@nxtedition/rocksdb 15.4.0 → 15.5.0

package/deps/rocksdb/rocksdb/utilities/trie_index/trie_index_db_test.cc

@@ -0,0 +1,2843 @@
+//  Copyright (c) Meta Platforms, Inc. and affiliates.
+//  This source code is licensed under both the GPLv2 (found in the
+//  COPYING file in the root directory) and Apache 2.0 License
+//  (found in the LICENSE.Apache file in the root directory).
+
+// DB-level tests for the trie-based User Defined Index (UDI). Validates that
+// a DB opened with the trie UDI factory correctly handles all operation types
+// (Put, Delete, Merge, SingleDelete, PutEntity, TimedPut, DeleteRange) through
+// flush and compaction, and that the resulting SST files are readable with
+// correct data.
+//
+// These tests complement the SST-level tests in trie_index_test.cc (which use
+// SstFileWriter and are limited to Put/Delete/Merge) by exercising the full
+// DB path including CompactionIterator, memtable flush, and the UDI builder
+// wrapper's ValueType mapping and kTypeValuePreferredSeqno handling.
+
+#include <memory>
+#include <string>
+#include <vector>
+
+#include "port/port.h"
+#include "rocksdb/db.h"
+#include "rocksdb/options.h"
+#include "rocksdb/slice.h"
+#include "rocksdb/sst_file_writer.h"
+#include "rocksdb/status.h"
+#include "rocksdb/table.h"
+#include "rocksdb/utilities/transaction.h"
+#include "rocksdb/utilities/transaction_db.h"
+#include "rocksdb/wide_columns.h"
+#include "rocksdb/write_batch.h"
+#include "test_util/testharness.h"
+#include "test_util/testutil.h"
+#include "util/compression.h"
+#include "util/random.h"
+#include "utilities/merge_operators.h"
+#include "utilities/trie_index/trie_index_factory.h"
+
+namespace ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE {
+namespace trie_index {
+
+// Encodes an integer as an 8-byte big-endian key body, matching the pattern
+// used by db_stress's test_batches_snapshots mode.
+static std::string MakeKeyBody(int k) {
+  std::string key_body(8, '\0');
+  uint64_t val = static_cast<uint64_t>(k);
+  for (int i = 7; i >= 0; --i) {
+    key_body[i] = static_cast<char>(val & 0xff);
+    val >>= 8;
+  }
+  return key_body;
+}
+
+class TrieIndexDBTest : public testing::Test {
+ protected:
+  void SetUp() override {
+    trie_factory_ = std::make_shared<TrieIndexFactory>();
+    dbname_ = test::PerThreadDBPath("trie_index_db_test");
+    ASSERT_OK(DestroyDB(dbname_, Options()));
+  }
+
+  void TearDown() override {
+    if (db_) {
+      EXPECT_OK(db_->Close());
+      db_.reset();
+    }
+    EXPECT_OK(DestroyDB(dbname_, last_options_));
+  }
+
+  // Opens a DB with the trie UDI factory configured. Caller should set
+  // options_ fields before calling this. An optional block_size overrides
+  // the default to force more data blocks in the SST.
+  Status OpenDB(int block_size = 0) {
+    options_.create_if_missing = true;
+    BlockBasedTableOptions table_options;
+    table_options.user_defined_index_factory = trie_factory_;
+    if (block_size > 0) {
+      table_options.block_size = block_size;
+    }
+    options_.table_factory.reset(NewBlockBasedTableFactory(table_options));
+    last_options_ = options_;
+    return DB::Open(options_, dbname_, &db_);
+  }
+
+  // Returns a ReadOptions that routes reads through the standard binary
+  // search index (the default when table_index_factory is null).
+  ReadOptions StandardIndexReadOptions() const { return ReadOptions(); }
+
+  // Returns a ReadOptions that routes reads through the trie UDI index.
+  ReadOptions TrieIndexReadOptions() const {
+    ReadOptions ro;
+    ro.table_index_factory = trie_factory_.get();
+    return ro;
+  }
+
+  // Collects all visible keys via forward scan using the given ReadOptions.
+  std::vector<std::string> ScanAllKeys(const ReadOptions& ro) {
+    std::vector<std::string> keys;
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+    iter->SeekToFirst();
+    for (; iter->Valid(); iter->Next()) {
+      keys.push_back(iter->key().ToString());
+    }
+    EXPECT_OK(iter->status());
+    return keys;
+  }
+
+  // Collects all visible keys via forward scan using the standard index.
+  std::vector<std::string> ScanAllKeys() {
+    return ScanAllKeys(StandardIndexReadOptions());
+  }
+
+  // Collects all visible (key, value) pairs via forward scan.
+  std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> ScanAllKeyValues(
+      const ReadOptions& ro) {
+    std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> kvs;
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+    iter->SeekToFirst();
+    for (; iter->Valid(); iter->Next()) {
+      kvs.emplace_back(iter->key().ToString(), iter->value().ToString());
+    }
+    EXPECT_OK(iter->status());
+    return kvs;
+  }
+
+  // Verifies that forward scan via SeekToFirst+Next produces the same key
+  // set through both the standard index and the trie index.
+  void VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(
+      const std::vector<std::string>& expected_keys) {
+    {
+      SCOPED_TRACE("standard index");
+      ASSERT_EQ(ScanAllKeys(StandardIndexReadOptions()), expected_keys);
+    }
+    {
+      SCOPED_TRACE("trie index");
+      ASSERT_EQ(ScanAllKeys(TrieIndexReadOptions()), expected_keys);
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Verifies that forward scan via SeekToFirst+Next produces the same
+  // (key, value) pairs through both indexes.
+  void VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(
+      const std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>>& expected_kvs) {
+    {
+      SCOPED_TRACE("standard index");
+      ASSERT_EQ(ScanAllKeyValues(StandardIndexReadOptions()), expected_kvs);
+    }
+    {
+      SCOPED_TRACE("trie index");
+      ASSERT_EQ(ScanAllKeyValues(TrieIndexReadOptions()), expected_kvs);
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Verifies that a point Get returns the expected value through both indexes.
+  void VerifyGetBothIndexes(const std::string& key,
+                            const std::string& expected_value) {
+    for (const auto& ro :
+         {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+      SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index" : "standard index");
+      std::string value;
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->Get(ro, key, &value));
+      ASSERT_EQ(value, expected_value);
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Verifies that a point Get returns NotFound through both indexes.
+  void VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes(const std::string& key) {
+    for (const auto& ro :
+         {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+      SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index" : "standard index");
+      std::string value;
+      ASSERT_TRUE(db_->Get(ro, key, &value).IsNotFound());
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Verifies Get with a snapshot through both indexes.
+  void VerifyGetBothIndexes(const Snapshot* snap, const std::string& key,
+                            const std::string& expected_value) {
+    for (auto base_ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+      SCOPED_TRACE(base_ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index"
+                                               : "standard index");
+      base_ro.snapshot = snap;
+      std::string value;
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->Get(base_ro, key, &value));
+      ASSERT_EQ(value, expected_value);
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Verifies Get returns NotFound with a snapshot through both indexes.
+  void VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes(const Snapshot* snap,
+                                    const std::string& key) {
+    for (auto base_ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+      SCOPED_TRACE(base_ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index"
+                                               : "standard index");
+      base_ro.snapshot = snap;
+      std::string value;
+      ASSERT_TRUE(db_->Get(base_ro, key, &value).IsNotFound());
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Verifies that a forward scan with a snapshot produces the expected
+  // (key, value) pairs through both indexes.
+  void VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(
+      const Snapshot* snap,
+      const std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>>& expected_kvs) {
+    for (auto base_ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+      SCOPED_TRACE(base_ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index"
+                                               : "standard index");
+      base_ro.snapshot = snap;
+      ASSERT_EQ(ScanAllKeyValues(base_ro), expected_kvs);
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Verifies that Seek to a specific key through both indexes returns the
+  // same result.
+  void VerifySeekBothIndexes(const std::string& seek_key,
+                             const std::string& expected_key,
+                             const std::string& expected_value) {
+    for (const auto& ro :
+         {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+      SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index" : "standard index");
+      std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+      iter->Seek(seek_key);
+      ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+      ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), expected_key);
+      ASSERT_EQ(iter->value().ToString(), expected_value);
+      ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Verifies that Seek with a snapshot through both indexes returns the
+  // same result.
+  void VerifySeekBothIndexes(const Snapshot* snap, const std::string& seek_key,
+                             const std::string& expected_key,
+                             const std::string& expected_value) {
+    for (auto base_ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+      SCOPED_TRACE(base_ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index"
+                                               : "standard index");
+      base_ro.snapshot = snap;
+      std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(base_ro));
+      iter->Seek(seek_key);
+      ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+      ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), expected_key);
+      ASSERT_EQ(iter->value().ToString(), expected_value);
+      ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Opens without UDI factory (standard index only). Used to test graceful
+  // degradation when reopening a DB that has UDI SSTs.
+  Status OpenDBWithoutUDI(int block_size = 0) {
+    options_.create_if_missing = true;
+    BlockBasedTableOptions table_options;
+    // Deliberately no user_defined_index_factory.
+    if (block_size > 0) {
+      table_options.block_size = block_size;
+    }
+    options_.table_factory.reset(NewBlockBasedTableFactory(table_options));
+    last_options_ = options_;
+    return DB::Open(options_, dbname_, &db_);
+  }
+
+  // Verify prefix-scan lockstep across `num_prefixes` iterators.
+  //
+  // Creates one iterator per prefix digit (0..num_prefixes-1), seeks each to
+  // its prefix, then walks all in lockstep asserting key bodies match. When
+  // `use_upper_bounds` is true, even-numbered iterators get an upper bound
+  // set to the next prefix. When `verify_values` is true, value bodies are
+  // also cross-checked.
+  //
+  // Returns the number of keys walked (per-prefix).
+  uint64_t VerifyPrefixScanLockstep(const ReadOptions& base_ro,
+                                    int num_prefixes, bool use_upper_bounds,
+                                    bool verify_values,
+                                    const std::string& trace_context = "") {
+    std::vector<std::unique_ptr<Iterator>> iters(num_prefixes);
+    std::vector<std::string> prefixes(num_prefixes);
+    std::vector<Slice> prefix_slices(num_prefixes);
+    std::vector<ReadOptions> ro_copies(num_prefixes);
+    std::vector<std::string> upper_bounds(num_prefixes);
+    std::vector<Slice> ub_slices(num_prefixes);
+
+    for (int d = 0; d < num_prefixes; ++d) {
+      prefixes[d] = std::to_string(d);
+      prefix_slices[d] = Slice(prefixes[d]);
+      ro_copies[d] = base_ro;
+      if (use_upper_bounds && d % 2 == 0) {
+        upper_bounds[d] = prefixes[d];
+        upper_bounds[d].back()++;
+        ub_slices[d] = upper_bounds[d];
+        ro_copies[d].iterate_upper_bound = &ub_slices[d];
+      }
+      iters[d].reset(db_->NewIterator(ro_copies[d]));
+      iters[d]->Seek(prefix_slices[d]);
+    }
+
+    uint64_t count = 0;
+    while (iters[0]->Valid() && iters[0]->key().starts_with(prefix_slices[0])) {
+      count++;
+      std::vector<std::string> keys(num_prefixes);
+      std::vector<std::string> values(num_prefixes);
+      for (int d = 0; d < num_prefixes; ++d) {
+        EXPECT_TRUE(iters[d]->Valid())
+            << trace_context << " iter " << d << " invalid at step " << count;
+        EXPECT_TRUE(iters[d]->key().starts_with(prefix_slices[d]))
+            << trace_context << " iter " << d << " out of prefix at step "
+            << count;
+        if (!iters[d]->Valid()) {
+          return count;
+        }
+        keys[d] = iters[d]->key().ToString();
+        values[d] = iters[d]->value().ToString();
+      }
+
+      std::string key0_body = keys[0].substr(1);
+      for (int d = 1; d < num_prefixes; ++d) {
+        EXPECT_EQ(key0_body, keys[d].substr(1))
+            << trace_context << " key body mismatch at step " << count
+            << " iter " << d;
+      }
+
+      if (verify_values) {
+        std::string val0 = values[0];
+        if (!val0.empty()) {
+          val0.pop_back();
+        }
+        for (int d = 1; d < num_prefixes; ++d) {
+          std::string vald = values[d];
+          if (!vald.empty()) {
+            vald.pop_back();
+          }
+          EXPECT_EQ(val0, vald) << trace_context << " value mismatch at step "
+                                << count << " iter " << d;
+        }
+      }
+
+      for (int d = 0; d < num_prefixes; ++d) {
+        iters[d]->Next();
+      }
+    }
+
+    EXPECT_OK(iters[0]->status());
+    for (int d = 1; d < num_prefixes; ++d) {
+      EXPECT_TRUE(!iters[d]->Valid() ||
+                  !iters[d]->key().starts_with(prefix_slices[d]))
+          << trace_context << " iter " << d
+          << " still has keys after iter 0 finished";
+      EXPECT_OK(iters[d]->status());
+    }
+
+    return count;
+  }
+
+  std::shared_ptr<TrieIndexFactory> trie_factory_;
+  std::string dbname_;
+  Options options_;
+  Options last_options_;
+  std::unique_ptr<DB> db_;
+};
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Flush tests
+// ============================================================================
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, FlushWithAllOperationTypes) {
+  // Write every supported operation type via the DB API, flush, and verify
+  // reads return correct results through both the standard binary search index
+  // and the trie UDI. This exercises the full path from memtable through
+  // CompactionIterator, BlockBasedTableBuilder, and the UDI builder wrapper's
+  // MapToUDIValueType for each internal ValueType.
