@neurocode-ai/codemode 1.18.8

package/src/interpreter/runtime.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,3465 @@
+import { parse } from "acorn"
+import { Cause, Effect, Exit, Fiber, Semaphore } from "effect"
+import { DiagnosticCategory, ModuleKind, ScriptTarget, flattenDiagnosticMessageText, transpileModule } from "typescript"
+import {
+  copyIn,
+  copyOut,
+  isBlockedMember,
+  ToolReference,
+  ToolRuntime,
+  ToolRuntimeError,
+  type HostTools,
+  type SafeObject,
+  type Services,
+} from "../tool-runtime.js"
+import { ToolError } from "../tool-error.js"
+import type {
+  DataValue,
+  Diagnostic,
+  DiagnosticKind,
+  ExecuteOptions,
+  ResolvedExecutionLimits,
+  Result,
+} from "../codemode.js"
+import {
+  type AstNode,
+  asNode,
+  type Binding,
+  CodeModeFunction,
+  CoercionFunction,
+  ComputedValue,
+  ErrorConstructorReference,
+  GlobalMethodReference,
+  GlobalNamespace,
+  type GlobalNamespaceName,
+  formatLocation,
+  getArray,
+  getBoolean,
+  getNode,
+  getOptionalNode,
+  getString,
+  IntrinsicReference,
+  InterpreterRuntimeError,
+  isRecord,
+  type MemberReference,
+  OptionalShortCircuit,
+  PromiseMethodReference,
+  type PromiseMethodName,
+  PromiseNamespace,
+  ProgramThrow,
+  type ProgramNode,
+  type StatementResult,
+  sourceLocation,
+  supportedSyntaxMessage,
+  unsupportedSyntax,
+  UriFunction,
+} from "./model.js"
+import { arrayMethods, mapMethods, setMethods, spreadItems } from "../stdlib/collections.js"
+import { consoleMethods, MAX_CONSOLE_DEPTH } from "../stdlib/console.js"
+import { dateMethods, dateStatics, invokeDateMethod, invokeDateStatic } from "../stdlib/date.js"
+import { invokeJsonMethod } from "../stdlib/json.js"
+import { invokeMathMethod, mathConstants } from "../stdlib/math.js"
+import {
+  invokeNumberMethod,
+  invokeNumberStatic,
+  numberConstants,
+  numberMethods,
+  numberStatics,
+} from "../stdlib/number.js"
+import { invokeObjectMethod } from "../stdlib/object.js"
+import { promiseStatics, TOOL_CALL_CONCURRENCY } from "../stdlib/promise.js"
+import {
+  escapeRegexHint,
+  invokeRegExpMethod,
+  matchToValue,
+  regexpMethods,
+  regexpProperties,
+  regexFailureReason,
+  toHostRegex,
+} from "../stdlib/regexp.js"
+import { invokeStringStatic, stringMethods, stringStatics } from "../stdlib/string.js"
+import {
+  urlMethods,
+  urlProperties,
+  urlSearchParamsMethods,
+  urlStatics,
+  urlWritableProperties,
+  invokeUriFunction,
+  invokeURLMethod,
+  invokeURLStatic,
+  uriArgument,
+  urlArgument,
+} from "../stdlib/url.js"
+import {
+  boundedData,
+  coerceToNumber,
+  coerceToString,
+  compoundOperators,
+  createErrorValue,
+  errorBrandName,
+  errorConstructors,
+  invokeCoercion,
+  valueConstructors,
+} from "../stdlib/value.js"
+import {
+  isSandboxValue,
+  SandboxDate,
+  SandboxMap,
+  SandboxPromise,
+  SandboxRegExp,
+  SandboxSet,
+  SandboxURL,
+  SandboxURLSearchParams,
+} from "../values.js"
+
+const parseProgram = (code: string): ProgramNode => {
+  const transpiled = transpileModule(`async function __codemode__() {\n${code}\n}`, {
+    reportDiagnostics: true,
+    compilerOptions: {
+      target: ScriptTarget.ESNext,
+      module: ModuleKind.ESNext,
+    },
+  })
+  const diagnostic = transpiled.diagnostics?.find((item) => item.category === DiagnosticCategory.Error)
+
+  if (diagnostic) {
+    throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+      `Failed to parse TypeScript: ${flattenDiagnosticMessageText(diagnostic.messageText, "\n")}`,
+      undefined,
+      "ParseError",
+    )
+  }
+
+  const bodyStart = transpiled.outputText.indexOf("{") + 1
+  const bodyEnd = transpiled.outputText.lastIndexOf("}")
+  const executableCode = transpiled.outputText.slice(bodyStart, bodyEnd)
+  const parsed = parse(executableCode, {
+    ecmaVersion: "latest",
+    sourceType: "script",
+    allowReturnOutsideFunction: true,
+    allowAwaitOutsideFunction: true,
+    locations: true,
+  }) as unknown
+
+  if (!isRecord(parsed) || parsed.type !== "Program" || !Array.isArray(parsed.body)) {
+    throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Failed to parse script as a Program node.")
+  }
+
+  return parsed as ProgramNode
+}
+
+const publicErrorMessage = (message: string): string =>
+  message.replace(/\/(?:Users|home|private|tmp|var\/folders)\/[^\s"'`]+/g, "<redacted-path>")
+
+const normalizeError = (error: unknown): Diagnostic => {
+  if (error instanceof InterpreterRuntimeError) {
+    return {
+      kind: error.kind,
+      message: `${error.message}${formatLocation(error.node)}`,
+      ...(error.node?.loc ? { location: sourceLocation(error.node) } : {}),
+      ...(error.suggestions ? { suggestions: error.suggestions } : {}),
+    }
+  }
+
+  if (error instanceof ToolRuntimeError) {
+    return {
+      kind: error.kind,
+      message: error.message,
+      ...(error.suggestions.length > 0 ? { suggestions: error.suggestions } : {}),
+    }
+  }
+
+  if (error instanceof ToolError) {
+    return { kind: "ToolFailure", message: publicErrorMessage(error.message) }
+  }
+
+  if (error instanceof ProgramThrow) {
+    const value = error.value
+    let message: string
+    if (containsRuntimeReference(value)) {
+      // A thrown tool/function reference must not leak its internal structure.
+      message = "a non-data value"
+    } else if (typeof value === "string") {
+      message = value
+    } else if (
+      value !== null &&
+      typeof value === "object" &&
+      typeof (value as { message?: unknown }).message === "string"
+    ) {
+      message = (value as { message: string }).message
+    } else {
+      try {
+        message = JSON.stringify(copyOut(value)) ?? String(value)
+      } catch {
+        message = String(value)
+      }
+    }
+    return { kind: "ExecutionFailure", message: `Uncaught: ${message}` }
+  }
+
+  if (error instanceof RangeError && /call stack|recursion/i.test(error.message)) {
+    return {
+      kind: "ExecutionFailure",
+      message: "Execution exceeded the maximum nesting depth.",
+    }
+  }
+
+  if (error instanceof Error) {
+    return {
+      kind: error.name === "SyntaxError" ? "ParseError" : "ExecutionFailure",
+      message: publicErrorMessage(error.message),
+    }
+  }
+
+  // A non-Error thrown by a host tool (raw string / number / Symbol) still routes through
+  // path redaction so filesystem paths can never leak through the catch-all branch.
+  return {
+    kind: "ExecutionFailure",
+    message: publicErrorMessage(String(error)),
+  }
+}
+
+// Shared by catch bindings, Promise.allSettled rejection reasons, and Promise.race losers.
+const caughtErrorValue = (thrown: unknown): unknown => {
+  if (thrown instanceof ProgramThrow) return thrown.value
+  if (thrown instanceof InterpreterRuntimeError) return createErrorValue(thrown.errorName, thrown.message)
+  const name = thrown instanceof Error && errorConstructors.has(thrown.name) ? thrown.name : "Error"
+  return createErrorValue(name, normalizeError(thrown).message)
+}
+
+const isRuntimeReference = (value: unknown): boolean =>
+  value instanceof CodeModeFunction ||
+  value instanceof ToolReference ||
+  value instanceof IntrinsicReference ||
+  value instanceof GlobalNamespace ||
+  value instanceof GlobalMethodReference ||
+  value instanceof PromiseNamespace ||
+  value instanceof PromiseMethodReference ||
+  value instanceof SandboxPromise ||
+  value instanceof CoercionFunction ||
+  value instanceof UriFunction ||
+  value instanceof ErrorConstructorReference ||
+  isSandboxValue(value)
+
+const containsRuntimeReference = (value: unknown, seen = new Set<object>()): boolean => {
+  if (isRuntimeReference(value)) return true
+  if (value === null || typeof value !== "object") return false
+  if (seen.has(value)) return false
+  seen.add(value)
+  const contains = Array.isArray(value)
+    ? value.some((item) => containsRuntimeReference(item, seen))
+    : Object.values(value).some((item) => containsRuntimeReference(item, seen))
+  seen.delete(value)
+  return contains
+}
+
+// Like containsRuntimeReference, but sandbox standard-library values count as data:
+// operators and switch treat them as ordinary object operands (identity equality, ToPrimitive
+// coercion) rather than rejecting them as opaque interpreter machinery.
+const containsOpaqueReference = (value: unknown, seen = new Set<object>()): boolean => {
+  if (isSandboxValue(value)) return false
+  if (isRuntimeReference(value)) return true
+  if (value === null || typeof value !== "object") return false
+  if (seen.has(value)) return false
+  seen.add(value)
+  const contains = Array.isArray(value)
+    ? value.some((item) => containsOpaqueReference(item, seen))
+    : Object.values(value).some((item) => containsOpaqueReference(item, seen))
+  seen.delete(value)
+  return contains
+}
+
+// `typeof` never throws in JS; map every interpreter value to its JS-visible category.
+// A SandboxPromise falls through to the final `typeof value` and reports "object", exactly
+// like a real JS promise.
+const typeofValue = (value: unknown): string => {
+  if (
+    value instanceof CodeModeFunction ||
+    value instanceof CoercionFunction ||
+    value instanceof IntrinsicReference ||
+    value instanceof GlobalMethodReference ||
+    value instanceof PromiseMethodReference ||
+    value instanceof PromiseNamespace ||
+    value instanceof ErrorConstructorReference
+  )
+    return "function"
+  if (value instanceof UriFunction) return "function"
+  if (value instanceof ToolReference) return value.path.length > 0 ? "function" : "object"
+  if (value instanceof GlobalNamespace) {
+    return value.name === "Math" || value.name === "JSON" || value.name === "console" ? "object" : "function"
+  }
+  return typeof value
+}
+
+// `x instanceof C` against the constructors CodeMode knows. Like `typeof`, it observes any
+// left-hand value (opaque references included) without coercing it. Error checks use the
+// error brand: `instanceof Error` accepts every branded error; a specific error type matches
+// its own brand only (as in JS, where TypeError instances are also Error instances).
+const instanceofValue = (lhs: unknown, rhs: unknown, node: AstNode): boolean => {
+  if (rhs instanceof ErrorConstructorReference) {
+    const brand = errorBrandName(lhs)
+    return brand !== undefined && (rhs.name === "Error" || brand === rhs.name)
+  }
+  if (rhs instanceof GlobalNamespace) {
+    switch (rhs.name) {
+      case "Date":
+        return lhs instanceof SandboxDate
+      case "RegExp":
+        return lhs instanceof SandboxRegExp
+      case "Map":
+        return lhs instanceof SandboxMap
+      case "Set":
+        return lhs instanceof SandboxSet
+      case "URL":
+        return lhs instanceof SandboxURL
+      case "URLSearchParams":
+        return lhs instanceof SandboxURLSearchParams
+      case "Array":
+        return Array.isArray(lhs)
+      case "Object":
+        return lhs !== null && (typeof lhs === "object" || typeofValue(lhs) === "function")
+    }
+  }
+  if (rhs instanceof PromiseNamespace) return lhs instanceof SandboxPromise
+  // Number/String/Boolean wrap primitives in JS; no boxed values exist in CodeMode, so
+  // `x instanceof Number` is always false - exactly what it is for primitives in JS.
+  if (rhs instanceof CoercionFunction && (rhs.name === "Number" || rhs.name === "String" || rhs.name === "Boolean")) {
+    return false
+  }
+  throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+    "The right-hand side of 'instanceof' must be a constructor CodeMode knows: Error (or a specific error type like TypeError), Date, RegExp, Map, Set, URL, URLSearchParams, Array, Object, or Promise.",
+    node,
+  )
+}
+
+const invokeStringMethod = (value: string, name: string, args: Array<unknown>, node: AstNode): unknown => {
+  const str = (index: number): string => {
+    const arg = args[index]
+    if (typeof arg !== "string")
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`String.${name} expects argument ${index + 1} to be a string.`, node)
+    return arg
+  }
+  const num = (index: number): number => {
+    const arg = args[index]
+    if (typeof arg !== "number")
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`String.${name} expects argument ${index + 1} to be a number.`, node)
+    return arg
+  }
+  const optNum = (index: number): number | undefined => (args[index] === undefined ? undefined : num(index))
+  const optStr = (index: number): string | undefined => (args[index] === undefined ? undefined : str(index))
+
+  let result: unknown
+  switch (name) {
+    case "toLowerCase":
+      result = value.toLowerCase()
+      break
+    case "toUpperCase":
+      result = value.toUpperCase()
+      break
+    case "trim":
+      result = value.trim()
+      break
+    // trimLeft/trimRight are the legacy aliases of trimStart/trimEnd, kept because models write them.
+    case "trimStart":
+    case "trimLeft":
+      result = value.trimStart()
+      break
+    case "trimEnd":
+    case "trimRight":
+      result = value.trimEnd()
+      break
+    // Locale/options arguments are ignored: comparison runs with the host default locale, and
+    // the common use is a sort comparator where any consistent order works.
+    case "localeCompare":
+      result = value.localeCompare(str(0))
+      break
+    case "normalize": {
+      const form = optStr(0)
+      try {
+        result = value.normalize(form)
+      } catch {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+          `String.normalize expects the form "NFC", "NFD", "NFKC", or "NFKD" (got ${JSON.stringify(form)}).`,
+          node,
+        ).as("RangeError")
+      }
+      break
+    }
+    case "split": {
+      if (args.length === 0) {
+        result = [value]
+        break
+      }
+      if (args[0] instanceof SandboxRegExp) {
+        result = value.split((args[0] as SandboxRegExp).regex, optNum(1))
+        break
+      }
+      const requestedLimit = optNum(1)
+      result = value.split(str(0), requestedLimit === undefined ? undefined : requestedLimit >>> 0)
+      break
+    }
+    case "slice":
+      result = value.slice(optNum(0), optNum(1))
+      break
+    case "includes":
+      result = value.includes(str(0), optNum(1))
+      break
+    case "startsWith":
+      result = value.startsWith(str(0), optNum(1))
+      break
+    case "endsWith":
+      result = value.endsWith(str(0), optNum(1))
+      break
+    case "indexOf":
+      result = value.indexOf(str(0), optNum(1))
+      break
+    case "lastIndexOf":
+      result = value.lastIndexOf(str(0), optNum(1))
+      break
+    case "replace":
+    case "replaceAll": {
+      if (args[0] instanceof SandboxRegExp) {
+        const pattern = (args[0] as SandboxRegExp).regex
+        const replacement = str(1)
+        if (name === "replaceAll" && !pattern.global) {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+            `String.replaceAll requires a regular expression with the global (g) flag: write /${pattern.source}/${pattern.flags}g, or use String.replace to replace only the first match.`,
+            node,
+          )
+        }
+        result = name === "replace" ? value.replace(pattern, replacement) : value.replaceAll(pattern, replacement)
+        break
+      }
+      if (name === "replace") {
+        result = value.replace(str(0), str(1))
+        break
+      }
+      result = value.replaceAll(str(0), str(1))
+      break
+    }
+    case "match": {
+      const pattern = toHostRegex(args[0], name, node)
+      const matched = value.match(pattern)
+      if (matched === null) return null
+      // A global match is a plain array of matched strings; a non-global match carries
+      // index/groups own properties, so bypass the copying data checkpoint to keep them.
