) in a single step. Depending on the value of x, we can either use ln or ln_36. In
+    // both cases, we leave the division by ONE_18 (due to fixed point multiplication) to the end.
+
+    // This prevents y * ln(x) from overflowing, and at the same time guarantees y fits in the signed 256 bit range.
+    _require(y < this.MILD_EXPONENT_BOUND, 'Err.Y_OUT_OF_BOUNDS');
+    const y_int256 = y;
+
+    let logx_times_y;
+    if (
+      this.LN_36_LOWER_BOUND < x_int256 &&
+      x_int256 < this.LN_36_UPPER_BOUND
+    ) {
+      const ln_36_x = this._ln_36(x_int256);
+
+      // ln_36_x has 36 decimal places, so multiplying by y_int256 isn't as straightforward, since we can't just
+      // bring y_int256 to 36 decimal places, as it might overflow. Instead, we perform two 18 decimal
+      // multiplications and add the results: one with the first 18 decimals of ln_36_x, and one with the
+      // (downscaled) last 18 decimals.
+      logx_times_y =
+        (ln_36_x / this.ONE_18) * y_int256 +
+        ((ln_36_x % this.ONE_18) * y_int256) / this.ONE_18;
+    } else {
+      logx_times_y = this._ln(x_int256) * y_int256;
+    }
+    logx_times_y /= this.ONE_18;
+
+    // Finally, we compute exp(y * ln(x)) to arrive at x^y
+    _require(
+      this.MIN_NATURAL_EXPONENT <= logx_times_y &&
+        logx_times_y <= this.MAX_NATURAL_EXPONENT,
+      'Err.PRODUCT_OUT_OF_BOUNDS',
+    );
+
+    return this.exp(logx_times_y);
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @dev Natural exponentiation (e^x) with signed 18 decimal fixed point exponent.
+   *
+   * Reverts if `x` is smaller than MIN_NATURAL_EXPONENT, or larger than `MAX_NATURAL_EXPONENT`.
+   */
+  static exp(x: bigint): bigint {
+    _require(
+      x >= this.MIN_NATURAL_EXPONENT && x <= this.MAX_NATURAL_EXPONENT,
+      'Err.INVALID_EXPONENT',
+    );
+
+    if (x < 0) {
+      // We only handle positive exponents: e^(-x) is computed as 1 / e^x. We can safely make x positive since it
+      // fits in the signed 256 bit range (as it is larger than MIN_NATURAL_EXPONENT).
+      // Fixed point division requires multiplying by ONE_18.
+      return (this.ONE_18 * this.ONE_18) / this.exp(-x);
+    }
+
+    // First, we use the fact that e^(x+y) = e^x * e^y to decompose x into a sum of powers of two, which we call x_n,
+    // where x_n == 2^(7 - n), and e^x_n = a_n has been precomputed. We choose the first x_n, x0, to equal 2^7
+    // because all larger powers are larger than MAX_NATURAL_EXPONENT, and therefore not present in the
+    // decomposition.
+    // At the end of this process we will have the product of all e^x_n = a_n that apply, and the remainder of this
+    // decomposition, which will be lower than the smallest x_n.
+    // exp(x) = k_0 * a_0 * k_1 * a_1 * ... + k_n * a_n * exp(remainder), where each k_n equals either 0 or 1.
+    // We mutate x by subtracting x_n, making it the remainder of the decomposition.
+
+    // The first two a_n (e^(2^7) and e^(2^6)) are too large if stored as 18 decimal numbers, and could cause
+    // intermediate overflows. Instead we store them as plain integers, with 0 decimals.
+    // Additionally, x0 + x1 is larger than MAX_NATURAL_EXPONENT, which means they will not both be present in the
+    // decomposition.
+
+    // For each x_n, we test if that term is present in the decomposition (if x is larger than it), and if so deduct
+    // it and compute the accumulated product.
+
+    let firstAN;
+    if (x >= this.x0) {
+      x -= this.x0;
+      firstAN = this.a0;
+    } else if (x >= this.x1) {
+      x -= this.x1;
+      firstAN = this.a1;
+    } else {
+      firstAN = 1n; // One with no decimal places
+    }
+
+    // We now transform x into a 20 decimal fixed point number, to have enhanced precision when computing the
+    // smaller terms.