+  options_.merge_operator = MergeOperators::CreateStringAppendOperator();
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // kTypeValue
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_01_put", "val_put"));
+  // kTypeMerge
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Merge(WriteOptions(), "key_02_merge", "val_merge"));
+  // kTypeDeletion (bare tombstone — no prior value for this key)
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), "key_03_del"));
+  // kTypeSingleDeletion (preceded by a Put; both cancel out with no snapshot)
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_04_sdel", "val_sdel"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->SingleDelete(WriteOptions(), "key_04_sdel"));
+  // kTypeWideColumnEntity (with a default column so Get() returns a value)
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->PutEntity(WriteOptions(), db_->DefaultColumnFamily(),
+                           "key_05_entity",
+                           WideColumns{{"", "default_val"}, {"col1", "val1"}}));
+  // Another kTypeValue to anchor the end of the key range
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_06_put", "val_put2"));
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Forward scan via both indexes. Expected visible keys after flush:
+  //   key_01_put    — Put (visible)
+  //   key_02_merge  — Merge single operand (visible)
+  //   key_03_del    — bare Delete tombstone (hidden by DBIter)
+  //   key_04_sdel   — Put + SingleDelete cancel out (hidden)
+  //   key_05_entity — PutEntity (visible)
+  //   key_06_put    — Put (visible)
+  {
+    std::vector<std::string> expected = {"key_01_put", "key_02_merge",
+                                         "key_05_entity", "key_06_put"};
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(expected));
+  }
+
+  // Point lookups via both indexes.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_01_put", "val_put"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_02_merge", "val_merge"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("key_03_del"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("key_04_sdel"));
+  // PutEntity: Get() returns the value of the default column ("").
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_05_entity", "default_val"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_06_put", "val_put2"));
+}
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, TimedPutFlush) {
+  // TimedPut produces kTypeValuePreferredSeqno entries during flush when
+  // preclude_last_level_data_seconds > 0. The UDI wrapper strips the packed
+  // preferred seqno suffix via ParsePackedValueForValue() before forwarding
+  // to the plugin builder. This test verifies that path end-to-end through
+  // both the standard binary search index and the trie UDI.
+  options_.merge_operator = MergeOperators::CreateStringAppendOperator();
+  options_.compaction_style = kCompactionStyleUniversal;
+  // Required for kTypeValuePreferredSeqno to survive the flush path: the
+  // seqno_to_time_mapping must be available so a preferred seqno can be
+  // computed. With write_unix_time=0, GetProximalSeqnoBeforeTime(0) returns 0,
+  // which is < any real seqno, so the entry stays as kTypeValuePreferredSeqno.
+  options_.preclude_last_level_data_seconds = 10000;
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // Regular Put alongside the TimedPut to verify they coexist.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_01_put", "val_put"));
+
+  // TimedPut via WriteBatch (there is no DB::TimedPut method).
+  {
+    WriteBatch wb;
+    ASSERT_OK(wb.TimedPut(db_->DefaultColumnFamily(), "key_02_timed",
+                          "val_timed", /*write_unix_time=*/0));
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Write(WriteOptions(), &wb));
+  }
+
+  // Merge to verify mixed types work with TimedPut in the same flush.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Merge(WriteOptions(), "key_03_merge", "val_merge"));
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Point lookups via both indexes — the packed seqno must be transparent.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_01_put", "val_put"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_02_timed", "val_timed"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_03_merge", "val_merge"));
+
+  // Forward scan via both indexes — all three keys visible in order.
+  {
+    std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> expected = {
+        {"key_01_put", "val_put"},
+        {"key_02_timed", "val_timed"},
+        {"key_03_merge", "val_merge"}};
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(expected));
+  }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Compaction tests
+// ============================================================================
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, CompactionWithMixedOpsAndSnapshots) {
+  // Multiple flushes followed by compaction with a snapshot held. The snapshot
+  // forces compaction to preserve multiple versions of the same user key,
+  // exercising the UDI builder's handling of duplicate user keys with different
+  // sequence numbers and value types. Verified through both indexes.
+  options_.merge_operator = MergeOperators::CreateStringAppendOperator();
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // Flush 1: initial values.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_aa", "v1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_bb", "v1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Merge(WriteOptions(), "key_cc", "m1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Snapshot pins flush 1 versions so compaction preserves them.
+  const Snapshot* snap = db_->GetSnapshot();
+
+  // Flush 2: updates that create new versions.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_aa", "v2"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), "key_bb"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Merge(WriteOptions(), "key_cc", "m2"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Compact all levels. Both versions of each key are preserved because the
+  // snapshot prevents garbage collection of the older versions.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+
+  // Current view (no snapshot): key_aa=v2, key_bb deleted, key_cc="m1,m2".
+  {
+    std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> expected = {
+        {"key_aa", "v2"}, {"key_cc", "m1,m2"}};
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(expected));
+  }
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_aa", "v2"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("key_bb"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_cc", "m1,m2"));
+
+  // Snapshot view: key_aa=v1, key_bb=v1, key_cc="m1".
+  {
+    std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> expected = {
+        {"key_aa", "v1"}, {"key_bb", "v1"}, {"key_cc", "m1"}};
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(snap, expected));
+  }
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes(snap, "key_aa", "v1"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes(snap, "key_bb", "v1"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes(snap, "key_cc", "m1"));
+
+  db_->ReleaseSnapshot(snap);
+}
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, CompactionWithAllOperationTypes) {
+  // Exercises all operation types (Put, Delete, Merge, SingleDelete, PutEntity)
+  // across two flushes with a snapshot, then compacts. Verified through both
+  // indexes. This ensures the UDI builder handles the full range of value types
+  // in compaction output, and that both the current and snapshot views are
+  // correct.
+  options_.merge_operator = MergeOperators::CreateStringAppendOperator();
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // Flush 1: initial values with diverse types.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_01_put", "v1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Merge(WriteOptions(), "key_02_merge", "m1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_03_sd_target", "sd_val"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->PutEntity(WriteOptions(), db_->DefaultColumnFamily(),
+                           "key_04_entity", WideColumns{{"", "e1"}}));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_05_del_target", "del_val"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Snapshot pins flush 1 versions.
+  const Snapshot* snap = db_->GetSnapshot();
+
+  // Flush 2: updates each key with a different operation type.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_01_put", "v2"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Merge(WriteOptions(), "key_02_merge", "m2"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->SingleDelete(WriteOptions(), "key_03_sd_target"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->PutEntity(WriteOptions(), db_->DefaultColumnFamily(),
+                           "key_04_entity", WideColumns{{"", "e2"}}));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), "key_05_del_target"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+
+  // Current view via both indexes: key_01=v2, key_02="m1,m2", key_03 SD'd,
+  // key_04=e2, key_05 deleted.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_01_put", "v2"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_02_merge", "m1,m2"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("key_03_sd_target"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_04_entity", "e2"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("key_05_del_target"));
+
+  // Current view scan via both indexes: only key_01, key_02, key_04 visible.
+  {
+    std::vector<std::string> expected = {"key_01_put", "key_02_merge",
+                                         "key_04_entity"};
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(expected));
+  }
+
+  // Snapshot view via both indexes: all original flush 1 values visible.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes(snap, "key_01_put", "v1"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes(snap, "key_02_merge", "m1"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+      VerifyGetBothIndexes(snap, "key_03_sd_target", "sd_val"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes(snap, "key_04_entity", "e1"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+      VerifyGetBothIndexes(snap, "key_05_del_target", "del_val"));
+
+  {
+    std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> expected = {
+        {"key_01_put", "v1"},
+        {"key_02_merge", "m1"},
+        {"key_03_sd_target", "sd_val"},
+        {"key_04_entity", "e1"},
+        {"key_05_del_target", "del_val"}};
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(snap, expected));
+  }
+
+  db_->ReleaseSnapshot(snap);
+}
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, TimedPutCompaction) {
+  // Verifies that kTypeValuePreferredSeqno entries survive compaction and the
+  // UDI builder correctly strips the packed seqno during compaction output.
+  // Verified through both indexes.
+  options_.compaction_style = kCompactionStyleUniversal;
+  options_.preclude_last_level_data_seconds = 10000;
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // Flush 1: TimedPut + regular Put.
+  {
+    WriteBatch wb;
+    ASSERT_OK(wb.TimedPut(db_->DefaultColumnFamily(), "key_01_timed",
+                          "timed_v1", /*write_unix_time=*/0));
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Write(WriteOptions(), &wb));
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_02_put", "put_v1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Snapshot pins flush 1 versions.
+  const Snapshot* snap = db_->GetSnapshot();
+
+  // Flush 2: overwrite both keys with regular Puts.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_01_timed", "put_v2"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_02_put", "put_v2"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Compact: the snapshot forces both versions of key_01_timed to be kept.
+  // The older version is kTypeValuePreferredSeqno with packed seqno.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+
+  // Current view via both indexes: both keys have the newer value.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_01_timed", "put_v2"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_02_put", "put_v2"));
+  {
+    std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> expected = {
+        {"key_01_timed", "put_v2"}, {"key_02_put", "put_v2"}};
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(expected));
+  }
+
+  // Snapshot view via both indexes: key_01 has the original TimedPut value
+  // (packed seqno must be transparent), key_02 has its original value.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+      VerifyGetBothIndexes(snap, "key_01_timed", "timed_v1"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes(snap, "key_02_put", "put_v1"));
+  {
+    std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> expected = {
+        {"key_01_timed", "timed_v1"}, {"key_02_put", "put_v1"}};
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(snap, expected));
+  }
+
+  db_->ReleaseSnapshot(snap);
+}
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, CrossFlushSingleDelete) {
+  // Verifies that a SingleDelete in a later SST correctly cancels a Put from
+  // an earlier SST after compaction with the trie UDI active. Verified through
+  // both indexes.