+      if (pattern.global) return boundedData(matched, "String.match result")
+      return matchToValue(matched)
+    }
+    case "matchAll": {
+      const pattern = toHostRegex(args[0], name, node, "g")
+      if (!pattern.global) {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+          `String.matchAll requires a regular expression with the global (g) flag: write /${pattern.source}/${pattern.flags}g, or use String.match for a single match.`,
+          node,
+        )
+      }
+      // Materialized as an array (not an iterator); each entry is a match array with
+      // index/groups own properties. Match count is bounded by the subject length.
+      return Array.from(value.matchAll(pattern), matchToValue)
+    }
+    case "search": {
+      result = value.search(toHostRegex(args[0], name, node))
+      break
+    }
+    case "repeat": {
+      const count = num(0)
+      if (!Number.isFinite(count) || count < 0)
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("String.repeat expects a finite non-negative count.", node)
+      result = value.repeat(count)
+      break
+    }
+    case "padStart":
+      result = value.padStart(num(0), optStr(1))
+      break
+    case "padEnd":
+      result = value.padEnd(num(0), optStr(1))
+      break
+    case "charAt":
+      result = value.charAt(optNum(0) ?? 0)
+      break
+    case "at":
+      result = value.at(optNum(0) ?? 0)
+      break
+    case "substring":
+      result = value.substring(optNum(0) ?? 0, optNum(1))
+      break
+    case "substr":
+      result = value.substr(optNum(0) ?? 0, optNum(1))
+      break
+    // JS charCodeAt returns NaN out of range; NaN flows as an ordinary in-sandbox value
+    // (normalized to null only at the data boundary - see copyOut), so return it as-is.
+    case "charCodeAt":
+      result = value.charCodeAt(optNum(0) ?? 0)
+      break
+    case "codePointAt":
+      result = value.codePointAt(optNum(0) ?? 0)
+      break
+    case "toString":
+      result = value
+      break
+    case "concat": {
+      result = value.concat(...args.map((_, index) => str(index)))
+      break
+    }
+    default:
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`String method '${name}' is not available in CodeMode.`, node)
+  }
+  return boundedData(result, `String.${name} result`)
+}
+
+const invokeArrayStatic = (name: string, args: Array<unknown>, node: AstNode): unknown => {
+  switch (name) {
+    case "isArray":
+      return Array.isArray(args[0])
+    case "of":
+      return [...args]
+    case "from": {
+      if (args.length > 1) {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+          "Array.from(...) does not support a map function in CodeMode; call .map() on the result instead.",
+          node,
+          "UnsupportedSyntax",
+          [supportedSyntaxMessage],
+        )
+      }
+      // Map/Set materialize directly (the data checkpoint would serialize them to {}).
+      if (args[0] instanceof SandboxMap)
+        return Array.from((args[0] as SandboxMap).map.entries(), ([key, item]) => [key, item])
+      if (args[0] instanceof SandboxSet) return Array.from((args[0] as SandboxSet).set.values())
+      if (args[0] instanceof SandboxURLSearchParams) {
+        return Array.from(args[0].params.entries(), ([key, value]) => [key, value])
+      }
+      const source = boundedData(args[0], "Array.from input")
+      if (typeof source === "string") return Array.from(source)
+      if (Array.isArray(source)) return [...source]
+      if (
+        source !== null &&
+        typeof source === "object" &&
+        typeof (source as { length?: unknown }).length === "number"
+      ) {
+        return Array.from(source as ArrayLike<unknown>)
+      }
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Array.from expects an array, string, Map, Set, or array-like value.", node)
+    }
+    default:
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Array.${name} is not available in CodeMode.`, node)
+  }
+}
+
+const invokeGlobalMethod = (ref: GlobalMethodReference, args: Array<unknown>, node: AstNode): unknown => {
+  if (ref.namespace === "console")
+    throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`console.${ref.name} is not available in CodeMode.`, node)
+  if (ref.namespace === "Object") return invokeObjectMethod(ref.name, args, node)
+  if (ref.namespace === "Math") return invokeMathMethod(ref.name, args, node)
+  if (ref.namespace === "Array") return invokeArrayStatic(ref.name, args, node)
+  if (ref.namespace === "Number") return invokeNumberStatic(ref.name, args, node)
+  if (ref.namespace === "String") return invokeStringStatic(ref.name, args, node)
+  if (ref.namespace === "URL") return invokeURLStatic(ref.name, args, node)
+  if (ref.namespace === "Date") {
+    if (!dateStatics.has(ref.name))
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Date.${ref.name} is not available in CodeMode.`, node)
+    return invokeDateStatic(ref.name, args, node)
+  }
+  if (
+    ref.namespace === "RegExp" ||
+    ref.namespace === "Map" ||
+    ref.namespace === "Set" ||
+    ref.namespace === "URLSearchParams"
+  ) {
+    throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`${ref.namespace}.${ref.name} is not available in CodeMode.`, node)
+  }
+  return invokeJsonMethod(ref.name, args, node)
+}
+
+// Every identifier a parameter pattern binds, used to seed TDZ slots before defaults run.
+const collectPatternNames = (pattern: AstNode, out: Array<string> = []): Array<string> => {
+  switch (pattern.type) {
+    case "Identifier":
+      out.push(getString(pattern, "name"))
+      break
+    case "AssignmentPattern":
+      collectPatternNames(getNode(pattern, "left"), out)
+      break
+    case "RestElement":
+      collectPatternNames(getNode(pattern, "argument"), out)
+      break
+    case "ArrayPattern":
+      for (const element of getArray(pattern, "elements")) {
+        if (element !== null) collectPatternNames(asNode(element, "elements"), out)
+      }
+      break
+    case "ObjectPattern":
+      for (const property of getArray(pattern, "properties")) {
+        const prop = asNode(property, "properties")
+        collectPatternNames(prop.type === "RestElement" ? getNode(prop, "argument") : getNode(prop, "value"), out)
+      }
+      break
+  }
+  return out
+}
+
+class Interpreter<R> {
+  private scopes: Array<Map<string, Binding>>
+  private readonly invokeTool: (path: ReadonlyArray<string>, args: Array<unknown>) => Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R>
+  // Enumerable namespace/tool names at a node of the host tool tree, threaded from
+  // ToolRuntime.make like invokeTool: the interpreter never holds the tree itself.
+  private readonly toolKeys: (path: ReadonlyArray<string>) => ReadonlyArray<string>
+  private readonly logs: Array<string>
+  private lastValue: unknown
+  // Caps how many eagerly forked tool calls run at once (the parallel-call concurrency cap).
+  private readonly callPermits: Semaphore.Semaphore
+  // Fiber-backed promises whose settlement no program construct has observed yet. Successful
+  // program completion drains these (like a runtime waiting on in-flight work at exit) and
+  // surfaces a never-awaited failure as an unhandled-rejection diagnostic.
+  private readonly pendingSettlements = new Set<SandboxPromise>()
+
+  constructor(
+    invokeTool: (path: ReadonlyArray<string>, args: Array<unknown>) => Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R>,
+    toolKeys: (path: ReadonlyArray<string>) => ReadonlyArray<string>,
+    logs: Array<string> = [],
+  ) {
+    const globalScope = new Map<string, Binding>()
+    this.scopes = [globalScope]
+    this.invokeTool = invokeTool
+    this.toolKeys = toolKeys
+    this.logs = logs
+    this.lastValue = undefined
+    this.callPermits = Semaphore.makeUnsafe(TOOL_CALL_CONCURRENCY)
+    globalScope.set("tools", { mutable: false, value: new ToolReference([]) })
+    globalScope.set("Promise", { mutable: false, value: new PromiseNamespace() })
+    globalScope.set("undefined", { mutable: false, value: undefined })
+    globalScope.set("Object", { mutable: false, value: new GlobalNamespace("Object") })
+    globalScope.set("Math", { mutable: false, value: new GlobalNamespace("Math") })
+    globalScope.set("JSON", { mutable: false, value: new GlobalNamespace("JSON") })
+    globalScope.set("Number", { mutable: false, value: new CoercionFunction("Number") })
+    globalScope.set("String", { mutable: false, value: new CoercionFunction("String") })
+    globalScope.set("Boolean", { mutable: false, value: new CoercionFunction("Boolean") })
+    globalScope.set("Array", { mutable: false, value: new GlobalNamespace("Array") })
+    globalScope.set("console", { mutable: false, value: new GlobalNamespace("console") })
+    globalScope.set("parseInt", { mutable: false, value: new CoercionFunction("parseInt") })
+    globalScope.set("parseFloat", { mutable: false, value: new CoercionFunction("parseFloat") })
+    globalScope.set("Date", { mutable: false, value: new GlobalNamespace("Date") })
+    globalScope.set("RegExp", { mutable: false, value: new GlobalNamespace("RegExp") })
+    globalScope.set("Map", { mutable: false, value: new GlobalNamespace("Map") })
+    globalScope.set("Set", { mutable: false, value: new GlobalNamespace("Set") })
+    globalScope.set("URL", { mutable: false, value: new GlobalNamespace("URL") })
+    globalScope.set("URLSearchParams", { mutable: false, value: new GlobalNamespace("URLSearchParams") })
+    globalScope.set("encodeURI", { mutable: false, value: new UriFunction("encodeURI") })
+    globalScope.set("encodeURIComponent", { mutable: false, value: new UriFunction("encodeURIComponent") })
+    globalScope.set("decodeURI", { mutable: false, value: new UriFunction("decodeURI") })
+    globalScope.set("decodeURIComponent", { mutable: false, value: new UriFunction("decodeURIComponent") })
+    // Error constructors are real values, so `x instanceof Error` works and `Error("msg")`
+    // (with or without `new`) constructs a branded { name, message } error object.
+    for (const name of errorConstructors) {
+      globalScope.set(name, { mutable: false, value: new ErrorConstructorReference(name) })
+    }
+    // NaN/Infinity flow as ordinary in-sandbox values (normalized to null only at the data
+    // boundary - see copyOut), so their global bindings must exist too, e.g. `reduce(max, -Infinity)`.
+    globalScope.set("NaN", { mutable: false, value: NaN })
+    globalScope.set("Infinity", { mutable: false, value: Infinity })
+  }
+
+  run(program: ProgramNode): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    const self = this
+    // Run the program body in its own module scope on top of the builtin global scope, so
+    // top-level declarations (`let undefined = 5`, `const Object = ...`) shadow builtins like
+    // JS module scope, instead of colliding with the seeded globals.
+    this.pushScope()
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      self.hoistFunctions(program.body)
+      let value: unknown = undefined
+      let returned = false
+      for (const statement of program.body) {
+        const result = yield* self.evaluateStatement(statement)
+
+        if (result.kind === "return") {
+          value = result.value
+          returned = true
+          break
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "break" || result.kind === "continue") {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Unexpected '${result.kind}' outside of a loop.`, statement)
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "value") {
+          self.lastValue = result.value
+        }
+      }
+      if (!returned) value = self.lastValue
+
+      // The program body runs inside an implicit async function, so a returned promise
+      // resolves before crossing the data boundary - `return tools.ns.tool(...)` works
+      // without an explicit await, exactly as in JS.
+      if (value instanceof SandboxPromise) value = yield* self.settlePromise(value)
+      yield* self.drainPendingSettlements()
+      return value
+    }).pipe(Effect.ensuring(Effect.sync(() => self.popScope())))
+  }
+
+  // Awaits every fiber-backed promise the program abandoned (fire-and-forget tool calls), so
+  // their work completes before the execution ends - mirroring a JS runtime waiting on
+  // in-flight I/O at exit. A failure nobody could have handled becomes an unhandled-rejection
+  // diagnostic (interrupted calls, e.g. Promise.race losers, are ignored).
+  private drainPendingSettlements(): Effect.Effect<void, unknown, never> {
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      for (const promise of [...self.pendingSettlements]) {
+        const exit = yield* self.observePromise(promise)
+        if (Exit.isSuccess(exit) || Cause.hasInterruptsOnly(exit.cause)) continue
+        const failure = normalizeError(Cause.squash(exit.cause))
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+          `Unhandled rejection from an un-awaited tool call: ${failure.message}`,
+          undefined,
+          failure.kind,
+          ["Await tool calls - `const result = await tools.ns.tool(...)` - so failures can be caught and handled."],
+        )
+      }
+    })
+  }
+
+  // Eagerly starts a tool call on a supervised child fiber (so the execution timeout and
+  // scope teardown interrupt it) gated by the concurrency semaphore, and wraps the fiber in a
+  // first-class promise value. `startImmediately` makes the runtime admit the call - charging
+  // the tool-call budget and firing onToolCallStart - at the call site, before any await.
+  private createToolCallPromise(
+    path: ReadonlyArray<string>,
+    args: Array<unknown>,
+  ): Effect.Effect<SandboxPromise, never, R> {
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.map(
+      Effect.forkChild(this.callPermits.withPermit(Effect.suspend(() => self.invokeTool(path, args))), {
+        startImmediately: true,
+      }),
+      (fiber) => {
+        const promise = new SandboxPromise(fiber)
+        self.pendingSettlements.add(promise)
+        return promise
+      },
+    )
+  }
+
+  // The promise's settlement as an Exit, marking it observed for unhandled-rejection tracking.
+  // Fiber settlement is idempotent, so observing the same promise repeatedly (await twice,
+  // Promise.all([p, p])) never re-runs the underlying call.
+  private observePromise(promise: SandboxPromise): Effect.Effect<Exit.Exit<unknown, unknown>> {
+    this.pendingSettlements.delete(promise)
+    return promise.fiber !== undefined ? Fiber.await(promise.fiber) : Effect.exit(promise.immediate ?? Effect.void)
+  }
+
+  // `await promise`: succeed with the fulfilled value or re-raise the failure so try/catch
+  // observes it exactly like a synchronous throw at the await site.
+  private settlePromise(promise: SandboxPromise, node?: AstNode): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, never> {
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.flatMap(this.observePromise(promise), (exit) => self.unwrapPromiseExit(promise, exit, node))
+  }
+
+  private unwrapPromiseExit(
+    promise: SandboxPromise | undefined,
+    exit: Exit.Exit<unknown, unknown>,
+    node?: AstNode,
+  ): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown> {
+    if (Exit.isSuccess(exit)) return Effect.succeed(exit.value)
+    // A call Promise.race interrupted after losing settles as a catchable program failure;
+    // any other interruption is execution teardown (timeout/host) and must keep propagating
+    // as interruption rather than becoming program-visible data.
+    if (promise?.interrupted === true && Cause.hasInterruptsOnly(exit.cause)) {
+      return Effect.fail(
+        new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+          "This tool call was interrupted because another value settled a Promise.race first.",
+          node,
+        ),
+      )
+    }
+    return Effect.failCause(exit.cause)
+  }
+
+  private evaluateStatement(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<StatementResult, unknown, R> {
+    switch (node.type) {
+      case "ExpressionStatement":
+        return Effect.map(this.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, "expression")), (value) => ({ kind: "value", value }))
+      case "VariableDeclaration":
+        return Effect.map(this.evaluateVariableDeclaration(node), () => ({ kind: "none" }))
+      case "ReturnStatement": {
+        const argumentNode = getOptionalNode(node, "argument")
+        return argumentNode
+          ? Effect.map(this.evaluateExpression(argumentNode), (value) => ({ kind: "return", value }))
+          : Effect.succeed({ kind: "return", value: undefined })
+      }
+      case "BlockStatement":
+        return this.evaluateBlock(node)
+      case "IfStatement":
+        return this.evaluateIfStatement(node)
+      case "SwitchStatement":
+        return this.evaluateSwitchStatement(node)
+      case "WhileStatement":
+        return this.evaluateWhileStatement(node)
+      case "DoWhileStatement":
+        return this.evaluateDoWhileStatement(node)
+      case "ForStatement":
+        return this.evaluateForStatement(node)
+      case "ForOfStatement":
+        return this.evaluateForOfStatement(node)
+      case "ForInStatement":
+        return this.evaluateForInStatement(node)
+      case "BreakStatement":
+        return Effect.succeed(this.evaluateBreakStatement(node))
+      case "ContinueStatement":
+        return Effect.succeed(this.evaluateContinueStatement(node))
+      case "ThrowStatement":
+        return this.evaluateThrowStatement(node)
+      case "TryStatement":
+        return this.evaluateTryStatement(node)
+      case "EmptyStatement":
+        return Effect.succeed({ kind: "none" })
+      case "FunctionDeclaration":
+        return Effect.succeed({ kind: "none" }) // bound ahead of time by hoistFunctions
+      default:
+        throw unsupportedSyntax(node.type, node)
+    }
+  }
+
+  private evaluateBlock(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<StatementResult, unknown, R> {
+    this.pushScope()
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      const body = getArray(node, "body")
+      self.hoistFunctions(body)
+
+      for (const statementValue of body) {
+        const statement = asNode(statementValue, "body")
+        const result = yield* self.evaluateStatement(statement)
+
+        if (result.kind === "value") {
+          self.lastValue = result.value
+          continue
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind !== "none") {
+          return result
+        }
+      }
+
+      return { kind: "none" } satisfies StatementResult
+    }).pipe(Effect.ensuring(Effect.sync(() => self.popScope())))
+  }
+
+  private createFunction(node: AstNode): CodeModeFunction {
+    if (node.generator === true) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+        "Generator functions are not supported in CodeMode.",
+        node,
+        "UnsupportedSyntax",
+        [supportedSyntaxMessage],
+      )
+    }
+    return new CodeModeFunction(
+      getArray(node, "params").map((parameter, index) => asNode(parameter, `params[${index}]`)),
+      getNode(node, "body"),
+      this.scopes.slice(),
+    )
+  }
+
+  // Function declarations are hoisted: bound in their scope before the body runs, so a
+  // program can call a helper defined further down (matching JavaScript).