+    x *= 100n;
+
+    // `product` is the accumulated product of all a_n (except a0 and a1), which starts at 20 decimal fixed point
+    // one. Recall that fixed point multiplication requires dividing by ONE_20.
+    let product = this.ONE_20;
+
+    if (x >= this.x2) {
+      x -= this.x2;
+      product = (product * this.a2) / this.ONE_20;
+    }
+    if (x >= this.x3) {
+      x -= this.x3;
+      product = (product * this.a3) / this.ONE_20;
+    }
+    if (x >= this.x4) {
+      x -= this.x4;
+      product = (product * this.a4) / this.ONE_20;
+    }
+    if (x >= this.x5) {
+      x -= this.x5;
+      product = (product * this.a5) / this.ONE_20;
+    }
+    if (x >= this.x6) {
+      x -= this.x6;
+      product = (product * this.a6) / this.ONE_20;
+    }
+    if (x >= this.x7) {
+      x -= this.x7;
+      product = (product * this.a7) / this.ONE_20;
+    }
+    if (x >= this.x8) {
+      x -= this.x8;
+      product = (product * this.a8) / this.ONE_20;
+    }
+    if (x >= this.x9) {
+      x -= this.x9;
+      product = (product * this.a9) / this.ONE_20;
+    }
+
+    // x10 and x11 are unnecessary here since we have high enough precision already.
+
+    // Now we need to compute e^x, where x is small (in particular, it is smaller than x9). We use the Taylor series
+    // expansion for e^x: 1 + x + (x^2 / 2!) + (x^3 / 3!) + ... + (x^n / n!).
+
+    let seriesSum = this.ONE_20; // The initial one in the sum, with 20 decimal places.
+    let term; // Each term in the sum, where the nth term is (x^n / n!).
+
+    // The first term is simply x.
+    term = x;
+    seriesSum += term;
+
+    // Each term (x^n / n!) equals the previous one times x, divided by n. Since x is a fixed point number,
+    // multiplying by it requires dividing by ONE_20, but dividing by the non-fixed point n values does not.
+
+    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 2n;
+    seriesSum += term;
+
+    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 3n;
+    seriesSum += term;
+
+    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 4n;
+    seriesSum += term;
+
+    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 5n;
+    seriesSum += term;
+
+    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 6n;
+    seriesSum += term;
+
+    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 7n;
+    seriesSum += term;
+
+    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 8n;
+    seriesSum += term;
+
+    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 9n;
+    seriesSum += term;
+
+    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 10n;
+    seriesSum += term;
+
+    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 11n;
+    seriesSum += term;
+
+    term = (term * x) / this.ONE_20 / 12n;
+    seriesSum += term;
+
+    // 12 Taylor terms are sufficient for 18 decimal precision.
+
+    // We now have the first a_n (with no decimals), and the product of all other a_n present, and the Taylor
+    // approximation of the exponentiation of the remainder (both with 20 decimals). All that remains is to multiply
+    // all three (one 20 decimal fixed point multiplication, dividing by ONE_20, and one integer multiplication),
+    // and then drop two digits to return an 18 decimal value.
+
+    return (((product * seriesSum) / this.ONE_20) * firstAN) / 100n;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @dev Logarithm (log(arg, base), with signed 18 decimal fixed point base and argument.
+   */
+  static log(arg: bigint, base: bigint): bigint {
+    // This performs a simple base change: log(arg, base) = ln(arg) / ln(base).
+
+    // Both logBase and logArg are computed as 36 decimal fixed point numbers, either by using ln_36, or by
+    // upscaling.