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // Flush 1: Puts.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_aa", "val_aa"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_bb", "val_bb"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_cc", "val_cc"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Flush 2: SingleDelete key_bb (targets the Put from flush 1).
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->SingleDelete(WriteOptions(), "key_bb"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Before compaction: key_bb is already hidden by the merging iterator.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("key_bb"));
+
+  // After compaction: SingleDelete + Put fully cancel out, key_bb is gone.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("key_bb"));
+
+  // Remaining keys unaffected via both indexes.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_aa", "val_aa"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_cc", "val_cc"));
+
+  {
+    std::vector<std::string> expected = {"key_aa", "key_cc"};
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(expected));
+  }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Iteration tests
+// ============================================================================
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, ReverseIteration) {
+  // Verifies that reverse iteration (SeekToLast, Prev, SeekForPrev) works
+  // correctly with mixed operation types. Forward scan and point lookups are
+  // verified through both indexes. Reverse operations use the standard index
+  // (the trie UDI iterator does not yet support SeekToLast/Prev/SeekForPrev).
+  options_.merge_operator = MergeOperators::CreateStringAppendOperator();
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_01", "v1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Merge(WriteOptions(), "key_02", "m1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), "key_03"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_04", "v4"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->PutEntity(WriteOptions(), db_->DefaultColumnFamily(), "key_05",
+                           WideColumns{{"", "e5"}}));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_06", "v6"));
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Visible keys: key_01, key_02, key_04, key_05, key_06 (key_03 deleted).
+
+  // Forward scan via both indexes.
+  {
+    std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> expected = {
+        {"key_01", "v1"},
+        {"key_02", "m1"},
+        {"key_04", "v4"},
+        {"key_05", "e5"},
+        {"key_06", "v6"}};
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(expected));
+  }
+
+  // Point lookups via both indexes.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_01", "v1"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_02", "m1"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("key_03"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_04", "v4"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_05", "e5"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_06", "v6"));
+
+  // Seek via both indexes.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifySeekBothIndexes("key_04", "key_04", "v4"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifySeekBothIndexes("key_05", "key_05", "e5"));
+
+  // Reverse operations below use the standard index only.
+
+  // SeekToLast + full reverse scan.
+  {
+    ReadOptions ro;
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+    iter->SeekToLast();
+    std::vector<std::string> reverse_keys;
+    for (; iter->Valid(); iter->Prev()) {
+      reverse_keys.push_back(iter->key().ToString());
+    }
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+    std::vector<std::string> expected = {"key_06", "key_05", "key_04", "key_02",
+                                         "key_01"};
+    ASSERT_EQ(reverse_keys, expected);
+  }
+
+  // SeekForPrev to an exact visible key.
+  {
+    ReadOptions ro;
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+    iter->SeekForPrev("key_04");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "key_04");
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->value().ToString(), "v4");
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+  }
+
+  // SeekForPrev to a deleted key — should land on the largest visible key
+  // that is <= "key_03", which is key_02.
+  {
+    ReadOptions ro;
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+    iter->SeekForPrev("key_03");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "key_02");
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+  }
+
+  // SeekForPrev to a key between existing keys.
+  {
+    ReadOptions ro;
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+    iter->SeekForPrev("key_04_5");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "key_04");
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+  }
+
+  // SeekForPrev before all keys — should be invalid.
+  {
+    ReadOptions ro;
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+    iter->SeekForPrev("key_00");
+    ASSERT_FALSE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+  }
+
+  // Prev from a Seek position in the middle of the range.
+  {
+    ReadOptions ro;
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+    iter->Seek("key_05");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "key_05");
+
+    iter->Prev();
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "key_04");
+
+    iter->Prev();
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "key_02");
+
+    iter->Prev();
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "key_01");
+
+    iter->Prev();
+    ASSERT_FALSE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+  }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// DeleteRange test
+// ============================================================================
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, DeleteRangeWithTrieUDI) {
+  // Verifies that DeleteRange (kTypeRangeDeletion) works correctly alongside
+  // the trie UDI. Range deletions go to a separate range_del_block (not
+  // through OnKeyAdded), but we verify that reads correctly filter out
+  // range-deleted keys when the trie UDI is active. Forward scan and point
+  // lookups verified through both indexes; reverse scan uses standard index.
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
+    char key_buf[16];
+    char val_buf[16];
+    snprintf(key_buf, sizeof(key_buf), "key_%02d", i);
+    snprintf(val_buf, sizeof(val_buf), "val_%02d", i);
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), key_buf, val_buf));
+  }
+
+  // DeleteRange [key_04, key_08) — deletes key_04 through key_07.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->DeleteRange(WriteOptions(), db_->DefaultColumnFamily(),
+                             "key_04", "key_08"));
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Forward scan via both indexes: key_01..key_03 and key_08..key_10 visible.
+  {
+    std::vector<std::string> expected = {"key_01", "key_02", "key_03",
+                                         "key_08", "key_09", "key_10"};
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(expected));
+  }
+
+  // Point lookups via both indexes for deleted keys.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("key_04"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("key_07"));
+
+  // Point lookups via both indexes for surviving keys at boundaries.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_03", "val_03"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_08", "val_08"));
+
+  // Reverse scan (standard index only) should also respect the range deletion.
+  {
+    ReadOptions ro;
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+    iter->SeekToLast();
+    std::vector<std::string> reverse_keys;
+    for (; iter->Valid(); iter->Prev()) {
+      reverse_keys.push_back(iter->key().ToString());
+    }
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+    std::vector<std::string> expected = {"key_10", "key_09", "key_08",
+                                         "key_03", "key_02", "key_01"};
+    ASSERT_EQ(reverse_keys, expected);
+  }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// DB reopen test
+// ============================================================================
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, ReopenWithMixedOperationTypes) {
+  // Writes all operation types, flushes, closes the DB, reopens, and verifies
+  // all data reads correctly from cold SST files through both indexes. This
+  // exercises the read path on a freshly opened DB where no memtable data
+  // exists.
+  options_.merge_operator = MergeOperators::CreateStringAppendOperator();
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_01", "val_put"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Merge(WriteOptions(), "key_02", "val_merge"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), "key_03"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_04", "sd_target"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->SingleDelete(WriteOptions(), "key_04"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->PutEntity(WriteOptions(), db_->DefaultColumnFamily(), "key_05",
+                           WideColumns{{"", "entity_val"}}));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_06", "val_put2"));
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Close the DB. All data is now only in SST files.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Close());
+  db_.reset();
+
+  // Reopen with the same trie UDI configuration.
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // Point lookups on cold data via both indexes.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_01", "val_put"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_02", "val_merge"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("key_03"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("key_04"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_05", "entity_val"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_06", "val_put2"));
+
+  // Forward scan via both indexes.
+  {
+    std::vector<std::string> expected = {"key_01", "key_02", "key_05",
+                                         "key_06"};
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(expected));
+  }
+
+  // Reverse scan on cold data (standard index only).
+  {
+    ReadOptions ro;
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+    iter->SeekToLast();
+    std::vector<std::string> reverse_keys;
+    for (; iter->Valid(); iter->Prev()) {
+      reverse_keys.push_back(iter->key().ToString());
+    }
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+    std::vector<std::string> expected = {"key_06", "key_05", "key_02",
+                                         "key_01"};
+    ASSERT_EQ(reverse_keys, expected);
+  }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Ingest external file test
+// ============================================================================
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, IngestExternalFileWithTrieUDI) {
+  // Creates an SST with SstFileWriter using the trie UDI, then ingests it
+  // into a live DB that also has trie UDI configured. Verifies that both the
+  // existing DB data and the ingested data are correctly readable through both
+  // indexes.
+  options_.merge_operator = MergeOperators::CreateStringAppendOperator();
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // Write some data directly to the DB and flush.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_01", "db_val1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_05", "db_val5"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Create an SST with SstFileWriter using trie UDI, containing mixed ops.
+  std::string sst_path = dbname_ + "/ingest.sst";
+  {
+    Options sst_options;
+    sst_options.merge_operator = MergeOperators::CreateStringAppendOperator();
+    BlockBasedTableOptions table_options;
+    table_options.user_defined_index_factory = trie_factory_;
+    sst_options.table_factory.reset(NewBlockBasedTableFactory(table_options));
+
+    SstFileWriter writer(EnvOptions(), sst_options);
+    ASSERT_OK(writer.Open(sst_path));
+    ASSERT_OK(writer.Put("key_02", "ingest_val2"));
+    ASSERT_OK(writer.Merge("key_03", "ingest_merge3"));
+    ASSERT_OK(writer.Delete("key_04"));
+    ASSERT_OK(writer.Put("key_06", "ingest_val6"));
+    ASSERT_OK(writer.Finish());
+  }
+
+  // Ingest into the live DB.
+  IngestExternalFileOptions ingest_opts;
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->IngestExternalFile({sst_path}, ingest_opts));
+
+  // Point lookups via both indexes — combined DB + ingested data.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_01", "db_val1"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_02", "ingest_val2"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_03", "ingest_merge3"));
+  // key_04: ingested Delete tombstone, no prior value — NotFound.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("key_04"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_05", "db_val5"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_06", "ingest_val6"));
+
+  // Forward scan via both indexes.
+  {
+    std::vector<std::string> expected = {"key_01", "key_02", "key_03", "key_05",
+                                         "key_06"};
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(expected));
+  }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// WriteBatch test
+// ============================================================================
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, WriteBatchWithMixedOperations) {
+  // Verifies that a single WriteBatch containing multiple operation types
+  // (Put, Delete, Merge, SingleDelete, PutEntity) works correctly with the
+  // trie UDI. Verified through both indexes. Real-world workloads typically
+  // batch multiple operations.
+  options_.merge_operator = MergeOperators::CreateStringAppendOperator();
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // Pre-populate a key that the batch's Delete will target.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_02_del", "pre_val"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Build a WriteBatch with all operation types.
+  WriteBatch wb;
+  ASSERT_OK(wb.Put(db_->DefaultColumnFamily(), "key_01_put", "batch_put"));
+  ASSERT_OK(wb.Delete(db_->DefaultColumnFamily(), "key_02_del"));
+  ASSERT_OK(wb.Merge(db_->DefaultColumnFamily(), "key_03_merge", "batch_m"));
+  // Put + SingleDelete within the same batch — they cancel out.
+  ASSERT_OK(wb.Put(db_->DefaultColumnFamily(), "key_04_sd", "sd_target"));
+  ASSERT_OK(wb.SingleDelete(db_->DefaultColumnFamily(), "key_04_sd"));
+  ASSERT_OK(wb.PutEntity(db_->DefaultColumnFamily(), "key_05_entity",
+                         WideColumns{{"", "batch_entity"}}));
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Write(WriteOptions(), &wb));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Point lookups via both indexes. Expected visible keys: key_01 (Put),
+  // key_03 (Merge), key_05 (PutEntity). key_02 deleted, key_04
+  // Put+SingleDelete cancel.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_01_put", "batch_put"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("key_02_del"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_03_merge", "batch_m"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("key_04_sd"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+      VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_05_entity", "batch_entity"));
+
+  // Forward scan via both indexes.
+  {
+    std::vector<std::string> expected = {"key_01_put", "key_03_merge",
+                                         "key_05_entity"};
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(expected));
+  }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Large-scale test
+// ============================================================================
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, LargeMixedOperationsAcrossBlocks) {
+  // Large-scale test with many keys of different operation types and a small
+  // block size. This stresses block boundary handling in the trie UDI across
+  // Put, Delete, Merge, SingleDelete, and PutEntity entries. Verified through
+  // both indexes.
+  options_.merge_operator = MergeOperators::CreateStringAppendOperator();
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  // Small block size forces many data blocks, exercising the trie index's
+  // AddIndexEntry at frequent block boundaries.