+  private hoistFunctions(statements: Array<unknown>): void {
+    for (const statementValue of statements) {
+      if (!isRecord(statementValue) || statementValue.type !== "FunctionDeclaration") continue
+      const node = statementValue as AstNode
+      this.declare(getString(getNode(node, "id"), "name"), this.createFunction(node), true, node)
+    }
+  }
+
+  private evaluateIfStatement(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<StatementResult, unknown, R> {
+    const testNode = getNode(node, "test")
+    const consequentNode = getNode(node, "consequent")
+    const alternateNode = getOptionalNode(node, "alternate")
+
+    return Effect.flatMap(this.evaluateExpression(testNode), (test) =>
+      test
+        ? this.evaluateStatement(consequentNode)
+        : alternateNode
+          ? this.evaluateStatement(alternateNode)
+          : Effect.succeed({ kind: "none" }),
+    )
+  }
+
+  private evaluateSwitchStatement(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<StatementResult, unknown, R> {
+    const self = this
+    this.pushScope()
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      const discriminant = yield* self.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, "discriminant"))
+      if (containsOpaqueReference(discriminant)) {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+          "Switch discriminants must be data values in CodeMode.",
+          node,
+          "InvalidDataValue",
+        )
+      }
+      const cases = getArray(node, "cases").map((value, index) => asNode(value, `cases[${index}]`))
+      let defaultIndex: number | undefined
+      let selected: number | undefined
+      for (const [index, branch] of cases.entries()) {
+        const test = getOptionalNode(branch, "test")
+        if (!test) {
+          defaultIndex = index
+          continue
+        }
+        const candidate = yield* self.evaluateExpression(test)
+        if (containsOpaqueReference(candidate)) {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+            "Switch case values must be data values in CodeMode.",
+            test,
+            "InvalidDataValue",
+          )
+        }
+        if (candidate === discriminant) {
+          selected = index
+          break
+        }
+      }
+      const start = selected ?? defaultIndex
+      if (start === undefined) return { kind: "none" } satisfies StatementResult
+      for (let index = start; index < cases.length; index += 1) {
+        for (const statementValue of getArray(cases[index]!, "consequent")) {
+          const result = yield* self.evaluateStatement(asNode(statementValue, "consequent"))
+          if (result.kind === "break") return { kind: "none" } satisfies StatementResult
+          if (result.kind === "return" || result.kind === "continue") return result
+          if (result.kind === "value") self.lastValue = result.value
+        }
+      }
+      return { kind: "none" } satisfies StatementResult
+    }).pipe(Effect.ensuring(Effect.sync(() => self.popScope())))
+  }
+
+  private evaluateWhileStatement(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<StatementResult, unknown, R> {
+    const testNode = getNode(node, "test")
+    const bodyNode = getNode(node, "body")
+
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      while (yield* self.evaluateExpression(testNode)) {
+        const result = yield* self.evaluateStatement(bodyNode)
+
+        if (result.kind === "continue") {
+          continue
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "break") {
+          return { kind: "none" } satisfies StatementResult
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "return") {
+          return result
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "value") {
+          self.lastValue = result.value
+        }
+      }
+
+      return { kind: "none" } satisfies StatementResult
+    })
+  }
+
+  private evaluateDoWhileStatement(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<StatementResult, unknown, R> {
+    const bodyNode = getNode(node, "body")
+    const testNode = getNode(node, "test")
+
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      do {
+        const result = yield* self.evaluateStatement(bodyNode)
+
+        if (result.kind === "continue") {
+          continue
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "break") {
+          return { kind: "none" } satisfies StatementResult
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "return") {
+          return result
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "value") {
+          self.lastValue = result.value
+        }
+      } while (yield* self.evaluateExpression(testNode))
+
+      return { kind: "none" } satisfies StatementResult
+    })
+  }
+
+  private evaluateForStatement(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<StatementResult, unknown, R> {
+    this.pushScope()
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      const initNode = getOptionalNode(node, "init")
+      const testNode = getOptionalNode(node, "test")
+      const updateNode = getOptionalNode(node, "update")
+      const bodyNode = getNode(node, "body")
+
+      if (initNode) {
+        if (initNode.type === "VariableDeclaration") {
+          yield* self.evaluateVariableDeclaration(initNode)
+        } else {
+          yield* self.evaluateExpression(initNode)
+        }
+      }
+
+      const perIterationBindings =
+        initNode?.type === "VariableDeclaration" && getString(initNode, "kind") !== "var"
+          ? Array.from(self.currentScope().keys())
+          : []
+
+      while (testNode ? yield* self.evaluateExpression(testNode) : true) {
+        let iterationScope: Map<string, Binding> | undefined
+        if (perIterationBindings.length > 0) {
+          iterationScope = new Map(
+            perIterationBindings.map((name) => {
+              const binding = self.currentScope().get(name)!
+              return [name, { ...binding }]
+            }),
+          )
+          self.scopes.push(iterationScope)
+        }
+        const result = yield* self.evaluateStatement(bodyNode).pipe(
+          Effect.ensuring(
+            Effect.sync(() => {
+              if (iterationScope) self.popScope()
+            }),
+          ),
+        )
+
+        if (result.kind === "return") {
+          return result
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "break") {
+          return { kind: "none" } satisfies StatementResult
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "value") {
+          self.lastValue = result.value
+        }
+
+        if (iterationScope) {
+          const loopScope = self.currentScope()
+          for (const name of perIterationBindings) {
+            loopScope.set(name, { ...iterationScope.get(name)! })
+          }
+        }
+
+        if (updateNode) {
+          yield* self.evaluateExpression(updateNode)
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "continue") {
+          continue
+        }
+      }
+
+      return { kind: "none" } satisfies StatementResult
+    }).pipe(Effect.ensuring(Effect.sync(() => self.popScope())))
+  }
+
+  private evaluateForOfStatement(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<StatementResult, unknown, R> {
+    if (getBoolean(node, "await")) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("for await...of is not supported.", node)
+    }
+
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      const left = getNode(node, "left")
+      const right = yield* self.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, "right"))
+      const body = getNode(node, "body")
+
+      // Arrays iterate in place; strings iterate code points; Maps iterate [key, value]
+      // pairs and Sets iterate values over a snapshot (mutation during iteration is safe).
+      const iterable = Array.isArray(right) ? right : spreadItems(right)
+      if (iterable === undefined) {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("for...of requires an array, string, Map, or Set value in CodeMode.", node)
+      }
+
+      let declaration: { readonly pattern: AstNode; readonly mutable: boolean } | undefined
+      let assignmentName: string | undefined
+
+      if (left.type === "VariableDeclaration") {
+        const declarations = getArray(left, "declarations")
+        if (declarations.length !== 1) {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("for...of supports one declared binding.", left)
+        }
+
+        const declarator = asNode(declarations[0], "declarations[0]")
+        declaration = { pattern: getNode(declarator, "id"), mutable: getString(left, "kind") !== "const" }
+      } else if (left.type === "Identifier") {
+        assignmentName = getString(left, "name")
+      } else {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Unsupported for...of binding.", left)
+      }
+
+      for (const value of iterable) {
+        if (declaration) {
+          self.pushScope()
+          yield* self.declarePattern(declaration.pattern, value, declaration.mutable, left)
+        } else if (assignmentName) {
+          self.setIdentifierValue(assignmentName, value, left)
+        }
+
+        const result = yield* self.evaluateStatement(body).pipe(
+          Effect.ensuring(
+            Effect.sync(() => {
+              if (declaration) self.popScope()
+            }),
+          ),
+        )
+
+        if (result.kind === "return") {
+          return result
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "break") {
+          return { kind: "none" }
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "value") {
+          self.lastValue = result.value
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "continue") {
+          continue
+        }
+      }
+
+      return { kind: "none" }
+    })
+  }
+
+  // Own enumerable string keys of a value, shared by `for...in` and `Object.keys` over tool
+  // references: plain data objects enumerate their own keys, arrays their index strings (plus
+  // any own non-index properties, e.g. match results' index/groups - exactly Object.keys in
+  // JS), and a tool reference the namespace/tool names at its path in the host tool tree.
+  // Returns undefined for everything else so callers can raise a contextual error.
+  private enumerableKeys(value: unknown): Array<string> | undefined {
+    if (value instanceof ToolReference) {
+      return [...this.toolKeys(value.path)]
+    }
+    if (Array.isArray(value)) {
+      return Object.keys(value)
+    }
+    if (value !== null && typeof value === "object" && !isRuntimeReference(value)) {
+      return Object.keys(value)
+    }
+    return undefined
+  }
+
+  private evaluateForInStatement(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<StatementResult, unknown, R> {
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      const left = getNode(node, "left")
+      const right = yield* self.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, "right"))
+      const body = getNode(node, "body")
+
+      // Keys are snapshotted up front (mutation during iteration is safe): plain objects
+      // enumerate their own keys, arrays their index strings, and tool references the
+      // namespace/tool names at that node - the same enumeration Object.keys performs.
+      // Anything else (strings, Maps, Sets, numbers, null, ...) is a deliberate error rather
+      // than real JS's surprising behavior (indices for strings, zero iterations for
+      // Maps/Sets/null): the hint points at the constructs that do what the program means.
+      const keys = self.enumerableKeys(right)
+      if (keys === undefined) {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+          "for...in requires a plain object, array, or tools reference in CodeMode. Use for...of for arrays/strings/Maps/Sets, or Object.keys(value) for a key list.",
+          node,
+        )
+      }
+
+      let declaration: { readonly pattern: AstNode; readonly mutable: boolean } | undefined
+      let assignmentName: string | undefined
+
+      if (left.type === "VariableDeclaration") {
+        const declarations = getArray(left, "declarations")
+        if (declarations.length !== 1) {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("for...in supports one declared binding.", left)
+        }
+
+        const declarator = asNode(declarations[0], "declarations[0]")
+        declaration = { pattern: getNode(declarator, "id"), mutable: getString(left, "kind") !== "const" }
+      } else if (left.type === "Identifier") {
+        assignmentName = getString(left, "name")
+      } else {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Unsupported for...in binding.", left)
+      }
+
+      for (const key of keys) {
+        if (declaration) {
+          self.pushScope()
+          yield* self.declarePattern(declaration.pattern, key, declaration.mutable, left)
+        } else if (assignmentName) {
+          self.setIdentifierValue(assignmentName, key, left)
+        }
+
+        const result = yield* self.evaluateStatement(body).pipe(
+          Effect.ensuring(
+            Effect.sync(() => {
+              if (declaration) self.popScope()
+            }),
+          ),
+        )
+
+        if (result.kind === "return") {
+          return result
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "break") {
+          return { kind: "none" }
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "value") {
+          self.lastValue = result.value
+        }
+
+        if (result.kind === "continue") {
+          continue
+        }
+      }
+
+      return { kind: "none" }
+    })
+  }
+
+  private evaluateBreakStatement(node: AstNode): StatementResult {
+    const labelNode = getOptionalNode(node, "label")
+
+    if (labelNode) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Labeled break is not supported in v1.", node)
+    }
+
+    return { kind: "break" }
+  }
+
+  private evaluateContinueStatement(node: AstNode): StatementResult {
+    const labelNode = getOptionalNode(node, "label")
+
+    if (labelNode) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Labeled continue is not supported in v1.", node)
+    }
+
+    return { kind: "continue" }
+  }
+
+  private evaluateThrowStatement(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<StatementResult, unknown, R> {
+    const argument = getNode(node, "argument")
+    return Effect.flatMap(this.evaluateExpression(argument), (value) => Effect.fail(new ProgramThrow(value)))
+  }
+
+  private evaluateTryStatement(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<StatementResult, unknown, R> {
+    const body = getNode(node, "block")
+    const handler = getOptionalNode(node, "handler")
+    const finalizer = getOptionalNode(node, "finalizer")
+    const self = this
+
+    const attempted = Effect.matchCauseEffect(this.evaluateStatement(body), {
+      onFailure: (cause) => {
+        if (cause.reasons.some(Cause.isInterruptReason) || !handler) {
+          return Effect.failCause(cause)
+        }
+
+        // The program sees a plain { message } error (or the thrown value itself) - see
+        // caughtErrorValue, shared with Promise.allSettled rejection reasons.
+        const caught = caughtErrorValue(Cause.squash(cause))
+        const parameter = getOptionalNode(handler, "param")
+        self.pushScope()
+        return Effect.gen(function* () {
+          if (parameter) yield* self.declarePattern(parameter, caught, true, handler)
+          return yield* self.evaluateStatement(getNode(handler, "body"))
+        }).pipe(Effect.ensuring(Effect.sync(() => self.popScope())))
+      },
+      onSuccess: Effect.succeed,
+    })
+
+    if (!finalizer) return attempted
+
+    const isAbrupt = (result: StatementResult): boolean =>
+      result.kind === "return" || result.kind === "break" || result.kind === "continue"
+
+    return Effect.matchCauseEffect(attempted, {
+      onFailure: (cause) =>
+        cause.reasons.some(Cause.isInterruptReason)
+          ? Effect.failCause(cause)
+          : Effect.flatMap(this.evaluateStatement(finalizer), (final) =>
+              isAbrupt(final) ? Effect.succeed(final) : Effect.failCause(cause),
+            ),
+      onSuccess: (result) =>
+        Effect.flatMap(this.evaluateStatement(finalizer), (final) =>
+          isAbrupt(final) ? Effect.succeed(final) : Effect.succeed(result),
+        ),
+    })
+  }
+
+  private evaluateVariableDeclaration(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<void, unknown, R> {
+    const kind = getString(node, "kind")
+    const declarations = getArray(node, "declarations")
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      for (const declarationValue of declarations) {
+        const declaration = asNode(declarationValue, "declarations")
+
+        if (declaration.type !== "VariableDeclarator") {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Unsupported variable declaration shape.", declaration)
+        }
+
+        const init = getOptionalNode(declaration, "init")
+        const value = init ? yield* self.evaluateExpression(init) : undefined
+        yield* self.declarePattern(getNode(declaration, "id"), value, kind !== "const", declaration)
+      }
+    })
+  }
+
+  private declarePattern(
+    pattern: AstNode,
+    value: unknown,
+    mutable: boolean,
+    node: AstNode,
+  ): Effect.Effect<void, unknown, R> {
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      if (pattern.type === "Identifier") {
+        self.declare(getString(pattern, "name"), value, mutable, node)
+        return
+      }
+
+      // Default values: `x = expr` / `{ a = 1 }` - the default is evaluated only when the value is undefined.
+      if (pattern.type === "AssignmentPattern") {
+        const resolved = value === undefined ? yield* self.evaluateExpression(getNode(pattern, "right")) : value
+        yield* self.declarePattern(getNode(pattern, "left"), resolved, mutable, node)
+        return
+      }
+
+      if (pattern.type === "ObjectPattern") {
+        if (value === null || typeof value !== "object" || Array.isArray(value) || isRuntimeReference(value)) {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+            "Object destructuring requires a data object value.",
+            pattern,
+            "InvalidDataValue",
+          )
+        }
+
+        const consumed = new Set<string>()
+        for (const propertyValue of getArray(pattern, "properties")) {
+          const property = asNode(propertyValue, "properties")
+
+          // Object rest: `{ a, ...others }` - gather the not-yet-consumed own keys.