+
+    let logBase;
+    if (this.LN_36_LOWER_BOUND < base && base < this.LN_36_UPPER_BOUND) {
+      logBase = this._ln_36(base);
+    } else {
+      logBase = this._ln(base) * this.ONE_18;
+    }
+
+    let logArg;
+    if (this.LN_36_LOWER_BOUND < arg && arg < this.LN_36_UPPER_BOUND) {
+      logArg = this._ln_36(arg);
+    } else {
+      logArg = this._ln(arg) * this.ONE_18;
+    }
+
+    // When dividing, we multiply by ONE_18 to arrive at a result with 18 decimal places
+    return (logArg * this.ONE_18) / logBase;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @dev Natural logarithm (ln(a)) with signed 18 decimal fixed point argument.
+   */
+  static ln(a: bigint): bigint {
+    // The real natural logarithm is not defined for negative numbers or zero.
+    _require(a > 0, 'Err.OUT_OF_BOUNDS');
+    if (this.LN_36_LOWER_BOUND < a && a < this.LN_36_UPPER_BOUND) {
+      return this._ln_36(a) / this.ONE_18;
+    } else {
+      return this._ln(a);
+    }
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @dev Internal natural logarithm (ln(a)) with signed 18 decimal fixed point argument.
+   */
+  static _ln(a: bigint): bigint {
+    if (a < this.ONE_18) {
+      // Since ln(a^k) = k * ln(a), we can compute ln(a) as ln(a) = ln((1/a)^(-1)) = - ln((1/a)). If a is less
+      // than one, 1/a will be greater than one, and this if statement will not be entered in the recursive call.
+      // Fixed point division requires multiplying by ONE_18.
+      return -this._ln((this.ONE_18 * this.ONE_18) / a);
+    }
+
+    // First, we use the fact that ln^(a * b) = ln(a) + ln(b) to decompose ln(a) into a sum of powers of two, which
+    // we call x_n, where x_n == 2^(7 - n), which are the natural logarithm of precomputed quantities a_n (that is,
+    // ln(a_n) = x_n). We choose the first x_n, x0, to equal 2^7 because the exponential of all larger powers cannot
+    // be represented as 18 fixed point decimal numbers in 256 bits, and are therefore larger than a.
+    // At the end of this process we will have the sum of all x_n = ln(a_n) that apply, and the remainder of this
+    // decomposition, which will be lower than the smallest a_n.
+    // ln(a) = k_0 * x_0 + k_1 * x_1 + ... + k_n * x_n + ln(remainder), where each k_n equals either 0 or 1.
+    // We mutate a by subtracting a_n, making it the remainder of the decomposition.
+
+    // For reasons related to how `exp` works, the first two a_n (e^(2^7) and e^(2^6)) are not stored as fixed point
+    // numbers with 18 decimals, but instead as plain integers with 0 decimals, so we need to multiply them by
+    // ONE_18 to convert them to fixed point.
+    // For each a_n, we test if that term is present in the decomposition (if a is larger than it), and if so divide
+    // by it and compute the accumulated sum.
+
+    let sum = 0n;
+    if (a >= this.a0 * this.ONE_18) {
+      a /= this.a0; // Integer, not fixed point division
+      sum += this.x0;
+    }
+
+    if (a >= this.a1 * this.ONE_18) {
+      a /= this.a1; // Integer, not fixed point division
+      sum += this.x1;
+    }
+
+    // All other a_n and x_n are stored as 20 digit fixed point numbers, so we convert the sum and a to this format.
+    sum *= 100n;
+    a *= 100n;
+
+    // Because further a_n are  20 digit fixed point numbers, we multiply by ONE_20 when dividing by them.
+
+    if (a >= this.a2) {
+      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a2;
+      sum += this.x2;
+    }
+
+    if (a >= this.a3) {
+      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a3;
+      sum += this.x3;
+    }
+
+    if (a >= this.a4) {
+      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a4;
+      sum += this.x4;
+    }
+
+    if (a >= this.a5) {
+      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a5;
+      sum += this.x5;
+    }
+
+    if (a >= this.a6) {
+      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a6;
+      sum += this.x6;
+    }
+
+    if (a >= this.a7) {
+      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a7;
+      sum += this.x7;
+    }
+
+    if (a >= this.a8) {
+      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a8;
+      sum += this.x8;
+    }
+
+    if (a >= this.a9) {
+      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a9;
+      sum += this.x9;
+    }
+
+    if (a >= this.a10) {
+      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a10;
+      sum += this.x10;
+    }
+
+    if (a >= this.a11) {
+      a = (a * this.ONE_20) / this.a11;
+      sum += this.x11;
+    }
+
+    // a is now a small number (smaller than a_11, which roughly equals 1.06). This means we can use a Taylor series
+    // that converges rapidly for values of `a` close to one - the same one used in ln_36.