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/128));
+
+  const int kNumKeys = 500;
+  // Track keys expected to be visible after flush (non-deleted, non-SD'd).
+  std::vector<std::string> expected_visible;
+
+  for (int i = 0; i < kNumKeys; i++) {
+    char key_buf[32];
+    snprintf(key_buf, sizeof(key_buf), "key_%06d", i);
+    std::string key(key_buf);
+
+    // Distribute operation types:
+    //   i%10 in [0,3] -> Put         (40%)
+    //   i%10 in [4,5] -> Delete      (20%)
+    //   i%10 in [6,7] -> Merge       (20%)
+    //   i%10 == 8     -> SingleDelete (10%, preceded by Put -- both cancel)
+    //   i%10 == 9     -> PutEntity   (10%)
+    int type = i % 10;
+    if (type <= 3) {
+      char val_buf[32];
+      snprintf(val_buf, sizeof(val_buf), "val_%06d", i);
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), key, val_buf));
+      expected_visible.push_back(key);
+    } else if (type <= 5) {
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), key));
+      // Bare tombstone — not visible.
+    } else if (type <= 7) {
+      char val_buf[32];
+      snprintf(val_buf, sizeof(val_buf), "merge_%06d", i);
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->Merge(WriteOptions(), key, val_buf));
+      expected_visible.push_back(key);
+    } else if (type == 8) {
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), key, "to_be_deleted"));
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->SingleDelete(WriteOptions(), key));
+      // Put + SingleDelete cancel — not visible.
+    } else {
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->PutEntity(WriteOptions(), db_->DefaultColumnFamily(), key,
+                               WideColumns{{"", "entity_val"}}));
+      expected_visible.push_back(key);
+    }
+  }
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Forward scan via both indexes — verify exactly the expected visible keys.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(expected_visible));
+
+  // Spot-check: Seek to every 10th visible key via both indexes.
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index" : "standard index");
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < expected_visible.size(); i += 10) {
+      iter->Seek(expected_visible[i]);
+      ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid()) << "Seek failed for " << expected_visible[i];
+      ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), expected_visible[i]);
+    }
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+  }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Seqno side-table tests (same user key spanning data block boundaries)
+// ============================================================================
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, SameUserKeyAcrossBlockBoundaries) {
+  // Forces the same user key to appear in multiple data blocks by writing many
+  // versions with snapshots held to prevent garbage collection, using a tiny
+  // block_size. This exercises the trie's seqno side-table: the trie stores
+  // only one separator per user key, and the side-table records the seqno +
+  // overflow block count so that Seek() can find the correct data block for
+  // each version.
+  //
+  // Without the seqno side-table fix (PR #14412), reads through the trie index
+  // would return incorrect data when multiple versions of the same key span
+  // different data blocks.
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  // Tiny block_size (64 bytes) forces each version of the key into its own
+  // data block, creating same-user-key block boundaries that the trie must
+  // handle via the seqno side-table.
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/64));
+
+  // Write multiple versions of the same key, holding snapshots so all versions
+  // survive the flush to a single SST file.
+  const std::string key = "same_key";
+  constexpr int kNumVersions = 10;
+  std::vector<const Snapshot*> snaps;
+  for (int i = 0; i < kNumVersions; i++) {
+    std::string val = "ver_" + std::to_string(i);
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), key, val));
+    snaps.push_back(db_->GetSnapshot());
+  }
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Current view: latest version visible.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+      VerifyGetBothIndexes(key, "ver_" + std::to_string(kNumVersions - 1)));
+
+  // Each snapshot should see the version written at or before its creation.
+  for (int i = 0; i < kNumVersions; i++) {
+    std::string expected_val = "ver_" + std::to_string(i);
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes(snaps[i], key, expected_val));
+  }
+
+  // Forward scan with each snapshot should return exactly one key with the
+  // correct version.
+  for (int i = 0; i < kNumVersions; i++) {
+    std::string expected_val = "ver_" + std::to_string(i);
+    std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> expected = {
+        {key, expected_val}};
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(snaps[i], expected));
+  }
+
+  // Seek to the key through the trie index with each snapshot — the trie's
+  // post-seek correction must advance through overflow blocks to find the
+  // correct version for each seqno.
+  for (int i = 0; i < kNumVersions; i++) {
+    std::string expected_val = "ver_" + std::to_string(i);
+    SCOPED_TRACE("snap=" + std::to_string(i));
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+        VerifySeekBothIndexes(snaps[i], key, key, expected_val));
+  }
+
+  for (auto* snap : snaps) {
+    db_->ReleaseSnapshot(snap);
+  }
+}
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, SameUserKeyPutThenDeleteAcrossBlocks) {
+  // Same user key with a Put followed by a Delete, where both entries land in
+  // different data blocks. A snapshot pins the Put version. After compaction,
+  // the current view shows NotFound while the snapshot view shows the Put.
+  // This tests the seqno side-table with mixed value types for the same key.
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/64));
+
+  // Write a Put, take snapshot, then Delete.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "del_key", "put_value"));
+  const Snapshot* snap = db_->GetSnapshot();
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), "del_key"));
+
+  // Add surrounding keys to create more data blocks and exercise trie
+  // separators around the duplicated key.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "aaa_before", "before_val"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "zzz_after", "after_val"));
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Current view: del_key is deleted.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("del_key"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("aaa_before", "before_val"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("zzz_after", "after_val"));
+
+  // Snapshot view: del_key is visible with the Put value.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes(snap, "del_key", "put_value"));
+
+  // Seek to del_key with snapshot through both indexes.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+      VerifySeekBothIndexes(snap, "del_key", "del_key", "put_value"));
+
+  // Compact to merge the Put + Delete. Snapshot prevents GC of the Put.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+
+  // After compaction, same behavior.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("del_key"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes(snap, "del_key", "put_value"));
+
+  db_->ReleaseSnapshot(snap);
+}
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, SameUserKeyManyVersionsSeekCorrectness) {
+  // Writes many versions of three different keys (with snapshots), using a
+  // tiny block_size to force same-user-key block boundaries. Verifies that
+  // Seek + Get through the trie index returns the correct version for each
+  // snapshot, testing the seqno side-table's overflow handling with multiple
+  // keys interleaved in the SST.
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/64));
+
+  const std::vector<std::string> keys = {"key_aaa", "key_mmm", "key_zzz"};
+  constexpr int kVersionsPerKey = 8;
+  // snaps[v] is taken after writing version v of all keys.
+  std::vector<const Snapshot*> snaps;
+
+  for (int v = 0; v < kVersionsPerKey; v++) {
+    for (const auto& k : keys) {
+      std::string val = k + "_v" + std::to_string(v);
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), k, val));
+    }
+    snaps.push_back(db_->GetSnapshot());
+  }
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Verify each snapshot sees the correct version of each key via Get and Seek.
+  for (int v = 0; v < kVersionsPerKey; v++) {
+    for (const auto& k : keys) {
+      std::string expected_val = k + "_v" + std::to_string(v);
+      SCOPED_TRACE("key=" + k + " v=" + std::to_string(v));
+      ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes(snaps[v], k, expected_val));
+      ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+          VerifySeekBothIndexes(snaps[v], k, k, expected_val));
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Compact and re-verify. Compaction must preserve all versions because
+  // snapshots are held.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+
+  for (int v = 0; v < kVersionsPerKey; v++) {
+    for (const auto& k : keys) {
+      std::string expected_val = k + "_v" + std::to_string(v);
+      ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes(snaps[v], k, expected_val));
+    }
+  }
+
+  for (auto* snap : snaps) {
+    db_->ReleaseSnapshot(snap);
+  }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// MultiGet test
+// ============================================================================
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, MultiGetWithTrieUDI) {
+  // Verifies that the batched MultiGet API works correctly with the trie UDI.
+  // MultiGet is a separate code path from single Get and uses batched block
+  // lookups, so it needs dedicated testing.
+  options_.merge_operator = MergeOperators::CreateStringAppendOperator();
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/128));
+
+  // Write a mix of operation types.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_01", "val_01"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Merge(WriteOptions(), "key_02", "merge_02"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), "key_03"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_04", "val_04"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->PutEntity(WriteOptions(), db_->DefaultColumnFamily(), "key_05",
+                           WideColumns{{"", "entity_05"}}));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_06", "val_06"));
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // MultiGet through both indexes.
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index" : "standard index");
+
+    std::vector<Slice> mg_keys = {"key_01",         "key_02", "key_03",
+                                  "key_04",         "key_05", "key_06",
+                                  "key_nonexistent"};
+    std::vector<std::string> mg_values(mg_keys.size());
+    std::vector<Status> mg_statuses = db_->MultiGet(ro, mg_keys, &mg_values);
+
+    ASSERT_EQ(mg_statuses.size(), mg_keys.size());
+    ASSERT_OK(mg_statuses[0]);
+    ASSERT_EQ(mg_values[0], "val_01");
+    ASSERT_OK(mg_statuses[1]);
+    ASSERT_EQ(mg_values[1], "merge_02");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(mg_statuses[2].IsNotFound());
+    ASSERT_OK(mg_statuses[3]);
+    ASSERT_EQ(mg_values[3], "val_04");
+    ASSERT_OK(mg_statuses[4]);
+    ASSERT_EQ(mg_values[4], "entity_05");
+    ASSERT_OK(mg_statuses[5]);
+    ASSERT_EQ(mg_values[5], "val_06");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(mg_statuses[6].IsNotFound());
+  }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// WAL replay / crash recovery test
+// ============================================================================
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, WALReplayRecovery) {
+  // Writes data without flushing, then closes and reopens the DB. The data
+  // must be recovered from the WAL and then flushed. This tests that the trie
+  // UDI builder handles entries replayed from the WAL correctly.
+  options_.merge_operator = MergeOperators::CreateStringAppendOperator();
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  // WAL is enabled by default (WriteOptions::disableWAL = false).
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // Write data — do NOT flush. Data lives only in the WAL + memtable.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "wal_key_01", "wal_val_01"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Merge(WriteOptions(), "wal_key_02", "wal_merge"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "wal_key_03", "wal_val_03"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), "wal_key_03"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "wal_key_04", "wal_val_04"));
+
+  // Close and reopen — triggers WAL replay.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Close());
+  db_.reset();
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // After WAL replay, data should be in a memtable. Flush to create SST with
+  // the trie UDI.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Verify data through both indexes.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("wal_key_01", "wal_val_01"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("wal_key_02", "wal_merge"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("wal_key_03"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("wal_key_04", "wal_val_04"));
+
+  // Forward scan.
+  {
+    std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> expected = {
+        {"wal_key_01", "wal_val_01"},
+        {"wal_key_02", "wal_merge"},
+        {"wal_key_04", "wal_val_04"}};
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(expected));
+  }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Multiple column families test
+// ============================================================================
+
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, MultipleColumnFamilies) {
+  // Opens a DB with multiple column families, each using the trie UDI. Writes
+  // different data to each CF, flushes, and verifies reads through both indexes
+  // for each CF. This tests that the UDI builder/reader are correctly isolated
+  // per-CF.
+  options_.merge_operator = MergeOperators::CreateStringAppendOperator();
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  options_.create_if_missing = true;
+
+  BlockBasedTableOptions table_options;
+  table_options.user_defined_index_factory = trie_factory_;
+  options_.table_factory.reset(NewBlockBasedTableFactory(table_options));
+  last_options_ = options_;
+
+  // Open with default CF first.
+  ASSERT_OK(DB::Open(options_, dbname_, &db_));
+
+  // Create two additional CFs with the same trie UDI options.