+          if (property.type === "RestElement") {
+            const rest: SafeObject = Object.create(null) as SafeObject
+            for (const [key, item] of Object.entries(value as SafeObject)) {
+              if (!consumed.has(key) && !isBlockedMember(key)) rest[key] = item
+            }
+            yield* self.declarePattern(getNode(property, "argument"), rest, mutable, property)
+            continue
+          }
+
+          if (
+            property.type !== "Property" ||
+            getBoolean(property, "computed") ||
+            getString(property, "kind") !== "init"
+          ) {
+            throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Only named object destructuring properties are supported.", property)
+          }
+
+          const keyNode = getNode(property, "key")
+          const key = keyNode.type === "Identifier" ? getString(keyNode, "name") : String(keyNode.value)
+          if (isBlockedMember(key)) {
+            throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Property '${key}' is not available in CodeMode.`, keyNode)
+          }
+          consumed.add(key)
+          yield* self.declarePattern(getNode(property, "value"), (value as SafeObject)[key], mutable, property)
+        }
+        return
+      }
+
+      if (pattern.type === "ArrayPattern") {
+        if (!Array.isArray(value)) {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Array destructuring requires an array value.", pattern)
+        }
+
+        for (const [index, item] of getArray(pattern, "elements").entries()) {
+          if (item === null) continue
+          const element = asNode(item, `elements[${index}]`)
+          // Array rest: `[head, ...tail]` - binds the remaining elements (must be last).
+          if (element.type === "RestElement") {
+            yield* self.declarePattern(getNode(element, "argument"), value.slice(index), mutable, element)
+            break
+          }
+          yield* self.declarePattern(element, value[index], mutable, pattern)
+        }
+        return
+      }
+
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Unsupported binding pattern '${pattern.type}'.`, pattern)
+    })
+  }
+
+  private evaluateExpression(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    switch (node.type) {
+      case "Literal": {
+        // A regex literal parses as a Literal node carrying { pattern, flags }; construct the
+        // sandbox regex from those (the host `value` instance is never exposed).
+        const regex = node.regex
+        if (isRecord(regex) && typeof regex.pattern === "string") {
+          return Effect.sync(() =>
+            this.constructRegExp([regex.pattern, typeof regex.flags === "string" ? regex.flags : ""], node),
+          )
+        }
+        return Effect.sync(() => boundedData(node.value, "Literal"))
+      }
+      case "Identifier":
+        return Effect.sync(() => this.getIdentifierValue(getString(node, "name"), node))
+      case "BinaryExpression":
+        return this.evaluateBinaryExpression(node)
+      case "LogicalExpression":
+        return this.evaluateLogicalExpression(node)
+      case "UnaryExpression":
+        return this.evaluateUnaryExpression(node)
+      case "AssignmentExpression":
+        return this.evaluateAssignmentExpression(node)
+      case "CallExpression":
+        return this.evaluateCallExpression(node)
+      case "ArrowFunctionExpression":
+      case "FunctionExpression":
+        return Effect.sync(() => this.createFunction(node))
+      case "MemberExpression":
+        return this.readMember(node)
+      case "ChainExpression":
+        return Effect.map(this.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, "expression")), (value) =>
+          value === OptionalShortCircuit ? undefined : value,
+        )
+      case "ObjectExpression":
+        return this.evaluateObjectExpression(node)
+      case "ArrayExpression":
+        return this.evaluateArrayExpression(node)
+      case "TemplateLiteral":
+        return this.evaluateTemplateLiteral(node)
+      case "ConditionalExpression":
+        return this.evaluateConditionalExpression(node)
+      case "UpdateExpression":
+        return this.evaluateUpdateExpression(node)
+      case "AwaitExpression": {
+        // `await` resolves a promise value; awaiting anything else is a passthrough no-op,
+        // matching real JS semantics for non-thenables.
+        const self = this
+        return Effect.flatMap(this.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, "argument")), (value) =>
+          value instanceof SandboxPromise ? self.settlePromise(value, node) : Effect.succeed(value),
+        )
+      }
+      case "NewExpression":
+        return this.evaluateNewExpression(node)
+      default:
+        throw unsupportedSyntax(node.type, node)
+    }
+  }
+
+  private evaluateNewExpression(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    const callee = getNode(node, "callee")
+    if (callee.type !== "Identifier") {
+      throw unsupportedSyntax("NewExpression", node)
+    }
+    const name = getString(callee, "name")
+    const argNodes = getArray(node, "arguments")
+    const self = this
+    if (name === "Promise") {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+        "new Promise(...) is not supported in CodeMode; tool calls already return promises - call the tool and await the result.",
+        node,
+        "UnsupportedSyntax",
+        [supportedSyntaxMessage],
+      )
+    }
+    if (errorConstructors.has(name)) {
+      return Effect.gen(function* () {
+        const arg =
+          argNodes.length > 0 ? yield* self.evaluateExpression(asNode(argNodes[0], "arguments[0]")) : undefined
+        return createErrorValue(name, arg === undefined ? "" : coerceToString(arg))
+      })
+    }
+    if (valueConstructors.has(name)) {
+      return Effect.gen(function* () {
+        const args = yield* self.evaluateCallArguments(argNodes)
+        switch (name) {
+          case "Date":
+            return self.constructDate(args)
+          case "RegExp":
+            return self.constructRegExp(args, node)
+          case "Map":
+            return self.constructMap(args[0], node)
+          case "Set":
+            return self.constructSet(args[0], node)
+          case "URL":
+            return self.constructURL(args, node)
+          default:
+            return self.constructURLSearchParams(args[0], node)
+        }
+      })
+    }
+    throw unsupportedSyntax("NewExpression", node)
+  }
+
+  private constructDate(args: Array<unknown>): SandboxDate {
+    if (args.length === 0) return new SandboxDate(Date.now())
+    if (args.length === 1) {
+      const arg = args[0]
+      if (arg instanceof SandboxDate) return new SandboxDate(arg.time)
+      if (typeof arg === "number") return new SandboxDate(new Date(arg).getTime())
+      if (typeof arg === "string") return new SandboxDate(Date.parse(arg))
+      return new SandboxDate(Number.NaN)
+    }
+    // new Date(year, month, day?, hours?, ...) - local-time component form.
+    const parts = args.map((arg) => coerceToNumber(arg))
+    return new SandboxDate(new Date(...(parts as [number, number])).getTime())
+  }
+
+  private constructRegExp(args: Array<unknown>, node: AstNode): SandboxRegExp {
+    const first = args[0]
+    const pattern =
+      first instanceof SandboxRegExp ? first.regex.source : first === undefined ? "" : coerceToString(first)
+    const flagsArg = args[1]
+    if (flagsArg !== undefined && typeof flagsArg !== "string") {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+        `RegExp flags must be a string of flag characters (e.g. "g", "gi"), not ${flagsArg === null ? "null" : typeof flagsArg}.`,
+        node,
+      )
+    }
+    const flags = flagsArg ?? (first instanceof SandboxRegExp ? first.regex.flags : "")
+    try {
+      return new SandboxRegExp(pattern, flags)
+    } catch (error) {
+      // Say which part was rejected and how to fix it, instead of passing the engine
+      // message through bare. A flags failure names the flags; a pattern failure gets the
+      // escaping hint (the usual cause is an unescaped metacharacter in a built-up string).
+      const reason = regexFailureReason(error)
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+        /flag/i.test(reason)
+          ? `new RegExp(...) received invalid flags ${JSON.stringify(flags)} (${reason}). Valid flags are d, g, i, m, s, u, v, and y.`
+          : `new RegExp(...) received ${JSON.stringify(pattern)}, which is not a valid regular expression pattern (${reason}). ${escapeRegexHint}`,
+        node,
+      ).as("SyntaxError")
+    }
+  }
+
+  private constructMap(init: unknown, node: AstNode): SandboxMap {
+    const target = new SandboxMap()
+    if (init === undefined || init === null) return target
+    const entries = Array.isArray(init)
+      ? init
+      : init instanceof SandboxMap
+        ? Array.from(init.map.entries(), ([key, item]): Array<unknown> => [key, item])
+        : undefined
+    if (entries === undefined) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+        "new Map(...) expects an array of [key, value] pairs, a Map, or no argument.",
+        node,
+      )
+    }
+    for (const pair of entries) {
+      if (!Array.isArray(pair)) {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("new Map(...) expects [key, value] pairs.", node)
+      }
+      target.map.set(pair[0], pair[1])
+    }
+    return target
+  }
+
+  private constructSet(init: unknown, node: AstNode): SandboxSet {
+    const target = new SandboxSet()
+    if (init === undefined || init === null) return target
+    const items = Array.isArray(init)
+      ? init
+      : init instanceof SandboxSet
+        ? Array.from(init.set.values())
+        : typeof init === "string"
+          ? Array.from(init)
+          : undefined
+    if (items === undefined) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("new Set(...) expects an array, Set, string, or no argument.", node)
+    }
+    for (const item of items) target.set.add(item)
+    return target
+  }
+
+  private constructURL(args: Array<unknown>, node: AstNode): SandboxURL {
+    if (args.length === 0) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("new URL(...) requires a URL string and an optional base URL.", node).as(
+        "TypeError",
+      )
+    }
+    const input = urlArgument(args[0], "new URL input")
+    const base = args[1] === undefined ? undefined : urlArgument(args[1], "new URL base")
+    try {
+      return new SandboxURL(new URL(input, base))
+    } catch {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+        `new URL(...) received an invalid URL${base === undefined ? "" : " or base URL"}.`,
+        node,
+      ).as("TypeError")
+    }
+  }
+
+  private constructURLSearchParams(init: unknown, node: AstNode): SandboxURLSearchParams {
+    if (init === undefined) return new SandboxURLSearchParams(new URLSearchParams())
+    if (init instanceof SandboxURLSearchParams) {
+      return new SandboxURLSearchParams(new URLSearchParams(init.params))
+    }
+    if (typeof init === "string") return new SandboxURLSearchParams(new URLSearchParams(init))
+    if (init === null || typeof init === "number" || typeof init === "boolean") {
+      return new SandboxURLSearchParams(new URLSearchParams(coerceToString(init)))
+    }
+    if (init instanceof SandboxMap) {
+      return this.constructURLSearchParams(
+        Array.from(init.map.entries(), ([key, value]) => [key, value]),
+        node,
+      )
+    }
+    if (Array.isArray(init)) {
+      const entries = init.map((pair) => {
+        if (!Array.isArray(pair) || pair.length !== 2) {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+            "new URLSearchParams(...) expects an array of [name, value] pairs.",
+            node,
+          ).as("TypeError")
+        }
+        return [uriArgument(pair[0], "URLSearchParams name"), uriArgument(pair[1], "URLSearchParams value")] as [
+          string,
+          string,
+        ]
+      })
+      return new SandboxURLSearchParams(new URLSearchParams(entries))
+    }
+    if (isSandboxValue(init)) return new SandboxURLSearchParams(new URLSearchParams())
+    const data = boundedData(init, "new URLSearchParams input")
+    if (data === null || typeof data !== "object") {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+        "new URLSearchParams(...) expects a query string, data object, array of pairs, or URLSearchParams.",
+        node,
+      ).as("TypeError")
+    }
+    return new SandboxURLSearchParams(
+      new URLSearchParams(Object.fromEntries(Object.entries(data).map(([key, value]) => [key, coerceToString(value)]))),
+    )
+  }
+
+  private evaluateBinaryExpression(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    const operator = getString(node, "operator")
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      const lhs = yield* self.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, "left"))
+      const rhs = yield* self.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, "right"))
+      // Like `typeof`, `instanceof` observes any value without coercing it (a promise or
+      // function operand is a legitimate question, not an error), so it is handled before
+      // the data-only operand check.
+      if (operator === "instanceof") return instanceofValue(lhs, rhs, node)
+      return boundedData(self.applyBinaryOperator(operator, lhs, rhs, node), "Binary expression result")
+    })
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Applies a binary operator to two already-evaluated operands with CodeMode's coercion
+   * semantics. Shared by binary expressions and compound assignment (`x op= y` must behave
+   * exactly like `x = x op y`, coercion included).
+   */
+  private applyBinaryOperator(operator: string, lhs: unknown, rhs: unknown, node: AstNode): unknown {
+    if (containsOpaqueReference(lhs) || containsOpaqueReference(rhs)) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Binary operators require data values in CodeMode.", node, "InvalidDataValue")
+    }
+    // Data objects/arrays are null-prototype, so JS's ToPrimitive throws an opaque host
+    // "No default value" TypeError when an operator coerces them. Coerce to their JS string
+    // form first (as String(x) / template literals do) so operators behave like JavaScript.
+    // A Date follows its ToPrimitive hints: string for `+` (concatenation), its time value
+    // for arithmetic and ordering - so `end - start` and `a < b` work as in JS.
+    // Identity (=== / !==) and the right operand of `in` keep their raw object value.
+    const coerceOperand = (operand: unknown): unknown => {
+      if (operand instanceof SandboxDate) return operator === "+" ? coerceToString(operand) : operand.time
+      return operand !== null && typeof operand === "object" ? coerceToString(operand) : operand
+    }
+    const bothObjects = lhs !== null && typeof lhs === "object" && rhs !== null && typeof rhs === "object"
+    const l = coerceOperand(lhs)
+    const r = coerceOperand(rhs)
+    switch (operator) {
+      case "+":
+        return (l as string) + (r as string)
+      case "-":
+        return (l as number) - (r as number)
+      case "*":
+        return (l as number) * (r as number)
+      case "/":
+        return (l as number) / (r as number)
+      case "%":
+        return (l as number) % (r as number)
+      case "**":
+        return (l as number) ** (r as number)
+      // Two objects compare by identity in JS (no ToPrimitive); only object-vs-primitive coerces.
+      case "==":
+        return bothObjects ? lhs === rhs : l == r
+      case "===":
+        return lhs === rhs
+      case "!=":
+        return bothObjects ? lhs !== rhs : l != r
+      case "!==":
+        return lhs !== rhs
+      case "<":
+        return (l as string) < (r as string)
+      case "<=":
+        return (l as string) <= (r as string)
+      case ">":
+        return (l as string) > (r as string)
+      case ">=":
+        return (l as string) >= (r as string)
+      case "&":
+        return (l as number) & (r as number)
+      case "|":
+        return (l as number) | (r as number)
+      case "^":
+        return (l as number) ^ (r as number)
+      case "<<":
+        return (l as number) << (r as number)
+      case ">>":
+        return (l as number) >> (r as number)
+      case ">>>":
+        return (l as number) >>> (r as number)
+      case "in":
+        if (rhs === null || typeof rhs !== "object") {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("The 'in' operator requires a data object on the right-hand side.", node)
+        }
+        // Own properties only, so arrays don't leak the host Array.prototype (map/constructor/...).
+        return Object.hasOwn(rhs as object, coerceOperand(lhs) as PropertyKey)
+      default:
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Unsupported binary operator '${operator}'.`, node)
+    }
+  }
+
+  private evaluateLogicalExpression(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    const operator = getString(node, "operator")
+    return Effect.flatMap(this.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, "left")), (left) => {
+      if (operator === "&&") return left ? this.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, "right")) : Effect.succeed(left)
+      if (operator === "||") return left ? Effect.succeed(left) : this.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, "right"))
+      if (operator === "??")
+        return left !== null && left !== undefined
+          ? Effect.succeed(left)
+          : this.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, "right"))
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Unsupported logical operator '${operator}'.`, node)
+    })
+  }
+
+  private evaluateUnaryExpression(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    const operator = getString(node, "operator")
+    const argument = getNode(node, "argument")
+    // `typeof undeclaredIdentifier` is `"undefined"` in JS (never a ReferenceError), so
+    // feature-detection guards like `typeof x !== "undefined"` don't crash. Short-circuit before
+    // evaluating the argument; a declared-but-TDZ binding still falls through to the normal throw.
+    if (operator === "typeof" && argument.type === "Identifier" && !this.resolveBinding(getString(argument, "name"))) {
+      return Effect.succeed("undefined")
+    }
+    return Effect.map(this.evaluateExpression(argument), (value) => {
+      // `typeof` and `!` never throw in JS - they observe any value (functions and runtime
+      // references included) without coercing it, so feature detection and negation work.