+    // Let z = (a - 1) / (a + 1).
+    // ln(a) = 2 * (z + z^3 / 3 + z^5 / 5 + z^7 / 7 + ... + z^(2 * n + 1) / (2 * n + 1))
+
+    // Recall that 20 digit fixed point division requires multiplying by ONE_20, and multiplication requires
+    // division by ONE_20.
+    const z = ((a - this.ONE_20) * this.ONE_20) / (a + this.ONE_20);
+    const z_squared = (z * z) / this.ONE_20;
+
+    // num is the numerator of the series: the z^(2 * n + 1) term
+    let num = z;
+
+    // seriesSum holds the accumulated sum of each term in the series, starting with the initial z
+    let seriesSum = num;
+
+    // In each step, the numerator is multiplied by z^2
+    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_20;
+    seriesSum += num / 3n;
+
+    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_20;
+    seriesSum += num / 5n;
+
+    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_20;
+    seriesSum += num / 7n;
+
+    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_20;
+    seriesSum += num / 9n;
+
+    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_20;
+    seriesSum += num / 11n;
+
+    // 6 Taylor terms are sufficient for 36 decimal precision.
+
+    // Finally, we multiply by 2 (non fixed point) to compute ln(remainder)
+    seriesSum *= 2n;
+
+    // We now have the sum of all x_n present, and the Taylor approximation of the logarithm of the remainder (both
+    // with 20 decimals). All that remains is to sum these two, and then drop two digits to return a 18 decimal
+    // value.
+
+    return (sum + seriesSum) / 100n;
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * @dev Intrnal high precision (36 decimal places) natural logarithm (ln(x)) with signed 18 decimal fixed point argument,
+   * for x close to one.
+   *
+   * Should only be used if x is between LN_36_LOWER_BOUND and LN_36_UPPER_BOUND.
+   */
+  static _ln_36(x: bigint): bigint {
+    // Since ln(1) = 0, a value of x close to one will yield a very small result, which makes using 36 digits
+    // worthwhile.
+
+    // First, we transform x to a 36 digit fixed point value.
+    x *= this.ONE_18;
+
+    // We will use the following Taylor expansion, which converges very rapidly. Let z = (x - 1) / (x + 1).
+    // ln(x) = 2 * (z + z^3 / 3 + z^5 / 5 + z^7 / 7 + ... + z^(2 * n + 1) / (2 * n + 1))
+
+    // Recall that 36 digit fixed point division requires multiplying by ONE_36, and multiplication requires
+    // division by ONE_36.
+    const z = ((x - this.ONE_36) * this.ONE_36) / (x + this.ONE_36);
+    const z_squared = (z * z) / this.ONE_36;
+
+    // num is the numerator of the series: the z^(2 * n + 1) term
+    let num = z;
+
+    // seriesSum holds the accumulated sum of each term in the series, starting with the initial z
+    let seriesSum = num;
+
+    // In each step, the numerator is multiplied by z^2
+    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_36;
+    seriesSum += num / 3n;
+
+    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_36;
+    seriesSum += num / 5n;
+
+    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_36;
+    seriesSum += num / 7n;
+
+    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_36;
+    seriesSum += num / 9n;
+
+    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_36;
+    seriesSum += num / 11n;
+
+    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_36;
+    seriesSum += num / 13n;
+
+    num = (num * z_squared) / this.ONE_36;
+    seriesSum += num / 15n;
+
+    // 8 Taylor terms are sufficient for 36 decimal precision.
+
+    // All that remains is multiplying by 2 (non fixed point).
+    return seriesSum * 2n;
+  }
+}