+  ColumnFamilyHandle* cf1 = nullptr;
+  ColumnFamilyHandle* cf2 = nullptr;
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CreateColumnFamily(options_, "cf_one", &cf1));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CreateColumnFamily(options_, "cf_two", &cf2));
+
+  // Write different data to each CF.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "default_key", "default_val"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), cf1, "cf1_key_a", "cf1_val_a"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Merge(WriteOptions(), cf1, "cf1_key_b", "cf1_merge"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), cf2, "cf2_key_x", "cf2_val_x"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), cf2, "cf2_key_y"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), cf2, "cf2_key_z", "cf2_val_z"));
+
+  // Flush all CFs.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions(), cf1));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions(), cf2));
+
+  // Verify default CF.
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index" : "standard index");
+    std::string value;
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Get(ro, "default_key", &value));
+    ASSERT_EQ(value, "default_val");
+  }
+
+  // Verify cf_one through both indexes.
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index" : "standard index");
+    std::string value;
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Get(ro, cf1, "cf1_key_a", &value));
+    ASSERT_EQ(value, "cf1_val_a");
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Get(ro, cf1, "cf1_key_b", &value));
+    ASSERT_EQ(value, "cf1_merge");
+  }
+
+  // Verify cf_two through both indexes.
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index" : "standard index");
+    std::string value;
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Get(ro, cf2, "cf2_key_x", &value));
+    ASSERT_EQ(value, "cf2_val_x");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(db_->Get(ro, cf2, "cf2_key_y", &value).IsNotFound());
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Get(ro, cf2, "cf2_key_z", &value));
+    ASSERT_EQ(value, "cf2_val_z");
+  }
+
+  // Forward scan on each CF via both indexes.
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index" : "standard index");
+
+    // cf_one scan.
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> it1(db_->NewIterator(ro, cf1));
+    it1->SeekToFirst();
+    ASSERT_TRUE(it1->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(it1->key().ToString(), "cf1_key_a");
+    it1->Next();
+    ASSERT_TRUE(it1->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(it1->key().ToString(), "cf1_key_b");
+    it1->Next();
+    ASSERT_FALSE(it1->Valid());
+    ASSERT_OK(it1->status());
+
+    // cf_two scan.
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> it2(db_->NewIterator(ro, cf2));
+    it2->SeekToFirst();
+    ASSERT_TRUE(it2->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(it2->key().ToString(), "cf2_key_x");
+    it2->Next();
+    ASSERT_TRUE(it2->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(it2->key().ToString(), "cf2_key_z");
+    it2->Next();
+    ASSERT_FALSE(it2->Valid());
+    ASSERT_OK(it2->status());
+  }
+
+  // Clean up CF handles before closing.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->DestroyColumnFamilyHandle(cf1));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->DestroyColumnFamilyHandle(cf2));
+
+  // Close the DB. Need to clear db_ first since TearDown will also close.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Close());
+  db_.reset();
+
+  // Reopen with all CFs to verify persistence.
+  {
+    std::vector<ColumnFamilyDescriptor> cf_descs = {
+        ColumnFamilyDescriptor(kDefaultColumnFamilyName, options_),
+        ColumnFamilyDescriptor("cf_one", options_),
+        ColumnFamilyDescriptor("cf_two", options_)};
+    std::vector<ColumnFamilyHandle*> cf_handles;
+    std::unique_ptr<DB> reopen_db;
+    ASSERT_OK(DB::Open(options_, dbname_, cf_descs, &cf_handles, &reopen_db));
+    db_ = std::move(reopen_db);
+
+    // Verify data survives reopen.
+    auto ro = TrieIndexReadOptions();
+    std::string value;
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Get(ro, cf_handles[0], "default_key", &value));
+    ASSERT_EQ(value, "default_val");
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Get(ro, cf_handles[1], "cf1_key_a", &value));
+    ASSERT_EQ(value, "cf1_val_a");
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Get(ro, cf_handles[2], "cf2_key_z", &value));
+    ASSERT_EQ(value, "cf2_val_z");
+
+    for (auto* h : cf_handles) {
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->DestroyColumnFamilyHandle(h));
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// BatchedPrefixScan: reproduces the test_batches_snapshots pattern.
+//
+// Writes batches of 10 keys {digit+key_body : value_body+digit} for digit in
+// 0..9, exactly as the crash-test stress tool does. Then scans each prefix
+// concurrently (same snapshot) and checks that:
+//   (a) all 10 iterators yield the same key bodies in lockstep, and
+//   (b) the values stripped of the trailing digit are identical across
+//   prefixes.
+//
+// We run with both the standard index and the trie index and compare.
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, BatchedPrefixScan) {
+  // Small block size to force many data blocks (and thus many trie entries).
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/256));
+
+  const int kNumBatches = 200;
+  const int kNumPrefixes = 10;
+  Random rnd(42);
+
+  // Phase 1: Write batches.
+  for (int b = 0; b < kNumBatches; ++b) {
+    WriteBatch batch;
+    std::string key_body = MakeKeyBody(b);
+    std::string value_body = rnd.RandomString(20);
+
+    for (int d = kNumPrefixes - 1; d >= 0; --d) {
+      std::string k = std::to_string(d) + key_body;
+      std::string v = value_body + std::to_string(d);
+      ASSERT_OK(batch.Put(k, v));
+    }
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Write(WriteOptions(), &batch));
+  }
+
+  // Flush so data is in SSTs with trie index.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Phase 2: Prefix scan with both indexes.
+  for (int idx_type = 0; idx_type < 2; ++idx_type) {
+    ReadOptions base_ro =
+        idx_type == 0 ? StandardIndexReadOptions() : TrieIndexReadOptions();
+    SCOPED_TRACE(idx_type == 0 ? "standard index" : "trie index");
+
+    const Snapshot* snap = db_->GetSnapshot();
+    base_ro.snapshot = snap;
+
+    uint64_t count = VerifyPrefixScanLockstep(base_ro, kNumPrefixes,
+                                              /*use_upper_bounds=*/true,
+                                              /*verify_values=*/true);
+    ASSERT_EQ(count, static_cast<uint64_t>(kNumBatches))
+        << "expected " << kNumBatches << " entries per prefix";
+
+    db_->ReleaseSnapshot(snap);
+  }
+}
+
+// Same as above but with multiple flushes, compaction, and a DB reopen
+// in between to simulate the crash-recovery path.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, BatchedPrefixScanAfterReopen) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/256));
+
+  const int kNumBatches = 100;
+  const int kNumPrefixes = 10;
+  Random rnd(123);
+
+  for (int b = 0; b < kNumBatches; ++b) {
+    WriteBatch batch;
+    std::string key_body = MakeKeyBody(b);
+    std::string value_body = rnd.RandomString(20);
+
+    for (int d = kNumPrefixes - 1; d >= 0; --d) {
+      std::string k = std::to_string(d) + key_body;
+      std::string v = value_body + std::to_string(d);
+      ASSERT_OK(batch.Put(k, v));
+    }
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Write(WriteOptions(), &batch));
+
+    // Flush every 20 batches to create multiple SSTs.
+    if ((b + 1) % 20 == 0) {
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+    }
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Compact to merge SSTs.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+
+  // Close and reopen (simulating recovery).
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Close());
+  db_.reset();
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/256));
+
+  // Prefix scan with trie index after reopen.
+  ReadOptions base_ro = TrieIndexReadOptions();
+  const Snapshot* snap = db_->GetSnapshot();
+  base_ro.snapshot = snap;
+
+  uint64_t count =
+      VerifyPrefixScanLockstep(base_ro, kNumPrefixes, /*use_upper_bounds=*/true,
+                               /*verify_values=*/false);
+  ASSERT_EQ(count, static_cast<uint64_t>(kNumBatches));
+  db_->ReleaseSnapshot(snap);
+}
+
+// Test with overwrites: multiple writes to the same key body, ensuring
+// the latest value is consistent across all prefixes.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, BatchedPrefixScanWithOverwrites) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/256));
+
+  const int kNumKeys = 50;
+  const int kNumOverwrites = 5;
+  const int kNumPrefixes = 10;
+  Random rnd(999);
+
+  // Write each key body multiple times.
+  for (int round = 0; round < kNumOverwrites; ++round) {
+    for (int k = 0; k < kNumKeys; ++k) {
+      WriteBatch batch;
+      std::string key_body = MakeKeyBody(k);
+      std::string value_body = rnd.RandomString(20);
+
+      for (int d = kNumPrefixes - 1; d >= 0; --d) {
+        std::string key = std::to_string(d) + key_body;
+        std::string v = value_body + std::to_string(d);
+        ASSERT_OK(batch.Put(key, v));
+      }
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->Write(WriteOptions(), &batch));
+    }
+
+    // Flush after each round.
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+  }
+
+  // Now verify with both indexes.
+  for (int idx_type = 0; idx_type < 2; ++idx_type) {
+    ReadOptions base_ro =
+        idx_type == 0 ? StandardIndexReadOptions() : TrieIndexReadOptions();
+    SCOPED_TRACE(idx_type == 0 ? "standard index" : "trie index");
+
+    const Snapshot* snap = db_->GetSnapshot();
+    base_ro.snapshot = snap;
+
+    uint64_t count = VerifyPrefixScanLockstep(base_ro, kNumPrefixes,
+                                              /*use_upper_bounds=*/false,
+                                              /*verify_values=*/true);
+    ASSERT_EQ(count, static_cast<uint64_t>(kNumKeys));
+    db_->ReleaseSnapshot(snap);
+  }
+}
+
+// Stress-like test: write + delete + rewrite many keys, flush between rounds,
+// then verify prefix scan consistency. Simulates the crash test pattern that
+// triggered failures.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, BatchedPrefixScanStressLike) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/4096));
+
+  const int kMaxKey = 10000;
+  const int kNumPrefixes = 10;
+  const int kNumRounds = 20;
+  Random rnd(7777);
+
+  for (int round = 0; round < kNumRounds; ++round) {
+    // Write a batch of random keys
+    int num_writes = 100 + rnd.Uniform(200);
+    for (int w = 0; w < num_writes; ++w) {
+      int k = rnd.Uniform(kMaxKey);
+      WriteBatch batch;
+      std::string key_body = MakeKeyBody(k);
+      std::string value_body = rnd.RandomString(rnd.Uniform(60) + 4);
+      for (int d = kNumPrefixes - 1; d >= 0; --d) {
+        std::string key = std::to_string(d) + key_body;
+        std::string v = value_body + std::to_string(d);
+        ASSERT_OK(batch.Put(key, v));
+      }
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->Write(WriteOptions(), &batch));
+    }
+
+    // Delete some random keys
+    int num_deletes = 50 + rnd.Uniform(100);
+    for (int w = 0; w < num_deletes; ++w) {
+      int k = rnd.Uniform(kMaxKey);
+      WriteBatch batch;
+      std::string key_body = MakeKeyBody(k);
+      for (int d = kNumPrefixes - 1; d >= 0; --d) {
+        std::string key = std::to_string(d) + key_body;
+        ASSERT_OK(batch.Delete(key));
+      }
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->Write(WriteOptions(), &batch));
+    }
+
+    // Flush every few rounds
+    if (round % 3 == 0) {
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+    }
+
+    // Verify prefix scan consistency with trie index.
+    {
+      ReadOptions base_ro = TrieIndexReadOptions();
+      const Snapshot* snap = db_->GetSnapshot();
+      base_ro.snapshot = snap;
+
+      VerifyPrefixScanLockstep(base_ro, kNumPrefixes,
+                               /*use_upper_bounds=*/false,
+                               /*verify_values=*/true,
+                               "round=" + std::to_string(round));
+
+      db_->ReleaseSnapshot(snap);
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+// Regression test for the FindShortSuccessor last-block bug.