+      if (operator === "typeof") return typeofValue(value)
+      if (operator === "!") return !value
+      if (containsOpaqueReference(value)) {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Unary operators require data values in CodeMode.", node, "InvalidDataValue")
+      }
+      // Numeric/bitwise unary operators ToPrimitive their operand; a Date yields its time value
+      // (`+date` is the epoch-ms idiom), other null-prototype data objects/arrays coerce to
+      // their JS string form first (see evaluateBinaryExpression).
+      const operand =
+        value instanceof SandboxDate
+          ? value.time
+          : value !== null && typeof value === "object"
+            ? coerceToString(value)
+            : value
+      let result: unknown
+      switch (operator) {
+        case "+":
+          result = +(operand as number)
+          break
+        case "-":
+          result = -(operand as number)
+          break
+        case "~":
+          result = ~(operand as number)
+          break
+        default:
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Unsupported unary operator '${operator}'.`, node)
+      }
+      return boundedData(result, "Unary expression result")
+    })
+  }
+
+  private evaluateAssignmentExpression(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    const left = getNode(node, "left")
+    const operator = getString(node, "operator")
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      if (operator === "??=" || operator === "||=" || operator === "&&=") {
+        return yield* self.evaluateLogicalAssignment(node, left, operator)
+      }
+      const rightValue = yield* self.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, "right"))
+      if (left.type === "Identifier") {
+        const name = getString(left, "name")
+        if (operator === "=") return self.setIdentifierValue(name, rightValue, left)
+        const next = boundedData(
+          self.applyCompoundAssignment(operator, self.getIdentifierValue(name, left), rightValue, node),
+          "Assignment result",
+        )
+        return self.setIdentifierValue(name, next, left)
+      }
+      if (left.type === "MemberExpression") {
+        if (operator === "=") return yield* self.writeMember(left, rightValue)
+        return yield* self.modifyMember(left, (current) => {
+          const next = boundedData(
+            self.applyCompoundAssignment(operator, current, rightValue, node),
+            "Assignment result",
+          )
+          return Effect.succeed({ write: true, next, result: next })
+        })
+      }
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Assignment target must be an Identifier or MemberExpression.", left)
+    })
+  }
+
+  private evaluateLogicalAssignment(
+    node: AstNode,
+    left: AstNode,
+    operator: string,
+  ): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    const self = this
+    const shouldAssign = (current: unknown): boolean =>
+      operator === "??=" ? current === null || current === undefined : operator === "||=" ? !current : Boolean(current)
+    if (left.type === "Identifier") {
+      const name = getString(left, "name")
+      return Effect.gen(function* () {
+        const current = self.getIdentifierValue(name, left)
+        if (!shouldAssign(current)) return current
+        const rightValue = yield* self.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, "right"))
+        return self.setIdentifierValue(name, rightValue, left)
+      })
+    }
+    if (left.type === "MemberExpression") {
+      // Resolve the member exactly once; evaluate the RHS only if we actually assign.
+      return self.modifyMember(left, (current) =>
+        shouldAssign(current)
+          ? Effect.map(self.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, "right")), (rightValue) => ({
+              write: true,
+              next: rightValue,
+              result: rightValue,
+            }))
+          : Effect.succeed({ write: false, next: current, result: current }),
+      )
+    }
+    throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Assignment target must be an Identifier or MemberExpression.", left)
+  }
+
+  private evaluateUpdateExpression(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    const operator = getString(node, "operator")
+    const argument = getNode(node, "argument")
+    const prefix = getBoolean(node, "prefix")
+
+    const increment = operator === "++" ? 1 : operator === "--" ? -1 : undefined
+
+    if (increment === undefined) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Unsupported update operator '${operator}'.`, node)
+    }
+
+    if (argument.type === "Identifier") {
+      return Effect.sync(() => {
+        const name = getString(argument, "name")
+        const current = Number(this.getIdentifierValue(name, argument))
+        const next = current + increment
+        this.setIdentifierValue(name, next, argument)
+        return prefix ? next : current
+      })
+    }
+
+    if (argument.type === "MemberExpression") {
+      return this.modifyMember(argument, (current) => {
+        const value = Number(current)
+        const next = value + increment
+        return Effect.succeed({ write: true, next, result: prefix ? next : value })
+      })
+    }
+
+    throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Update target must be an Identifier or MemberExpression.", argument)
+  }
+
+  private evaluateCallExpression(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    const callee = getNode(node, "callee")
+    const argNodes = getArray(node, "arguments")
+
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      const callable = yield* self.evaluateExpression(callee)
+      if (callable === OptionalShortCircuit) return OptionalShortCircuit
+      if ((callable === null || callable === undefined) && node.optional === true) return OptionalShortCircuit
+
+      const args = yield* self.evaluateCallArguments(argNodes)
+
+      if (callable instanceof ToolReference) {
+        if (callable.path.length === 0) throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("The tools root is not callable.", callee)
+        // An un-awaited tool call is a first-class promise value; the call itself starts now.
+        return yield* self.createToolCallPromise(callable.path, args)
+      }
+      if (callable instanceof PromiseMethodReference) {
+        return yield* self.invokePromiseMethod(callable, args, node)
+      }
+      if (callable instanceof CodeModeFunction) {
+        return yield* self.invokeFunction(callable, args)
+      }
+      if (callable instanceof IntrinsicReference) {
+        return yield* self.invokeIntrinsic(callable, args, node)
+      }
+      if (callable instanceof GlobalMethodReference) {
+        if (callable.namespace === "console") return self.invokeConsole(callable.name, args, node)
+        if (callable.namespace === "Object" && args[0] instanceof ToolReference) {
+          return self.invokeObjectMethodOnTools(callable.name, args[0] as ToolReference, node)
+        }
+        return boundedData(invokeGlobalMethod(callable, args, node), `${callable.namespace}.${callable.name} result`)
+      }
+      if (callable instanceof CoercionFunction) {
+        return boundedData(invokeCoercion(callable, args, node), `${callable.name} result`)
+      }
+      if (callable instanceof UriFunction) {
+        return invokeUriFunction(callable, args, node)
+      }
+      // `Error("msg")` without `new` constructs an error exactly like `new Error("msg")`, as in JS.
+      if (callable instanceof ErrorConstructorReference) {
+        return createErrorValue(callable.name, args[0] === undefined ? "" : coerceToString(args[0]))
+      }
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Only tools are callable in CodeMode.", callee)
+    })
+  }
+
+  // Object.* over a tool reference: `Object.keys(tools)` / `Object.keys(tools.ns)` enumerate
+  // namespace/tool names from the host tool tree - the discovery idiom a model reaches for
+  // first. Every other Object helper cannot produce data from a tool reference, so it fails
+  // with a pointer at the working idioms instead of the generic plain-objects-only message.
+  private invokeObjectMethodOnTools(name: string, ref: ToolReference, node: AstNode): unknown {
+    if (name === "keys") {
+      return boundedData(this.enumerableKeys(ref)!, "Object.keys result")
+    }
+    throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+      `Object.${name}(...) cannot read tool references: they are not plain data. Use Object.keys(tools) for names, or tools.$codemode.search({ query }) for signatures.`,
+      node,
+      "InvalidDataValue",
+    )
+  }
+
+  private invokeConsole(name: string, args: Array<unknown>, node: AstNode): undefined {
+    if (!consoleMethods.has(name))
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`console.${name} is not available in CodeMode.`, node)
+    this.logs.push(publicErrorMessage(this.formatConsoleMessage(name, args, node)))
+    return undefined
+  }
+
+  private formatConsoleMessage(name: string, args: Array<unknown>, node: AstNode): string {
+    if (name === "dir") return args.length === 0 ? "undefined" : this.formatConsoleArgument(args[0])
+    if (name === "table") return this.formatConsoleTable(args[0], args[1], node)
+    const prefix = name === "warn" ? "[warn] " : name === "error" ? "[error] " : name === "debug" ? "[debug] " : ""
+    return `${prefix}${args.map((arg) => this.formatConsoleArgument(arg)).join(" ")}`
+  }
+
+  // Console arguments format deeply and totally: values render as a debugger would show them
+  // rather than as boundary JSON - numbers keep NaN/Infinity (JSON would say null), sandbox
+  // values keep their friendly forms at ANY depth (ISO date, /regex/flags, Map(n) [...],
+  // Set(n) [...]), opaque runtime references become "[CodeMode reference]" markers in place,
+  // and plain objects/arrays render JSON-style. Formatting never fails the program: cycles
+  // render "[Circular]" and extreme depth degrades to "...".
+  private formatConsoleArgument(value: unknown): string {
+    if (value === undefined) return "undefined"
+    // A top-level string prints bare; nested strings are JSON-quoted (see formatConsoleValue).
+    if (typeof value === "string") return value
+    return this.formatConsoleValue(value, new Set(), 0)
+  }
+
+  private formatConsoleValue(value: unknown, seen: Set<object>, depth: number): string {
+    // Nested undefined renders as null, matching what JSON boundary output would show.
+    if (value === null || value === undefined) return "null"
+    if (typeof value === "string") return JSON.stringify(value)
+    // String(value) keeps NaN/Infinity/-Infinity readable; finite numbers match their JSON form.
+    if (typeof value === "number" || typeof value === "boolean") return String(value)
+    if (typeof value !== "object") return String(value)
+    if (value instanceof SandboxPromise) return "[Promise (await it to get its value)]"
+    if (value instanceof SandboxDate) return coerceToString(value)
+    if (value instanceof SandboxRegExp) return coerceToString(value)
+    if (value instanceof SandboxURL) return coerceToString(value)
+    if (value instanceof SandboxURLSearchParams) return coerceToString(value)
+    if (depth > MAX_CONSOLE_DEPTH) return "..."
+    if (seen.has(value)) return "[Circular]"
+    if (value instanceof SandboxMap) {
+      seen.add(value)
+      try {
+        const entries = Array.from(value.map.entries(), ([key, item]): Array<unknown> => [key, item])
+        return `Map(${value.map.size}) ${this.formatConsoleValue(entries, seen, depth + 1)}`
+      } finally {
+        seen.delete(value)
+      }
+    }
+    if (value instanceof SandboxSet) {
+      seen.add(value)
+      try {
+        return `Set(${value.set.size}) ${this.formatConsoleValue(Array.from(value.set.values()), seen, depth + 1)}`
+      } finally {
+        seen.delete(value)
+      }
+    }
+    if (isRuntimeReference(value)) return "[CodeMode reference]"
+    seen.add(value)
+    try {
+      if (Array.isArray(value)) {
+        return `[${value.map((item) => this.formatConsoleValue(item, seen, depth + 1)).join(",")}]`
+      }
+      return `{${Object.entries(value)
+        .map(([key, item]) => `${JSON.stringify(key)}:${this.formatConsoleValue(item, seen, depth + 1)}`)
+        .join(",")}}`
+    } finally {
+      seen.delete(value)
+    }
+  }
+
+  private formatConsoleTable(value: unknown, columnsArgument: unknown, node: AstNode): string {
+    if (value === undefined) return "undefined"
+    // Sandbox values are legitimate table data (cells render their friendly forms); only
+    // truly opaque references (functions, tools, promises) collapse to the marker.
+    if (containsOpaqueReference(value)) return "[CodeMode reference]"
+    const data = boundedData(value, "console.table argument")
+    const columns = this.consoleTableColumns(columnsArgument, node)
+    const rows = this.consoleTableRows(data, columns)
+    const keys = columns ?? Array.from(new Set(rows.flatMap((row) => Object.keys(row.values))))
+    const header = ["(index)", ...keys].join("\t")
+    return [
+      header,
+      ...rows.map((row) => [row.index, ...keys.map((key) => this.formatConsoleTableCell(row.values[key]))].join("\t")),
+    ].join("\n")
+  }
+
+  private consoleTableColumns(value: unknown, node: AstNode): ReadonlyArray<string> | undefined {
+    if (value === undefined) return undefined
+    if (containsRuntimeReference(value)) return undefined
+    const columns = copyOut(copyIn(value, "console.table columns"), true)
+    return Array.isArray(columns) ? columns.map((column) => String(column)) : undefined
+  }
+
+  private consoleTableRows(
+    data: unknown,
+    columns: ReadonlyArray<string> | undefined,
+  ): Array<{ readonly index: string; readonly values: Record<string, unknown> }> {
+    if (Array.isArray(data)) {
+      return data.map((item, index) => ({ index: String(index), values: this.consoleTableValues(item, columns) }))
+    }
+    if (data !== null && typeof data === "object" && !isSandboxValue(data)) {
+      return Object.entries(data).map(([index, item]) => ({ index, values: this.consoleTableValues(item, columns) }))
+    }
+    return [{ index: "0", values: { Value: data } }]
+  }
+
+  private consoleTableValues(value: unknown, columns: ReadonlyArray<string> | undefined): Record<string, unknown> {
+    if (value !== null && typeof value === "object" && !Array.isArray(value) && !isSandboxValue(value)) {
+      const source = value as Record<string, unknown>
+      if (columns !== undefined) return Object.fromEntries(columns.map((column) => [column, source[column]]))
+      return Object.fromEntries(Object.entries(source))
+    }
+    return { Value: value }
+  }
+
+  private formatConsoleTableCell(value: unknown): string {
+    if (value === undefined) return ""
+    if (typeof value === "string") return value
+    return this.formatConsoleValue(value, new Set(), 0)
+  }
+
+  private evaluateCallArguments(argNodes: Array<unknown>): Effect.Effect<Array<unknown>, unknown, R> {
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      const args: Array<unknown> = []
+      for (const [index, arg] of argNodes.entries()) {
+        const argNode = asNode(arg, `arguments[${index}]`)
+        if (argNode.type === "SpreadElement") {
+          const spread = yield* self.evaluateExpression(getNode(argNode, "argument"))
+          const items = spreadItems(spread)
+          if (items === undefined)
+            throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+              "Spread arguments require an array, string, Map, or Set in CodeMode.",
+              argNode,
+            )
+          args.push(...items)
+        } else {
+          args.push(yield* self.evaluateExpression(argNode))
+        }
+      }
+      return args
+    })
+  }
+
+  // Promise.* over ordinary runtime values. Combinators accept ANY array (or spreadable
+  // collection) mixing promise values and plain data - built inline, beforehand, via spread,
+  // whatever - because tool calls already run eagerly on their own fibers; the combinators
+  // only observe settlements. Joining is therefore sequential (no extra fibers) without
+  // costing parallelism, and the concurrency cap stays where the work is: the fork semaphore.
+  private invokePromiseMethod(
+    ref: PromiseMethodReference,
+    args: Array<unknown>,
+    node: AstNode,
+  ): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    const self = this
+    if (ref.name === "resolve") {
+      // Promise.resolve of a promise is that promise (JS flattens); anything else is a
+      // promise already fulfilled with the value.
+      const value = args[0]
+      return Effect.succeed(
+        value instanceof SandboxPromise ? value : new SandboxPromise(undefined, Effect.succeed(value)),
+      )
+    }
+    if (ref.name === "reject") {
+      return Effect.sync(() => new SandboxPromise(undefined, Effect.fail(new ProgramThrow(args[0]))))
+    }
+
+    const items = Array.isArray(args[0]) ? args[0] : spreadItems(args[0])
+    if (items === undefined) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+        `Promise.${ref.name} expects an array of promises or plain values (e.g. Promise.${ref.name}(items.map((item) => tools.ns.tool(item)))).`,
+        node,
+      )
+    }
+
+    switch (ref.name) {
+      case "all": {
+        // Mark every promise element observed up-front (Promise.all handles all of its
+        // members' failures, as in JS), then join in index order; the first failure rejects
+        // the whole call while unrelated in-flight members keep running.