+//
+// Before the fix, TrieIndexBuilder::AddIndexEntry called
+// FindShortSuccessor() on the last block's separator key, producing a
+// shorter key that covered a wider range than the actual data. For example,
+// if the last key's user key was "9\xff\xff", FindShortSuccessor would
+// produce ":" (0x3A), making the trie claim it covers keys up to ":". A
+// seek for "9\xff\xff\x01" (between the real last key and ":") would find a
+// block via the trie but not via the standard index, causing prefix scan
+// iterators to desynchronize.
+//
+// The standard ShortenedIndexBuilder (with default kShortenSeparators mode)
+// does NOT call FindShortSuccessor on the last block — it uses the last key
+// as-is. The fix makes the trie builder match this behavior.
+// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, LastBlockSeparatorNotShortened) {
+  // Use a small block size so each key lands in its own block.
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/32));
+
+  // Write keys where the last key has trailing 0xFF bytes, which
+  // FindShortSuccessor would shorten by incrementing the byte before the
+  // 0xFF suffix ("9\xff\xff" -> ":").
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "1aaa", "v1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "5bbb", "v2"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), std::string("9\xff\xff", 3), "v3"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // The key "9\xff\xff\x01" is lexicographically after "9\xff\xff" but
+  // before ":" (0x3A). With the old bug, the trie would return a valid
+  // block for this key. With the fix, both indexes correctly say "not
+  // found".
+  std::string seek_target = std::string("9\xff\xff\x01", 4);
+
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index" : "standard index");
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+
+    iter->Seek(seek_target);
+    ASSERT_TRUE(!iter->Valid()) << "Expected no key at or after seek_target, "
+                                << "but got: " << iter->key().ToString(true);
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+  }
+
+  // Also verify the actual last key is still findable.
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index" : "standard index");
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+
+    iter->Seek(std::string("9\xff\xff", 3));
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), std::string("9\xff\xff", 3));
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->value().ToString(), "v3");
+
+    // After this key, there should be nothing more.
+    iter->Next();
+    ASSERT_TRUE(!iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+  }
+}
+
+// Variant: tests that when deletes remove the last key, seeking past the last
+// remaining key correctly returns "not found" with both indexes.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, LastBlockSeparatorWithDeletes) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/32));
+
+  // Write and flush initial data.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "1aaa", "v1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "5bbb", "v2"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), std::string("9\xff\xff", 3), "v3"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Delete the last key and flush (creates a tombstone in a new SST).
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), std::string("9\xff\xff", 3)));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Now seeking for the deleted key should yield "5bbb" or nothing,
+  // depending on the seek target. Both indexes must agree.
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index" : "standard index");
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+
+    // Seek to the deleted key — should skip it and land on nothing (it was
+    // the last key).
+    iter->Seek(std::string("9\xff\xff", 3));
+    ASSERT_TRUE(!iter->Valid())
+        << "Deleted key should not be visible, but got: "
+        << iter->key().ToString(true);
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+
+    // Seek to a key between "5bbb" and the deleted key — should find "5bbb"
+    // or nothing depending on order. Actually, "6" > "5bbb" and "6" <
+    // "9\xff\xff", so seeking "6" should find nothing since there's no key
+    // >= "6" that's still alive.
+    iter->Seek("6");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(!iter->Valid()) << "No live key >= '6' should exist, but got: "
+                                << iter->key().ToString(true);
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+  }
+
+  // Compact to merge the tombstone, then verify again.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index" : "standard index");
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+
+    iter->SeekToFirst();
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "1aaa");
+    iter->Next();
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "5bbb");
+    iter->Next();
+    ASSERT_TRUE(!iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+  }
+}
+
+// Single-entry SST: the trie has exactly one leaf. Validates that Seek,
+// SeekToFirst, Next, and Get all work with a one-block, one-key SST.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, SingleEntrySST) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "only_key", "only_val"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Point lookup.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("only_key", "only_val"));
+
+  // Forward scan: exactly one result.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(
+      std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>>{
+          {"only_key", "only_val"}}));
+
+  // Seek to the exact key.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+      VerifySeekBothIndexes("only_key", "only_key", "only_val"));
+
+  // Seek before the key — should land on it.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifySeekBothIndexes("a", "only_key", "only_val"));
+
+  // Seek past the key — should be invalid.
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie index" : "standard index");
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+    iter->Seek("z");
+    ASSERT_FALSE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+  }
+}
+
+// Deletion-only SST: flush a Put, then flush a Delete for that key so the
+// second SST contains only a tombstone. After compaction, the key is gone.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, DeletionOnlySST) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // Flush 1: a real Put.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "del_target", "val"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Flush 2: only a Delete — this creates an SST whose only entry is a
+  // tombstone (the trie still builds an index for the block containing it).
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), "del_target"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // The tombstone hides the Put.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("del_target"));
+
+  // Forward scan: nothing visible.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+      VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(std::vector<std::string>{}));
+
+  // Compact to merge: key is fully removed.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("del_target"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+      VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(std::vector<std::string>{}));
+}
+
+// All-same-key SST: multiple versions of the same user key (via snapshots)
+// land in the same SST, possibly spanning multiple blocks. Validates that
+// the trie's same-key-run handling (seqno-based separators) works at the
+// DB level through both indexes.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, AllSameKeySST) {
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  // Small block size to force multiple blocks for the same user key.
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/32));
+
+  // Write several versions of the same key with snapshots to prevent GC.
+  std::vector<const Snapshot*> snaps;
+  for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "same_key", "val_" + std::to_string(i)));
+    snaps.push_back(db_->GetSnapshot());
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Latest value is visible.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("same_key", "val_9"));
+
+  // Forward scan: only the latest version is visible (without snapshot).
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(
+      std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>>{{"same_key", "val_9"}}));
+
+  // Each snapshot should see the correct version.
+  for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE("snapshot " + std::to_string(i));
+    std::string expected = "val_" + std::to_string(i);
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+        VerifyGetBothIndexes(snaps[i], "same_key", expected));
+
+    // Forward scan with snapshot.
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+        VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(snaps[i], {{"same_key", expected}}));
+  }
+
+  // Seek with earliest snapshot — should find the earliest version.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+      VerifySeekBothIndexes(snaps[0], "same_key", "same_key", "val_0"));
+
+  for (auto* snap : snaps) {
+    db_->ReleaseSnapshot(snap);
+  }
+}
+
+// Operations on a completely empty DB: nothing should crash, and after
+// creating + deleting all data, the DB should correctly return nothing.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, EmptyDBOperations) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // Get / Seek / SeekToFirst on empty memtable (no SSTs yet).
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("anything"));
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+    iter->SeekToFirst();
+    ASSERT_FALSE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+    iter->Seek("anything");
+    ASSERT_FALSE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+  }
+
+  // Create an SST, delete its only key, compact → DB has no live data but
+  // the trie code path was exercised during flush.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "temp", "val"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), "temp"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("temp"));
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+    iter->SeekToFirst();
+    ASSERT_FALSE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+  }
+}
+
+// Focused seek-pattern tests: before all data, between blocks, exact match,
+// after all data, and empty-key seek.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, SeekEdgeCases) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/64));
+
+  // Write keys with deliberate gaps.
+  for (const auto& k : {"bbb", "ddd", "fff", "hhh"}) {
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), k, std::string("v_") + k));
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+
+    // Before first key.
+    iter->Seek("aaa");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "bbb");
+
+    // Exact first key.
+    iter->Seek("bbb");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "bbb");
+
+    // Between keys.
+    iter->Seek("ccc");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "ddd");
+
+    // Between keys (eee → fff).
+    iter->Seek("eee");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "fff");
+
+    // Exact last key.
+    iter->Seek("hhh");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "hhh");
+
+    // After last key.
+    iter->Seek("zzz");
+    ASSERT_FALSE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+
+    // Empty key (smallest possible key for BytewiseComparator).
+    iter->Seek("");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "bbb");
+  }
+}
+
+// PutEntity + GetEntity through the trie index read path.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, GetEntityWithTrieUDI) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // PutEntity with wide columns.
+  WideColumns columns{
+      {kDefaultWideColumnName, "default_val"},
+      {"col_a", "val_a"},
+      {"col_b", "val_b"},
+  };
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->PutEntity(WriteOptions(), db_->DefaultColumnFamily(),
+                           "entity_key", columns));
+  // Also a regular Put to verify GetEntity reads it as a single default column.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "regular_key", "regular_val"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+
+    // GetEntity on a PutEntity key.
+    PinnableWideColumns result;
+    ASSERT_OK(
+        db_->GetEntity(ro, db_->DefaultColumnFamily(), "entity_key", &result));
+    ASSERT_EQ(result.columns().size(), 3u);
+    ASSERT_EQ(result.columns()[0].name(), kDefaultWideColumnName);
+    ASSERT_EQ(result.columns()[0].value(), "default_val");
+    ASSERT_EQ(result.columns()[1].name(), "col_a");
+    ASSERT_EQ(result.columns()[1].value(), "val_a");
+    ASSERT_EQ(result.columns()[2].name(), "col_b");
+    ASSERT_EQ(result.columns()[2].value(), "val_b");
+
+    // GetEntity on a regular Put key returns single default column.
+    PinnableWideColumns result2;
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->GetEntity(ro, db_->DefaultColumnFamily(), "regular_key",
+                             &result2));
+    ASSERT_EQ(result2.columns().size(), 1u);
+    ASSERT_EQ(result2.columns()[0].name(), kDefaultWideColumnName);
+    ASSERT_EQ(result2.columns()[0].value(), "regular_val");
+
+    // GetEntity on nonexistent key.
+    PinnableWideColumns result3;
+    ASSERT_TRUE(
+        db_->GetEntity(ro, db_->DefaultColumnFamily(), "no_such_key", &result3)
+            .IsNotFound());
+  }
+}
+
+// Multiple overlapping L0 SSTs: the level iterator must coordinate trie
+// iterators across multiple SST files with overlapping key ranges.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, OverlappingL0SSTs) {
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/128));
+
+  // SST1: keys 00..49.
+  for (int i = 0; i < 50; i++) {
+    char key[16];
+    snprintf(key, sizeof(key), "key_%03d", i);
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), key, "sst1_" + std::to_string(i)));
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // SST2: keys 25..74 (overlapping with SST1).
+  for (int i = 25; i < 75; i++) {
+    char key[16];
+    snprintf(key, sizeof(key), "key_%03d", i);
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), key, "sst2_" + std::to_string(i)));
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // SST3: keys 50..99 (overlapping with SST2).
+  for (int i = 50; i < 100; i++) {
+    char key[16];
+    snprintf(key, sizeof(key), "key_%03d", i);
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), key, "sst3_" + std::to_string(i)));
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Verify: latest writer wins for overlapping keys.
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+    auto kvs = ScanAllKeyValues(ro);
+    ASSERT_EQ(kvs.size(), 100u);
+    for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
+      char key[16];
+      snprintf(key, sizeof(key), "key_%03d", i);
+      ASSERT_EQ(kvs[i].first, key);
+      if (i < 25) {
+        ASSERT_EQ(kvs[i].second, "sst1_" + std::to_string(i));
+      } else if (i < 50) {
+        ASSERT_EQ(kvs[i].second, "sst2_" + std::to_string(i));
+      } else {
+        ASSERT_EQ(kvs[i].second, "sst3_" + std::to_string(i));
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Compact all L0 → L1, re-verify.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+    ASSERT_EQ(ScanAllKeyValues(ro).size(), 100u);
+  }
+}
+
+// CompactRange with a sub-range: only part of the key space is compacted.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, CompactRangeSubset) {
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/128));
+
+  for (int i = 0; i < 26; i++) {
+    char key[16];
+    snprintf(key, sizeof(key), "key_%c", 'a' + i);
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), key, "val_" + std::to_string(i)));
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Compact only the middle range [key_f, key_p).
+  std::string begin = "key_f";
+  std::string end = "key_p";
+  Slice begin_s(begin);
+  Slice end_s(end);
+  CompactRangeOptions cro;
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(cro, &begin_s, &end_s));
+
+  // All 26 keys should still be readable.