+        const settles = items.map((item) =>
+          item instanceof SandboxPromise ? this.settlePromise(item, node) : Effect.succeed(item),
+        )
+        return Effect.gen(function* () {
+          const values: Array<unknown> = []
+          for (const settle of settles) values.push(yield* settle)
+          return values
+        })
+      }
+      case "allSettled": {
+        const observations = items.map((item) =>
+          item instanceof SandboxPromise
+            ? Effect.map(this.observePromise(item), (exit) => ({ promise: item as SandboxPromise | undefined, exit }))
+            : Effect.succeed({ promise: undefined as SandboxPromise | undefined, exit: Exit.succeed(item as unknown) }),
+        )
+        return Effect.gen(function* () {
+          const outcomes: Array<unknown> = []
+          for (const observation of observations) {
+            const { exit, promise } = yield* observation
+            if (Exit.isSuccess(exit)) {
+              outcomes.push(
+                Object.assign(Object.create(null) as SafeObject, { status: "fulfilled", value: exit.value }),
+              )
+              continue
+            }
+            const raceInterrupted = promise?.interrupted === true && Cause.hasInterruptsOnly(exit.cause)
+            if (Cause.hasInterruptsOnly(exit.cause) && !raceInterrupted) {
+              // Execution teardown (timeout/host interruption), not a program-level rejection.
+              return yield* Effect.failCause(exit.cause)
+            }
+            const thrown = raceInterrupted
+              ? new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+                  "This tool call was interrupted because another value settled a Promise.race first.",
+                  node,
+                )
+              : Cause.squash(exit.cause)
+            outcomes.push(
+              Object.assign(Object.create(null) as SafeObject, {
+                status: "rejected",
+                reason: caughtErrorValue(thrown),
+              }),
+            )
+          }
+          return outcomes
+        })
+      }
+      case "race": {
+        if (items.length === 0) {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+            "Promise.race([]) would never settle; provide at least one promise or value.",
+            node,
+          )
+        }
+        const observations = items.map((item, index) =>
+          item instanceof SandboxPromise
+            ? Effect.map(this.observePromise(item), (exit) => ({ index, exit }))
+            : Effect.succeed({ index, exit: Exit.succeed(item as unknown) }),
+        )
+        return Effect.gen(function* () {
+          // First settlement (fulfilled OR rejected) wins; the observations never fail, so
+          // racing them yields exactly that. Losing in-flight calls are then interrupted.
+          const winner = yield* Effect.raceAll(observations)
+          for (const [index, item] of items.entries()) {
+            if (index === winner.index || !(item instanceof SandboxPromise) || item.fiber === undefined) continue
+            item.interrupted = true
+            yield* Fiber.interrupt(item.fiber)
+          }
+          const winningItem = items[winner.index]
+          return yield* self.unwrapPromiseExit(
+            winningItem instanceof SandboxPromise ? winningItem : undefined,
+            winner.exit,
+            node,
+          )
+        })
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  private invokeFunction(fn: CodeModeFunction, args: Array<unknown>): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.suspend(() => {
+      const savedScopes = self.scopes
+      self.scopes = [...fn.capturedScopes, new Map<string, Binding>()]
+      const run = Effect.gen(function* () {
+        // Seed every parameter name into the scope as a TDZ slot first, so a default that
+        // references another parameter resolves to that (uninitialized) param rather than
+        // silently falling through to an outer binding of the same name - matching JS.
+        const paramScope = self.currentScope()
+        for (const parameter of fn.parameters) {
+          for (const name of collectPatternNames(parameter)) {
+            paramScope.set(name, { mutable: true, value: undefined, initialized: false })
+          }
+        }
+        for (const [index, parameter] of fn.parameters.entries()) {
+          if (parameter.type === "RestElement") {
+            yield* self.declarePattern(getNode(parameter, "argument"), args.slice(index), true, parameter)
+            break
+          }
+          yield* self.declarePattern(parameter, args[index], true, parameter)
+        }
+
+        if (fn.body.type === "BlockStatement") {
+          const result = yield* self.evaluateStatement(fn.body)
+          return result.kind === "return" || result.kind === "value" ? result.value : undefined
+        }
+
+        return yield* self.evaluateExpression(fn.body)
+      })
+      return run.pipe(
+        Effect.ensuring(
+          Effect.sync(() => {
+            self.scopes = savedScopes
+          }),
+        ),
+      )
+    })
+  }
+
+  private invokeIntrinsic(
+    ref: IntrinsicReference,
+    args: Array<unknown>,
+    node: AstNode,
+  ): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    if (typeof ref.receiver === "string") {
+      if (
+        (ref.name === "replace" || ref.name === "replaceAll") &&
+        (args[1] instanceof CodeModeFunction || args[1] instanceof CoercionFunction || args[1] instanceof UriFunction)
+      ) {
+        return this.invokeStringReplacer(ref.receiver, ref.name, args, node)
+      }
+      return Effect.succeed(invokeStringMethod(ref.receiver, ref.name, args, node))
+    }
+    if (typeof ref.receiver === "number") {
+      return Effect.succeed(invokeNumberMethod(ref.receiver, ref.name, args, node))
+    }
+    if (Array.isArray(ref.receiver)) {
+      return this.invokeArrayMethod(ref.receiver, ref.name, args, node)
+    }
+    if (ref.receiver instanceof SandboxDate) {
+      return Effect.succeed(invokeDateMethod(ref.receiver, ref.name, node))
+    }
+    if (ref.receiver instanceof SandboxRegExp) {
+      return Effect.succeed(invokeRegExpMethod(ref.receiver, ref.name, args, node))
+    }
+    if (ref.receiver instanceof SandboxMap) {
+      return this.invokeMapMethod(ref.receiver, ref.name, args, node)
+    }
+    if (ref.receiver instanceof SandboxSet) {
+      return this.invokeSetMethod(ref.receiver, ref.name, args, node)
+    }
+    if (ref.receiver instanceof SandboxURL) {
+      return Effect.succeed(invokeURLMethod(ref.receiver, ref.name, node))
+    }
+    if (ref.receiver instanceof SandboxURLSearchParams) {
+      return this.invokeURLSearchParamsMethod(ref.receiver, ref.name, args, node)
+    }
+    throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Method '${ref.name}' is not available in CodeMode.`, node)
+  }
+
+  private invokeStringReplacer(
+    value: string,
+    name: "replace" | "replaceAll",
+    args: Array<unknown>,
+    node: AstNode,
+  ): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    const apply = this.applyCollectionCallback(args[1], `String.${name}`, node)
+    const matches: Array<{ readonly match: string; readonly offset: number; readonly args: Array<unknown> }> = []
+    const collect = (...callbackArgs: Array<unknown>): string => {
+      const match = callbackArgs[0]
+      const groups = callbackArgs[callbackArgs.length - 1]
+      const hasGroups = groups !== null && typeof groups === "object"
+      const offset = callbackArgs[callbackArgs.length - (hasGroups ? 3 : 2)]
+      if (typeof match !== "string" || typeof offset !== "number") {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`String.${name} produced an invalid replacement match.`, node)
+      }
+      if (hasGroups) {
+        const safeGroups: SafeObject = Object.create(null) as SafeObject
+        for (const [key, group] of Object.entries(groups)) {
+          if (!isBlockedMember(key)) safeGroups[key] = group
+        }
+        callbackArgs[callbackArgs.length - 1] = safeGroups
+      }
+      matches.push({ match, offset, args: callbackArgs })
+      return match
+    }
+
+    const pattern = args[0]
+    if (pattern instanceof SandboxRegExp) {
+      if (name === "replaceAll" && !pattern.regex.global) {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+          `String.replaceAll requires a regular expression with the global (g) flag: write /${pattern.regex.source}/${pattern.regex.flags}g, or use String.replace to replace only the first match.`,
+          node,
+        )
+      }
+      if (name === "replace") value.replace(pattern.regex, collect)
+      else value.replaceAll(pattern.regex, collect)
+    } else {
+      if (typeof pattern !== "string") {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`String.${name} expects argument 1 to be a string.`, node)
+      }
+      if (name === "replace") value.replace(pattern, collect)
+      else value.replaceAll(pattern, collect)
+    }
+
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      const output: Array<string> = []
+      let end = 0
+      for (const match of matches) {
+        output.push(
+          value.slice(end, match.offset),
+          coerceToString(boundedData(yield* apply(match.args), `String.${name} replacer result`)),
+        )
+        end = match.offset + match.match.length
+      }
+      output.push(value.slice(end))
+      return boundedData(output.join(""), `String.${name} result`)
+    })
+  }
+
+  // Runs a collection callback accepting a user function or supported builtin callable,
+  // mirroring the array-method callback contract.
+  private applyCollectionCallback(
+    callback: unknown,
+    name: string,
+    node: AstNode,
+  ): (args: Array<unknown>) => Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    if (
+      !(callback instanceof CodeModeFunction) &&
+      !(callback instanceof CoercionFunction) &&
+      !(callback instanceof UriFunction)
+    ) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`${name} expects a function callback.`, node)
+    }
+    return (callbackArgs) =>
+      callback instanceof CoercionFunction
+        ? Effect.succeed(invokeCoercion(callback, callbackArgs, node))
+        : callback instanceof UriFunction
+          ? Effect.succeed(invokeUriFunction(callback, callbackArgs, node))
+          : this.invokeFunction(callback, callbackArgs)
+  }
+
+  private invokeMapMethod(
+    target: SandboxMap,
+    name: string,
+    args: Array<unknown>,
+    node: AstNode,
+  ): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    switch (name) {
+      case "get":
+        return Effect.succeed(target.map.get(args[0]))
+      case "has":
+        return Effect.succeed(target.map.has(args[0]))
+      case "set":
+        return Effect.sync(() => {
+          target.map.set(args[0], args[1])
+          return target
+        })
+      case "delete":
+        return Effect.sync(() => target.map.delete(args[0]))
+      case "clear":
+        return Effect.sync(() => {
+          target.map.clear()
+          return undefined
+        })
+      case "keys":
+        return Effect.sync(() => Array.from(target.map.keys()))
+      case "values":
+        return Effect.sync(() => Array.from(target.map.values()))
+      case "entries":
+        return Effect.sync(() => Array.from(target.map.entries(), ([key, item]): Array<unknown> => [key, item]))
+      case "forEach": {
+        const apply = this.applyCollectionCallback(args[0], "Map.forEach", node)
+        return Effect.gen(function* () {
+          // Snapshot iteration, matching the array-method callback contract.
+          for (const [key, item] of Array.from(target.map.entries())) yield* apply([item, key, target])
+          return undefined
+        })
+      }
+      default:
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Map method '${name}' is not available in CodeMode.`, node)
+    }
+  }
+
+  private invokeSetMethod(
+    target: SandboxSet,
+    name: string,
+    args: Array<unknown>,
+    node: AstNode,
+  ): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    switch (name) {
+      case "has":
+        return Effect.succeed(target.set.has(args[0]))
+      case "add":
+        return Effect.sync(() => {
+          target.set.add(args[0])
+          return target
+        })
+      case "delete":
+        return Effect.sync(() => target.set.delete(args[0]))
+      case "clear":
+        return Effect.sync(() => {
+          target.set.clear()
+          return undefined
+        })
+      case "keys":
+      case "values":
+        return Effect.sync(() => Array.from(target.set.values()))
+      case "entries":
+        return Effect.sync(() => Array.from(target.set.values(), (item): Array<unknown> => [item, item]))
+      case "forEach": {
+        const apply = this.applyCollectionCallback(args[0], "Set.forEach", node)
+        return Effect.gen(function* () {
+          for (const item of Array.from(target.set.values())) yield* apply([item, item, target])
+          return undefined
+        })
+      }
+      default:
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Set method '${name}' is not available in CodeMode.`, node)
+    }
+  }
+
+  private invokeURLSearchParamsMethod(
+    target: SandboxURLSearchParams,
+    name: string,
+    args: Array<unknown>,
+    node: AstNode,
+  ): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    const arg = (index: number): string => uriArgument(args[index], `URLSearchParams.${name} argument ${index + 1}`)
+    const requireArgs = (count: number): void => {
+      if (args.length < count) {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+          `URLSearchParams.${name} requires ${count} argument${count === 1 ? "" : "s"}.`,
+          node,
+        ).as("TypeError")
+      }
+    }
+    switch (name) {
+      case "append": {
+        requireArgs(2)
+        return Effect.sync(() => {
+          target.params.append(arg(0), arg(1))
+          return undefined
+        })
+      }
+      case "delete": {
+        requireArgs(1)
+        return Effect.sync(() => {
+          if (args[1] !== undefined) target.params.delete(arg(0), arg(1))
+          else target.params.delete(arg(0))
+          return undefined
+        })
+      }
+      case "get":
+        requireArgs(1)
+        return Effect.sync(() => target.params.get(arg(0)))
+      case "getAll":
+        requireArgs(1)
+        return Effect.sync(() => target.params.getAll(arg(0)))
+      case "has":
+        requireArgs(1)
+        return Effect.sync(() =>
+          args[1] !== undefined ? target.params.has(arg(0), arg(1)) : target.params.has(arg(0)),
+        )
+      case "set": {
+        requireArgs(2)
+        return Effect.sync(() => {
+          target.params.set(arg(0), arg(1))
+          return undefined
+        })
+      }
+      case "sort":
+        return Effect.sync(() => {
+          target.params.sort()
+          return undefined
+        })
+      case "keys":
+        return Effect.sync(() => Array.from(target.params.keys()))
+      case "values":
+        return Effect.sync(() => Array.from(target.params.values()))
+      case "entries":
+        return Effect.sync(() => Array.from(target.params.entries(), ([key, value]): Array<unknown> => [key, value]))
+      case "toString":
+        return Effect.sync(() => target.params.toString())
+      case "forEach": {
+        requireArgs(1)
+        const apply = this.applyCollectionCallback(args[0], "URLSearchParams.forEach", node)
+        return Effect.gen(function* () {
+          for (const [key, value] of Array.from(target.params.entries())) yield* apply([value, key, target])
+          return undefined
+        })
+      }
+      default:
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`URLSearchParams method '${name}' is not available in CodeMode.`, node)
+    }
+  }
+
+  private invokeArrayMethod(
+    target: Array<unknown>,
+    name: string,
+    args: Array<unknown>,
+    node: AstNode,
+  ): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    const optNumber = (value: unknown, label: string): number | undefined => {
+      if (value === undefined) return undefined
+      if (typeof value !== "number")
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Array.${name} expects ${label} to be a number.`, node)
+      return value
+    }
+    switch (name) {
+      case "join": {
+        if (args.length > 1 || (args.length === 1 && typeof args[0] !== "string")) {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Array.join expects zero arguments or one string separator.", node)
+        }
+        const input = boundedData(target, "Array.join input") as Array<unknown>
+        return Effect.succeed(
+          input.map((item) => coerceToString(item ?? "")).join(args.length === 0 ? "," : (args[0] as string)),
+        )
+      }
+      case "includes":
+        if (args.length === 0 || args.length > 2)
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Array.includes expects a value and optional start index.", node)
+        return Effect.succeed(target.includes(args[0], optNumber(args[1], "start index")))
+      case "indexOf":
+        return Effect.succeed(target.indexOf(args[0], optNumber(args[1], "start index")))
+      case "lastIndexOf":
+        return Effect.succeed(
+          args[1] === undefined
+            ? target.lastIndexOf(args[0])
+            : target.lastIndexOf(args[0], optNumber(args[1], "start index")),
+        )
+      case "at":
+        return Effect.succeed(target.at(optNumber(args[0], "index") ?? 0))
+      case "slice":
+        return Effect.succeed(target.slice(optNumber(args[0], "start"), optNumber(args[1], "end")))
+      case "concat":
+        return Effect.succeed(target.concat(...args))
+      case "flat":
+        return Effect.succeed(target.flat(optNumber(args[0], "depth") ?? 1))
+      case "reverse":
+        return Effect.succeed([...target].reverse())
+      case "sort":
+      case "toSorted":
+        return this.sortArray(target, args[0], node)
+      case "toReversed":
+        return Effect.succeed([...target].reverse())
+      case "with": {
+        const index = optNumber(args[0], "index") ?? 0
+        const resolved = index < 0 ? target.length + index : index
+        if (resolved < 0 || resolved >= target.length) {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Array.with index is out of range.", node)
+        }
+        const copied = [...target]
+        copied[resolved] = args[1]
+        return Effect.succeed(copied)
+      }
+      case "push": {
+        // Validate before mutating (so no rollback is needed): inserting a container into
+        // itself would create a cycle no later walk could survive.
+        for (const item of args) this.rejectCircularInsertion(target, item, "Array.push result", node)
+        target.push(...args)
+        return Effect.succeed(target.length)
+      }
+      case "unshift": {
+        for (const item of args) this.rejectCircularInsertion(target, item, "Array.unshift result", node)
+        target.unshift(...args)
+        return Effect.succeed(target.length)
+      }
+      case "pop":
+        return Effect.succeed(target.pop())
+      case "shift":
+        return Effect.succeed(target.shift())
+      case "splice": {
+        // Mutates in place and returns the removed elements, exactly like JS: one argument
+        // removes to the end, an undefined delete count removes nothing.