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+    ASSERT_EQ(ScanAllKeys(ro).size(), 26u);
+  }
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_a", "val_0"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_z", "val_25"));
+}
+
+// Write keys, delete all of them, compact. The DB should be empty.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, AllKeysDeletedCompaction) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  for (int i = 0; i < 20; i++) {
+    char key[16];
+    snprintf(key, sizeof(key), "key_%02d", i);
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), key, "val"));
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Delete all keys.
+  for (int i = 0; i < 20; i++) {
+    char key[16];
+    snprintf(key, sizeof(key), "key_%02d", i);
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Delete(WriteOptions(), key));
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Before compaction: tombstones hide all keys.
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+    ASSERT_EQ(ScanAllKeys(ro).size(), 0u);
+  }
+
+  // After compaction: all tombstones and data are gone.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+    ASSERT_EQ(ScanAllKeys(ro).size(), 0u);
+  }
+}
+
+// Keys with special byte values: 0x00, 0xFF, embedded nulls, very short keys.
+// These exercise trie byte-traversal edge cases.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, BinaryKeyEdgeCases) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/64));
+
+  // All keys in sorted order (BytewiseComparator).
+  std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>> kvs = {
+      {std::string("\x00", 1), "val_null"},
+      {std::string("\x00\x00\x00", 3), "val_triple_null"},
+      {std::string("\x01", 1), "val_0x01"},
+      {"a", "val_a"},
+      {std::string("a\x00"
+                   "b",
+                   3),
+       "val_a_null_b"},
+      {"mid", "val_mid"},
+      {std::string("\xfe", 1), "val_0xfe"},
+      {std::string("\xff", 1), "val_0xff"},
+      {std::string("\xff\xff\xff", 3), "val_triple_ff"},
+  };
+
+  for (const auto& kv : kvs) {
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), kv.first, kv.second));
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Forward scan: all keys in order through both indexes.
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+    auto actual = ScanAllKeyValues(ro);
+    ASSERT_EQ(actual.size(), kvs.size());
+    for (size_t i = 0; i < kvs.size(); i++) {
+      SCOPED_TRACE("key index " + std::to_string(i));
+      ASSERT_EQ(actual[i].first, kvs[i].first);
+      ASSERT_EQ(actual[i].second, kvs[i].second);
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Point lookups for boundary keys.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+      VerifyGetBothIndexes(std::string("\x00", 1), "val_null"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+      VerifyGetBothIndexes(std::string("\xff\xff\xff", 3), "val_triple_ff"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes(std::string("a\x00"
+                                                           "b",
+                                                           3),
+                                               "val_a_null_b"));
+
+  // Seek to embedded-null key.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifySeekBothIndexes(
+      std::string("\x00", 1), std::string("\x00", 1), "val_null"));
+}
+
+// Puts with empty string values.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, EmptyValuePuts) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key1", ""));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key2", "non_empty"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key3", ""));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key1", ""));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key2", "non_empty"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key3", ""));
+
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(
+      std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>>{
+          {"key1", ""}, {"key2", "non_empty"}, {"key3", ""}}));
+}
+
+// Zlib compression: data blocks are compressed, UDI block is not.
+// Verifies that reads through the trie index work with compressed data.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, CompressionZlib) {
+  if (!Zlib_Supported()) {
+    ROCKSDB_GTEST_SKIP("Zlib not linked");
+    return;
+  }
+  options_.compression = kZlibCompression;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/128));
+
+  for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
+    char key[16];
+    snprintf(key, sizeof(key), "key_%04d", i);
+    // Compressible value (repeated pattern).
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), key, std::string(200, 'A' + (i % 26))));
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Forward scan.
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+    ASSERT_EQ(ScanAllKeys(ro).size(), 100u);
+  }
+
+  // Spot-check a few keys.
+  for (int i : {0, 49, 99}) {
+    char key[16];
+    snprintf(key, sizeof(key), "key_%04d", i);
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+        VerifyGetBothIndexes(key, std::string(200, 'A' + (i % 26))));
+  }
+}
+
+// Iterator stability: an iterator pinned to a snapshot should not see data
+// written after the iterator was created, even after flush.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, IteratorStabilityDuringFlush) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key1", "v1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key2", "v2"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Open iterator (implicitly pins a snapshot).
+  auto ro = TrieIndexReadOptions();
+  std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+  iter->SeekToFirst();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+  ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "key1");
+
+  // Write + flush new data while iterator is open.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key3", "v3"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Existing iterator should NOT see key3.
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+  ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "key2");
+  iter->Next();
+  ASSERT_FALSE(iter->Valid());
+  ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+
+  // New iterator should see all three keys.
+  std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter2(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+  iter2->SeekToFirst();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(iter2->Valid());
+  ASSERT_EQ(iter2->key().ToString(), "key1");
+  iter2->Next();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(iter2->Valid());
+  ASSERT_EQ(iter2->key().ToString(), "key2");
+  iter2->Next();
+  ASSERT_TRUE(iter2->Valid());
+  ASSERT_EQ(iter2->key().ToString(), "key3");
+  ASSERT_OK(iter2->status());
+}
+
+// iterate_upper_bound without prefix scan: the iterator should stop at the
+// upper bound.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, IteratorUpperBound) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/64));
+
+  for (const auto& k : {"aa", "bb", "cc", "dd", "ee", "ff"}) {
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), k, std::string("v_") + k));
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  for (const auto& base_ro :
+       {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(base_ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+
+    // Upper bound = "dd" → should see aa, bb, cc only.
+    std::string ub_str = "dd";
+    Slice ub(ub_str);
+    ReadOptions ro = base_ro;
+    ro.iterate_upper_bound = &ub;
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(ro));
+    std::vector<std::string> keys;
+    for (iter->SeekToFirst(); iter->Valid(); iter->Next()) {
+      keys.push_back(iter->key().ToString());
+    }
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+    ASSERT_EQ(keys, (std::vector<std::string>{"aa", "bb", "cc"}));
+
+    // Upper bound = "aa" → should see nothing.
+    std::string ub2_str = "aa";
+    Slice ub2(ub2_str);
+    ReadOptions ro2 = base_ro;
+    ro2.iterate_upper_bound = &ub2;
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter2(db_->NewIterator(ro2));
+    iter2->SeekToFirst();
+    ASSERT_FALSE(iter2->Valid());
+    ASSERT_OK(iter2->status());
+
+    // Upper bound after all data → should see everything.
+    std::string ub3_str = "zz";
+    Slice ub3(ub3_str);
+    ReadOptions ro3 = base_ro;
+    ro3.iterate_upper_bound = &ub3;
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter3(db_->NewIterator(ro3));
+    std::vector<std::string> all_keys;
+    for (iter3->SeekToFirst(); iter3->Valid(); iter3->Next()) {
+      all_keys.push_back(iter3->key().ToString());
+    }
+    ASSERT_OK(iter3->status());
+    ASSERT_EQ(all_keys.size(), 6u);
+  }
+}
+
+// Combined snapshot + upper_bound: iterator sees the snapshot's view of data,
+// bounded by iterate_upper_bound.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, IteratorSnapshotAndUpperBound) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_a", "old_a"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_b", "old_b"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_c", "old_c"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_d", "old_d"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  const Snapshot* snap = db_->GetSnapshot();
+
+  // Overwrite some keys after the snapshot.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_a", "new_a"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_c", "new_c"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_e", "new_e"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  for (const auto& base_ro :
+       {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(base_ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+
+    std::string ub_str = "key_d";
+    Slice ub(ub_str);
+    ReadOptions ro = base_ro;
+    ro.snapshot = snap;
+    ro.iterate_upper_bound = &ub;
+
+    auto kvs = ScanAllKeyValues(ro);
+    // Snapshot view: old values. Upper bound excludes key_d and key_e.
+    ASSERT_EQ(kvs.size(), 3u);
+    ASSERT_EQ(kvs[0],
+              std::make_pair(std::string("key_a"), std::string("old_a")));
+    ASSERT_EQ(kvs[1],
+              std::make_pair(std::string("key_b"), std::string("old_b")));
+    ASSERT_EQ(kvs[2],
+              std::make_pair(std::string("key_c"), std::string("old_c")));
+  }
+  db_->ReleaseSnapshot(snap);
+}
+
+// VerifyChecksum goes through SeekToFirst+Next on the index iterator.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, VerifyChecksumWithTrieUDI) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/128));
+
+  for (int i = 0; i < 50; i++) {
+    char key[16];
+    snprintf(key, sizeof(key), "key_%03d", i);
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), key, "value_" + std::to_string(i)));
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // VerifyChecksum with default ReadOptions (standard index).
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->VerifyChecksum());
+
+  // VerifyChecksum with trie ReadOptions.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->VerifyChecksum(TrieIndexReadOptions()));
+}
+
+// Many small SSTs from frequent flushes: exercises trie iteration across
+// many L0 files without compaction.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, ManySmallSSTs) {
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // 50 flushes, 2 keys each → 50 SSTs.
+  for (int f = 0; f < 50; f++) {
+    char k1[16];
+    char k2[16];
+    snprintf(k1, sizeof(k1), "key_%04d", f * 2);
+    snprintf(k2, sizeof(k2), "key_%04d", f * 2 + 1);
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), k1, "v" + std::to_string(f * 2)));
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), k2, "v" + std::to_string(f * 2 + 1)));
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+  }
+
+  // Verify all 100 keys are readable.
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+    auto keys = ScanAllKeys(ro);
+    ASSERT_EQ(keys.size(), 100u);
+  }
+
+  // Spot-check first and last.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_0000", "v0"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_0099", "v99"));
+
+  // Compact everything into one SST, re-verify.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+  for (const auto& ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+    ASSERT_EQ(ScanAllKeys(ro).size(), 100u);
+  }
+}
+
+// Merge values accumulate across multiple compaction rounds.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, MergeAcrossMultipleCompactions) {
+  options_.merge_operator = MergeOperators::CreateStringAppendOperator();
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // Round 1: Put base value.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key", "base"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key", "base"));
+
+  // Round 2: Merge "m1".
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Merge(WriteOptions(), "key", "m1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key", "base,m1"));
+
+  // Round 3: Merge "m2".
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Merge(WriteOptions(), "key", "m2"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key", "base,m1,m2"));
+
+  // Forward scan also returns the accumulated value.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(
+      std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>>{{"key", "base,m1,m2"}}));
+}
+
+// Graceful degradation: reopen a DB that was written with UDI, but without
+// the UDI factory configured. Reads should fall back to the standard index.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, ReopenWithoutTrieUDI) {
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_a", "val_a"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_b", "val_b"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Close());
+  db_.reset();
+
+  // Reopen WITHOUT UDI. The SST has a UDI meta block, but it's ignored.
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDBWithoutUDI());
+
+  // Reads via standard index should work (UDI meta block is just ignored).
+  std::string val;
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Get(ReadOptions(), "key_a", &val));
+  ASSERT_EQ(val, "val_a");
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Get(ReadOptions(), "key_b", &val));
+  ASSERT_EQ(val, "val_b");
+
+  // Forward scan.
+  auto keys = ScanAllKeys(ReadOptions());
+  ASSERT_EQ(keys.size(), 2u);
+  ASSERT_EQ(keys[0], "key_a");
+  ASSERT_EQ(keys[1], "key_b");
+}
+
+// Mixed SSTs: some written with UDI, some without. Both should be readable
+// through both index paths.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, MixedSSTsWithAndWithoutUDI) {
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+
+  // Phase 1: Write with UDI → SST1 has UDI + standard index.
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_01", "udi_val1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_02", "udi_val2"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Close());
+  db_.reset();
+
+  // Phase 2: Reopen WITHOUT UDI, write more → SST2 has only standard index.
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDBWithoutUDI());
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_03", "noudi_val3"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "key_04", "noudi_val4"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Close());
+  db_.reset();
+
+  // Phase 3: Reopen WITH UDI again. SST1 uses trie, SST2 falls back to
+  // standard index (UDI block missing → logged warning, graceful fallback).
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB());
+
+  // All 4 keys should be readable through both index paths.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_01", "udi_val1"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_02", "udi_val2"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_03", "noudi_val3"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("key_04", "noudi_val4"));
+
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+      VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes({"key_01", "key_02", "key_03", "key_04"}));
+
+  // Compact: merges UDI + non-UDI SSTs → new SST has UDI.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(
+      VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes({"key_01", "key_02", "key_03", "key_04"}));
+}
+
+// TransactionDB commit: Put + Delete inside a transaction, then commit.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, TransactionCommit) {
+  options_.create_if_missing = true;
+  BlockBasedTableOptions table_options;
+  table_options.user_defined_index_factory = trie_factory_;
+  options_.table_factory.reset(NewBlockBasedTableFactory(table_options));
+  last_options_ = options_;
+
+  TransactionDB* txn_db = nullptr;
+  ASSERT_OK(
+      TransactionDB::Open(options_, TransactionDBOptions(), dbname_, &txn_db));
+  db_.reset(txn_db);
+
+  // Pre-populate a key.
+  ASSERT_OK(txn_db->Put(WriteOptions(), "pre_key", "pre_val"));
+  ASSERT_OK(txn_db->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Begin transaction: Put + Delete + Commit.
+  std::unique_ptr<Transaction> txn(
+      txn_db->BeginTransaction(WriteOptions(), TransactionOptions()));
+  ASSERT_OK(txn->Put("txn_key1", "txn_val1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(txn->Delete("pre_key"));
+  ASSERT_OK(txn->Commit());
+
+  ASSERT_OK(txn_db->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Verify through both indexes.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("txn_key1", "txn_val1"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("pre_key"));
+}
+
+// TransactionDB rollback: writes should be discarded. Rollback writes DELETE
+// entries to WAL, which was previously restricted for UDI.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, TransactionRollback) {
+  options_.create_if_missing = true;
+  BlockBasedTableOptions table_options;
+  table_options.user_defined_index_factory = trie_factory_;
+  options_.table_factory.reset(NewBlockBasedTableFactory(table_options));
+  last_options_ = options_;
+
+  TransactionDB* txn_db = nullptr;
+  ASSERT_OK(
+      TransactionDB::Open(options_, TransactionDBOptions(), dbname_, &txn_db));
+  db_.reset(txn_db);
+
+  // Pre-populate data and flush.
+  ASSERT_OK(txn_db->Put(WriteOptions(), "keep_key", "keep_val"));
+  ASSERT_OK(txn_db->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Begin transaction, write, then ROLLBACK.
+  std::unique_ptr<Transaction> txn(
+      txn_db->BeginTransaction(WriteOptions(), TransactionOptions()));
+  ASSERT_OK(txn->Put("rollback_key", "rollback_val"));
+  ASSERT_OK(txn->Delete("keep_key"));
+  ASSERT_OK(txn->Rollback());
+
+  ASSERT_OK(txn_db->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Original data should be unchanged. Rolled-back writes should not appear.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetBothIndexes("keep_key", "keep_val"));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyGetNotFoundBothIndexes("rollback_key"));
+
+  // Forward scan: only the original key.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(
+      std::vector<std::pair<std::string, std::string>>{
+          {"keep_key", "keep_val"}}));
+}
+
+// total_order_seek with prefix_extractor: a common stress-test configuration.
+// With total_order_seek=true, SeekToFirst and full forward scan should work
+// correctly even when a prefix extractor is configured.
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, TotalOrderSeekWithPrefixExtractor) {
+  options_.prefix_extractor.reset(NewFixedPrefixTransform(3));
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/128));
+
+  // Keys with different prefixes.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "aaa_1", "v1"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "aaa_2", "v2"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "bbb_1", "v3"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), "ccc_1", "v4"));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // With total_order_seek=true, scan all keys across prefixes.
+  for (auto base_ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(base_ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+    base_ro.total_order_seek = true;
+    auto keys = ScanAllKeys(base_ro);
+    ASSERT_EQ(keys.size(), 4u);
+    ASSERT_EQ(keys[0], "aaa_1");
+    ASSERT_EQ(keys[1], "aaa_2");
+    ASSERT_EQ(keys[2], "bbb_1");
+    ASSERT_EQ(keys[3], "ccc_1");
+
+    // Seek across prefix boundary.
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(base_ro));
+    iter->Seek("aab");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "bbb_1");
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+  }
+
+  // auto_prefix_mode: let RocksDB decide per-seek.
+  for (auto base_ro : {StandardIndexReadOptions(), TrieIndexReadOptions()}) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE(base_ro.table_index_factory ? "trie" : "standard");
+    base_ro.auto_prefix_mode = true;
+    std::unique_ptr<Iterator> iter(db_->NewIterator(base_ro));
+    iter->Seek("bbb_1");
+    ASSERT_TRUE(iter->Valid());
+    ASSERT_EQ(iter->key().ToString(), "bbb_1");
+    ASSERT_OK(iter->status());
+  }
+}
+
+// ============================================================================
+// Multi-level SST + DeleteRange randomized test
+//
+// Historically bug-prone area: range tombstones interact with data across
+// LSM levels (L0, L1, L2+), and the trie index must correctly handle
+// seek/scan when blocks are partially or entirely covered by range deletions
+// at different levels.
+//
+// Strategy:
+// 1. Populate bottommost level with baseline data (flush + compact)
+// 2. Write overlapping data and DeleteRanges to L0 (multiple rounds)
+// 3. Partial compactions to create data at intermediate levels
+// 4. Verify reads match between standard and trie index after each mutation
+// 5. Snapshot before large DeleteRange, verify snapshot preserves state
+// 6. Re-insert into deleted ranges, compact, and re-verify
+// ============================================================================
+TEST_F(TrieIndexDBTest, MultiLevelDeleteRangeRandomized) {
+  uint32_t seed = static_cast<uint32_t>(
+      std::chrono::system_clock::now().time_since_epoch().count());
+  SCOPED_TRACE("seed=" + std::to_string(seed));
+  Random rnd(seed);
+
+  options_.disable_auto_compactions = true;
+  // Small block size forces many data blocks (and thus many trie entries).
+  ASSERT_OK(OpenDB(/*block_size=*/256));
+
+  const int kMaxKey = 500;
+
+  auto format_key = [](int k) {
+    char buf[16];
+    snprintf(buf, sizeof(buf), "key_%05d", k);
+    return std::string(buf);
+  };
+
+  // Core correctness check: forward scan via both indexes must match.
+  auto verify_scan_consistency = [&]() {
+    auto standard_kvs = ScanAllKeyValues(StandardIndexReadOptions());
+    auto trie_kvs = ScanAllKeyValues(TrieIndexReadOptions());
+    ASSERT_EQ(standard_kvs, trie_kvs)
+        << "Scan mismatch: standard=" << standard_kvs.size()
+        << " trie=" << trie_kvs.size();
+  };
+
+  // Phase 1: Populate bottommost level with baseline data.
+  for (int i = 0; i < 200; i++) {
+    int k = rnd.Uniform(kMaxKey);
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), format_key(k),
+                       "base_" + rnd.RandomString(20)));
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(verify_scan_consistency());
+
+  // Phase 2: Write overlapping data + DeleteRanges across multiple rounds.
+  // Each round creates L0 SSTs with a mix of Puts and DeleteRanges,
+  // with occasional partial compactions to push data to intermediate levels.
+  for (int round = 0; round < 5; round++) {
+    SCOPED_TRACE("round=" + std::to_string(round));
+
+    // Write some new/updated keys.
+    int num_writes = 30 + rnd.Uniform(70);
+    for (int i = 0; i < num_writes; i++) {
+      int k = rnd.Uniform(kMaxKey);
+      ASSERT_OK(
+          db_->Put(WriteOptions(), format_key(k),
+                   "r" + std::to_string(round) + "_" + rnd.RandomString(15)));
+    }
+
+    // Issue 1-3 random DeleteRanges per round.
+    int num_ranges = 1 + rnd.Uniform(3);
+    for (int r = 0; r < num_ranges; r++) {
+      int range_start = rnd.Uniform(kMaxKey - 10);
+      int range_end = range_start + 5 + rnd.Uniform(50);
+      if (range_end > kMaxKey) {
+        range_end = kMaxKey;
+      }
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->DeleteRange(WriteOptions(), db_->DefaultColumnFamily(),
+                                 format_key(range_start),
+                                 format_key(range_end)));
+    }
+
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+    ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(verify_scan_consistency());
+
+    // On odd rounds, do a partial compaction to push some data down,
+    // creating a multi-level structure where range tombstones at L0
+    // must shadow data at L1/L2.
+    if (round % 2 == 1) {
+      int compact_start = rnd.Uniform(kMaxKey / 2);
+      int compact_end = compact_start + kMaxKey / 4;
+      std::string start_key = format_key(compact_start);
+      std::string end_key = format_key(compact_end);
+      Slice s(start_key);
+      Slice e(end_key);
+      ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), &s, &e));
+      ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(verify_scan_consistency());
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Phase 3: Snapshot, then delete a large range. The snapshot must
+  // preserve the pre-deletion state while current reads see the deletion.
+  const Snapshot* snap = db_->GetSnapshot();
+  auto snap_kvs = ScanAllKeyValues(StandardIndexReadOptions());
+
+  int big_start = rnd.Uniform(kMaxKey / 4);
+  int big_end = big_start + kMaxKey / 3;
+  if (big_end > kMaxKey) {
+    big_end = kMaxKey;
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->DeleteRange(WriteOptions(), db_->DefaultColumnFamily(),
+                             format_key(big_start), format_key(big_end)));
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+
+  // Current state should reflect the deletion.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(verify_scan_consistency());
+
+  // Snapshot state should be unchanged.
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(VerifyForwardScanBothIndexes(snap, snap_kvs));
+
+  db_->ReleaseSnapshot(snap);
+
+  // Phase 4: Re-insert keys into the deleted range, creating a pattern
+  // where range tombstones and live data coexist at different levels.
+  for (int i = big_start; i < big_end && i < kMaxKey; i += 3) {
+    ASSERT_OK(db_->Put(WriteOptions(), format_key(i),
+                       "reinserted_" + rnd.RandomString(10)));
+  }
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->Flush(FlushOptions()));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(verify_scan_consistency());
+
+  // Phase 5: Full compaction — all range tombstones should be resolved.
+  ASSERT_OK(db_->CompactRange(CompactRangeOptions(), nullptr, nullptr));
+  ASSERT_NO_FATAL_FAILURE(verify_scan_consistency());
+
+  // Phase 6: Point lookups for a sample of keys — both indexes must agree.
+  for (int i = 0; i < kMaxKey; i += 7) {
+    std::string key = format_key(i);
+    std::string std_val;
+    std::string trie_val;
+    Status s1 = db_->Get(StandardIndexReadOptions(), key, &std_val);
+    Status s2 = db_->Get(TrieIndexReadOptions(), key, &trie_val);
+    ASSERT_EQ(s1.code(), s2.code()) << "Status mismatch for " << key;
+    if (s1.ok()) {
+      ASSERT_EQ(std_val, trie_val) << "Value mismatch for " << key;
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+}  // namespace trie_index
+}  // namespace ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE
+
+int main(int argc, char** argv) {
+  ROCKSDB_NAMESPACE::port::InstallStackTraceHandler();
+  ::testing::InitGoogleTest(&argc, argv);
+  return RUN_ALL_TESTS();
+}