+        if (args.length === 0) return Effect.succeed(target.splice(0, 0))
+        const start = optNumber(args[0], "start") ?? 0
+        if (args.length === 1) return Effect.succeed(target.splice(start))
+        const deleteCount = optNumber(args[1], "delete count") ?? 0
+        const inserted = args.slice(2)
+        for (const item of inserted) this.rejectCircularInsertion(target, item, "Array.splice result", node)
+        return Effect.succeed(target.splice(start, deleteCount, ...inserted))
+      }
+      case "fill": {
+        this.rejectCircularInsertion(target, args[0], "Array.fill result", node)
+        return Effect.succeed(target.fill(args[0], optNumber(args[1], "start"), optNumber(args[2], "end")))
+      }
+      case "copyWithin":
+        return Effect.succeed(
+          target.copyWithin(
+            optNumber(args[0], "target index") ?? 0,
+            optNumber(args[1], "start") ?? 0,
+            optNumber(args[2], "end"),
+          ),
+        )
+      // keys/values/entries return arrays (not iterators), matching the Map/Set convention;
+      // they work with for...of and spread either way.
+      case "keys":
+        return Effect.succeed(Array.from(target.keys()))
+      case "values":
+        return Effect.succeed([...target])
+      case "entries":
+        return Effect.succeed(Array.from(target.entries(), ([index, item]): Array<unknown> => [index, item]))
+    }
+
+    const callback = args[0]
+    if (
+      !(callback instanceof CodeModeFunction) &&
+      !(callback instanceof CoercionFunction) &&
+      !(callback instanceof UriFunction)
+    ) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Array.${name} expects a function callback.`, node)
+    }
+    const self = this
+    // Accept a user function or supported builtin callable, so idioms such as
+    // `filter(Boolean)`, `map(String)`, and `map(encodeURIComponent)` work as in JS. Builtins
+    // are synchronous; only CodeModeFunctions can await tool calls.
+    const apply = (callbackArgs: Array<unknown>): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> =>
+      callback instanceof CoercionFunction
+        ? Effect.succeed(invokeCoercion(callback, callbackArgs, node))
+        : callback instanceof UriFunction
+          ? Effect.succeed(invokeUriFunction(callback, callbackArgs, node))
+          : self.invokeFunction(callback, callbackArgs)
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      // Iterate a snapshot taken at call time so a callback that mutates the array can't
+      // self-extend the loop - matching JS, where elements appended during iteration are not visited.
+      const items = target.slice()
+      switch (name) {
+        case "map": {
+          const values: Array<unknown> = []
+          for (const [index, item] of items.entries()) values.push(yield* apply([item, index, items]))
+          return values
+        }
+        case "flatMap": {
+          const values: Array<unknown> = []
+          for (const [index, item] of items.entries()) {
+            const mapped = yield* apply([item, index, items])
+            if (Array.isArray(mapped)) values.push(...mapped)
+            else values.push(mapped)
+          }
+          return values
+        }
+        case "filter": {
+          const values: Array<unknown> = []
+          for (const [index, item] of items.entries()) {
+            if (yield* apply([item, index, items])) values.push(item)
+          }
+          return values
+        }
+        case "find":
+          for (const [index, item] of items.entries()) {
+            if (yield* apply([item, index, items])) return item
+          }
+          return undefined
+        case "findIndex":
+          for (const [index, item] of items.entries()) {
+            if (yield* apply([item, index, items])) return index
+          }
+          return -1
+        case "some":
+          for (const [index, item] of items.entries()) {
+            if (yield* apply([item, index, items])) return true
+          }
+          return false
+        case "every":
+          for (const [index, item] of items.entries()) {
+            if (!(yield* apply([item, index, items]))) return false
+          }
+          return true
+        case "forEach":
+          for (const [index, item] of items.entries()) yield* apply([item, index, items])
+          return undefined
+        case "reduce": {
+          let accumulator: unknown
+          let start: number
+          if (args.length >= 2) {
+            accumulator = args[1]
+            start = 0
+          } else {
+            if (items.length === 0)
+              throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Array.reduce of an empty array with no initial value.", node)
+            accumulator = items[0]
+            start = 1
+          }
+          for (let index = start; index < items.length; index += 1) {
+            accumulator = yield* apply([accumulator, items[index], index, items])
+          }
+          return accumulator
+        }
+        case "reduceRight": {
+          let accumulator: unknown
+          let start: number
+          if (args.length >= 2) {
+            accumulator = args[1]
+            start = items.length - 1
+          } else {
+            if (items.length === 0)
+              throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Array.reduceRight of an empty array with no initial value.", node)
+            accumulator = items[items.length - 1]
+            start = items.length - 2
+          }
+          for (let index = start; index >= 0; index -= 1) {
+            accumulator = yield* apply([accumulator, items[index], index, items])
+          }
+          return accumulator
+        }
+        case "findLast":
+          for (let index = items.length - 1; index >= 0; index -= 1) {
+            if (yield* apply([items[index], index, items])) return items[index]
+          }
+          return undefined
+        case "findLastIndex":
+          for (let index = items.length - 1; index >= 0; index -= 1) {
+            if (yield* apply([items[index], index, items])) return index
+          }
+          return -1
+      }
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Array method '${name}' is not available in CodeMode.`, node)
+    })
+  }
+
+  private sortArray(
+    target: Array<unknown>,
+    comparator: unknown,
+    node: AstNode,
+  ): Effect.Effect<Array<unknown>, unknown, R> {
+    if (comparator !== undefined && !(comparator instanceof CodeModeFunction)) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Array.sort expects an arrow function comparator.", node)
+    }
+    if (!(comparator instanceof CodeModeFunction)) {
+      return Effect.sync(() =>
+        [...target].sort((a, b) => {
+          const left = coerceToString(a)
+          const right = coerceToString(b)
+          return left < right ? -1 : left > right ? 1 : 0
+        }),
+      )
+    }
+    const self = this
+    const mergeSort = (items: Array<unknown>): Effect.Effect<Array<unknown>, unknown, R> => {
+      if (items.length <= 1) return Effect.succeed(items)
+      const midpoint = Math.floor(items.length / 2)
+      return Effect.gen(function* () {
+        const left = yield* mergeSort(items.slice(0, midpoint))
+        const right = yield* mergeSort(items.slice(midpoint))
+        const merged: Array<unknown> = []
+        let leftIndex = 0
+        let rightIndex = 0
+        while (leftIndex < left.length && rightIndex < right.length) {
+          // Coerce the comparator's result like JS ToNumber (data objects -> NaN, never a host
+          // crash) and treat NaN as 0 - the spec's "no consistent order" -> keep the left element.
+          const order = coerceToNumber(yield* self.invokeFunction(comparator, [left[leftIndex], right[rightIndex]]))
+          if (Number.isNaN(order) || order <= 0) merged.push(left[leftIndex++])
+          else merged.push(right[rightIndex++])
+        }
+        return [...merged, ...left.slice(leftIndex), ...right.slice(rightIndex)]
+      })
+    }
+    // Per spec, undefined elements sort to the end and the comparator is never called on them.
+    const defined = target.filter((item) => item !== undefined)
+    const undefinedCount = target.length - defined.length
+    return Effect.map(mergeSort(defined), (items) => [...items, ...Array(undefinedCount).fill(undefined)])
+  }
+
+  private evaluateObjectExpression(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<Record<string, unknown>, unknown, R> {
+    const objectValue: Record<string, unknown> = Object.create(null) as Record<string, unknown>
+    const properties = getArray(node, "properties")
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      for (const propertyValue of properties) {
+        const property = asNode(propertyValue, "properties")
+
+        if (property.type === "SpreadElement") {
+          const spread = yield* self.evaluateExpression(getNode(property, "argument"))
+          // JS treats `{ ...null }` / `{ ...undefined }` as a no-op, so the common
+          // `{ ...maybeOpts, override }` merge works when the operand is absent. Sandbox values
+          // have no own enumerable properties in JS, so they are no-ops too.
+          if (spread === null || spread === undefined || isSandboxValue(spread)) continue
+          if (typeof spread !== "object" || Array.isArray(spread) || isRuntimeReference(spread)) {
+            throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+              "Object spread requires a data object in CodeMode.",
+              property,
+              "InvalidDataValue",
+            )
+          }
+          for (const [key, value] of Object.entries(spread)) {
+            if (isBlockedMember(key))
+              throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Property '${key}' is not available in CodeMode.`, property)
+            objectValue[key] = value
+          }
+          continue
+        }
+
+        if (property.type !== "Property") {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Only standard object properties are supported.", property)
+        }
+
+        if (getString(property, "kind") !== "init") {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Only init object properties are supported.", property)
+        }
+
+        const keyNode = getNode(property, "key")
+        const valueNode = getNode(property, "value")
+        const computed = getBoolean(property, "computed")
+
+        let key: PropertyKey
+
+        if (computed) {
+          key = self.toPropertyKey(yield* self.evaluateExpression(keyNode), keyNode)
+        } else if (keyNode.type === "Identifier") {
+          key = getString(keyNode, "name")
+        } else if (keyNode.type === "Literal") {
+          key = self.toPropertyKey(keyNode.value, keyNode)
+        } else {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Unsupported object property key shape.", keyNode)
+        }
+
+        if (isBlockedMember(String(key))) {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Property '${String(key)}' is not available in CodeMode.`, keyNode)
+        }
+        objectValue[String(key)] = yield* self.evaluateExpression(valueNode)
+      }
+
+      return objectValue
+    })
+  }
+
+  private evaluateArrayExpression(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<Array<unknown>, unknown, R> {
+    const elements = getArray(node, "elements")
+    const values: Array<unknown> = []
+
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      for (const elementValue of elements) {
+        if (elementValue === null) {
+          values.push(undefined)
+          continue
+        }
+        const element = asNode(elementValue, "elements")
+        if (element.type === "SpreadElement") {
+          const spread = yield* self.evaluateExpression(getNode(element, "argument"))
+          const items = spreadItems(spread)
+          if (items === undefined)
+            throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+              "Array spread requires an array, string, Map, or Set in CodeMode.",
+              element,
+            )
+          values.push(...items)
+        } else {
+          values.push(yield* self.evaluateExpression(element))
+        }
+      }
+      return values
+    })
+  }
+
+  private evaluateTemplateLiteral(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<string, unknown, R> {
+    const quasis = getArray(node, "quasis")
+    const expressions = getArray(node, "expressions")
+
+    let output = ""
+
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      for (let index = 0; index < quasis.length; index += 1) {
+        const quasi = asNode(quasis[index], "quasis")
+        const rawValue = quasi.value
+
+        if (!isRecord(rawValue) || typeof rawValue.cooked !== "string") {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Invalid template literal quasi.", quasi)
+        }
+
+        output += rawValue.cooked
+
+        if (index < expressions.length) {
+          const raw = yield* self.evaluateExpression(asNode(expressions[index], "expressions"))
+          // The preserving checkpoint keeps sandbox values intact, so coerceToString renders
+          // them directly (ISO date, /regex/ literal form) instead of a JSON-serialized husk.
+          output += coerceToString(boundedData(raw, "Template interpolation"))
+        }
+      }
+
+      return output
+    })
+  }
+
+  private evaluateConditionalExpression(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    return Effect.flatMap(this.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, "test")), (test) =>
+      this.evaluateExpression(getNode(node, test ? "consequent" : "alternate")),
+    )
+  }
+
+  private applyCompoundAssignment(operator: string, current: unknown, incoming: unknown, node: AstNode): unknown {
+    // `x op= y` is `x = x op y`: dispatch through the shared binary operator implementation
+    // so compound assignment inherits the same coercion semantics (Dates, data objects, ...).
+    // Only the arithmetic/bitwise operators are compoundable; logical assignments (&&=/||=/??=)
+    // short-circuit and are handled by evaluateLogicalAssignment before reaching here.
+    if (!compoundOperators.has(operator)) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Unsupported assignment operator '${operator}'.`, node)
+    }
+    return this.applyBinaryOperator(operator.slice(0, -1), current, incoming, node)
+  }
+
+  private getMemberReference(
+    node: AstNode,
+  ): Effect.Effect<
+    | MemberReference
+    | ToolReference
+    | PromiseMethodReference
+    | IntrinsicReference
+    | GlobalMethodReference
+    | ComputedValue
+    | typeof OptionalShortCircuit
+    | undefined,
+    unknown,
+    R
+  > {
+    const objectNode = getNode(node, "object")
+    const propertyNode = getNode(node, "property")
+    const computed = getBoolean(node, "computed")
+    const optional = node.optional === true
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      const objectValue = yield* self.evaluateExpression(objectNode)
+      if (objectValue === OptionalShortCircuit) return OptionalShortCircuit
+      if ((objectValue === null || objectValue === undefined) && optional) return OptionalShortCircuit
+
+      const key = computed
+        ? self.toPropertyKey(yield* self.evaluateExpression(propertyNode), propertyNode)
+        : propertyNode.type === "Identifier"
+          ? getString(propertyNode, "name")
+          : self.toPropertyKey(yield* self.evaluateExpression(propertyNode), propertyNode)
+
+      if (objectValue instanceof ToolReference) {
+        if (typeof key !== "string" || isBlockedMember(key)) {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Tool paths must use safe string property names.", propertyNode)
+        }
+        return new ToolReference([...objectValue.path, key])
+      }
+
+      if (objectValue instanceof PromiseNamespace) {
+        if (typeof key === "string" && promiseStatics.has(key as PromiseMethodName)) {
+          return new PromiseMethodReference(key as PromiseMethodName)
+        }
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+          `Promise.${String(key)} is not available in CodeMode. Available: Promise.all, Promise.allSettled, Promise.race, Promise.resolve, and Promise.reject; consume promises with await.`,
+          propertyNode,
+        )
+      }
+
+      if (objectValue instanceof GlobalNamespace) {
+        if (typeof key !== "string" || isBlockedMember(key)) {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+            `${objectValue.name}.${String(key)} is not available in CodeMode.`,
+            propertyNode,
+          )
+        }
+        if (objectValue.name === "Math" && mathConstants.has(key)) {
+          return new ComputedValue((Math as unknown as Record<string, number>)[key])
+        }
+        return new GlobalMethodReference(objectValue.name, key)
+      }
+
+      if (typeof objectValue === "string") {
+        if (key === "length") return new ComputedValue(objectValue.length)
+        if (typeof key === "number") return new ComputedValue(objectValue[key])
+        if (typeof key === "string" && /^\d+$/.test(key)) return new ComputedValue(objectValue[Number(key)])
+        if (typeof key === "string" && stringMethods.has(key)) return new IntrinsicReference(objectValue, key)
+        // Unknown property on a string reads as `undefined`, matching JS (`"x".foo === undefined`),
+        // instead of throwing - so defensive access like `result?.login ?? result` on a JSON-string
+        // tool result doesn't crash. (Optional chaining only guards null/undefined receivers, so a
+        // real string still reaches here.) Only the method allowlist above yields callables.
+        return new ComputedValue(undefined)
+      }
+
+      if (typeof objectValue === "number") {
+        if (typeof key === "string" && numberMethods.has(key)) return new IntrinsicReference(objectValue, key)
+        // Unknown property on a number reads as `undefined`, matching JS, rather than throwing.
+        return new ComputedValue(undefined)
+      }
+
+      // Number / String expose a small allowlist of statics; everything else stays opaque.
+      if (objectValue instanceof CoercionFunction && typeof key === "string" && !isBlockedMember(key)) {
+        if (objectValue.name === "Number" && numberConstants.has(key)) {
+          return new ComputedValue((Number as unknown as Record<string, number>)[key])
+        }
+        if (objectValue.name === "Number" && numberStatics.has(key)) return new GlobalMethodReference("Number", key)
+        if (objectValue.name === "String" && stringStatics.has(key)) return new GlobalMethodReference("String", key)
+      }
+
+      // Sandbox value types expose their method/property allowlists; any other key reads as
+      // `undefined`, consistent with unknown-property reads on strings/numbers/arrays.
+      if (objectValue instanceof SandboxDate) {
+        if (typeof key === "string" && dateMethods.has(key)) return new IntrinsicReference(objectValue, key)
+        return new ComputedValue(undefined)
+      }
+      if (objectValue instanceof SandboxRegExp) {
+        if (typeof key === "string" && regexpProperties.has(key)) {
+          return new ComputedValue((objectValue.regex as unknown as Record<string, unknown>)[key])
+        }
+        if (typeof key === "string" && regexpMethods.has(key)) return new IntrinsicReference(objectValue, key)
+        return new ComputedValue(undefined)
+      }
+      if (objectValue instanceof SandboxMap) {
+        if (key === "size") return new ComputedValue(objectValue.map.size)
+        if (typeof key === "string" && mapMethods.has(key)) return new IntrinsicReference(objectValue, key)
+        return new ComputedValue(undefined)
+      }
+      if (objectValue instanceof SandboxSet) {
+        if (key === "size") return new ComputedValue(objectValue.set.size)
+        if (typeof key === "string" && setMethods.has(key)) return new IntrinsicReference(objectValue, key)
+        return new ComputedValue(undefined)
+      }
+      if (objectValue instanceof SandboxURL) {
+        if (key === "searchParams") {
+          return new ComputedValue(objectValue.searchParams)
+        }
+        if (typeof key === "string" && urlMethods.has(key)) return new IntrinsicReference(objectValue, key)
+        if (typeof key === "string" && urlProperties.has(key)) return { target: objectValue, key }
+        return new ComputedValue(undefined)
+      }
+      if (objectValue instanceof SandboxURLSearchParams) {
+        if (key === "size") return new ComputedValue(objectValue.params.size)
+        if (typeof key === "string" && urlSearchParamsMethods.has(key)) {
+          return new IntrinsicReference(objectValue, key)
+        }
+        return new ComputedValue(undefined)
+      }
+
+      // Any property access on a promise is a confused program (`p.then(...)`, `p.value`);
+      // reading `undefined` here would hide the missing await, so both paths get an explicit,
+      // await-hinting error instead of the forgiving unknown-property fallthrough.
+      if (objectValue instanceof SandboxPromise) {
+        if (key === "then" || key === "catch" || key === "finally") {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+            `Promise.prototype.${String(key)} is not supported in CodeMode; use await instead (with try/catch to handle failures) - e.g. \`const result = await tools.ns.tool(...)\`.`,
+            propertyNode,
+            "UnsupportedSyntax",
+            [supportedSyntaxMessage],
+          )
+        }
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+          "This value is an un-awaited Promise and has no readable properties; await it first - e.g. `const result = await tools.ns.tool(...)`.",
+          objectNode,
+          "InvalidDataValue",
+        )
+      }
+
+      if (isRuntimeReference(objectValue)) {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+          "CodeMode runtime references are opaque and do not expose properties.",
+          objectNode,
+          "InvalidDataValue",
+        )
+      }
+
+      if (typeof objectValue !== "object" || objectValue === null) {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Cannot access a property on a non-object value.", objectNode)
+      }
+
+      if (typeof key === "string" && isBlockedMember(key)) {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Property '${key}' is not available in CodeMode.`, propertyNode)
+      }
+
+      if (Array.isArray(objectValue)) {
+        if (
+          key !== "length" &&
+          !(typeof key === "string" && arrayMethods.has(key)) &&
+          typeof key !== "number" &&
+          !/^\d+$/.test(key)
+        ) {
+          // Own non-index properties read through (match results carry index/groups); like JS,
+          // they are readable in place and dropped by JSON at data boundaries.
+          if (typeof key === "string" && Object.hasOwn(objectValue, key)) {
+            return new ComputedValue((objectValue as Record<string, unknown> & Array<unknown>)[key])
+          }
+          // Unknown property on an array reads as `undefined`, matching JS (`[1,2].foo === undefined`),
+          // instead of throwing - so defensive access under optional chaining behaves as expected.
+          return new ComputedValue(undefined)
+        }
+        return { target: objectValue, key }
+      }
+
+      return { target: objectValue as SafeObject, key }
+    })
+  }
+
+  private readMember(node: AstNode): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    return Effect.map(this.getMemberReference(node), (reference) => {
+      if (reference === OptionalShortCircuit) return OptionalShortCircuit
+      if (reference instanceof ComputedValue) return reference.value
+      if (
+        reference === undefined ||
+        reference instanceof ToolReference ||
+        reference instanceof PromiseMethodReference ||
+        reference instanceof IntrinsicReference ||
+        reference instanceof GlobalMethodReference
+      )
+        return reference
+      if (Array.isArray(reference.target)) {
+        if (typeof reference.key === "string" && arrayMethods.has(reference.key)) {
+          return new IntrinsicReference(reference.target, reference.key)
+        }
+        return reference.key === "length" ? reference.target.length : reference.target[Number(reference.key)]
+      }
+      if (reference.target instanceof SandboxURL) {
+        return (reference.target.url as unknown as Record<string, unknown>)[String(reference.key)]
+      }
+      return reference.target[String(reference.key)]
+    })
+  }
+
+  private writeMember(node: AstNode, value: unknown): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    return this.modifyMember(node, () => Effect.succeed({ write: true, next: value, result: value }))
+  }
+
+  // Resolves the member reference EXACTLY ONCE (so a side-effecting object/key expression
+  // runs once), then lets `compute` decide whether to write - enabling compound assignment,
+  // updates, plain writes, and short-circuiting logical assignment to share one safe path.
+  private modifyMember(
+    node: AstNode,
+    compute: (current: unknown) => Effect.Effect<{ write: boolean; next: unknown; result: unknown }, unknown, R>,
+  ): Effect.Effect<unknown, unknown, R> {
+    const self = this
+    return Effect.gen(function* () {
+      const reference = yield* self.getMemberReference(node)
+      if (
+        reference === OptionalShortCircuit ||
+        reference instanceof ComputedValue ||
+        reference === undefined ||
+        reference instanceof ToolReference ||
+        reference instanceof PromiseMethodReference ||
+        reference instanceof IntrinsicReference ||
+        reference instanceof GlobalMethodReference
+      ) {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Only data fields may be assigned in CodeMode.", node)
+      }
+      if (Array.isArray(reference.target)) {
+        if (reference.key === "length")
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Array length cannot be assigned in CodeMode.", node)
+        if (typeof reference.key === "string" && arrayMethods.has(reference.key)) {
+          throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Array methods cannot be assigned in CodeMode.", node)
+        }
+      }
+      const key = Array.isArray(reference.target) ? Number(reference.key) : String(reference.key)
+      const current =
+        reference.target instanceof SandboxURL
+          ? (reference.target.url as unknown as Record<string, unknown>)[key]
+          : (reference.target as Record<PropertyKey, unknown>)[key]
+      const { write, next, result } = yield* compute(current)
+      if (write) self.assignToReference(reference, key, next, node)
+      return result
+    })
+  }
+
+  // Rejects inserting a value that (transitively) contains the container it is being inserted
+  // into - the mutation that would create a circular structure no later walk could survive.
+  private rejectCircularInsertion(
+    container: object,
+    value: unknown,
+    label: string,
+    node: AstNode,
+    seen = new Set<object>(),
+  ): void {
+    if (value === container)
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`${label} contains a circular value.`, node, "InvalidDataValue")
+    if (value === null || typeof value !== "object" || isRuntimeReference(value) || seen.has(value)) return
+    seen.add(value)
+    const items = Array.isArray(value) ? value : Object.values(value)
+    for (const item of items) this.rejectCircularInsertion(container, item, label, node, seen)
+    seen.delete(value)
+  }
+
+  private assignToReference(reference: MemberReference, key: number | string, next: unknown, node: AstNode): void {
+    if (Array.isArray(reference.target)) {
+      const target = reference.target
+      const index = key as number
+      if (!Number.isInteger(index) || index < 0) {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(
+          "Array assignment index must be a non-negative integer.",
+          node,
+          "InvalidDataValue",
+        )
+      }
+      this.rejectCircularInsertion(target, next, "Array assignment result", node)
+      target[index] = next
+      return
+    }
+    if (reference.target instanceof SandboxURL) {
+      const property = key as string
+      if (!urlWritableProperties.has(property)) {
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`URL.${property} is read-only.`, node).as("TypeError")
+      }
+      try {
+        const url = reference.target.url as unknown as Record<string, string>
+        url[property] = uriArgument(next, `URL.${property} value`)
+        return
+      } catch (error) {
+        if (error instanceof InterpreterRuntimeError || error instanceof ToolRuntimeError) throw error
+        throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`URL.${property} received an invalid value.`, node).as("TypeError")
+      }
+    }
+    const target = reference.target as SafeObject
+    const objectKey = key as string
+    this.rejectCircularInsertion(target, next, "Object assignment result", node)
+    target[objectKey] = next
+  }
+
+  private toPropertyKey(value: unknown, node: AstNode): string | number {
+    if (typeof value === "string" || typeof value === "number") {
+      return value
+    }
+
+    throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Property key must be a string or number.", node)
+  }
+
+  private declare(name: string, value: unknown, mutable: boolean, node: AstNode): void {
+    const scope = this.currentScope()
+
+    // A pre-seeded parameter slot (initialized === false) is being bound for the first time;
+    // anything else already present is a genuine duplicate declaration.
+    const existing = scope.get(name)
+    if (existing && existing.initialized !== false) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Identifier '${name}' has already been declared.`, node)
+    }
+
+    scope.set(name, { mutable, value, initialized: true })
+  }
+
+  private getIdentifierValue(name: string, node: AstNode): unknown {
+    const binding = this.resolveBinding(name)
+
+    if (!binding) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Unknown identifier '${name}'.`, node).as("ReferenceError")
+    }
+
+    // A parameter default that forward-references a later (not-yet-bound) parameter - JS TDZ.
+    if (binding.initialized === false) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Cannot access '${name}' before initialization.`, node).as("ReferenceError")
+    }
+
+    return binding.value
+  }
+
+  private setIdentifierValue(name: string, value: unknown, node: AstNode): unknown {
+    const binding = this.resolveBinding(name)
+
+    if (!binding) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Unknown identifier '${name}'.`, node).as("ReferenceError")
+    }
+
+    if (!binding.mutable) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError(`Cannot assign to constant '${name}'.`, node).as("TypeError")
+    }
+
+    binding.value = value
+    return value
+  }
+
+  private resolveBinding(name: string): Binding | undefined {
+    for (let index = this.scopes.length - 1; index >= 0; index -= 1) {
+      const scope = this.scopes[index]
+      const binding = scope?.get(name)
+
+      if (binding) {
+        return binding
+      }
+    }
+
+    return undefined
+  }
+
+  private currentScope(): Map<string, Binding> {
+    const scope = this.scopes[this.scopes.length - 1]
+
+    if (!scope) {
+      throw new InterpreterRuntimeError("Interpreter scope stack is empty.")
+    }
+
+    return scope
+  }
+
+  private pushScope(): void {
+    this.scopes.push(new Map())
+  }
+
+  private popScope(): void {
+    this.scopes.pop()
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Executes one Effect-native CodeMode program without constructing a reusable runtime.
+ *
+ * @example
+ * ```ts
+ * const result = yield* CodeMode.execute({
+ *   tools: { lookup },
+ *   code: `return await tools.lookup({ id: "order_42" })`,
+ * })
+ * ```
+ */
+export const executeWithLimits = <const Tools extends Record<string, unknown>>(
+  options: ExecuteOptions<Tools>,
+  limits: ResolvedExecutionLimits,
+  searchIndex: ToolRuntime.DiscoveryPlan["searchIndex"],
+): Effect.Effect<Result, never, Services<Tools>> => {
+  const hooks = {
+    ...(options.onToolCallStart === undefined ? {} : { onToolCallStart: options.onToolCallStart }),
+    ...(options.onToolCallEnd === undefined ? {} : { onToolCallEnd: options.onToolCallEnd }),
+  }
+  const tools = ToolRuntime.make(
+    (options.tools ?? {}) as HostTools<Services<Tools>>,
+    limits.maxToolCalls,
+    searchIndex,
+    hooks,
+  )
+  const logs: Array<string> = []
+  const logged = () => (logs.length > 0 ? { logs: [...logs] } : {})
+
+  if (options.code.trim().length === 0) {
+    return Effect.succeed({
+      ok: false,
+      error: { kind: "ParseError", message: "Code cannot be empty." },
+      toolCalls: tools.calls,
+    })
+  }
+
+  const operation = Effect.gen(function* () {
+    const program = parseProgram(options.code)
+    const interpreter = new Interpreter<Services<Tools>>(tools.invoke, tools.keys, logs)
+    const value = yield* interpreter.run(program)
+    const result = copyOut(copyIn(value, "Execution result"), true) as DataValue
+    return {
+      ok: true,
+      value: result,
+      ...logged(),
+      toolCalls: tools.calls,
+    } satisfies Result
+  }).pipe((program) => {
+    const timeoutMs = limits.timeoutMs
+    if (timeoutMs === undefined) return program
+    return program.pipe(
+      Effect.timeoutOrElse({
+        duration: timeoutMs,
+        orElse: () =>
+          Effect.succeed({
+            ok: false,
+            error: { kind: "TimeoutExceeded", message: `Execution timed out after ${timeoutMs}ms.` },
+            ...logged(),
+            toolCalls: tools.calls,
+          } satisfies Result),
+      }),
+    )
+  })
+
+  return operation.pipe(
+    Effect.catchCause((cause) =>
+      Cause.hasInterruptsOnly(cause)
+        ? Effect.interrupt
+        : Effect.succeed({
+            ok: false,
+            error: normalizeError(Cause.squash(cause)),
+            ...logged(),
+            toolCalls: tools.calls,
+          } satisfies Result),
+    ),
+    Effect.map((result) => (limits.maxOutputBytes === undefined ? result : boundOutput(result, limits.maxOutputBytes))),
+  )
+}
+
+const utf8ByteLength = (value: string): number => new TextEncoder().encode(value).byteLength
+
+// Truncates to a UTF-8 byte budget without splitting a code point (a split multi-byte
+// sequence decodes to a replacement character, which is dropped).
+const utf8Truncate = (value: string, maxBytes: number): string => {
+  const bytes = new TextEncoder().encode(value)
+  if (bytes.byteLength <= maxBytes) return value
+  const text = new TextDecoder("utf-8").decode(bytes.slice(0, Math.max(0, maxBytes)))
+  return text.endsWith("\uFFFD") ? text.slice(0, -1) : text
+}
+
+/**
+ * Bounds the model-facing output (serialized result value plus logs) to `maxOutputBytes`.
+ * Oversized values are replaced by their truncated serialized text with an explanatory marker,
+ * and logs are kept from the start until the remaining budget is exhausted. Truncation never
+ * fails the execution; `truncated: true` marks affected results. Only runs when the host set
+ * `maxOutputBytes` - with the limit absent, output passes through unbounded.
+ */
+const boundOutput = (result: Result, maxOutputBytes: number): Result => {
+  let truncated = false
+
+  let value: DataValue = null
+  let valueBytes = 0
+  if (result.ok) {
+    const serialized = JSON.stringify(result.value) ?? "null"
+    const bytes = utf8ByteLength(serialized)
+    if (bytes > maxOutputBytes) {
+      truncated = true
+      value = `${utf8Truncate(serialized, maxOutputBytes)} [result truncated: ${bytes} bytes exceeds the ${maxOutputBytes}-byte output limit; return a smaller value]`
+      valueBytes = maxOutputBytes
+    } else {
+      value = result.value
+      valueBytes = bytes
+    }
+  }
+
+  const logs = result.logs ?? []
+  const kept: Array<string> = []
+  const logBudget = Math.max(0, maxOutputBytes - valueBytes)
+  let logBytes = 0
+  for (const line of logs) {
+    const lineBytes = utf8ByteLength(line) + 1
+    if (logBytes + lineBytes > logBudget) break
+    logBytes += lineBytes
+    kept.push(line)
+  }
+  if (kept.length < logs.length) {
+    truncated = true
+    kept.push(`[logs truncated: showing ${kept.length} of ${logs.length} lines]`)
+  }
+
+  if (!truncated) return result
+  const logsPart = kept.length > 0 ? { logs: kept } : {}
+  return result.ok
+    ? { ok: true, value, ...logsPart, truncated: true, toolCalls: result.toolCalls }
+    : { ok: false, error: result.error, ...logsPart, truncated: true, toolCalls: result.toolCalls }
+}